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0," The Solar System consists of the Sun and the objects that orbit it. The name comes from Sōl, the Latin name for the Sun. It formed about 4.6 billion years ago when a dense region of a molecular cloud collapsed, creating the Sun and a protoplanetary disc from which the orbiting bodies assembled. The fusion of hydrogen into helium inside the Sun's core releases energy, which is primarily emitted through its outer photosphere. This creates a decreasing temperature gradient across the system. Over 99.86% of the Solar System's mass is located within the Sun. The most massive objects that orbit the Sun are the eight planets. Closest to the Sun in order of increasing distance are the four terrestrial planets – Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. These are the planets of the inner Solar System. Earth and Mars are the only planets in the Solar System which orbit within the Sun's habitable zone, where liquid water can exist on the surface. Beyond the frost line at about five astronomical units (AU), are two gas giants – Jupiter and Saturn – and two ice giants – Uranus and Neptune. These are the planets of the outer Solar System. Jupiter and Saturn possess nearly 90% of the non-stellar mass of the Solar System. There are a vast number of less massive objects. There is a strong consensus among astronomers that the Solar System has at least nine dwarf planets: Ceres, Orcus, Pluto, Haumea, Quaoar, Makemake, Gonggong, Eris, and Sedna. Six planets, seven dwarf planets, and other bodies have orbiting natural satellites, which are commonly called 'moons', and range from sizes of dwarf planets, like Earth's Moon, at their largest, to much less massive moonlets at their smallest.","[0.046803709119558334, -0.007272533141076565, -0.03129441663622856, 0.01941603049635887, 0.0870719626545906, -0.029245084151625633, 0.06427560746669769, 0.061223097145557404, 0.05192676931619644, 0.042818255722522736, -0.026793714612722397, -0.042667683213949203, 0.043153222650289536, -0.07469121366739273, 0.10079896450042725, -0.06816206872463226, 0.00994686596095562, -0.061548035591840744, 0.006587452255189419, 0.0034391204826533794, 0.044503822922706604, 0.014347359538078308, -0.0019064455991610885, 0.01911451481282711, -0.053075309842824936, 0.04104376584291458, -0.018578168004751205, -0.020363852381706238, -0.04885987937450409, 0.023138055577874184, -0.009258732199668884, 0.010022115893661976, 0.05012839287519455, 0.017943037673830986, 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1,"satellites , which are commonly called 'moons ' , and range from sizes of dwarf planets , like Earth 's Moon , at their largest , to much less massive moonlets at their smallest .There are small Solar System bodies, such as asteroids, comets, centaurs, meteoroids, and interplanetary dust clouds. Some of these bodies are in the asteroid belt (between Mars's and Jupiter's orbit) and the Kuiper belt (just outside Neptune's orbit). Between the bodies of the Solar System is an interplanetary medium of dust and particles. The Solar System is constantly flooded by outflowing charged particles from the solar wind, forming the heliosphere. At around 70–90 AU from the Sun, the solar wind is halted by the interstellar medium, resulting in the heliopause. This is the boundary to interstellar space. Further out somewhere beyond 2,000 AU from the Sun extends the outermost region of the Solar System, the theorized Oort cloud, the source for long-period comets, stretching to the edge of the Solar System, the edge of its Hill sphere, at 178,000–227,000 AU (2.81–3.59 ly), where its gravitational potential becomes equal to the galactic potential. The Solar System currently moves through a cloud of interstellar medium called the Local Cloud. The closest star to the Solar System, Proxima Centauri, is 269,000 AU (4.25 ly) away. Both are within the Local Bubble, a relatively small 1,000 light-years (ly) wide region of the Milky Way. Definition
The Solar System includes the Sun and all objects that are bound to it by gravity and orbit it. The International Astronomical Union describes the Solar System as all objects that are bound by the gravity of the Sun, the Sun itself, its eight planets, and the other celestial bodies which orbit it.","[0.030040141195058823, 0.020989270880818367, 0.014979231171309948, -0.023465048521757126, 0.07148417085409164, -0.07506337761878967, -0.0023631935473531485, 0.0475480742752552, 0.051381517201662064, 0.04280974343419075, -0.021016964688897133, -0.03831398859620094, -0.008109215646982193, -0.10068225860595703, 0.04874991998076439, -0.004966758657246828, 0.07560655474662781, -0.038065649569034576, -0.011939023621380329, -0.007362931035459042, -0.006884193513542414, 0.08351298421621323, -0.06665202975273132, 0.02872905135154724, -0.043043553829193115, 0.038241997361183167, -0.07205822318792343, -0.04340819641947746, -0.06428205966949463, -0.03602462634444237, 0.012427201494574547, -0.025904104113578796, -0.04596831277012825, 0.038002580404281616, 0.06529128551483154, 0.03420691564679146, 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2,"Union describes the Solar System as all objects that are bound by the gravity of the Sun , the Sun itself , its eight planets , and the other celestial bodies which orbit it .NASA describes the Solar System as a planetary system, including the Sun and all objects that orbit it. When not used as a proper noun and written without capitalization, ""solar system"" may refer to either the Solar System itself or any system reminiscent of the Solar System. Formation and evolution
Past
The Solar System formed at least 4.568 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of a region within a large molecular cloud. This initial cloud was likely several light-years across and probably birthed several stars. As is typical of molecular clouds, this one consisted mostly of hydrogen, with some helium, and small amounts of heavier elements fused by previous generations of stars. As the pre-solar nebula collapsed, conservation of angular momentum caused it to rotate faster. The center, where most of the mass collected, became increasingly hotter than the surroundings. As the contracting nebula spun faster, it began to flatten into a protoplanetary disc with a diameter of roughly 200 AU and a hot, dense protostar at the center. The planets formed by accretion from this disc, in which dust and gas gravitationally attracted each other, coalescing to form ever larger bodies. Hundreds of protoplanets may have existed in the early Solar System, but they either merged or were destroyed or ejected, leaving the planets, dwarf planets, and leftover minor bodies. In the warm inner Solar System close to the Sun, within the frost line and even further within the soot line, material other than metals and silicates, due to their higher boiling points, could not persist in solid form. Here planets formed that are mainly rocky, which are Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.","[0.008461068384349346, -0.026218969374895096, 0.027628585696220398, 0.051553357392549515, 0.004237384535372257, -0.029786987230181694, 0.0013953265734016895, 0.02950356714427471, 0.10121767967939377, 0.06724949181079865, -0.01860823854804039, -0.03719030320644379, 0.03570202365517616, -0.07962815463542938, 0.06533201783895493, -0.06647859513759613, -0.015473906882107258, -0.07828030735254288, 0.019472353160381317, 0.0363253690302372, 0.02022283524274826, 0.04729602858424187, -0.08366825431585312, 0.048767153173685074, 0.030598195269703865, 0.05633055046200752, -0.05597641319036484, -0.01683502085506916, -0.029071254655718803, 0.006233870517462492, -0.005678984336555004, 0.012562139891088009, 0.019825249910354614, 0.08364082872867584, 0.015842709690332413, -0.012873124331235886, -0.0068967100232839584, -0.008281046524643898, -0.004484857432544231, -0.023232994601130486, -0.040709879249334335, 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3,"silicates , due to their higher boiling points , could not persist in solid form . Here planets formed that are mainly rocky , which are Mercury , Venus , Earth , and Mars .Because these refractory materials only comprised a small fraction of the solar nebula, the terrestrial planets could not grow very large. The giant planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) formed further out, beyond the frost line, the point between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter where material is cool enough for volatile icy compounds to remain solid. The ices that formed these planets were more plentiful than the metals and silicates that formed the terrestrial inner planets, allowing them to grow massive enough to capture large atmospheres of hydrogen and helium, the lightest and most abundant elements. Leftover debris that never became planets congregated in regions such as the asteroid belt, Kuiper belt, and Oort cloud. Within 50 million years, the pressure and density of hydrogen in the center of the protostar became great enough for it to begin thermonuclear fusion. As helium accumulates at its core, the Sun is growing brighter; early in its main-sequence life its brightness was 70% that of what it is today. The temperature, reaction rate, pressure, and density increased until hydrostatic equilibrium was achieved: the thermal pressure counterbalancing the force of gravity. At this point, the Sun became a main-sequence star. Solar wind from the Sun created the heliosphere and swept away the remaining gas and dust from the protoplanetary disc into interstellar space. Following the dissipation of the protoplanetary disk, the Nice model proposes that gravitational encounters between planetesimals and the gas giants caused each to migrate into different orbits. This led to dynamical instability of the entire system, which scattered the planetesimals and ultimately placed the gas giants in their current positions.","[-0.011927595362067223, -0.02042246237397194, 0.03390524908900261, 0.05229564756155014, 0.11165180802345276, -0.032932523638010025, 0.03380079194903374, 0.033077090978622437, 0.028933802619576454, 0.056072037667036057, -0.06015455722808838, -0.04569298028945923, 0.023536304011940956, -0.09370631724596024, 0.08819004893302917, -0.02920258790254593, -0.009227246977388859, -0.10714928805828094, 0.0071950796991586685, 0.05279707536101341, 0.015556057915091515, -0.006242835428565741, -0.0531398206949234, 0.010927554219961166, -0.025937985628843307, 0.029204290360212326, -0.050794538110494614, 0.0054137432016432285, 0.06328612565994263, 0.003918005153536797, -0.012084015645086765, 0.01665850356221199, 0.014791380614042282, 0.03537696227431297, 0.04059065505862236, -0.0023612864315509796, -0.004873483907431364, 0.017336435616016388, 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4,"gas giants caused each to migrate into different orbits . This led to dynamical instability of the entire system , which scattered the planetesimals and ultimately placed the gas giants in their current positions .During this period, the grand tack hypothesis suggests that a final inward migration of Jupiter dispersed much of the asteroid belt, leading to the Late Heavy Bombardment of the inner planets. Present and future
The Solar System remains in a relatively stable, slowly evolving state by following isolated, gravitationally bound orbits around the Sun. Although the Solar System has been fairly stable for billions of years, it is technically chaotic, and may eventually be disrupted. There is a small chance that another star will pass through the Solar System in the next few billion years. Although this could destabilize the system and eventually lead millions of years later to expulsion of planets, collisions of planets, or planets hitting the Sun, it would most likely leave the Solar System much as it is today. The Sun's main-sequence phase, from beginning to end, will last about 10 billion years for the Sun compared to around two billion years for all other subsequent phases of the Sun's pre-remnant life combined. The Solar System will remain roughly as it is known today until the hydrogen in the core of the Sun has been entirely converted to helium, which will occur roughly 5 billion years from now. This will mark the end of the Sun's main-sequence life. At that time, the core of the Sun will contract with hydrogen fusion occurring along a shell surrounding the inert helium, and the energy output will be greater than at present. The outer layers of the Sun will expand to roughly 260 times its current diameter, and the Sun will become a red giant.","[-0.003189848503097892, 0.0329802930355072, 0.06567459553480148, 0.03267151862382889, 0.10010887682437897, -0.06774821132421494, -0.03233397379517555, 0.02825068309903145, 0.030566280707716942, -0.02233446016907692, -0.04093538224697113, 0.056462377309799194, 0.018185865134000778, -0.07986820489168167, 0.02823546528816223, -0.030637778341770172, -0.0002109383640345186, -0.09290516376495361, 0.012542124837636948, 0.07383578270673752, -0.046728357672691345, 0.05869308486580849, -0.050047941505908966, 0.036642659455537796, -0.08775883913040161, 0.033838268369436264, 0.016395926475524902, -0.06901339441537857, -0.041974201798439026, -0.032619453966617584, -0.01162008661776781, 0.0058852070942521095, -0.011243529617786407, 0.06827586144208908, -0.030771981924772263, 0.005944133270531893, 0.0062122223898768425, -0.023420728743076324, 0.030206046998500824, 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5,"the energy output will be greater than at present . The outer layers of the Sun will expand to roughly 260 times its current diameter , and the Sun will become a red giant .Because of its increased surface area, the surface of the Sun will be cooler (2,600 K (4,220 °F) at its coolest) than it is on the main sequence. The expanding Sun is expected to vaporize Mercury as well as Venus, and render Earth and Mars uninhabitable (possibly destroying Earth as well). Eventually, the core will be hot enough for helium fusion; the Sun will burn helium for a fraction of the time it burned hydrogen in the core. The Sun is not massive enough to commence the fusion of heavier elements, and nuclear reactions in the core will dwindle. Its outer layers will be ejected into space, leaving behind a dense white dwarf, half the original mass of the Sun but only the size of Earth. The ejected outer layers may form a planetary nebula, returning some of the material that formed the Sun – but now enriched with heavier elements like carbon – to the interstellar medium. General characteristics
Astronomers sometimes divide the Solar System structure into separate regions. The inner Solar System includes Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, and the bodies in the asteroid belt. The outer Solar System includes Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and the bodies in the Kuiper belt. Since the discovery of the Kuiper belt, the outermost parts of the Solar System are considered a distinct region consisting of the objects beyond Neptune. Composition
The principal component of the Solar System is the Sun, a G-type main-sequence star that contains 99.86% of the system's known mass and dominates it gravitationally.","[-0.039013344794511795, 0.008519327268004417, 0.041059911251068115, 0.05187107250094414, 0.07213397324085236, -0.0680442675948143, -0.03449606895446777, -0.006197112612426281, 0.00565401092171669, -0.0008356246980838478, -0.018647775053977966, -0.03211761265993118, -0.020069530233740807, -0.04552752897143364, 0.09448130428791046, -0.009706932120025158, 0.05987190455198288, -0.03507952392101288, -0.03535774350166321, 0.008673428557813168, 0.03856730833649635, -0.022764546796679497, -0.08825815469026566, -0.0060112751089036465, -0.02503770776093006, 0.01414220780134201, -0.09065404534339905, 0.011630344204604626, -0.03989729285240173, 0.020075978711247444, -0.02350357174873352, -0.06264370679855347, -0.008190787397325039, 0.05561003088951111, 0.03049914911389351, 0.03038496896624565, -0.010286562144756317, 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6,"objects beyond Neptune . Composition The principal component of the Solar System is the Sun , a G-type main-sequence star that contains 99.86 % of the system 's known mass and dominates it gravitationally .The Sun's four largest orbiting bodies, the giant planets, account for 99% of the remaining mass, with Jupiter and Saturn together comprising more than 90%. The remaining objects of the Solar System (including the four terrestrial planets, the dwarf planets, moons, asteroids, and comets) together comprise less than 0.002% of the Solar System's total mass. The Sun is composed of roughly 98% hydrogen and helium, as are Jupiter and Saturn. A composition gradient exists in the Solar System, created by heat and light pressure from the early Sun; those objects closer to the Sun, which are more affected by heat and light pressure, are composed of elements with high melting points. Objects farther from the Sun are composed largely of materials with lower melting points. The boundary in the Solar System beyond which those volatile substances could coalesce is known as the frost line, and it lies at roughly five times the Earth's distance from the Sun. Orbits
The planets and other large objects in orbit around the Sun lie near the invariable plane of the Solar System, as does Earth's orbit, known as the ecliptic, and most closely the orbit of Jupiter, with an inclination to it of 0.3219°. Smaller icy objects such as comets frequently orbit at significantly greater angles to this plane. Most of the planets in the Solar System have secondary systems of their own, being orbited by natural satellites called moons. All of the largest natural satellites are in synchronous rotation, with one face permanently turned toward their parent. 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7,"natural satellites are in synchronous rotation , with one face permanently turned toward their parent . The four giant planets have planetary rings , thin discs of tiny particles that orbit them in unison .As a result of the formation of the Solar System, planets and most other objects orbit the Sun in the same direction that the Sun is rotating. That is, counter-clockwise, as viewed from above Earth's north pole. There are exceptions, such as Halley's Comet. Most of the larger moons orbit their planets in prograde direction, matching the direction of planetary rotation; Neptune's moon Triton is the largest to orbit in the opposite, retrograde manner. Most larger objects rotate around their own axes in the prograde direction relative to their orbit, though the rotation of Venus is retrograde. To a good first approximation, Kepler's laws of planetary motion describe the orbits of objects around the Sun. These laws stipulate that each object travels along an ellipse with the Sun at one focus, which causes the body's distance from the Sun to vary over the course of its year. A body's closest approach to the Sun is called its perihelion, whereas its most distant point from the Sun is called its aphelion. With the exception of Mercury, the orbits of the planets are nearly circular, but many comets, asteroids, and Kuiper belt objects follow highly elliptical orbits. Kepler's laws only account for the influence of the Sun's gravity upon an orbiting body, not the gravitational pulls of different bodies upon each other. On a human time scale, these perturbations can be accounted for using numerical models, but the planetary system can change chaotically over billions of years. The angular momentum of the Solar System is a measure of the total amount of orbital and rotational momentum possessed by all its moving components.","[0.03384331613779068, -0.054596979171037674, 0.02227589301764965, -0.06442438066005707, -0.025445464998483658, -0.05474540591239929, -0.06276129931211472, 0.00681131100282073, 0.09006179869174957, 0.09615886211395264, 0.026066651567816734, 0.0716923326253891, 0.007987876422703266, -0.09858500957489014, 0.04390094429254532, -0.06464821100234985, 0.016263483092188835, 0.07184655964374542, 0.03135666996240616, 0.03506357967853546, -0.05212840437889099, -0.04285603389143944, -0.04466822370886803, 0.07186226546764374, -0.11581197381019592, 0.013581287115812302, -0.0483936071395874, -0.0019645087886601686, -0.024477200582623482, -0.0656849667429924, -0.04001161456108093, 0.018524959683418274, -0.08743900060653687, 0.018885841593146324, -0.10515706986188889, 0.028065888211131096, -0.050574954599142075, -0.05461813881993294, 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8,"system can change chaotically over billions of years . The angular momentum of the Solar System is a measure of the total amount of orbital and rotational momentum possessed by all its moving components .Although the Sun dominates the system by mass, it accounts for only about 2% of the angular momentum. The planets, dominated by Jupiter, account for most of the rest of the angular momentum due to the combination of their mass, orbit, and distance from the Sun, with a possibly significant contribution from comets. Distances and scales
The radius of the Sun is 0.0047 AU (700,000 km; 400,000 mi). Thus, the Sun occupies 0.00001% (1 part in 107) of the volume of a sphere with a radius the size of Earth's orbit, whereas Earth's volume is roughly 1 millionth (10−6) that of the Sun. Jupiter, the largest planet, is 5.2 AU from the Sun and has a radius of 71,000 km (0.00047 AU; 44,000 mi), whereas the most distant planet, Neptune, is 30 AU from the Sun. With a few exceptions, the farther a planet or belt is from the Sun, the larger the distance between its orbit and the orbit of the next nearest object to the Sun. For example, Venus is approximately 0.33 AU farther out from the Sun than Mercury, whereas Saturn is 4.3 AU out from Jupiter, and Neptune lies 10.5 AU out from Uranus. Attempts have been made to determine a relationship between these orbital distances, like the Titius–Bode law and Johannes Kepler's model based on the Platonic solids, but ongoing discoveries have invalidated these hypotheses. Some Solar System models attempt to convey the relative scales involved in the Solar System in human terms.","[0.08719256520271301, 0.015069243498146534, -0.005673461593687534, -0.04427657276391983, 0.051243074238300323, -0.06217334419488907, -0.0525556243956089, 0.07542358338832855, 0.06265190988779068, 0.009344259276986122, -0.0467551089823246, -0.024242570623755455, 0.06192576512694359, -0.052476007491350174, 0.07517746835947037, -0.06691697984933853, 0.0892714336514473, 0.0139314578846097, -0.06706497073173523, 0.03951762989163399, -0.03453347086906433, 0.054647330194711685, 0.02862318605184555, 0.0833558440208435, -0.05796101316809654, -0.01332919578999281, -0.049344323575496674, -0.053521446883678436, -0.05669059976935387, -0.03227822855114937, -0.016523268073797226, -0.012044765055179596, 0.020315198227763176, -0.02685045264661312, -0.03977381810545921, -0.010930389165878296, 0.011866660788655281, -0.017361441627144814, 0.0031853774562478065, -0.038234077394008636, 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9,"'s model based on the Platonic solids , but ongoing discoveries have invalidated these hypotheses . Some Solar System models attempt to convey the relative scales involved in the Solar System in human terms .Some are small in scale (and may be mechanical – called orreries) – whereas others extend across cities or regional areas. The largest such scale model, the Sweden Solar System, uses the 110-meter (361-foot) Avicii Arena in Stockholm as its substitute Sun, and, following the scale, Jupiter is a 7.5-meter (25-foot) sphere at Stockholm Arlanda Airport, 40 km (25 mi) away, whereas the farthest current object, Sedna, is a 10 cm (4 in) sphere in Luleå, 912 km (567 mi) away. At that scale, the distance to Proxima Centauri would be roughly 8 times further than the Moon is from Earth. If the Sun–Neptune distance is scaled to 100 metres (330 ft), then the Sun would be about 3 cm (1.2 in) in diameter (roughly two-thirds the diameter of a golf ball), the giant planets would be all smaller than about 3 mm (0.12 in), and Earth's diameter along with that of the other terrestrial planets would be smaller than a flea (0.3 mm or 0.012 in) at this scale. Habitability
The zone of habitability of the Solar System is conventionally located in the inner Solar System around Earth, where atmospheric liquid water is enabled by the Sun. Besides solar energy, the primary characteristic of the Solar System enabling the presence of life is the heliosphere and planetary magnetic fields (for those planets that have them). These magnetic fields partially shield the Solar System from high-energy interstellar particles called cosmic rays.","[0.08404722809791565, 0.020251506939530373, 0.0007501723011955619, -0.035657741129398346, 0.0698712095618248, -0.08944788575172424, -0.08493179827928543, 0.0684794932603836, 0.06995797902345657, 0.010235149413347244, -0.004522630013525486, -0.08185166865587234, 0.013142130337655544, 0.0028158058412373066, 0.04533856734633446, -0.09464815258979797, 0.09318951517343521, -0.024333661422133446, -0.01806260086596012, 0.08063915371894836, 0.04914551228284836, 0.007011124398559332, 0.009128480218350887, 0.03407692536711693, 0.004242309369146824, -0.019030949100852013, 0.01345163956284523, -0.018392551690340042, -0.07559547573328018, -0.00647743558511138, -0.019847333431243896, -0.0005684762727469206, 0.015287328511476517, -0.021738437935709953, 0.0016017607413232327, 0.042105164378881454, 1.0233237844659016e-05, -0.02740314044058323, 0.017750421538949013, 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10,"presence of life is the heliosphere and planetary magnetic fields ( for those planets that have them ) . These magnetic fields partially shield the Solar System from high-energy interstellar particles called cosmic rays .The density of cosmic rays in the interstellar medium and the strength of the Sun's magnetic field change on very long timescales, so the level of cosmic-ray penetration in the Solar System varies, though by how much is unknown. Habitability in the Solar System is though not solely dependent on surface conditions, and furthermore the Solar environment, since there might be habitablity in potential subsurface oceans of various Solar System bodies, or cloud layers of some planets, particularly Venus. Comparison with extrasolar systems
Analysis of Kepler data suggests that observed planetary systems in the Milky Way fall into three groups: ""similar"", which comprise planets of similar sizes similar distances apart and with highly circular orbits; ""ordered"", in which the masses of planets tend to increase with distance from their star, and ""mixed"", which show no pattern in masses whatsoever. The Solar System is an ordered system, as are 37% of observed systems. Similar systems however are the majority, comprising 59% of observed systems, while mixed systems comprise just 4%. Compared to many extrasolar systems, the Solar System stands out in lacking planets interior to the orbit of Mercury. The known Solar System lacks super-Earths, planets between one and ten times as massive as the Earth, although the hypothetical Planet Nine, if it does exist, could be a super-Earth orbiting in the edge of the Solar System. Uncommonly, it has only small terrestrial and large gas giants; elsewhere planets of intermediate size are typical – both rocky and gas – so there is no ""gap"" as seen between the size of Earth and of Neptune (with a radius 3.8 times as large).","[0.012265706434845924, -0.08883748203516006, -0.012187964282929897, 0.012138685211539268, 0.11203157901763916, -0.003615964436903596, 0.005264393985271454, 0.013945169746875763, 0.05964711681008339, 0.021767091006040573, 0.02964729815721512, -0.05188734829425812, 0.05608223378658295, -0.02976851537823677, 0.1038769781589508, -0.0608164519071579, 0.02835920825600624, -0.12660641968250275, -0.007437012158334255, 0.11027693748474121, -0.04757976904511452, 0.06827095150947571, -0.07880492508411407, 0.04464723914861679, -0.05241161212325096, 0.019094429910182953, -0.04204472154378891, -0.04717549309134483, -0.090214304625988, -0.011093571782112122, 0.03638821095228195, 0.10440292209386826, -0.02596871368587017, -0.018440255895256996, 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11,"are typical – both rocky and gas – so there is no `` gap '' as seen between the size of Earth and of Neptune ( with a radius 3.8 times as large ) .As many of these super-Earths are closer to their respective stars than Mercury is to the Sun, a hypothesis has arisen that all planetary systems start with many close-in planets, and that typically a sequence of their collisions causes consolidation of mass into few larger planets, but in case of the Solar System the collisions caused their destruction and ejection. The orbits of Solar System planets are nearly circular. Compared to many other systems, they have smaller orbital eccentricity. Although there are attempts to explain it partly with a bias in the radial-velocity detection method and partly with long interactions of a quite high number of planets, the exact causes remain undetermined. Sun
The Sun is the Solar System's star and by far its most massive component. Its large mass (332,900 Earth masses), which comprises 99.86% of all the mass in the Solar System, produces temperatures and densities in its core high enough to sustain nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium. This releases an enormous amount of energy, mostly radiated into space as electromagnetic radiation peaking in visible light. Because the Sun fuses hydrogen at its core, it is a main-sequence star. More specifically, it is a G2-type main-sequence star, where the type designation refers to its effective temperature. Hotter main-sequence stars are more luminous but shorter lived. The Sun's temperature is intermediate between that of the hottest stars and that of the coolest stars. Stars brighter and hotter than the Sun are rare, whereas substantially dimmer and cooler stars, known as red dwarfs, make up about 75% of the fusor stars in the Milky Way.","[0.09740426391363144, -0.013144436292350292, 0.019393915310502052, 0.027126619592308998, 0.12591606378555298, -0.037548862397670746, 0.019559169188141823, 0.07069692015647888, 0.08112417161464691, 0.039553530514240265, -0.03804808109998703, -0.026549456641077995, 0.034062858670949936, -0.08570997416973114, 0.10374182462692261, -0.09627938270568848, 0.02355048432946205, -0.05466825142502785, 0.0058101145550608635, 0.03202494606375694, -0.06746795773506165, 0.012532156892120838, -0.027776891365647316, 0.0923619419336319, -0.0680132731795311, -0.02225142903625965, -0.013188311830163002, -0.014055249281227589, -0.08213694393634796, -0.014721042476594448, -0.0003239009529352188, -0.008237960748374462, 0.02945527248084545, 0.022953610867261887, 0.0011151330545544624, 0.06090066209435463, -0.00997184682637453, 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12,"brighter and hotter than the Sun are rare , whereas substantially dimmer and cooler stars , known as red dwarfs , make up about 75 % of the fusor stars in the Milky Way .The Sun is a population I star, having formed in the spiral arms of the Milky Way galaxy. It has a higher abundance of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium (""metals"" in astronomical parlance) than the older population II stars in the galactic bulge and halo. Elements heavier than hydrogen and helium were formed in the cores of ancient and exploding stars, so the first generation of stars had to die before the universe could be enriched with these atoms. The oldest stars contain few metals, whereas stars born later have more. This higher metallicity is thought to have been crucial to the Sun's development of a planetary system because the planets formed from the accretion of ""metals"". The region of space dominated by the Solar magnetosphere is the heliosphere, which spans much of the Solar System. Along with light, the Sun radiates a continuous stream of charged particles (a plasma) called the solar wind. This stream spreads outwards at speeds from 900,000 kilometres per hour (560,000 mph) to 2,880,000 kilometres per hour (1,790,000 mph), filling the vacuum between the bodies of the Solar System. The result is a thin, dusty atmosphere, called the interplanetary medium, which extends to at least 100 AU. Activity on the Sun's surface, such as solar flares and coronal mass ejections, disturbs the heliosphere, creating space weather and causing geomagnetic storms. Coronal mass ejections and similar events blow a magnetic field and huge quantities of material from the surface of the Sun.","[-0.029746901243925095, 0.034870315343141556, 0.0033733644522726536, 0.12670990824699402, 0.04615790396928787, -0.05239515379071236, 0.011887074448168278, 0.020321883261203766, 0.027506917715072632, -0.022135064005851746, -0.04935886338353157, -0.06985320150852203, 0.06629446893930435, -0.08993276953697205, 0.10422548651695251, -0.0452384278178215, 0.08128731697797775, -0.12097766995429993, -0.025171607732772827, 0.048904214054346085, -0.01709776371717453, 0.015157409012317657, -0.010824356228113174, -0.02220027707517147, 0.033439405262470245, 0.026268167421221733, -0.06404244899749756, -0.013523737899959087, -0.02191069722175598, -0.008019542321562767, 0.05147606506943703, 0.04606834799051285, 0.02036971040070057, 0.06565768271684647, -0.049567777663469315, 0.009280674159526825, 0.034309022128582, -0.045968376100063324, -0.0369139239192009, 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13,", disturbs the heliosphere , creating space weather and causing geomagnetic storms . Coronal mass ejections and similar events blow a magnetic field and huge quantities of material from the surface of the Sun .The interaction of this magnetic field and material with Earth's magnetic field funnels charged particles into Earth's upper atmosphere, where its interactions create aurorae seen near the magnetic poles. The largest stable structure within the heliosphere is the heliospheric current sheet, a spiral form created by the actions of the Sun's rotating magnetic field on the interplanetary medium. Inner Solar System
The inner Solar System is the region comprising the terrestrial planets and the asteroids. Composed mainly of silicates and metals, the objects of the inner Solar System are relatively close to the Sun; the radius of this entire region is less than the distance between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn. This region is within the frost line, which is a little less than 5 AU from the Sun. Inner planets
The four terrestrial or inner planets have dense, rocky compositions, few or no moons, and no ring systems. They are composed largely of refractory minerals such as silicates—which form their crusts and mantles—and metals such as iron and nickel which form their cores. Three of the four inner planets (Venus, Earth, and Mars) have atmospheres substantial enough to generate weather; all have impact craters and tectonic surface features, such as rift valleys and volcanoes. Mercury (0.31–0.59 AU from the Sun) is the smallest planet in the Solar System. Its surface is grayish, with an expansive rupes (cliff) system generated from thrust faults and bright ray systems formed by impact event remnants. The surface has widely varying temperature, with the equatorial regions ranging from −170 °C (−270 °F) at night to 420 °C (790 °F) during sunlight.","[0.056860197335481644, -0.010759588330984116, -0.000543676083907485, -0.009241053834557533, 0.061320170760154724, -0.0389285534620285, 0.03532155230641365, 0.04690073803067207, 0.07748463749885559, 0.007227158173918724, -0.09777131676673889, -0.023560015484690666, 0.04142042621970177, -0.10551494359970093, 0.06865628808736801, -0.05831070616841316, 0.018307341262698174, -0.08074996620416641, -0.015251652337610722, 0.05729677155613899, 0.015183133073151112, 0.007494679186493158, -0.08003834635019302, -0.01142787653952837, -0.07960987091064453, 0.056062351912260056, -0.04080399125814438, -0.05007356405258179, -0.05305580422282219, -0.013934729620814323, 0.05710338056087494, 0.04097843915224075, -0.03378255292773247, 0.008169068023562431, -0.010218518786132336, 0.03957105800509453, 0.03760243579745293, 0.033194564282894135, 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14,"impact event remnants . The surface has widely varying temperature , with the equatorial regions ranging from −170 °C ( −270 °F ) at night to 420 °C ( 790 °F ) during sunlight .In the past, Mercury was volcanically active, producing smooth basaltic plains similar to the Moon. It is likely that Mercury has a silicate crust and a large iron core. Mercury has a very tenuous atmosphere, consisting of solar-wind particles and ejected atoms. Mercury has no natural satellites. Venus (0.72–0.73 AU) has a reflective, whitish atmosphere that is mainly composed of carbon dioxide. At the surface, the atmospheric pressure is ninety times as dense as on Earth's sea level. Venus has a surface temperatures over 400 °C (752 °F), mainly due to the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The planet lacks a protective magnetic field to protect against stripping by the solar wind, which suggests that its atmosphere is sustained by volcanic activity. Its surface displays extensive evidence of volcanic activity with stagnant lid tectonics. Venus has no natural satellites. Earth (0.98–1.02 AU) is the only place in the universe where life and surface liquid water are known to exist. Earth's atmosphere contains 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen, which is the result of the presence of life. The planet has a complex climate and weather system, with conditions differing drastically between climate regions. The solid surface of Earth is dominated by green vegetation, deserts and white ice sheets. Earth's surface is shaped by plate tectonics that formed the continental masses. Earth's planetary magnetosphere shields the surface from radiation, limiting atmospheric stripping and maintaining life habitability. The Moon is Earth's only natural satellite. Its diameter is one-quarter the size of Earth's. Its surface is covered in very fine regolith and dominated by impact craters.","[0.08442410826683044, -0.0389975942671299, 0.08393658697605133, 0.011857274919748306, 0.09653720259666443, 0.00462086359038949, 0.012314759194850922, 0.00747361034154892, 0.065495565533638, 0.0065910969860851765, -0.08401500433683395, -0.075693778693676, -0.009682752192020416, -0.03779103606939316, 0.0954657644033432, -0.0788598358631134, 0.044807448983192444, -0.04622281342744827, 0.03897322714328766, 0.06416293978691101, -0.015543114393949509, 0.07604832202196121, -0.046720534563064575, 0.025717182084918022, -0.04821629449725151, 0.01657938025891781, -0.029090367257595062, 0.09558732807636261, 0.01254590880125761, 0.04881402105093002, -0.016775721684098244, -0.02046780288219452, -0.013125207275152206, 0.023775873705744743, -0.029898596927523613, -0.007060310337692499, -0.006241844035685062, -0.008011570200324059, -0.06676003336906433, -0.08065422624349594, -0.005753765348345041, -0.08980611711740494, 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15,"habitability . The Moon is Earth 's only natural satellite . Its diameter is one-quarter the size of Earth 's . Its surface is covered in very fine regolith and dominated by impact craters .Large dark patches on the Moon, maria, are formed from past volcanic activity. The Moon's atmosphere is extremely thin, consisting of a partial vacuum with particle densities of under 107 per cm−3. Mars (1.38–1.67 AU) has a radius about half of that of Earth. Most of the planet is red due to iron oxide in Martian soil, and the polar regions are covered in white ice caps made of water and carbon dioxide. Mars has an atmosphere composed mostly of carbon dioxide, with surface pressure 0.6% of that of Earth, which is sufficient to support some weather phenomena. During the Mars year (687 Earth days), there are large surface temperature swings on the surface between −78.5 °C (−109.3 °F) to 5.7 °C (42.3 °F). The surface is peppered with volcanoes and rift valleys, and has a rich collection of minerals. Mars has a highly differentiated internal structure, and lost its magnetosphere 4 billion years ago. Mars has two tiny moons:
Phobos is Mars's inner moon. It is a small, irregularly shaped object with a mean radius of 11 km (7 mi). Its surface is very unreflective and dominated by impact craters. In particular, Phobos's surface has a very large Stickney impact crater that is roughly 4.5 km (2.8 mi) in radius. Deimos is Mars's outer moon. Like Phobos, it is irregularly shaped, with a mean radius of 6 km (4 mi) and its surface reflects little light. However, the surface of Deimos is noticeably smoother than Phobos because the regolith partially covers the impact craters.","[0.05975592881441116, 0.00846664234995842, 0.057973213493824005, 0.052963998168706894, 0.07895851135253906, -0.024590030312538147, 0.009480683133006096, 0.030493788421154022, -0.036530252546072006, 0.08259651809930801, -0.03852786123752594, -0.059358224272727966, 0.03590555116534233, -0.02758452668786049, 0.06780467182397842, -0.06767451763153076, -0.014368907548487186, -0.01634378544986248, -0.02878393977880478, 0.06534963101148605, -0.03910805657505989, 0.0856390967965126, -0.04152916744351387, 0.018422018736600876, -0.06464989483356476, 0.08069324493408203, -0.016777923330664635, 0.0733741894364357, -0.019415611401200294, 0.0004264257731847465, -0.0715232715010643, -0.009780241176486015, 0.0857582613825798, -0.02089746668934822, -0.02022475004196167, 0.0532805398106575, -0.016345014795660973, -0.01726236566901207, -0.05533826723694801, -0.04927005618810654, 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16,"radius of 6 km ( 4 mi ) and its surface reflects little light . However , the surface of Deimos is noticeably smoother than Phobos because the regolith partially covers the impact craters .Asteroids
Asteroids, except for the largest, Ceres, are classified as small Solar System bodies and are composed mainly of carbonaceous, refractory rocky and metallic minerals, with some ice. They range from a few meters to hundreds of kilometers in size. Many asteroids are divided into asteroid groups and families based on their orbital characteristics. Some asteroids have natural satellites that orbit them, that is, asteroids that orbit larger asteroids. Mercury-crossing asteroids are those with perihelia within the orbit of Mercury. At least 362 are known to date, and include the closest objects to the Sun known in the Solar System. No vulcanoids, asteroids between the orbit of Mercury and the Sun, have been discovered. As of 2024, one asteroid has been discovered to orbit completely within Venus's orbit, 594913 ꞌAylóꞌchaxnim. Venus-crossing asteroids are those that cross the orbit of Venus. There are 2,809 as of 2015. Near-Earth asteroids have orbits that approach relatively close to Earth's orbit, and some of them are potentially hazardous objects because they might collide with Earth in the future. There are over 37,000 known as of 2024. A number of solar-orbiting meteoroids were large enough to be tracked in space before striking Earth. It is now widely accepted that collisions in the past have had a significant role in shaping the geological and biological history of Earth. Mars-crossing asteroids are those with perhihelia above 1.3 AU which cross the orbit of Mars. As of 2024, NASA lists 26,182 confirmed Mars-crossing asteroids. Asteroid belt
The asteroid belt occupies a torus-shaped region between 2.3 and 3.3 AU from the Sun, which lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.","[0.04684261977672577, -0.05107523128390312, 0.019770512357354164, -0.022000394761562347, 0.05190473422408104, -0.07100825756788254, -0.015330738388001919, 0.11872818320989609, -0.010572757571935654, 0.052338141947984695, -0.015537947416305542, -0.06630569696426392, -0.0148873720318079, -0.042740460485219955, 0.059842560440301895, -0.038678064942359924, 0.08449480682611465, -0.019542163237929344, -0.02370823733508587, 0.11187415570020676, 0.02786836586892605, 0.019665157422423363, -0.029384609311819077, 0.02519470825791359, -0.09770557284355164, 0.03376353904604912, 0.02606729418039322, -0.0188139658421278, -0.06242484226822853, -0.002137512434273958, 0.01154581643640995, -0.04050137475132942, -0.026229681447148323, -0.008635235019028187, 0.044822435826063156, 0.008143169805407524, -0.05681830644607544, -0.01948370784521103, 0.02008962072432041, 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17,"NASA lists 26,182 confirmed Mars-crossing asteroids . Asteroid belt The asteroid belt occupies a torus-shaped region between 2.3 and 3.3 AU from the Sun , which lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter .It is thought to be remnants from the Solar System's formation that failed to coalesce because of the gravitational interference of Jupiter. The asteroid belt contains tens of thousands, possibly millions, of objects over one kilometer in diameter. Despite this, the total mass of the asteroid belt is unlikely to be more than a thousandth of that of Earth. The asteroid belt is very sparsely populated; spacecraft routinely pass through without incident. Below are the descriptions of the three largest bodies in the asteroid belt. They are all considered to be relatively intact protoplanets, a precursor stage before becoming a fully-formed planet (see List of exceptional asteroids):

Ceres (2.55–2.98 AU) is the only dwarf planet in the asteroid belt. It is the largest object in the belt, with a diameter of 940 km (580 mi). Its surface contains a mixture of carbon, frozen water and hydrated minerals. There are signs of past cryovolcanic activity, where volatile material such as water are erupted onto the surface, as seen in surface bright spots. Ceres has a very thin water vapor atmosphere, but practically speaking it is indistinguishable from a vacuum. Vesta (2.13–3.41 AU) is the second-largest object in the asteroid belt. Its fragments survive as the Vesta asteroid family and numerous HED meteorites found on Earth. Vesta's surface, dominated by basaltic and metamorphic material, has a denser composition than Ceres's. Its surface is marked by two giant craters: Rheasilvia and Veneneia. Pallas (2.15–2.57 AU) is the third-largest object in the asteroid belt. 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18,"Its surface is marked by two giant craters : Rheasilvia and Veneneia . Pallas ( 2.15–2.57 AU ) is the third-largest object in the asteroid belt . It has its own Pallas asteroid family .Not much is known about Pallas because it has never been visited by a spacecraft, though its surface is predicted to be composed of silicates. Hilda asteroids are in a 3:2 resonance with Jupiter; that is, they go around the Sun three times for every two Jovian orbits. They lie in three linked clusters between Jupiter and the main asteroid belt. Trojans are bodies located within another body's gravitationally stable Lagrange points: L4, 60° ahead in its orbit, or L5, 60° behind in its orbit. Every planet except Mercury is known to possess at least one trojan. The Jupiter trojan population is roughly equal to that of the asteroid belt. After Jupiter, Neptune possesses the most confirmed trojans, at 28. Outer Solar System
The outer region of the Solar System is home to the giant planets and their large moons. The centaurs and many short-period comets orbit in this region. Due to their greater distance from the Sun, the solid objects in the outer Solar System contain a higher proportion of volatiles such as water, ammonia, and methane, than planets of the inner Solar System because their lower temperatures allow these compounds to remain solid, without significant sublimation. Outer planets
The four outer planets, called giant planets or Jovian planets, collectively make up 99% of the mass orbiting the Sun. All four giant planets have multiple moons and a ring system, although only Saturn's rings are easily observed from Earth. Jupiter and Saturn are composed mainly of gases with extremely low melting points, such as hydrogen, helium, and neon, hence their designation as gas giants.","[0.056712836027145386, -0.0491328202188015, 0.0005351713625714183, -0.02964402548968792, 0.037321314215660095, -0.1298321634531021, -0.020165743306279182, 0.05137133598327637, 0.03772260248661041, 0.021351750940084457, -0.04891989007592201, -0.04213934391736984, 0.003848445136100054, -0.06928059458732605, 0.02832258678972721, -0.07714113593101501, -0.010884490795433521, -0.07203879207372665, 0.01732877641916275, 0.07230134308338165, 0.030939675867557526, -0.009061397053301334, -0.027080534026026726, 0.04521263390779495, -0.09725887328386307, 0.06008927524089813, -0.011082892306149006, -0.00663222000002861, -0.04498068615794182, -0.061650052666664124, -0.053421586751937866, -0.0496053472161293, 0.022692998871207237, 0.0033560830634087324, -0.0035822964273393154, -0.018943581730127335, -0.03272668644785881, -0.013670996762812138, 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19,"easily observed from Earth . Jupiter and Saturn are composed mainly of gases with extremely low melting points , such as hydrogen , helium , and neon , hence their designation as gas giants .Uranus and Neptune are ice giants, meaning they are largely composed of 'ice' in the astronomical sense (chemical compounds with melting points of up to a few hundred kelvins such as water, methane, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and carbon dioxide.) Icy substances comprise the majority of the satellites of the giant planets and small objects that lie beyond Neptune's orbit. Jupiter (4.95–5.46 AU) is the biggest and most massive planet in the Solar System. On its surface, there are orange-brown and white cloud bands moving via the principles of atmospheric circulation, with giant storms swirling on the surface such as the Great Red Spot and white 'ovals'. Jupiter possesses a strong enough magnetosphere to redirect ionizing radiation and cause auroras on its poles. As of 2025, Jupiter has 97 confirmed satellites, which can roughly be sorted into three groups:
The Amalthea group, consisting of Metis, Adrastea, Amalthea, and Thebe. They orbit substantially closer to Jupiter than other satellites. Materials from these natural satellites are the source of Jupiter's faint ring. The Galilean moons, consisting of Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa. They are the largest moons of Jupiter and exhibit planetary properties. Irregular satellites, consisting of substantially smaller natural satellites. They have more distant orbits than the other objects. Saturn (9.08–10.12 AU) has a distinctive visible ring system orbiting around its equator composed of small ice and rock particles. Like Jupiter, it is mostly made of hydrogen and helium. At its north and south poles, Saturn has peculiar hexagon-shaped storms larger than the diameter of Earth. Saturn has a magnetosphere capable of producing weak auroras.","[0.01150229386985302, -0.08244404941797256, 0.04198785871267319, 0.018001366406679153, 0.13330301642417908, -0.0331021323800087, 0.048471253365278244, 0.08086490631103516, 0.02195780724287033, 0.06282735615968704, -0.14574825763702393, -0.03523220866918564, 0.02829345315694809, -0.09160394966602325, 0.06002058833837509, -0.03392506390810013, 0.03921069949865341, -0.0880858525633812, -0.0038900149520486593, -0.03571451082825661, 0.026706814765930176, 0.03335656598210335, -0.03984187915921211, 0.002048698253929615, -0.07332926243543625, 0.04908549785614014, -0.011115079745650291, -0.04988968372344971, -0.003459235420450568, 0.02181342802941799, -0.03277707099914551, -0.002241823123767972, -0.004971483256667852, 0.0022034747526049614, -0.031147165223956108, 0.008286818861961365, 0.004657702054828405, -0.054035067558288574, -0.06294606626033783, -0.07422865927219391, 0.05664428696036339, -0.03462803363800049, 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20,"made of hydrogen and helium . At its north and south poles , Saturn has peculiar hexagon-shaped storms larger than the diameter of Earth . Saturn has a magnetosphere capable of producing weak auroras .As of 2025, Saturn has 274 confirmed satellites, grouped into:
Ring moonlets and shepherds, which orbit inside or close to Saturn's rings. A moonlet can only partially clear out dust in its orbit, while the ring shepherds are able to completely clear out dust, forming visible gaps in the rings. Inner large satellites Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, and Dione. These satellites orbit within Saturn's E ring. They are composed mostly of water ice and are believed to have differentiated internal structures. Trojan moons Calypso and Telesto (trojans of Tethys), and Helene and Polydeuces (trojans of Dione). These small moons share their orbits with Tethys and Dione, leading or trailing either. Outer large satellites Rhea, Titan, Hyperion, and Iapetus. Titan is the only satellite in the Solar System to have a substantial atmosphere. Irregular satellites, consisting of substantially smaller natural satellites. They have more distant orbits than the other objects. Phoebe is the largest irregular satellite of Saturn. Uranus (18.3–20.1 AU), uniquely among the planets, orbits the Sun on its side with an axial tilt >90°. This gives the planet extreme seasonal variation as each pole points alternately toward and then away from the Sun. Uranus's outer layer has a muted cyan color, but underneath these clouds are many mysteries about its climate, such as unusually low internal heat and erratic cloud formation. As of 2025, Uranus has 28 confirmed satellites, divided into three groups:
Inner satellites, which orbit inside Uranus's ring system. They are very close to each other, which suggests that their orbits are chaotic.","[-0.023210780695080757, -0.06315784156322479, 0.01348115410655737, -0.027444755658507347, 0.043996412307024, -0.0612967349588871, 0.09803074598312378, 0.06812421977519989, 0.08335614949464798, 0.04730340465903282, -0.09703574329614639, 0.013809547759592533, 0.002758375136181712, -0.07140010595321655, -0.0021831782069057226, -0.0639539510011673, 0.04904735088348389, -0.03843047097325325, -0.004513399675488472, -0.03800159692764282, -0.0044575841166079044, 0.0008582425070926547, -0.051442235708236694, 0.01118773315101862, -0.04805949330329895, 0.07766588777303696, -0.05357236787676811, 0.002329370705410838, 0.0016504924278706312, 0.011457432061433792, 0.006698617246001959, -0.011698344722390175, -0.04669133573770523, -0.022334890440106392, -0.012924709357321262, 0.04274703934788704, 0.0012933362741023302, -0.05025384575128555, -0.0365840308368206, -0.06654581427574158, 0.027968604117631912, 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21,"confirmed satellites , divided into three groups : Inner satellites , which orbit inside Uranus 's ring system . They are very close to each other , which suggests that their orbits are chaotic .Large satellites, consisting of Titania, Oberon, Umbriel, Ariel, and Miranda. Most of them have roughly equal amounts of rock and ice, except Miranda, which is made primarily of ice. Irregular satellites, having more distant and eccentric orbits than the other objects. Neptune (29.9–30.5 AU) is the furthest planet known in the Solar System. Its outer atmosphere has a slightly muted cyan color, with occasional storms on the surface that look like dark spots. Like Uranus, many atmospheric phenomena of Neptune are unexplained, such as the thermosphere's abnormally high temperature or the strong tilt (47°) of its magnetosphere. As of 2025,  Neptune has 16 confirmed satellites, divided into two groups:
Regular satellites, which have circular orbits that lie near Neptune's equator. Irregular satellites, which as the name implies, have less regular orbits. One of them, Triton, is Neptune's largest moon. It is geologically active, with erupting geysers of nitrogen gas, and possesses a thin, cloudy nitrogen atmosphere. Centaurs
The centaurs are icy, comet-like bodies whose semi-major axes are longer than Jupiter's and shorter than Neptune's (between 5.5 and 30 AU). These are former Kuiper belt and scattered disc objects (SDOs) that were gravitationally perturbed closer to the Sun by the outer planets, and are expected to become comets or be ejected out of the Solar System. While most centaurs are inactive and asteroid-like, some exhibit cometary activity, such as the first centaur discovered, 2060 Chiron, which has been classified as a comet (95P) because it develops a coma just as comets do when they approach the Sun.","[0.03266550973057747, -0.07278850674629211, 0.03465303033590317, -0.033444494009017944, 0.051656730473041534, -0.07984272390604019, 0.03587143495678902, 0.02561926282942295, 0.06930893659591675, 0.08206861466169357, -0.06947337836027145, -0.014542218297719955, 0.07714805006980896, -0.062015652656555176, 0.035039253532886505, -0.05424545705318451, 0.050986528396606445, -0.07322029024362564, -0.000589006463997066, -0.01604057475924492, -8.07085816632025e-05, 0.007809735368937254, -0.01905040815472603, 0.01534954458475113, -0.10587376356124878, 0.008147879503667355, -0.01539064384996891, -0.0073302993550896645, -0.012884390540421009, 0.0150490403175354, -0.06974700838327408, 0.02326694317162037, -0.02643621526658535, -0.02268284559249878, 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22,"such as the first centaur discovered , 2060 Chiron , which has been classified as a comet ( 95P ) because it develops a coma just as comets do when they approach the Sun .The largest known centaur, 10199 Chariklo, has a diameter of about 250 km (160 mi) and is one of the few minor planets possessing a ring system. Trans-Neptunian region
Beyond the orbit of Neptune lies the area of the ""trans-Neptunian region"", with the doughnut-shaped Kuiper belt, home of Pluto and several other dwarf planets, and an overlapping disc of scattered objects, which is tilted toward the plane of the Solar System and reaches much further out than the Kuiper belt. The entire region is still largely unexplored. It appears to consist overwhelmingly of many thousands of small worlds – the largest having a diameter only a fifth that of Earth and a mass far smaller than that of the Moon – composed mainly of rock and ice. This region is sometimes described as the ""third zone of the Solar System"", enclosing the inner and the outer Solar System. Kuiper belt
The Kuiper belt is a great ring of debris similar to the asteroid belt, but consisting mainly of objects composed primarily of ice. It extends between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun. It is composed mainly of small Solar System bodies, although the largest few are probably large enough to be dwarf planets. There are estimated to be over 100,000 Kuiper belt objects with a diameter greater than 50 km (30 mi), but the total mass of the Kuiper belt is thought to be only a tenth or even a hundredth the mass of Earth. Many Kuiper belt objects have satellites, and most have orbits that are substantially inclined (~10°) to the plane of the ecliptic.","[0.0107923848554492, -0.021465985104441643, 0.0032302916515618563, -0.07067111879587173, -0.01658039353787899, -0.1070370227098465, -0.05581020563840866, 0.09610609710216522, 0.022445976734161377, 0.015065754763782024, 0.03118848241865635, -0.07278404384851456, -0.005646191071718931, -0.00900504644960165, -0.006025210022926331, -0.06137259677052498, 0.08635936677455902, -0.04009728506207466, 0.015581851825118065, -0.027655458077788353, -0.018698565661907196, 0.08567923307418823, 0.008709939196705818, 0.022983966395258904, -0.03979369252920151, -0.029382798820734024, -0.02617347240447998, -0.03786386549472809, -0.03379637748003006, -0.012079326435923576, -0.0679793506860733, 0.031000463292002678, -0.038530949503183365, 0.0009585663792677224, 0.05059800297021866, -0.013165878131985664, -0.003134544240310788, 0.044055767357349396, 0.028695333749055862, 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23,"tenth or even a hundredth the mass of Earth . Many Kuiper belt objects have satellites , and most have orbits that are substantially inclined ( ~10° ) to the plane of the ecliptic .The Kuiper belt can be roughly divided into the ""classical"" belt and the resonant trans-Neptunian objects. The latter have orbits whose periods are in a simple ratio to that of Neptune: for example, going around the Sun twice for every three times that Neptune does, or once for every two. The classical belt consists of objects having no resonance with Neptune, and extends from roughly 39.4 to 47.7 AU. Members of the classical Kuiper belt are sometimes called ""cubewanos"", after the first of their kind to be discovered, originally designated 1992 QB1, (and has since been named Albion); they are still in near primordial, low-eccentricity orbits. There is strong consensus among astronomers that five members of the Kuiper belt are dwarf planets. Many dwarf planet candidates are being considered, pending further data for verification. Pluto (29.7–49.3 AU) is the largest known object in the Kuiper belt. Pluto has a relatively eccentric orbit, inclined 17 degrees to the ecliptic plane. Pluto has a 2:3 resonance with Neptune, meaning that Pluto orbits twice around the Sun for every three Neptunian orbits. Kuiper belt objects whose orbits share this resonance are called plutinos. Pluto has five moons: Charon, Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra. Charon, the largest of Pluto's moons, is sometimes described as part of a binary system with Pluto, as the two bodies orbit a barycenter of gravity above their surfaces (i.e. they appear to ""orbit each other""). Orcus (30.3–48.1 AU), is in the same 2:3 orbital resonance with Neptune as Pluto, and is the largest such object after Pluto itself.","[0.03267527371644974, -0.039102207869291306, -0.010470891371369362, -0.07011421769857407, -0.0680077001452446, -0.10908915102481842, -0.036357998847961426, 0.04304321110248566, 0.052694860845804214, -0.015900298953056335, -0.007684275507926941, -0.06837325543165207, -0.007887706160545349, -0.02445918880403042, 0.019517725333571434, -0.006995966657996178, 0.06162558123469353, 0.01844865083694458, 0.020967647433280945, -0.008148031309247017, -0.05468852445483208, 0.04208814725279808, 0.006044789217412472, 0.03944076970219612, -0.10721749067306519, -0.05069351568818092, -0.04438475891947746, -0.07910047471523285, -0.025556497275829315, -0.06133761629462242, -0.04782409593462944, -0.03649897873401642, 0.007371698506176472, 0.04910014569759369, 0.056519437581300735, 0.006082545965909958, -0.0337209552526474, -0.014476891607046127, 0.00523260235786438, 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24,"`` orbit each other '' ) . Orcus ( 30.3–48.1 AU ) , is in the same 2:3 orbital resonance with Neptune as Pluto , and is the largest such object after Pluto itself .Its eccentricity and inclination are similar to Pluto's, but its perihelion lies about 120° from that of Pluto. Thus, the phase of Orcus's orbit is opposite to Pluto's: Orcus is at aphelion (most recently in 2019) around when Pluto is at perihelion (most recently in 1989) and vice versa. For this reason, it has been called the anti-Pluto. It has one known moon, Vanth. Haumea (34.6–51.6 AU) was discovered in 2005. It is in a temporary 7:12 orbital resonance with Neptune. Haumea possesses a ring system, two known moons named Hiʻiaka and Namaka, and rotates so quickly (once every 3.9 hours) that it is stretched into an ellipsoid. It is part of a collisional family of Kuiper belt objects that share similar orbits, which suggests a giant impact on Haumea ejected fragments into space billions of years ago. Makemake (38.1–52.8 AU), although smaller than Pluto, is the largest known object in the classical Kuiper belt (that is, a Kuiper belt object not in a confirmed resonance with Neptune). Makemake is the brightest object in the Kuiper belt after Pluto. Discovered in 2005, it was officially named in 2009. Its orbit is far more inclined than Pluto's, at 29°. It has one known moon, S/2015 (136472) 1. Quaoar (41.9–45.5 AU) is the second-largest known object in the classical Kuiper belt, after Makemake. Its orbit is significantly less eccentric and inclined than those of Makemake or Haumea. 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25,"the classical Kuiper belt , after Makemake . Its orbit is significantly less eccentric and inclined than those of Makemake or Haumea . It possesses a ring system and one known moon , Weywot .Scattered disc
The scattered disc, which overlaps the Kuiper belt but extends out to near 500 AU, is thought to be the source of short-period comets. Scattered-disc objects are believed to have been perturbed into erratic orbits by the gravitational influence of Neptune's early outward migration. Most scattered disc objects have perihelia within the Kuiper belt but aphelia far beyond it (some more than 150 AU from the Sun). SDOs' orbits can be inclined up to 46.8° from the ecliptic plane. Some astronomers consider the scattered disc to be merely another region of the Kuiper belt and describe scattered-disc objects as ""scattered Kuiper belt objects"". Some astronomers classify centaurs as inward-scattered Kuiper belt objects along with the outward-scattered residents of the scattered disc. Currently, there is strong consensus among astronomers that two of the bodies in the scattered disc are dwarf planets:

Eris (38.3–97.5 AU) is the largest known scattered disc object and the most massive known dwarf planet. Eris's discovery contributed to a debate about the definition of a planet because it is 25% more massive than Pluto and about the same diameter. It has one known moon, Dysnomia. Like Pluto, its orbit is highly eccentric, with a perihelion of 38.2 AU (roughly Pluto's distance from the Sun) and an aphelion of 97.6 AU, and steeply inclined to the ecliptic plane at an angle of 44°. Gonggong (33.8–101.2 AU) is a dwarf planet in a comparable orbit to Eris, except that it is in a 3:10 resonance with Neptune. It has one known moon, Xiangliu.","[0.052863311022520065, 0.0014422695385292172, 0.022992394864559174, -0.05692959204316139, 0.02139323391020298, -0.1464625895023346, -0.004150851629674435, 0.054856181144714355, 0.053611356765031815, 0.04207328334450722, -0.020290514454245567, -0.07509083300828934, 0.01809380017220974, -0.08236021548509598, 0.02350872941315174, -0.050331756472587585, 0.0771607756614685, -0.038050033152103424, 0.018635248765349388, 0.058056969195604324, -0.01984783262014389, 0.07293326407670975, -0.028323404490947723, 0.05693737789988518, -0.05655580759048462, -0.04673457145690918, 0.008879386819899082, -0.07346586883068085, -0.05220682546496391, -0.05659821256995201, -0.011219220235943794, -0.012111613526940346, -0.009141064248979092, 0.04283169284462929, 0.05935258790850639, -0.000993636203929782, -0.0060604652389883995, 0.02282290905714035, -0.014240763150155544, -0.036285702139139175, -0.009444085881114006, 6.780069816159084e-05, 0.05591011419892311, 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26,"Gonggong ( 33.8–101.2 AU ) is a dwarf planet in a comparable orbit to Eris , except that it is in a 3:10 resonance with Neptune . It has one known moon , Xiangliu .Extreme trans-Neptunian objects
Some objects in the Solar System have a very large orbit, and therefore are much less affected by the known giant planets than other minor planet populations. These bodies are called extreme trans-Neptunian objects, or ETNOs for short. Generally, ETNOs' semi-major axes are at least 150–250 AU wide. For example, 541132 Leleākūhonua orbits the Sun once every ~32,000 years, with a distance of 65–2000 AU from the Sun. This population is divided into three subgroups by astronomers. The scattered ETNOs have perihelia around 38–45 AU and an exceptionally high eccentricity of more than 0.85. As with the regular scattered disc objects, they were likely formed as result of gravitational scattering by Neptune and still interact with the giant planets. The detached ETNOs, with perihelia approximately between 40–45 and 50–60 AU, are less affected by Neptune than the scattered ETNOs, but are still relatively close to Neptune. The sednoids or inner Oort cloud objects, with perihelia beyond 50–60 AU, are too far from Neptune to be strongly influenced by it. Currently, there is one ETNO that is classified as a dwarf planet:

Sedna (76.2–937 AU) was the first extreme trans-Neptunian object to be discovered. It is a large, reddish object, and takes ~11,400 years to complete one orbit. Mike Brown, who discovered the object in 2003, asserts that it cannot be part of the scattered disc or the Kuiper belt because its perihelion is too distant to have been affected by Neptune's migration. The sednoid population is named after Sedna.","[0.047208454459905624, 0.005499330349266529, 0.031033633276820183, -0.011977845802903175, 0.023823633790016174, -0.1005430817604065, -0.004384069237858057, 0.056975357234478, 0.01121210865676403, 0.07527582347393036, 0.019528042525053024, -0.0992855653166771, 0.05092331022024155, -0.0192301906645298, 0.03232898935675621, -0.01467135176062584, 0.026881830766797066, -0.09472521394491196, -0.06494957208633423, 0.038272399455308914, 0.01692371629178524, -0.009125585667788982, -0.014714188873767853, 0.010602794587612152, -0.03620293736457825, -0.08550669252872467, -0.05643806606531143, -0.016819369047880173, -0.0028772938530892134, -0.037019070237874985, -0.04295392334461212, 0.05146969109773636, 0.007785581983625889, 0.0004021602217108011, -0.01458191778510809, -0.0028989585116505623, -0.03515829145908356, -0.043913114815950394, -0.07523315399885178, -0.05194035917520523, 0.07067365944385529, 0.08525925129652023, 0.09273266047239304, 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27,"can not be part of the scattered disc or the Kuiper belt because its perihelion is too distant to have been affected by Neptune 's migration . The sednoid population is named after Sedna .Statistical variance has been observed in the orbits of some extreme trans-Neptunian objects, whose closest approaches to the Sun are mostly clustered around one sector and who display a similar orbital tilt to each other. Some astronomers have suggested that this may be the result of the influence of a large planet beyond Neptune; this hypothetical planet has been termed Planet Nine. Others credit this statistical variance to observational biases or sheer coincidence. Oort cloud
The Oort cloud is a theorized spherical shell of up to a trillion icy objects that is thought to be the source for all long-period comets, which were originally ejected from the inner Solar System by gravitational interactions with the outer planets. Oort cloud objects move very slowly, and can be perturbed by infrequent events, such as collisions, the gravitational effects of a passing star, or the galactic tide, the tidal force exerted by the Milky Way. No direct observation of the Oort cloud is possible with present imaging technology. The Oort cloud is theorized to surround the Solar System from potentially ~2,000 AU from the Sun to up to ~200,000 AU. Lower estimates for the radius of the Oort cloud, by contrast, do not place it farther than 50,000 AU. Most of the mass is orbiting in the region between 3,000 and 100,000 AU. The furthest known objects, such as Comet West, have aphelia around 70,000 AU from the Sun. Gravitationally unstable populations
Meteoroids, meteors and dust
Solid objects smaller than one meter are usually called meteoroids and micrometeoroids (grain-sized), with the exact division between the two categories being debated over the years.","[0.015852482989430428, -0.02918318659067154, 0.09253761172294617, 0.026823237538337708, 0.08345074206590652, -0.07676083594560623, -0.01552435103803873, 0.021590478718280792, 0.1349077969789505, 0.01689034327864647, 0.013162310235202312, -0.0024737485218793154, 0.022158842533826828, -0.11408890038728714, -0.02904362417757511, -0.06038476154208183, 0.11230058968067169, -0.06525222957134247, -0.02095624804496765, 0.02705911360681057, -0.01174314133822918, 0.07644730806350708, 0.005081407725811005, 0.0013642697595059872, -0.023006150498986244, -0.07154160737991333, -0.06961827725172043, -0.0247537549585104, -0.015093586407601833, -0.06480896472930908, 0.04919428750872612, 0.019842036068439484, -0.042804256081581116, 0.04800904914736748, 0.05833250284194946, -0.026974333450198174, 0.018951570615172386, 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28,"Meteoroids , meteors and dust Solid objects smaller than one meter are usually called meteoroids and micrometeoroids ( grain-sized ) , with the exact division between the two categories being debated over the years .By 2017, the IAU designated any solid object having a diameter between ~30 micrometers and 1 meter as meteoroids, and depreciated the micrometeoroid categorization, instead terms smaller particles simply as 'dust particles'. Some meteoroids formed via disintegration of comets and asteroids, while a few formed via impact debris ejected from planetary bodies. Most meteoroids are made of silicates and heavier metals like nickel and iron. When passing through the Solar System, comets produce a trail of meteoroids; it is hypothesized that this is caused either by vaporization of the comet's material or by simple breakup of dormant comets. When crossing an atmosphere, these meteoroids will produce bright streaks in the sky due to atmospheric entry, called meteors. If a stream of meteoroids enter the atmosphere on parallel trajectories, the meteors will seemingly 'radiate' from a point in the sky, hence the phenomenon's name: meteor shower. The inner Solar System is home to the zodiacal dust cloud, which is visible as the hazy zodiacal light in dark, unpolluted skies. It may be generated by collisions within the asteroid belt brought on by gravitational interactions with the planets; a more recent proposed origin is materials from planet Mars. The outer Solar System hosts a cosmic dust cloud. It extends from about 10 AU to about 40 AU, and was probably created by collisions within the Kuiper belt. Comets
Comets are small Solar System bodies, typically only a few kilometers across, composed largely of volatile ices. They have highly eccentric orbits, generally a perihelion within the orbits of the inner planets and an aphelion far beyond Pluto.","[0.0018816072260960937, 0.0015365155413746834, 0.12397141009569168, 0.03077506087720394, 0.08613286167383194, -0.050858575850725174, 0.07429297268390656, 0.050036557018756866, 0.027276240289211273, 0.025880243629217148, -0.055854298174381256, -0.08669377118349075, -0.00781499408185482, -0.057623352855443954, 0.05578252673149109, -0.011570528149604797, 0.09266592562198639, -0.015948932617902756, 0.020235801115632057, 0.06473927199840546, 0.03763538971543312, 0.039476487785577774, -0.14891207218170166, 0.023191872984170914, 0.028998959809541702, 0.11188963800668716, -0.012986007146537304, -0.026993198320269585, -0.04566092789173126, 0.01766570471227169, 0.03030756302177906, -0.0017162824515253305, -0.02067549340426922, 0.01968347653746605, 0.06774309277534485, 0.014167876914143562, -0.0070384182035923, 0.044009897857904434, -0.041985884308815, 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29,"only a few kilometers across , composed largely of volatile ices . They have highly eccentric orbits , generally a perihelion within the orbits of the inner planets and an aphelion far beyond Pluto .When a comet enters the inner Solar System, its proximity to the Sun causes its icy surface to sublimate and ionise, creating a coma: a long tail of gas and dust often visible to the naked eye. Short-period comets have orbits lasting less than two hundred years. Long-period comets have orbits lasting thousands of years. Short-period comets are thought to originate in the Kuiper belt, whereas long-period comets, such as Hale–Bopp, are thought to originate in the Oort cloud. Many comet groups, such as the Kreutz sungrazers, formed from the breakup of a single parent. Some comets with hyperbolic orbits may originate outside the Solar System, but determining their precise orbits is difficult. Old comets whose volatiles have mostly been driven out by solar warming are often categorized as asteroids. Boundary region and uncertainties
Much of the outer reaches of the Solar System is still unknown. The region beyond 100 AU away is virtually unexplored and learning about this region of space is difficult. Study of this region depends upon inferences from those few objects whose orbits happen to be perturbed such that they fall closer to the Sun, and even then, detecting these objects has often been possible only when they happened to become bright enough to register as comets. Many objects are yet to be discovered in the Solar System's outer region. The Sun's gravitational sphere of influence is estimated to dominate over the gravitational forces of surrounding stars out to about two light-years (125,000 AU).","[0.004952621646225452, -0.0007577156065963209, 0.036887623369693756, -0.008561118505895138, 0.06345714628696442, -0.038438357412815094, -0.02217576839029789, 0.05487844720482826, 0.07830461859703064, 0.046257197856903076, 0.01182046439498663, -0.00016616460925433785, 0.009468006901443005, -0.13201530277729034, 0.08302018791437149, -0.059949636459350586, 0.05646878853440285, -0.11313847452402115, 0.005508455913513899, -0.002520131878554821, 0.018442528322339058, -0.0018733161268755794, -0.054348282516002655, 0.011113785207271576, -0.023642778396606445, 0.046451933681964874, 0.014915850013494492, -0.0264151431620121, 0.0157389547675848, -0.03405380994081497, 0.02333437092602253, 0.04449497535824776, 0.01916239969432354, -0.020720556378364563, 0.09368746727705002, 0.049440305680036545, -0.007890651002526283, 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30,"the Solar System 's outer region . The Sun 's gravitational sphere of influence is estimated to dominate over the gravitational forces of surrounding stars out to about two light-years ( 125,000 AU ) .The Sun's Hill sphere, its gravitational potential reaching the galactic potential, the potential of the galactic nucleus, the effective range of its gravitational influence, is thought to encompass the Oort cloud, and extend to up to 230,000 AU from the Sun. The boundaries of the heliosphere and of the Hill sphere, the Sun's gravitational potential in respect to the interstellar medium and the galactic gravitational potential, at the edge of the Oort cloud, represent the boundaries of the Solar System with the galactic environment it is in. Edge of the heliosphere
The Sun's stellar-wind bubble, the heliosphere, a region of space dominated by the Sun, has its boundary at the termination shock. Based on the Sun's peculiar motion relative to the local standard of rest, this boundary is roughly 80–100 AU from the Sun upwind of the interstellar medium and roughly 200 AU from the Sun downwind. Here the solar wind collides with the interstellar medium and dramatically slows, condenses and becomes more turbulent, forming a great oval structure known as the heliosheath. The heliosheath has been theorized to look and behave very much like a comet's tail, extending outward for a further 40 AU on the upwind side but tailing many times that distance downwind to possibly several thousands of AU. Evidence from the Cassini and Interstellar Boundary Explorer spacecraft has suggested that it is forced into a bubble shape by the constraining action of the interstellar magnetic field, but the actual shape remains unknown. The shape and form of the outer edge of the heliosphere is likely affected by the fluid dynamics of interactions with the interstellar medium as well as solar magnetic fields prevailing to the south, e.g.","[-0.011154408566653728, 0.07109695672988892, 0.0022175339981913567, 0.039410047233104706, 0.053646817803382874, -0.013407254591584206, -0.03494763374328613, 0.06785247474908829, 0.08690983057022095, -0.06686671078205109, -0.07123657315969467, -0.021573932841420174, -0.025505460798740387, -0.06679629534482956, 0.0985294058918953, -0.02887720800936222, 0.10026915371417999, -0.08854082226753235, -0.004921312909573317, 0.010323546826839447, 0.021699607372283936, 0.021840045228600502, -0.027148412540555, 0.018998384475708008, 0.005850658752024174, -0.03266918286681175, -0.06815247982740402, 0.027720250189304352, -0.05176808685064316, -0.057058174163103104, 0.07278873026371002, -0.010375875979661942, -0.02098280005156994, 0.056937430053949356, 0.021286211907863617, 0.02544436976313591, 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31,"and form of the outer edge of the heliosphere is likely affected by the fluid dynamics of interactions with the interstellar medium as well as solar magnetic fields prevailing to the south , e.g .it is bluntly shaped with the northern hemisphere extending 9 AU farther than the southern hemisphere. The heliopause is considered the beginning of the interstellar medium. Beyond the heliopause, at around 230 AU, lies the bow shock: a plasma ""wake"" left by the Sun as it travels through the Milky Way. Large objects outside the heliopause remain gravitationally bound to the Sun, but the flow of matter in the interstellar medium homogenizes the distribution of micro-scale objects. Celestial neighborhood
Within 10 light-years of the Sun there are relatively few stars, the closest being the triple star system Alpha Centauri, which is about 4.4 light-years away and may be in the Local Bubble's G-Cloud. Alpha Centauri A and B are a closely tied pair of Sun-like stars, whereas the closest star to the Sun, the small red dwarf Proxima Centauri, orbits the pair at a distance of 0.2 light-years. In 2016, a potentially habitable exoplanet was found to be orbiting Proxima Centauri, called Proxima Centauri b, the closest confirmed exoplanet to the Sun. The Solar System is surrounded by the Local Interstellar Cloud, although it is not clear if it is embedded in the Local Interstellar Cloud or if it lies just outside the cloud's edge. Multiple other interstellar clouds exist in the region within 300 light-years of the Sun, known as the Local Bubble. The latter feature is an hourglass-shaped cavity or superbubble in the interstellar medium roughly 300 light-years across. The bubble is suffused with high-temperature plasma, suggesting that it may be the product of several recent supernovae.","[0.0012282112147659063, -0.0269280094653368, -0.007086398079991341, 0.016625428572297096, 0.028288351371884346, -0.018667466938495636, -0.021748250350356102, 0.017050405964255333, -0.00030996851273812354, -0.0368732251226902, -0.05524374172091484, -0.04905098304152489, -0.0438607856631279, -0.02328372374176979, 0.06743832677602768, -0.04190907999873161, 0.044514238834381104, -0.11585590243339539, 0.007016986142843962, 0.01084707397967577, -0.04279940947890282, -0.0017359674675390124, -0.05046316608786583, 0.03671077638864517, 0.00851131696254015, 0.0027152260299772024, -0.024949774146080017, -0.04121682420372963, -0.06885343790054321, -0.028526855632662773, 0.036113590002059937, -0.021516654640436172, -0.06544975936412811, 0.020459206774830818, 0.022250112146139145, 0.012340562418103218, 0.03566250577569008, 0.0065766312181949615, 0.004587714094668627, 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32,"is an hourglass-shaped cavity or superbubble in the interstellar medium roughly 300 light-years across . The bubble is suffused with high-temperature plasma , suggesting that it may be the product of several recent supernovae .The Local Bubble is a small superbubble compared to the neighboring wider Radcliffe Wave and Split linear structures (formerly Gould Belt), each of which are some thousands of light-years in length. All these structures are part of the Orion Arm, which contains most of the stars in the Milky Way that are visible to the unaided eye. Groups of stars form together in star clusters, before dissolving into co-moving associations. A prominent grouping that is visible to the naked eye is the Ursa Major moving group, which is around 80 light-years away within the Local Bubble. The nearest star cluster is Hyades, which lies at the edge of the Local Bubble. The closest star-forming regions are the Corona Australis Molecular Cloud, the Rho Ophiuchi cloud complex and the Taurus molecular cloud; the latter lies just beyond the Local Bubble and is part of the Radcliffe wave. Stellar flybys that pass within 0.8 light-years of the Sun occur roughly once every 100,000 years. The closest well-measured approach was Scholz's Star, which approached to ~50,000 AU of the Sun some ~70 thousands years ago, likely passing through the outer Oort cloud. There is a 1% chance every billion years that a star will pass within 100 AU of the Sun, potentially disrupting the Solar System. Galactic position
The Solar System is located in the Milky Way, a barred spiral galaxy with a diameter of about 100,000 light-years containing more than 100 billion stars. The Sun is part of one of the Milky Way's outer spiral arms, known as the Orion–Cygnus Arm or Local Spur. 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33,"the Milky Way 's outer spiral arms , known as the Orion–Cygnus Arm or Local Spur . It is a member of the thin disk population of stars orbiting close to the galactic plane .Its speed around the center of the Milky Way is about 220 km/s, so that it completes one revolution every 240 million years. This revolution is known as the Solar System's galactic year. The solar apex, the direction of the Sun's path through interstellar space, is near the constellation Hercules in the direction of the current location of the bright star Vega. The plane of the ecliptic lies at an angle of about 60° to the galactic plane. The Sun follows a nearly circular orbit around the Galactic Center (where the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* resides) at a distance of 26,660 light-years, orbiting at roughly the same speed as that of the spiral arms. If it orbited close to the center, gravitational tugs from nearby stars could perturb bodies in the Oort cloud and send many comets into the inner Solar System, producing collisions with potentially catastrophic implications for life on Earth. In this scenario, the intense radiation of the Galactic Center could interfere with the development of complex life. The Solar System's location in the Milky Way is a factor in the evolutionary history of life on Earth. Spiral arms are home to a far larger concentration of supernovae, gravitational instabilities, and radiation that could disrupt the Solar System, but since Earth stays in the Local Spur and therefore does not pass frequently through spiral arms, this has given Earth long periods of stability for life to evolve. However, according to the controversial Shiva hypothesis, the changing position of the Solar System relative to other parts of the Milky Way could explain periodic extinction events on Earth. Discovery and exploration
Humanity's knowledge of the Solar System has grown incrementally over the centuries.","[-0.03121953085064888, -0.019187385216355324, -0.024306509643793106, 0.02577158808708191, -0.05051562562584877, -0.0666552186012268, -0.08479803800582886, 0.05872029438614845, 0.09522870182991028, -0.03566119819879532, 0.021819474175572395, 0.01733401045203209, 0.011915702372789383, -0.0669822096824646, 0.04776972532272339, -0.0663677528500557, 0.045414093881845474, -0.11371771991252899, 0.049284979701042175, 0.09708726406097412, 0.041061922907829285, 0.020145976915955544, -0.04523110389709473, 0.09406936168670654, -0.01637805812060833, -0.04808305576443672, -0.0017086376901715994, -0.0642031654715538, -0.0675210952758789, -0.039471615105867386, 0.04992326721549034, 0.04663631692528725, -0.1188819482922554, 0.04430784285068512, -0.013463427312672138, -0.0022701763082295656, 0.02820923924446106, -0.04131156578660011, 0.08418407291173935, -0.04715133085846901, 0.029449334368109703, -0.0140851940959692, 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34,"Solar System relative to other parts of the Milky Way could explain periodic extinction events on Earth . Discovery and exploration Humanity 's knowledge of the Solar System has grown incrementally over the centuries .Up to the Late Middle Ages–Renaissance, astronomers from Europe to India believed Earth to be stationary at the center of the universe and categorically different from the divine or ethereal objects that moved through the sky. Although the Greek philosopher Aristarchus of Samos had speculated on a heliocentric reordering of the cosmos, Nicolaus Copernicus was the first person known to have developed a mathematically predictive heliocentric system. Heliocentrism did not triumph immediately over geocentrism, but the work of Copernicus had its champions, notably Johannes Kepler. Using a heliocentric model that improved upon Copernicus by allowing orbits to be elliptical, and the precise observational data of Tycho Brahe, Kepler produced the Rudolphine Tables, which enabled accurate computations of the positions of the then-known planets. Pierre Gassendi used them to predict a transit of Mercury in 1631, and Jeremiah Horrocks did the same for a transit of Venus in 1639. This provided a strong vindication of heliocentrism and Kepler's elliptical orbits. In the 17th century, Galileo publicized the use of the telescope in astronomy; he and Simon Marius independently discovered that Jupiter had four satellites in orbit around it. Christiaan Huygens followed on from these observations by discovering Saturn's moon Titan and the shape of the rings of Saturn. In 1677, Edmond Halley observed a transit of Mercury across the Sun, leading him to realize that observations of the solar parallax of a planet (more ideally using the transit of Venus) could be used to trigonometrically determine the distances between Earth, Venus, and the Sun.","[-0.017826100811362267, -0.021227942779660225, -0.07025144249200821, 0.014027337543666363, 0.0028077405877411366, -0.035406455397605896, -0.009757271967828274, 0.04716898873448372, -0.013827436603605747, 0.0314926914870739, -0.02796456404030323, 0.019811274483799934, 0.04402676597237587, 0.01364021748304367, -0.057731758803129196, -0.07055389136075974, -0.03705427050590515, 0.012366747483611107, 0.033876217901706696, -0.010371308773756027, -0.12474456429481506, -0.010553386062383652, -0.054390259087085724, 0.06052342429757118, 0.04887612164020538, 0.03902372717857361, -0.032738666981458664, -0.05827359855175018, -0.059227149933576584, 0.03688471019268036, 0.03472152724862099, -0.0378117635846138, 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35,"that observations of the solar parallax of a planet ( more ideally using the transit of Venus ) could be used to trigonometrically determine the distances between Earth , Venus , and the Sun .Halley's friend Isaac Newton, in his magisterial Principia Mathematica of 1687, demonstrated that celestial bodies are not quintessentially different from Earthly ones: the same laws of motion and of gravity apply on Earth and in the skies. The term ""Solar System"" entered the English language by 1704, when John Locke used it to refer to the Sun, planets, and comets. In 1705, Halley realized that repeated sightings of a comet were of the same object, returning regularly once every 75–76 years. This was the first evidence that anything other than the planets repeatedly orbited the Sun, though Seneca had theorized this about comets in the 1st century. Careful observations of the 1769 transit of Venus allowed astronomers to calculate the average Earth–Sun distance as 93,726,900 miles (150,838,800 km), only 0.8% greater than the modern value. Uranus, having occasionally been observed since 1690 and possibly from antiquity, was recognized to be a planet orbiting beyond Saturn by 1783. In 1838, Friedrich Bessel successfully measured a stellar parallax, an apparent shift in the position of a star created by Earth's motion around the Sun, providing the first direct, experimental proof of heliocentrism. Neptune was identified as a planet some years later, in 1846, thanks to its gravitational pull causing a slight but detectable variation in the orbit of Uranus. Mercury's orbital anomaly observations led to searches for Vulcan, a planet interior of Mercury, but these attempts were quashed with Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity in 1915. In the 20th century, humans began their space exploration around the Solar System, starting with placing telescopes in space since the 1960s.","[-0.023820096626877785, -0.06478945910930634, -0.02604108676314354, -0.0024524517357349396, -0.02289009280502796, -0.03309610113501549, -0.004814664833247662, 0.07934916764497757, -0.004130733665078878, 0.05819780379533768, -0.006360421422868967, 0.04131880775094032, 0.038169704377651215, -0.014156314544379711, 0.004598723724484444, -0.02349763922393322, 0.01798473671078682, -0.006911896634846926, 0.019541895017027855, 0.017318030819296837, 0.023929378017783165, 0.012571035884320736, -0.018167555332183838, 0.011809177696704865, 0.06286198645830154, 0.05797747150063515, -0.01090353075414896, -0.03661919757723808, -0.022501738741993904, 0.039210960268974304, -0.0005747450049966574, 0.004332748707383871, 0.025349635630846024, -0.027949029579758644, -0.027951208874583244, 0.03751754388213158, 0.04401316121220589, -0.09439840167760849, 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36,"Albert Einstein 's theory of general relativity in 1915 . In the 20th century , humans began their space exploration around the Solar System , starting with placing telescopes in space since the 1960s .By 1989, all eight planets have been visited by space probes. Probes have returned samples from comets and asteroids, as well as flown through the Sun's corona and visited two dwarf planets (Pluto and Ceres). To save on fuel, some space missions make use of gravity assist maneuvers, such as the two Voyager probes accelerating when flying by planets in the outer Solar System and the Parker Solar Probe decelerating closer towards the Sun after its flyby of Venus. Humans have landed on the Moon during the Apollo program in the 1960s and 1970s and will return to the Moon in the 2020s with the Artemis program. Discoveries in the 20th and 21st century has prompted the redefinition of the term planet in 2006, hence the demotion of Pluto to a dwarf planet, and further interest in trans-Neptunian objects. See also
Interplanetary spaceflight – Crewed or uncrewed travel between stars or planets
List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System
List of Solar System extremes
List of Solar System objects by size – Largest objects of the Solar System
Lists of geological features of the Solar System – Directory of lists of geological features on asteroids, moons and planets other than Earth
Outline of the Solar System – Overview of and topical guide to the Solar System
Planetary mnemonic – Phrase used to remember the planets of the Solar System
Solar System in fiction

Notes
References
Data sources
Other sources
External links

""Solar System"" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 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37,"Solar System Solar System in fiction Notes References Data sources Other sources External links '' Solar System '' . Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol . 25 ( 11th ed. ) . 1911. pp . 157–158 .If the Moon were only 1 Pixel: A Tediously Accurate Map of the Solar System (web based scroll map scaled to the Moon being 1 pixel)
NASA's Eyes on the Solar System
NASA's Solar System Exploration
NASA's Solar System Simulator","[-0.06559952348470688, -0.0049904100596904755, 0.022033097222447395, 0.00370707456022501, 0.025845497846603394, -0.0784531906247139, 0.01061776652932167, 0.039990104734897614, 0.024352822452783585, 0.04895421117544174, 0.041251614689826965, 0.004787658341228962, 0.07081583887338638, -0.10596858710050583, -0.0476517453789711, -0.02084011770784855, -0.006539394147694111, 0.052250999957323074, 0.056587543338537216, 0.02218223735690117, 0.04675311967730522, -0.022530917078256607, -0.009694644249975681, 0.002409398788586259, 0.05988435819745064, 0.05528790503740311, -0.06127972900867462, -0.05390600115060806, -0.08155135065317154, 0.00232300185598433, -0.09060733020305634, 0.1380763202905655, 0.01669035665690899, -0.026363588869571686, 0.04756006971001625, 0.01104927808046341, 0.04064568877220154, -0.004945152439177036, 0.04534321650862694, 0.021756164729595184, 0.010687512345612049, -0.019241617992520332, 0.05838635936379433, 0.05109143629670143, 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38," The Sun is the star at the centre of the Solar System. It is a massive, nearly perfect sphere of hot plasma, heated to incandescence by nuclear fusion reactions in its core, radiating the energy from its surface mainly as visible light and infrared radiation with 10% at ultraviolet energies. It is the main source of energy for life on Earth. The Sun has been an object of veneration in many cultures and a central subject for astronomical research since antiquity. The Sun orbits the Galactic Center at a distance of 24,000 to 28,000 light-years. Its mean distance from Earth is about 1.496×108 kilometres or about 8 light-minutes. The distance between the Sun and the Earth was used to define a unit of length called the astronomical unit, now defined to be 149.5978707×106 kilometres. Its diameter is about 1,391,400 km (864,600 mi), 109 times that of Earth. The Sun's mass is about 330,000 times that of Earth, making up about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System. The mass of the Sun's surface layer, its photosphere, consists mostly of hydrogen (~73%) and helium (~25%), with much smaller quantities of heavier elements, including oxygen, carbon, neon, and iron. The Sun is a G-type main-sequence star (G2V), informally called a yellow dwarf, though its light is actually white. It formed approximately 4.6 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of matter within a region of a large molecular cloud. Most of this matter gathered in the centre; the rest flattened into an orbiting disk that became the Solar System. The central mass became so hot and dense that it eventually initiated nuclear fusion in its core. Every second, the Sun's core fuses about 600 billion kilograms (kg) of hydrogen into helium and converts 4 billion kilograms of matter into energy.","[0.024979284033179283, 0.07662690430879593, -0.019982820376753807, 0.02861853502690792, 0.03496408462524414, 0.014947453513741493, 0.047615937888622284, 0.05504567176103592, 0.04153069853782654, -0.01613728329539299, -0.011002649553120136, -0.09376505762338638, 0.023341665044426918, -0.022644473239779472, 0.08122655749320984, -0.06340767443180084, 0.07592521607875824, -0.07310840487480164, -0.03132333606481552, 0.01330963522195816, -0.0005288750398904085, 0.03451227396726608, -0.004661239683628082, 0.01268604677170515, 0.041586849838495255, 0.004570811986923218, -0.03278570622205734, -0.015896208584308624, -0.10043143481016159, 0.045972567051649094, 0.014939355663955212, -0.025674277916550636, 0.07116730511188507, 0.017934538424015045, -0.00544470502063632, 0.01870550960302353, 0.02051299810409546, -0.06577291339635849, 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39,"nuclear fusion in its core . Every second , the Sun 's core fuses about 600 billion kilograms ( kg ) of hydrogen into helium and converts 4 billion kilograms of matter into energy .About 4 to 7 billion years from now, when hydrogen fusion in the Sun's core diminishes to the point where the Sun is no longer in hydrostatic equilibrium, its core will undergo a marked increase in density and temperature which will cause its outer layers to expand, eventually transforming the Sun into a red giant. After the red giant phase, models suggest the Sun will shed its outer layers and become a dense type of cooling star (a white dwarf), and no longer produce energy by fusion, but will still glow and give off heat from its previous fusion for perhaps trillions of years. After that, it is theorised to become a super dense black dwarf, giving off negligible energy. Etymology
The English word sun developed from Old English sunne. Cognates appear in other Germanic languages, including West Frisian sinne, Dutch zon, Low German Sünn, Standard German Sonne, Bavarian Sunna, Old Norse sunna, and Gothic sunnō. All these words stem from Proto-Germanic *sunnōn. This is ultimately related to the word for sun in other branches of the Indo-European language family, though in most cases a nominative stem with an l is found, rather than the genitive stem in n, as for example in Latin sōl, ancient Greek ἥλιος (hēlios), Welsh haul and Czech slunce, as well as (with *l > r) Sanskrit स्वर् (svár) and Persian خور (xvar).","[-0.04016772285103798, 0.03721051663160324, -0.02649596892297268, 0.13143646717071533, 0.019101273268461227, -0.04976862296462059, 0.0057058497332036495, -0.0030543231405317783, 0.005654249805957079, -0.023354746401309967, 0.0023482078686356544, -0.04217886924743652, 0.0030252125579863787, -0.06311970204114914, 0.02982352115213871, -0.012672041542828083, 0.03506983816623688, -0.03321333974599838, -0.018935242667794228, -0.06520072370767593, 0.015309680253267288, -0.042172905057668686, -0.03876243531703949, -0.044645946472883224, 0.07136006653308868, 0.0049780067056417465, -0.06478935480117798, -0.056852616369724274, 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40,"ancient Greek ἥλιος ( hēlios ) , Welsh haul and Czech slunce , as well as ( with * l > r ) Sanskrit स्वर् ( svár ) and Persian خور ( xvar ) .Indeed, the l-stem survived in Proto-Germanic as well, as *sōwelan, which gave rise to Gothic sauil (alongside sunnō) and Old Norse prosaic sól (alongside poetic sunna), and through it the words for sun in the modern Scandinavian languages: Swedish and Danish sol, Icelandic sól, etc. The principal adjectives for the Sun in English are sunny for sunlight and, in technical contexts, solar (), from Latin sol. From the Greek helios comes the rare adjective heliac (). In English, the Greek and Latin words occur in poetry as personifications of the Sun, Helios () and Sol (), while in science fiction Sol may be used to distinguish the Sun from other stars. The term sol with a lowercase s is used by planetary astronomers for the duration of a solar day on another planet such as Mars. The astronomical symbol for the Sun is a circle with a central dot: ☉. It is used for such units as M☉ (Solar mass), R☉ (Solar radius) and L☉ (Solar luminosity). The scientific study of the Sun is called heliology. General characteristics
The Sun is a G-type main-sequence star that makes up about 99.86% of the mass of the Solar System. It has an absolute magnitude of +4.83, estimated to be brighter than about 85% of the stars in the Milky Way, most of which are red dwarfs. It is more massive than 95% of the stars within 7 pc (23 ly). 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41,"which are red dwarfs . It is more massive than 95 % of the stars within 7 pc ( 23 ly ) . The Sun is a Population I , or heavy-element-rich , star .Its formation approximately 4.6 billion years ago may have been triggered by shockwaves from one or more nearby supernovae. This is suggested by a high abundance of heavy elements in the Solar System, such as gold and uranium, relative to the abundances of these elements in so-called Population II, heavy-element-poor, stars. The heavy elements could most plausibly have been produced by endothermic nuclear reactions during a supernova, or by transmutation through neutron absorption within a massive second-generation star. The Sun is by far the brightest object in the Earth's sky, with an apparent magnitude of −26.74. This is just less than 13 billion times brighter than the next brightest star, Sirius, which has an apparent magnitude of −1.46. One astronomical unit (about 150 million kilometres; 93 million miles) (au) was originally defined as the mean distance between the centres of the Sun and the Earth. The instantaneous distance varies by about ±2.5 million kilometres (1.6 million miles) as Earth moves from perihelion around 3 January to aphelion around 4 July. At its average distance, light travels from the Sun's horizon to Earth's horizon in about 8 minutes and 20 seconds, while light from the closest points of the Sun and Earth takes about two seconds less. In 2012 the au was defined to be 149,597,870,700 m.
The energy of this sunlight supports almost all life on Earth by photosynthesis, and drives Earth's climate and weather. The Sun does not have a definite boundary, but its density decreases exponentially with increasing height above the photosphere.","[0.03616682440042496, -0.05045409873127937, -0.0053806123323738575, 0.13681374490261078, 0.02517014369368553, -0.07958616316318512, 0.014423884451389313, 0.05623859912157059, 0.01219151634722948, -0.019039643928408623, -0.05567077547311783, -0.06213100999593735, 0.029629571363329887, -0.06216855347156525, 0.04622156545519829, -0.056195396929979324, 0.07132546603679657, -0.1203697919845581, -0.013040469959378242, 0.046128422021865845, 0.028797974810004234, 0.014947582967579365, -0.04326942563056946, 0.030034948140382767, 0.05046943575143814, -0.023571347817778587, -0.030030563473701477, -0.03391403704881668, -0.004392014816403389, -0.02700134366750717, 0.027099255472421646, 0.013124844059348106, 0.054595429450273514, 0.008110949769616127, -0.060019973665475845, 0.047194018959999084, 0.0009886209154501557, -0.03368691727519035, -0.08538088947534561, 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0.034841328859329224]",Sun,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.
42,"life on Earth by photosynthesis , and drives Earth 's climate and weather . The Sun does not have a definite boundary , but its density decreases exponentially with increasing height above the photosphere .For the purpose of measurement, the Sun's radius is considered to be the distance from its centre to the edge of the photosphere, the apparent visible surface of the Sun. The roundness of the Sun is the relative difference between its radius at its equator, 
  
    
      
        
          R
          
            
              eq
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle R_{\textrm {eq}}}
  
, and at its pole, 
  
    
      
        
          R
          
            
              pol
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle R_{\textrm {pol}}}
  
, called the oblateness,

  
    
      
        
          Δ
          
            ⊙
          
        
        =
        (
        
          R
          
            
              eq
            
          
        
        −
        
          R
          
            
              pol
            
          
        
        )
        
          /
        
        
          R
          
            
              pol
            
          
        
        . {\displaystyle \Delta _{\odot }=(R_{\textrm {eq}}-R_{\textrm {pol}})/R_{\textrm {pol}}.} The value is difficult to measure. Atmospheric distortion means the measurement must be done on satellites; the value is very small meaning very precise technique is needed. The oblateness was once proposed to be sufficient to explain the perihelion precession of Mercury but Einstein proposed that general relativity could explain the precession using a spherical Sun. When high precision measurements of the oblateness became available via the Solar Dynamics Observatory and the
Picard satellite the measured value was even smaller than expected, 8.2×10−6, or 8 parts per million. These measurements determined the Sun to be the natural object closest to a perfect sphere ever observed. The oblateness value remains constant independent of solar irradiation changes. The tidal effect of the planets is weak and does not significantly affect the shape of the Sun. Rotation
The Sun rotates faster at its equator than at its poles. This differential rotation is caused by convective motion due to heat transport and the Coriolis force due to the Sun's rotation.","[-0.05193118378520012, 0.09649576991796494, -0.01848127506673336, -0.012526575475931168, 0.035908669233322144, -0.08558394014835358, 0.04006308689713478, 0.07322832942008972, 0.06796872615814209, 0.0016778470017015934, 0.036955758929252625, -0.06560485064983368, 0.021472828462719917, 0.047963641583919525, 0.05567061901092529, -0.08517897874116898, -0.016353128477931023, 0.02162497490644455, -0.05250212177634239, 0.00690100435167551, 0.010048504918813705, 0.027058057487010956, -0.020347101613879204, 0.043249089270830154, -0.03481202572584152, 0.0034817580599337816, -0.0940435603260994, -0.01620982028543949, 0.01085909828543663, 0.02064281329512596, -0.00989022757858038, 0.04231080785393715, 0.022610938176512718, -0.018146401271224022, 0.008340660482645035, 0.012816217727959156, 0.0842880979180336, -0.07189245522022247, -0.02039908803999424, 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43,"The Sun rotates faster at its equator than at its poles . This differential rotation is caused by convective motion due to heat transport and the Coriolis force due to the Sun 's rotation .In a frame of reference defined by the stars, the rotational period is approximately 25.6 days at the equator and 33.5 days at the poles. Viewed from Earth as it orbits the Sun, the apparent rotational period of the Sun at its equator is about 28 days. Viewed from a vantage point above its north pole, the Sun rotates counterclockwise around its axis of spin. A survey of solar analogues suggests the early Sun was rotating up to ten times faster than it does today. This would have made the surface much more active, with greater X-ray and UV emission. Sunspots would have covered 5%–30% of the surface. The rotation rate was gradually slowed by magnetic braking, as the Sun's magnetic field interacted with the outflowing solar wind. A vestige of this rapid primordial rotation still survives at the Sun's core, which rotates at a rate of once per week; four times the mean surface rotation rate. Composition
The Sun consists mainly of the elements hydrogen and helium. At this time in the Sun's life, they account for 74.9% and 23.8%, respectively, of the mass of the Sun in the photosphere. All heavier elements, called metals in astronomy, account for less than 2% of the mass, with oxygen (roughly 1% of the Sun's mass), carbon (0.3%), neon (0.2%), and iron (0.2%) being the most abundant. The Sun's original chemical composition was inherited from the interstellar medium out of which it formed. Originally it would have been about 71.1% hydrogen, 27.4% helium, and 1.5% heavier elements.","[-0.0029471542220562696, 0.05531785637140274, 0.049042508006095886, -0.001704619382508099, 0.09076759964227676, -0.02612876333296299, -0.018529510125517845, -0.013603633269667625, 0.05276118591427803, -0.003075661603361368, 0.007389504462480545, 0.04013986885547638, 0.068991519510746, -0.03434918448328972, 0.10452288389205933, -0.02495971880853176, -0.012926727533340454, 0.008597367443144321, 0.030225899070501328, 0.020885152742266655, -0.05261721834540367, -0.01866532489657402, -0.034831274300813675, 0.018183335661888123, -0.03248635306954384, 0.04265456274151802, -0.1083279550075531, -0.05842198431491852, -0.05839945375919342, -0.013476484455168247, -0.03160636126995087, 0.05098502337932587, -0.02549831196665764, 0.04270409792661667, -0.07636839896440506, -0.024117078632116318, 0.00211977306753397, -0.062197890132665634, -0.015918133780360222, -0.023500004783272743, -0.001523186219856143, 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44,"original chemical composition was inherited from the interstellar medium out of which it formed . Originally it would have been about 71.1 % hydrogen , 27.4 % helium , and 1.5 % heavier elements .The hydrogen and most of the helium in the Sun would have been produced by Big Bang nucleosynthesis in the first 20 minutes of the universe, and the heavier elements were produced by previous generations of stars before the Sun was formed, and spread into the interstellar medium during the final stages of stellar life and by events such as supernovae. Since the Sun formed, the main fusion process has involved fusing hydrogen into helium. Over the past 4.6 billion years, the amount of helium and its location within the Sun has gradually changed. The proportion of helium within the core has increased from about 24% to about 60% due to fusion, and some of the helium and heavy elements have settled from the photosphere toward the centre of the Sun because of gravity. The proportions of heavier elements are unchanged. Heat is transferred outward from the Sun's core by radiation rather than by convection (see Radiative zone below), so the fusion products are not lifted outward by heat; they remain in the core, and gradually an inner core of helium has begun to form that cannot be fused because presently the Sun's core is not hot or dense enough to fuse helium. In the current photosphere, the helium fraction is reduced, and the metallicity is only 84% of what it was in the protostellar phase (before nuclear fusion in the core started). In the future, helium will continue to accumulate in the core, and in about 5 billion years this gradual build-up will eventually cause the Sun to exit the main sequence and become a red giant.","[-0.043685391545295715, 0.030850563198328018, 0.0242009237408638, 0.10624346137046814, 0.06939443200826645, 0.007676869630813599, -0.008122860454022884, 0.0017002868698909879, -0.04419844597578049, 0.009236251004040241, -0.010240125469863415, -0.05173339322209358, 0.005748918745666742, -0.07659249007701874, 0.06653138995170593, -0.025628283619880676, 0.037588126957416534, -0.08081883192062378, -0.047940511256456375, -0.056428030133247375, -0.0439392514526844, -0.04136695712804794, 0.003985213115811348, -0.046129968017339706, 0.054589610546827316, 0.026263345032930374, -0.05092790350317955, -0.03478050231933594, 0.03293675556778908, -0.006458749994635582, 0.007143320050090551, -0.0011818063212558627, 0.02699350379407406, 0.024492748081684113, 0.014938817359507084, 0.008930129930377007, 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45,", helium will continue to accumulate in the core , and in about 5 billion years this gradual build-up will eventually cause the Sun to exit the main sequence and become a red giant .The chemical composition of the photosphere is normally considered representative of the composition of the primordial Solar System. Typically, the solar heavy-element abundances described above are measured both by using spectroscopy of the Sun's photosphere and by measuring abundances in meteorites that have never been heated to melting temperatures. These meteorites are thought to retain the composition of the protostellar Sun and are thus not affected by the settling of heavy elements. The two methods generally agree well. Structure
Core
The core of the Sun extends from the centre to about 20–25% of the solar radius. It has a density of up to 150 g/cm3 (about 150 times the density of water) and a temperature of close to 15.7 million kelvin (K). By contrast, the Sun's surface temperature is about 5800 K. Recent analysis of SOHO mission data favours the idea that the core is rotating faster than the radiative zone outside it. Through most of the Sun's life, energy has been produced by nuclear fusion in the core region through the proton–proton chain; this process converts hydrogen into helium. Currently, 0.8% of the energy generated in the Sun comes from another sequence of fusion reactions called the CNO cycle; the proportion coming from the CNO cycle is expected to increase as the Sun becomes older and more luminous. The core is the only region of the Sun that produces an appreciable amount of thermal energy through fusion; 99% of the Sun's power is generated in the innermost 24% of its radius, and almost no fusion occurs beyond 30% of the radius.","[-0.024319518357515335, 0.01809406653046608, 0.010609068907797337, 0.06669628620147705, 0.0739581435918808, -0.025396941229701042, 0.01190942618995905, 0.04177512228488922, -0.019850995391607285, 0.03653361275792122, -0.046643733978271484, -0.0669323205947876, 0.015673136338591576, -0.04961281642317772, 0.08071549236774445, -0.020618624985218048, 0.06406942009925842, -0.06507182121276855, 0.03073161095380783, -0.002241260139271617, -0.062353651970624924, -0.02909846417605877, -0.04005937650799751, -0.014322253875434399, 0.01005826611071825, 0.04475438594818115, -0.06865521520376205, -0.04483802616596222, -0.041438762098550797, 0.038004789501428604, -0.0015336415963247418, 0.008078922517597675, 0.05777163431048393, 0.03790940344333649, 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46,"thermal energy through fusion ; 99 % of the Sun 's power is generated in the innermost 24 % of its radius , and almost no fusion occurs beyond 30 % of the radius .The rest of the Sun is heated by this energy as it is transferred outward through many successive layers, finally to the solar photosphere where it escapes into space through radiation (photons) or advection (massive particles). The proton–proton chain occurs around 9.2×1037 times each second in the core, converting about 3.7×1038 protons into alpha particles (helium nuclei) every second (out of a total of ~8.9×1056 free protons in the Sun), or about 6.2×1011 kg/s. However, each proton (on average) takes around 9 billion years to fuse with another using the PP chain. Fusing four free protons (hydrogen nuclei) into a single alpha particle (helium nucleus) releases around 0.7% of the fused mass as energy, so the Sun releases energy at the mass–energy conversion rate of 4.26 billion kg/s (which requires 600 billion kg of hydrogen), for 384.6 yottawatts (3.846×1026 W), or 9.192×1010 megatons of TNT per second. The large power output of the Sun is mainly due to the huge size and density of its core (compared to Earth and objects on Earth), with only a fairly small amount of power being generated per cubic metre. Theoretical models of the Sun's interior indicate a maximum power density, or energy production, of approximately 276.5 watts per cubic metre at the centre of the core, which, according to Karl Kruszelnicki, is about the same power density inside a compost pile.","[0.030402816832065582, 0.04377936199307442, -0.022509656846523285, 0.09283427894115448, 0.017911335453391075, -0.04238421469926834, 0.005558743141591549, -0.002498847898095846, 0.030522657558321953, 0.021066928282380104, 0.02492760308086872, -0.05793161690235138, -0.018781598657369614, -0.04126998409628868, 0.11493109911680222, 0.01448020152747631, 0.05492269620299339, 0.0030259459745138884, -0.051680248230695724, -0.03571568801999092, -0.027948664501309395, -0.10171332955360413, 0.004928675480186939, -0.05141795799136162, -0.013694843277335167, 0.0011082912096753716, -0.07065901160240173, -0.05779479071497917, -0.04209461808204651, -0.015913160517811775, 0.002281666500493884, -0.08560977876186371, -0.0034383973106741905, 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47,"energy production , of approximately 276.5 watts per cubic metre at the centre of the core , which , according to Karl Kruszelnicki , is about the same power density inside a compost pile .The fusion rate in the core is in a self-correcting equilibrium: a slightly higher rate of fusion would cause the core to heat up more and expand slightly against the weight of the outer layers, reducing the density and hence the fusion rate and correcting the perturbation; and a slightly lower rate would cause the core to cool and shrink slightly, increasing the density and increasing the fusion rate and again reverting it to its present rate. Radiative zone
The radiative zone is the thickest layer of the Sun, at 0.45 solar radii. From the core out to about 0.7 solar radii, thermal radiation is the primary means of energy transfer. The temperature drops from approximately 7 million to 2 million kelvins with increasing distance from the core. This temperature gradient is less than the value of the adiabatic lapse rate and hence cannot drive convection, which explains why the transfer of energy through this zone is by radiation instead of thermal convection. Ions of hydrogen and helium emit photons, which travel only a brief distance before being reabsorbed by other ions. The density drops a hundredfold (from 20,000 kg/m3 to 200 kg/m3) between 0.25 solar radii and 0.7 radii, the top of the radiative zone. Tachocline
The radiative zone and the convective zone are separated by a transition layer, the tachocline. This is a region where the sharp regime change between the uniform rotation of the radiative zone and the differential rotation of the convection zone results in a large shear between the two—a condition where successive horizontal layers slide past one another. Presently, it is hypothesised that a magnetic dynamo, or solar dynamo, within this layer generates the Sun's magnetic field.","[0.01796441152691841, 0.011691384017467499, -0.01442025601863861, 0.054298583418130875, 0.10018164664506912, -0.08342296630144119, 0.008603260852396488, 0.004712035413831472, 0.002517586573958397, 0.0023183540906757116, -0.04244324937462807, -0.08418380469083786, 0.045462775975465775, -0.056791167706251144, 0.08502799272537231, -0.02242911234498024, 0.0866285189986229, -0.016409406438469887, -0.032067783176898956, -0.06415624916553497, -0.0338977612555027, -0.03296608850359917, -0.03560426086187363, -0.04783231392502785, 0.044832225888967514, 0.028827831149101257, -0.11355669051408768, -0.017017610371112823, -0.029675094410777092, 0.06870906054973602, 0.012254621833562851, -0.023381652310490608, -0.05590388923883438, 0.08500519394874573, 0.04283042997121811, 0.08223634958267212, -0.06038457527756691, -0.019787387922406197, -0.039949025958776474, 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48,"two—a condition where successive horizontal layers slide past one another . Presently , it is hypothesised that a magnetic dynamo , or solar dynamo , within this layer generates the Sun 's magnetic field .Convective zone
The Sun's convection zone extends from 0.7 solar radii (500,000 km) to near the surface. In this layer, the solar plasma is not dense or hot enough to transfer the heat energy of the interior outward via radiation. Instead, the density of the plasma is low enough to allow convective currents to develop and move the Sun's energy outward towards its surface. Material heated at the tachocline picks up heat and expands, thereby reducing its density and allowing it to rise. As a result, an orderly motion of the mass develops into thermal cells that carry most of the heat outward to the Sun's photosphere above. Once the material diffusively and radiatively cools just beneath the photospheric surface, its density increases, and it sinks to the base of the convection zone, where it again picks up heat from the top of the radiative zone and the convective cycle continues. At the photosphere, the temperature has dropped 350-fold to 5,700 K (9,800 °F) and the density to only 0.2 g/m3 (about 1/10,000 the density of air at sea level, and 1 millionth that of the inner layer of the convective zone). The thermal columns of the convection zone form an imprint on the surface of the Sun giving it a granular appearance called the solar granulation at the smallest scale and supergranulation at larger scales. Turbulent convection in this outer part of the solar interior sustains ""small-scale"" dynamo action over the near-surface volume of the Sun. The Sun's thermal columns are Bénard cells and take the shape of roughly hexagonal prisms.","[-0.018240582197904587, 0.0703050047159195, 0.016414932906627655, 0.06007739529013634, 0.021133091300725937, -0.08349019289016724, 0.019354471936821938, -0.007270917762070894, 0.0614292286336422, 0.01565108262002468, -0.00849916785955429, -0.07835963368415833, 0.0809207335114479, -0.07173986732959747, 0.06814327836036682, -0.0536193810403347, 0.02839910052716732, -0.07976330816745758, 0.0057837385684251785, -0.050727590918540955, -0.028355112299323082, -0.06414647400379181, -0.03238729387521744, -0.0592120960354805, -0.0020665368065238, 0.018620291724801064, -0.08393705636262894, -0.010146762244403362, -0.08804024755954742, 0.027329465374350548, -0.007694888394325972, 0.037781234830617905, -0.09266136586666107, 0.0806383565068245, -0.00014504673890769482, 0.0388484001159668, -0.04594916105270386, 0.03579653427004814, -0.03954844921827316, 0.045842256397008896, -0.03154463693499565, 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49,"of the solar interior sustains `` small-scale '' dynamo action over the near-surface volume of the Sun . The Sun 's thermal columns are Bénard cells and take the shape of roughly hexagonal prisms .Atmosphere
The solar atmosphere is the region of the Sun that extends from the top of the convection zone to the inner boundary of the heliosphere. It is often divided into three primary layers: the photosphere, the chromosphere, and the corona. The chromosphere and corona are separated by a thin transition region that is frequently considered as an additional distinct layer. Some sources consider the heliosphere to be the outer or extended solar atmosphere. Photosphere
The visible surface of the Sun, the photosphere, is the layer below which the Sun becomes opaque to visible light. Photons produced in this layer escape the Sun through the transparent solar atmosphere above it and become solar radiation, sunlight. The change in opacity is due to the decreasing amount of H− ions, which absorb visible light easily. Conversely, the visible light perceived is produced as electrons react with hydrogen atoms to produce H− ions. The photosphere is tens to hundreds of kilometres thick, and is slightly less opaque than air on Earth. Because the upper part of the photosphere is cooler than the lower part, an image of the Sun appears brighter in the centre than on the edge or limb of the solar disk, in a phenomenon known as limb darkening. The spectrum of sunlight has approximately the spectrum of a black-body radiating at 5,772 K (9,930 °F), interspersed with atomic absorption lines from the tenuous layers above the photosphere. The photosphere has a particle density of ~1023 m−3 (about 0.37% of the particle number per volume of Earth's atmosphere at sea level). The photosphere is not fully ionised—the extent of ionisation is about 3%, leaving almost all of the hydrogen in atomic form.","[-0.0167418010532856, 0.056846652179956436, 0.017570065334439278, 0.04246338829398155, 0.08048994839191437, -0.026975713670253754, 0.07784507423639297, 0.02775704115629196, 0.08436838537454605, 0.014369030483067036, 0.005015428643673658, -0.07036290317773819, 0.0504211001098156, -0.0693933442234993, 0.14184719324111938, -0.007878918200731277, 0.0739351436495781, -0.05770334228873253, -0.018025672063231468, -0.03177811950445175, -0.017764320597052574, -0.010942156426608562, -0.06598526984453201, -0.09555969387292862, 0.020713286474347115, 0.05472402274608612, -0.11478326469659805, 0.004275965970009565, -0.00992708932608366, 0.03087497688829899, 0.007959089241921902, -0.02812236174941063, 0.03917182609438896, 0.06640297919511795, 0.013938202522695065, 0.00962960533797741, 0.0370497927069664, -0.037469666451215744, -0.05823637545108795, 0.05108844116330147, 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50,"per volume of Earth 's atmosphere at sea level ) . The photosphere is not fully ionised—the extent of ionisation is about 3 % , leaving almost all of the hydrogen in atomic form .The coolest layer of the Sun is a temperature minimum region extending to about 500 km above the photosphere, and has a temperature of about 4,100 K. This part of the Sun is cool enough to allow for the existence of simple molecules such as carbon monoxide and water. Chromosphere
Above the temperature minimum layer is a layer about 2,000 km thick, dominated by a spectrum of emission and absorption lines. It is called the chromosphere from the Greek root chroma, meaning colour, because the chromosphere is visible as a coloured flash at the beginning and end of total solar eclipses. The temperature of the chromosphere increases gradually with altitude, ranging up to around 20,000 K near the top. In the upper part of the chromosphere helium becomes partially ionised. The chromosphere and overlying corona are separated by a thin (about 200 km) transition region where the temperature rises rapidly from around 20,000 K in the upper chromosphere to coronal temperatures closer to 1,000,000 K. The temperature increase is facilitated by the full ionisation of helium in the transition region, which significantly reduces radiative cooling of the plasma. The transition region does not occur at a well-defined altitude, but forms a kind of nimbus around chromospheric features such as spicules and filaments, and is in constant, chaotic motion. The transition region is not easily visible from Earth's surface, but is readily observable from space by instruments sensitive to extreme ultraviolet. Corona
The corona is the next layer of the Sun. The low corona, near the surface of the Sun, has a particle density around 1015 m−3 to 1016 m−3.","[-0.0216229110956192, 0.03171755373477936, 0.022807598114013672, 0.024306468665599823, 0.025998465716838837, 0.007077627815306187, 0.05074035003781319, 0.09899594634771347, 0.02953851781785488, 0.02678719162940979, -0.006670417729765177, -0.06672891974449158, 0.03049970045685768, -0.05067575350403786, 0.1049274355173111, 0.0184294693171978, 0.08080802112817764, -0.08399900048971176, -0.04480903223156929, -0.05341833829879761, -0.021548204123973846, -0.02754269540309906, -0.07106571644544601, -0.048943620175123215, -0.017245279625058174, 0.010615921579301357, -0.13028328120708466, 0.02275228127837181, 0.021444300189614296, 0.06099392846226692, -0.03934193029999733, -0.012903028167784214, 0.06458781659603119, 0.04907742887735367, 0.04076482355594635, 0.010870208963751793, 0.02221856825053692, -0.06690188497304916, -0.04032197222113609, 0.06163816899061203, -0.03358582779765129, 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51,"ultraviolet . Corona The corona is the next layer of the Sun . The low corona , near the surface of the Sun , has a particle density around 1015 m−3 to 1016 m−3 .The average temperature of the corona and solar wind is about 1,000,000–2,000,000 K; however, in the hottest regions it is 8,000,000–20,000,000 K. Although no complete theory yet exists to account for the temperature of the corona, at least some of its heat is known to be from magnetic reconnection. The outer boundary of the corona is located where the radially increasing, large-scale solar wind speed is equal to the radially decreasing Alfvén wave phase speed. This defines a closed, nonspherical surface, referred to as the Alfvén critical surface, below which coronal flows are sub-Alfvénic and above which the solar wind is super-Alfvénic. The height at which this transition occurs varies across space and with solar activity, reaching its lowest near solar minimum and its highest near solar maximum. In April 2021 the surface was crossed for the first time at heliocentric distances ranging from 16 to 20 solar radii by the Parker Solar Probe. Predictions of its full possible extent have placed its full range within 8 to 30 solar radii. Heliosphere
The heliosphere is defined as the region of space where the solar wind dominates over the interstellar medium. Turbulence and dynamic forces in the heliosphere cannot affect the shape of the solar corona within, because the information can only travel at the speed of Alfvén waves. The solar wind travels outward continuously through the heliosphere, forming the solar magnetic field into a spiral shape, until it impacts the heliopause more than 50 AU from the Sun. In December 2004, the Voyager 1 probe passed through a shock front that is thought to be part of the heliopause.","[0.0034689244348555803, -0.0058014485985040665, -0.01180193293839693, 0.10545824468135834, 0.029556425288319588, -0.013800747692584991, -0.015260000713169575, 0.05056270211935043, 0.07057759165763855, -0.06221478059887886, -0.02633340284228325, -0.058711938560009, -0.015964364632964134, -0.017293047159910202, 0.08680553734302521, -0.01792028360068798, 0.02960311993956566, -0.1448460966348648, 0.02067638374865055, 0.0475865937769413, -0.00019229523604735732, 0.0339776948094368, -0.0470871701836586, -0.018086925148963928, 0.05523888021707535, 0.02066665142774582, -0.04729713499546051, -0.05106012150645256, -0.04891933873295784, 0.08225327730178833, 0.003945622127503157, 0.02111571654677391, -0.008790146559476852, 0.030939755961298943, -0.01049845665693283, -0.02175229787826538, 0.00641025323420763, 0.007311390247195959, 0.02142147347331047, 0.008648201823234558, 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0.09665223956108093]",Sun,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.
52,"it impacts the heliopause more than 50 AU from the Sun . In December 2004 , the Voyager 1 probe passed through a shock front that is thought to be part of the heliopause .In late 2012, Voyager 1 recorded a marked increase in cosmic ray collisions and a sharp drop in lower energy particles from the solar wind, which suggested that the probe had passed through the heliopause and entered the interstellar medium, and indeed did so on 25 August 2012, at approximately 122 astronomical units (18 Tm) from the Sun. The heliosphere has a heliotail which stretches out behind it due to the Sun's peculiar motion through the galaxy. Solar radiation
The Sun emits light across the visible spectrum. Its colour is white, with a CIE colour-space index near (0.3, 0.3), when viewed from space or when the Sun is high in the sky. The Solar radiance per wavelength peaks in the green portion of the spectrum when viewed from space. When the Sun is very low in the sky, atmospheric scattering renders the Sun yellow, red, orange, or magenta, and in rare occasions even green or blue. Some cultures mentally picture the Sun as yellow and some even red; the cultural reasons for this are debated. The Sun is classed as a G2 star, meaning it is a G-type star, with 2 indicating its surface temperature is in the second range of the G class. The solar constant is the amount of power that the Sun deposits per unit area that is directly exposed to sunlight. The solar constant is equal to approximately 1,368 W/m2 (watts per square metre) at a distance of one astronomical unit (AU) from the Sun (that is, at or near Earth's orbit).","[0.040685344487428665, 0.0495973564684391, 0.0576581247150898, 0.05383959040045738, 0.06865298748016357, 0.010013389401137829, 0.07459155470132828, 0.008594521321356297, 0.03938459977507591, 0.00032228557392954826, -0.055592842400074005, -0.03053714521229267, 0.03430187329649925, -0.02633250318467617, 0.08034060895442963, 0.016202906146645546, 0.051008306443691254, -0.08798980712890625, -0.03358563035726547, -0.053712815046310425, -0.04192941635847092, 0.013520090840756893, -0.05060397461056709, -0.03225936368107796, -0.009929964318871498, -0.03468870744109154, -0.035388875752687454, -0.048205457627773285, -0.018996553495526314, 0.025548789650201797, 0.00029739216552115977, 0.04604557901620865, -0.0754249319434166, 0.02881947159767151, 0.0032358889002352953, -0.05173403024673462, 0.09081168472766876, 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53,"to approximately 1,368 W/m2 ( watts per square metre ) at a distance of one astronomical unit ( AU ) from the Sun ( that is , at or near Earth 's orbit ) .Sunlight on the surface of Earth is attenuated by Earth's atmosphere, so that less power arrives at the surface (closer to 1,000 W/m2) in clear conditions when the Sun is near the zenith. Sunlight at the top of Earth's atmosphere is composed (by total energy) of about 50% infrared light, 40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light. The atmosphere filters out over 70% of solar ultraviolet, especially at the shorter wavelengths. Solar ultraviolet radiation ionises Earth's dayside upper atmosphere, creating its electrically conducting ionosphere. Ultraviolet light from the Sun has antiseptic properties and can be used to sanitise tools and water. This radiation causes sunburn, and has other biological effects such as the production of vitamin D and sun tanning. It is the main cause of skin cancer. Ultraviolet light is strongly attenuated by Earth's ozone layer, so that the amount of UV varies greatly with latitude and has been partially responsible for many biological adaptations, including variations in human skin colour. High-energy gamma ray photons initially released with fusion reactions in the core are almost immediately absorbed by the solar plasma of the radiative zone, usually after travelling only a few millimetres. Re-emission happens in a random direction and usually at slightly lower energy. With this sequence of emissions and absorptions, it takes a long time for radiation to reach the Sun's surface. Estimates of the photon travel time range between 10,000 and 170,000 years. In contrast, it takes only 2.3 seconds for neutrinos, which account for about 2% of the total energy production of the Sun, to reach the surface.","[0.04432365670800209, 0.08496925234794617, 0.06338557600975037, 0.03327345475554466, 0.08380881696939468, -0.03685569390654564, 0.14932881295681, 0.059222813695669174, 0.01806117780506611, 0.08379174768924713, 0.0040175775066018105, -0.06234153360128403, 0.04888563230633736, 0.028881052508950233, 0.07874080538749695, 0.05471601337194443, 0.06141221150755882, -0.05514051020145416, -0.08449061959981918, -0.007014090660959482, -0.007258174009621143, 0.032655805349349976, -0.0044301156885921955, -0.03392897546291351, -0.06587565690279007, -0.038231898099184036, -0.05521593242883682, -0.00923113152384758, -0.0802006870508194, 0.01981949247419834, 0.0073165372014045715, -0.08232720196247101, -0.007869204506278038, 0.006236320361495018, -0.0227273590862751, 0.039027828723192215, 0.004594906233251095, -0.030936377122998238, -0.08432082086801529, 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54,"and 170,000 years . In contrast , it takes only 2.3 seconds for neutrinos , which account for about 2 % of the total energy production of the Sun , to reach the surface .Because energy transport in the Sun is a process that involves photons in thermodynamic equilibrium with matter, the time scale of energy transport in the Sun is longer, on the order of 30,000,000 years. This is the time it would take the Sun to return to a stable state if the rate of energy generation in its core were suddenly changed. Electron neutrinos are released by fusion reactions in the core, but, unlike photons, they rarely interact with matter, so almost all are able to escape the Sun immediately. However, measurements of the number of these neutrinos produced in the Sun are lower than theories predict by a factor of 3. In 2001, the discovery of neutrino oscillation resolved the discrepancy: the Sun emits the number of electron neutrinos predicted by the theory, but neutrino detectors were missing 2⁄3 of them because the neutrinos had changed flavor by the time they were detected. Magnetic activity
The Sun has a stellar magnetic field that varies across its surface. Its polar field is 1–2 gauss (0.0001–0.0002 T), whereas the field is typically 3,000 gauss (0.3 T) in features on the Sun called sunspots and 10–100 gauss (0.001–0.01 T) in solar prominences. The magnetic field varies in time and location. The quasi-periodic 11-year solar cycle is the most prominent variation in which the number and size of sunspots waxes and wanes. The solar magnetic field extends well beyond the Sun itself. The electrically conducting solar wind plasma carries the Sun's magnetic field into space, forming what is called the interplanetary magnetic field. In an approximation known as ideal magnetohydrodynamics, plasma only moves along magnetic field lines.","[-0.025919103994965553, 0.059852082282304764, 0.037642255425453186, 0.11810623109340668, 0.01819825917482376, -0.030890312045812607, -0.04847494140267372, -0.019889896735548973, 0.035313740372657776, -0.04465688019990921, -0.010594063438475132, -0.03555895760655403, -0.048214852809906006, 0.009911419823765755, 0.08246590942144394, 0.01272336021065712, 0.10286922752857208, -0.051084332168102264, 0.020142273977398872, 0.0007954738102853298, -0.028521642088890076, -0.027599340304732323, -0.011272847652435303, -0.08704597502946854, 0.03084913082420826, -0.055288027971982956, -0.1021590530872345, -0.10484237223863602, -0.05972724407911301, 0.01042999792844057, -0.035586170852184296, -0.016035085543990135, -0.015408502891659737, 0.08287389576435089, 0.01785058155655861, 0.020195279270410538, 0.003097658045589924, -0.08362103998661041, 0.07402897626161575, 0.02098778821527958, 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55,"plasma carries the Sun 's magnetic field into space , forming what is called the interplanetary magnetic field . In an approximation known as ideal magnetohydrodynamics , plasma only moves along magnetic field lines .As a result, the outward-flowing solar wind stretches the interplanetary magnetic field outward, forcing it into a roughly radial structure. For a simple dipolar solar magnetic field, with opposite hemispherical polarities on either side of the solar magnetic equator, a thin current sheet is formed in the solar wind. At great distances, the rotation of the Sun twists the dipolar magnetic field and corresponding current sheet into an Archimedean spiral structure called the Parker spiral. Sunspots
Sunspots are visible as dark patches on the Sun's photosphere and correspond to concentrations of magnetic field where convective transport of heat is inhibited from the solar interior to the surface. As a result, sunspots are slightly cooler than the surrounding photosphere, so they appear dark. At a typical solar minimum, few sunspots are visible, and occasionally none can be seen at all. Those that do appear are at high solar latitudes. As the solar cycle progresses toward its maximum, sunspots tend to form closer to the solar equator, a phenomenon known as Spörer's law. The largest sunspots can be tens of thousands of kilometres across. An 11-year sunspot cycle is half of a 22-year Babcock–Leighton dynamo cycle, which corresponds to an oscillatory exchange of energy between toroidal and poloidal solar magnetic fields. At solar-cycle maximum, the external poloidal dipolar magnetic field is near its dynamo-cycle minimum strength; but an internal toroidal quadrupolar field, generated through differential rotation within the tachocline, is near its maximum strength. At this point in the dynamo cycle, buoyant upwelling within the convective zone forces emergence of the toroidal magnetic field through the photosphere, giving rise to pairs of sunspots, roughly aligned east–west and having footprints with opposite magnetic polarities.","[-0.012432293966412544, 0.025228247046470642, -0.010588481090962887, 0.004970606416463852, -5.050507024861872e-05, -0.003392803715541959, 0.01638585329055786, -0.027041515335440636, 0.1026516929268837, -0.03962366655468941, -0.06846042722463608, -0.015711555257439613, 0.03908267244696617, -0.0941685363650322, 0.07654973119497299, -0.01873588003218174, 0.01956346072256565, -0.03992976248264313, 0.06413590162992477, 0.009569443762302399, -0.03529944270849228, -0.06253279745578766, -0.07107558101415634, -0.0073516638949513435, 0.011315123178064823, 0.04640848934650421, -0.023247741162776947, -0.04469882696866989, -0.11281368881464005, 0.026628218591213226, 0.011468435637652874, 0.01859176531434059, -0.13461825251579285, 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56,"buoyant upwelling within the convective zone forces emergence of the toroidal magnetic field through the photosphere , giving rise to pairs of sunspots , roughly aligned east–west and having footprints with opposite magnetic polarities .The magnetic polarity of sunspot pairs alternates every solar cycle, a phenomenon described by Hale's law. During the solar cycle's declining phase, energy shifts from the internal toroidal magnetic field to the external poloidal field, and sunspots diminish in number and size. At solar-cycle minimum, the toroidal field is, correspondingly, at minimum strength, sunspots are relatively rare, and the poloidal field is at its maximum strength. With the rise of the next 11-year sunspot cycle, differential rotation shifts magnetic energy back from the poloidal to the toroidal field, but with a polarity that is opposite to the previous cycle. The process carries on continuously, and in an idealised, simplified scenario, each 11-year sunspot cycle corresponds to a change, then, in the overall polarity of the Sun's large-scale magnetic field. Solar activity
The Sun's magnetic field leads to many effects that are collectively called solar activity. Solar flares and coronal mass ejections tend to occur at sunspot groups. Slowly changing high-speed streams of solar wind are emitted from coronal holes at the photospheric surface. Both coronal mass ejections and high-speed streams of solar wind carry plasma and the interplanetary magnetic field outward into the Solar System. The effects of solar activity on Earth include auroras at moderate to high latitudes and the disruption of radio communications and electric power. Solar activity is thought to have played a large role in the formation and evolution of the Solar System. Changes in solar irradiance over the 11-year solar cycle have been correlated with changes in sunspot number. The solar cycle influences space weather conditions, including those surrounding Earth.","[-0.020632043480873108, 0.022448662668466568, 0.03814449533820152, 0.03640906512737274, 0.027228374034166336, 0.006624300964176655, -0.026965681463479996, -0.04041250795125961, 0.04013160243630409, -0.02722557634115219, -0.0426831915974617, 0.047706689685583115, 0.08262739330530167, -0.05555626377463341, 0.08510877192020416, 0.04237048327922821, -0.019353628158569336, -0.008848470635712147, -0.018707292154431343, 0.014810808934271336, -0.03093363530933857, -0.08560974150896072, -0.0719156488776207, 0.010511934757232666, -0.032710570842027664, 0.01676337420940399, -0.07586716115474701, 0.004381997510790825, -0.09845005720853806, -0.01948411948978901, -0.02117081731557846, 0.08791021257638931, -0.08230619132518768, 0.057385094463825226, -0.026471873745322227, 0.0036263170186430216, -0.010416033677756786, 0.015634454786777496, -0.03002423234283924, 0.037125349044799805, -0.035593148320913315, 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57,"the Solar System . Changes in solar irradiance over the 11-year solar cycle have been correlated with changes in sunspot number . The solar cycle influences space weather conditions , including those surrounding Earth .For example, in the 17th century, the solar cycle appeared to have stopped entirely for several decades; few sunspots were observed during a period known as the Maunder minimum. This coincided in time with the era of the Little Ice Age, when Europe experienced unusually cold temperatures. Earlier extended minima have been discovered through analysis of tree rings and appear to have coincided with lower-than-average global temperatures. Coronal heating
The temperature of the photosphere is approximately 6,000 K, whereas the temperature of the corona reaches 1,000,000–2,000,000 K. The high temperature of the corona shows that it is heated by something other than direct heat conduction from the photosphere. It is thought that the energy necessary to heat the corona is provided by turbulent motion in the convection zone below the photosphere, and two main mechanisms have been proposed to explain coronal heating. The first is wave heating, in which sound, gravitational or magnetohydrodynamic waves are produced by turbulence in the convection zone. These waves travel upward and dissipate in the corona, depositing their energy in the ambient matter in the form of heat. The other is magnetic heating, in which magnetic energy is continuously built up by photospheric motion and released through magnetic reconnection in the form of large solar flares and myriad similar but smaller events—nanoflares. Currently, it is unclear whether waves are an efficient heating mechanism. All waves except Alfvén waves have been found to dissipate or refract before reaching the corona. In addition, Alfvén waves do not easily dissipate in the corona. The current research focus has therefore shifted toward flare heating mechanisms. Life phases
The Sun today is roughly halfway through the main-sequence portion of its life.","[0.009175724349915981, 0.0485353097319603, 0.033691029995679855, 0.0922517403960228, 0.02224680595099926, -0.015655895695090294, -0.0668586865067482, 0.02163533866405487, 0.033608946949243546, -0.015022951178252697, -0.007087071891874075, -0.07695909589529037, 0.027886634692549706, -0.04486289247870445, 0.07719141244888306, -0.03794676437973976, -0.02080184407532215, -0.07483291625976562, 0.03803059086203575, -0.044231563806533813, 0.022465670481324196, -0.040556129068136215, -0.12897534668445587, -0.02570931240916252, -0.008715401403605938, 0.024897966533899307, -0.10225682705640793, -0.01666025072336197, -0.07028874009847641, 0.09963619709014893, 0.01309115905314684, 0.032409146428108215, 0.03813149034976959, 0.035979222506284714, -0.006412501446902752, 0.03032182902097702, 0.04994121566414833, 0.00043305460712872446, -0.04459599778056145, 0.020650498569011688, -0.04238074645400047, 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58,"not easily dissipate in the corona . The current research focus has therefore shifted toward flare heating mechanisms . Life phases The Sun today is roughly halfway through the main-sequence portion of its life .It has not changed dramatically in over four billion years and will remain fairly stable for about five billion more. However, after hydrogen fusion in its core has stopped, the Sun will undergo dramatic changes, both internally and externally. Formation
The Sun formed about 4.6 billion years ago from the collapse of part of a giant molecular cloud that consisted mostly of hydrogen and helium and that probably gave birth to many other stars. This age is estimated using computer models of stellar evolution and through nucleocosmochronology. The result is consistent with the radiometric date of the oldest Solar System material, at 4.567 billion years ago. Studies of ancient meteorites reveal traces of stable daughter nuclei of short-lived isotopes, such as iron-60, that form only in exploding, short-lived stars. This indicates that one or more supernovae must have occurred near the location where the Sun formed. A shock wave from a nearby supernova would have triggered the formation of the Sun by compressing the matter within the molecular cloud and causing certain regions to collapse under their own gravity. As one fragment of the cloud collapsed it also began to rotate due to conservation of angular momentum and heat up with the increasing pressure. Much of the mass became concentrated in the centre, whereas the rest flattened out into a disk that would become the planets and other Solar System bodies. Gravity and pressure within the core of the cloud generated a lot of heat as it accumulated more matter from the surrounding disk, eventually triggering nuclear fusion. The stars HD 162826 and HD 186302 share similarities with the Sun and are hypothesised to be its stellar siblings, formed in the same molecular cloud.","[-0.0759759172797203, 0.024365367367863655, 0.03324925899505615, 0.09957978129386902, 0.07031338661909103, -0.004109269008040428, -0.07327956706285477, 0.03420756384730339, -0.017263425514101982, -0.01662563532590866, 0.007529864087700844, -0.01973496749997139, -0.002489064121618867, -0.012204593978822231, 0.0498892106115818, -0.04647962003946304, -0.064917653799057, -0.16151103377342224, 0.029891042038798332, 0.05643918737769127, -0.04227232560515404, -0.025011060759425163, -0.07342847436666489, -0.028544185683131218, 0.08502080291509628, 0.06132325530052185, -0.03391391783952713, -0.05736694484949112, 0.002999678486958146, 0.04628068208694458, 0.044042859226465225, 0.003024556441232562, 0.005591812543570995, 0.06777624040842056, 0.011053218506276608, -0.009557019919157028, 0.06091560423374176, 0.0005641442257910967, 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59,"disk , eventually triggering nuclear fusion . The stars HD 162826 and HD 186302 share similarities with the Sun and are hypothesised to be its stellar siblings , formed in the same molecular cloud .Main sequence
The Sun is about halfway through its main-sequence stage, during which nuclear fusion reactions in its core fuse hydrogen into helium. Each second, more than four billion kilograms of matter are converted into energy within the Sun's core, producing neutrinos and solar radiation. At this rate, the Sun has so far converted around 100 times the mass of Earth into energy, about 0.03% of the total mass of the Sun. The Sun will spend a total of approximately 10 to 11 billion years as a main-sequence star before the red giant phase of the Sun. At the 8 billion year mark, the Sun will be at its hottest point according to the ESA's Gaia space observatory mission in 2022. The Sun is gradually becoming hotter in its core, hotter at the surface, larger in radius, and more luminous during its time on the main sequence: since the beginning of its main sequence life, it has expanded in radius by 15% and the surface has increased in temperature from 5,620 K (9,660 °F) to 5,772 K (9,930 °F), resulting in a 48% increase in luminosity from 0.677 solar luminosities to its present-day 1.0 solar luminosity. This occurs because the helium atoms in the core have a higher mean molecular weight than the hydrogen atoms that were fused, resulting in less thermal pressure. The core is therefore shrinking, allowing the outer layers of the Sun to move closer to the centre, releasing gravitational potential energy. According to the virial theorem, half of this released gravitational energy goes into heating, which leads to a gradual increase in the rate at which fusion occurs and thus an increase in the luminosity.","[-0.05811510235071182, 0.02315165475010872, -0.007156320381909609, 0.07220996916294098, 0.010488317348062992, -0.052814822643995285, -0.037200264632701874, -0.025926755741238594, 0.0009006632026284933, -0.006126981228590012, -0.03519272804260254, -0.0564153715968132, 0.034612156450748444, -0.0642293319106102, 0.06396040320396423, -0.040192048996686935, 0.030643818899989128, -0.11335519701242447, 0.004663542378693819, -0.019407421350479126, 0.0024875004310160875, -0.016563378274440765, -0.03828096389770508, -0.021492313593626022, 0.021248282864689827, 0.002029954921454191, -0.029414387419819832, -0.03042583167552948, -0.06613868474960327, -0.002434740075841546, -0.01742306724190712, -0.04601951315999031, 0.0387512668967247, 0.06939979642629623, 0.03681252896785736, 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60,"the virial theorem , half of this released gravitational energy goes into heating , which leads to a gradual increase in the rate at which fusion occurs and thus an increase in the luminosity .This process speeds up as the core gradually becomes denser. At present, it is increasing in brightness by about 1% every 100 million years. It will take at least 1 billion years from now to deplete liquid water from the Earth from such increase. After that, the Earth will cease to be able to support complex, multicellular life and the last remaining multicellular organisms on the planet will suffer a final, complete mass extinction. After core hydrogen exhaustion
The Sun does not have enough mass to explode as a supernova. Instead, when it runs out of hydrogen in the core in approximately 5 billion years, core hydrogen fusion will stop, and there will be nothing to prevent the core from contracting. The release of gravitational potential energy will cause the luminosity of the Sun to increase, ending the main sequence phase and leading the Sun to expand over the next billion years: first into a subgiant, and then into a red giant. The heating due to gravitational contraction will also lead to expansion of the Sun and hydrogen fusion in a shell just outside the core, where unfused hydrogen remains, contributing to the increased luminosity, which will eventually reach more than 1,000 times its present luminosity. When the Sun enters its red-giant branch (RGB) phase, it will engulf (and destroy) Mercury and Venus. According to a 2008 article, Earth's orbit will have initially expanded to at most 1.5 AU (220 million km; 140 million mi) due to the Sun's loss of mass.","[-0.04008416458964348, 0.007242526859045029, 0.06028031185269356, 0.05208824947476387, 0.04059785604476929, -0.016952920705080032, -0.06879648566246033, 0.020943451672792435, -0.02391061745584011, -0.03663305565714836, -0.0053428239189088345, -0.002359654987230897, 0.010348191484808922, -0.04246287792921066, 0.06975143402814865, -0.004284008871763945, 0.02598848193883896, -0.09405417740345001, -0.027807677164673805, 0.01920825056731701, 0.0746460035443306, -0.019540773704648018, -0.0543157234787941, -0.014914491213858128, -0.07517917454242706, -0.01726428046822548, -0.05334772542119026, -0.028616460040211678, -0.025383643805980682, 0.009457080624997616, 0.010269139893352985, -0.052836254239082336, 0.055089861154556274, 0.0753420814871788, 0.01085489708930254, 0.042554643005132675, 0.012655278667807579, -0.01110303308814764, 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61,"to a 2008 article , Earth 's orbit will have initially expanded to at most 1.5 AU ( 220 million km ; 140 million mi ) due to the Sun 's loss of mass .However, Earth's orbit will then start shrinking due to tidal forces (and, eventually, drag from the lower chromosphere) so that it is engulfed by the Sun during the tip of the red-giant branch phase 7.59 billion years from now, 3.8 and 1 million years after Mercury and Venus have respectively suffered the same fate. By the time the Sun reaches the tip of the red-giant branch, it will be about 256 times larger than it is today, with a radius of 1.19 AU (178 million km; 111 million mi). The Sun will spend around a billion years in the RGB and lose around a third of its mass. After the red-giant branch, the Sun has approximately 120 million years of active life left, but much happens. First, the core (full of degenerate helium) ignites violently in the helium flash; it is estimated that 6% of the core—itself 40% of the Sun's mass—will be converted into carbon within a matter of minutes through the triple-alpha process. The Sun then shrinks to around 10 times its current size and 50 times the luminosity, with a temperature a little lower than today. It will then have reached the red clump or horizontal branch, but a star of the Sun's metallicity does not evolve blueward along the horizontal branch. Instead, it just becomes moderately larger and more luminous over about 100 million years as it continues to react helium in the core. When the helium is exhausted, the Sun will repeat the expansion it followed when the hydrogen in the core was exhausted. This time, however, it all happens faster, and the Sun becomes larger and more luminous.","[0.0523623488843441, 0.00012785501894541085, 0.02640007808804512, 0.09474959224462509, 0.05352414771914482, -0.022003520280122757, -0.05123547092080116, 0.059703268110752106, -0.011192018166184425, 0.002965404884889722, -0.040164198726415634, 0.026878731325268745, -0.04865396395325661, -0.011959421448409557, 0.09105771034955978, 0.022316621616482735, -0.028277575969696045, -0.027298524975776672, -0.04267029091715813, 0.04543851688504219, -2.6485975467949174e-05, -0.05339290574193001, -0.05681076645851135, 0.05158302187919617, -0.0671658143401146, -0.05549505352973938, -0.08229877054691315, -0.052364103496074677, -0.07247088849544525, -0.05432397127151489, -0.039075352251529694, -0.028236450627446175, 0.027242198586463928, 0.05797826871275902, -0.006526163779199123, 0.06126822903752327, 0.027346991002559662, -0.07119596749544144, -0.015147118829190731, -0.032784007489681244, 0.04316354915499687, 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62,"Sun will repeat the expansion it followed when the hydrogen in the core was exhausted . This time , however , it all happens faster , and the Sun becomes larger and more luminous .This is the asymptotic-giant-branch phase, and the Sun is alternately reacting hydrogen in a shell or helium in a deeper shell. After about 20 million years on the early asymptotic giant branch, the Sun becomes increasingly unstable, with rapid mass loss and thermal pulses that increase the size and luminosity for a few hundred years every 100,000 years or so. The thermal pulses become larger each time, with the later pulses pushing the luminosity to as much as 5,000 times the current level. Despite this, the Sun's maximum AGB radius will not be as large as its tip-RGB maximum: 179 R☉, or about 0.832 AU (124.5 million km; 77.3 million mi). Models vary depending on the rate and timing of mass loss. Models that have higher mass loss on the red-giant branch produce smaller, less luminous stars at the tip of the asymptotic giant branch, perhaps only 2,000 times the luminosity and less than 200 times the radius. For the Sun, four thermal pulses are predicted before it completely loses its outer envelope and starts to make a planetary nebula. The post-asymptotic-giant-branch evolution is even faster. The luminosity stays approximately constant as the temperature increases, with the ejected half of the Sun's mass becoming ionised into a planetary nebula as the exposed core reaches 30,000 K (53,500 °F), as if it is in a sort of blue loop. The final naked core, a white dwarf, will have a temperature of over 100,000 K (180,000 °F) and contain an estimated 54.05% of the Sun's present-day mass. Simulations indicate that the Sun may be among the least massive stars capable of forming a planetary nebula.","[0.01498897559940815, 0.0042993612587451935, 2.2182244720170274e-05, 0.11397809535264969, 0.052650511264801025, -0.09424667805433273, -0.05083868280053139, 0.08991993218660355, 0.02141924947500229, -0.045621663331985474, -0.026785338297486305, 0.06390883028507233, -0.006385946646332741, -0.04572571441531181, 0.07962032407522202, 0.01124090887606144, 0.04090487211942673, -0.05303999409079552, -0.05914558842778206, -0.03685203567147255, 0.03745577484369278, -0.06451588124036789, -0.06377214193344116, 0.01960562728345394, -0.007872472517192364, -0.07083979994058609, -0.06529322266578674, -0.06205381453037262, -0.02708011120557785, -0.07269831746816635, 0.03578585386276245, -0.010673398151993752, 0.039096128195524216, 0.0839734748005867, 0.050471629947423935, 7.209465547930449e-05, 0.03926921263337135, -0.03905007243156433, -0.012331047095358372, -0.042812053114175797, 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63,"180,000 °F ) and contain an estimated 54.05 % of the Sun 's present-day mass . Simulations indicate that the Sun may be among the least massive stars capable of forming a planetary nebula .The planetary nebula will disperse in about 10,000 years, but the white dwarf will survive for trillions of years before fading to a hypothetical super-dense black dwarf. As such, it would give off no more energy. Location
Solar System
The Sun has eight known planets orbiting it. This includes four terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars), two gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn), and two ice giants (Uranus and Neptune). The Solar System also has nine bodies generally considered as dwarf planets and some more candidates, an asteroid belt, numerous comets, and a large number of icy bodies which lie beyond the orbit of Neptune. Six of the planets and many smaller bodies also have their own natural satellites: in particular, the satellite systems of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus are in some ways like miniature versions of the Sun's system. The Sun is moved by the gravitational pull of the planets. The centre of the Sun moves around the Solar System barycentre, within a range from 0.1 to 2.2 solar radii. The Sun's motion around the barycentre approximately repeats every 179 years, rotated by about 30° due primarily to the synodic period of Jupiter and Saturn. This motion is mainly due to Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. For some periods of several decades (when Neptune and Uranus are in opposition) the motion is rather regular, forming a trefoil pattern, whereas between these periods it appears more chaotic. After 179 years (nine times the synodic period of Jupiter and Saturn), the pattern more or less repeats, but rotated by about 24°.","[0.0713767409324646, -0.03552386164665222, 0.018744874745607376, 0.0077468170784413815, 0.030835937708616257, -0.05664754658937454, -0.030493594706058502, 0.054849375039339066, 0.037375275045633316, 0.04148552939295769, -0.08800000697374344, -0.018521711230278015, 0.06295645982027054, -0.09032352268695831, 0.08983457833528519, -0.03675665333867073, 0.03898428753018379, -0.0756484866142273, 0.02747393399477005, 0.05281894654035568, 0.015069879591464996, 0.01856456696987152, -0.024390462785959244, -0.0008425861597061157, -0.040925510227680206, -0.04418804123997688, -0.03953380137681961, -0.04113641008734703, -0.07468760013580322, -0.010972642339766026, -0.037349630147218704, 0.0038335337303578854, -0.009168319404125214, 0.04913049191236496, 0.024994442239403725, 0.028742926195263863, 0.0023428904823958874, -0.06641493737697601, -0.040975041687488556, 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64,"these periods it appears more chaotic . After 179 years ( nine times the synodic period of Jupiter and Saturn ) , the pattern more or less repeats , but rotated by about 24° .The orbits of the inner planets, including of the Earth, are similarly displaced by the same gravitational forces, so the movement of the Sun has little effect on the relative positions of the Earth and the Sun or on solar irradiance on the Earth as a function of time. The Sun's gravitational field is estimated to dominate the gravitational forces of surrounding stars out to about two light-years (125,000 AU). Lower estimates for the radius of the Oort cloud, by contrast, do not place it farther than 50,000 AU. Most of the mass is orbiting in the region between 3,000 and 100,000 AU. The furthest known objects, such as Comet West, have aphelia around 70,000 AU from the Sun. The Sun's Hill sphere with respect to the galactic nucleus, the effective range of its gravitational influence, was calculated by G. A. Chebotarev to be 230,000 AU. Celestial neighbourhood
Motion
The Sun, taking along the whole Solar System, orbits the galaxy's centre of mass at an average speed of 230 km/s (828,000 km/h), taking about 220–250 million Earth years to complete a revolution (a galactic year), having done so about 20 times since the Sun's formation. The direction of the Sun's motion, the Solar apex, is roughly in the direction of the star Vega. In the past the Sun likely moved through the Orion–Eridanus Superbubble, before entering the Local Bubble. As the sun goes around the galaxy it also moves with respect to the average motion of the other stars around it.","[0.053893834352493286, -0.0045597185380756855, 0.03084932267665863, 0.023888781666755676, 0.039427757263183594, -0.06217654421925545, -0.07334984838962555, 0.0321870781481266, 0.09949485212564468, -0.005253056064248085, -0.01719522662460804, -0.007557975128293037, 0.032846976071596146, -0.06720796227455139, 0.05957028642296791, -0.03918235003948212, 0.09366049617528915, -0.06936018913984299, 0.017504028975963593, -0.0019169554580003023, -0.00781290140002966, -0.02902594767510891, 0.043935295194387436, 0.05209732428193092, -0.03171713650226593, -0.011941175907850266, -0.06192433461546898, -0.010383684188127518, -0.07117044925689697, -0.0861910805106163, 0.03741147741675377, 0.02739638090133667, 0.01622595265507698, 0.024840177968144417, -0.01595177687704563, 0.0065498435869812965, -0.012014457024633884, -0.055740270763635635, 0.011849069967865944, -0.029668500646948814, 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65,"moved through the Orion–Eridanus Superbubble , before entering the Local Bubble . As the sun goes around the galaxy it also moves with respect to the average motion of the other stars around it .A simple model predicts that in a frame of reference rotating with the galaxy, the sun moves in an ellipse, circulating around a point that is itself going around the galaxy. The period of the Sun's circulation around the point is about 166 million years, shorter than the time it takes for the point to go around the galaxy. The length of the ellipse is around 1760 parsecs and its width around 1170 parsecs. (Compare this to the distance of the Sun from the centre of the galaxy, around 7 or 8 kiloparsecs.) At the same time, the sun moves ""north"" and ""south"" of the galactic plane with a different period, around 83 million years, moving about 99 parsecs away from the plane. The point around which the Sun circulates takes around 240 million years to go once around the galaxy. (See Stellar kinematics for more details.) The Sun's orbit around the Milky Way is perturbed due to the non-uniform mass distribution in Milky Way, such as that in and between the galactic spiral arms. It has been argued that the Sun's passage through the higher density spiral arms often coincides with mass extinctions on Earth, perhaps due to increased impact events. It takes the Solar System about 225–250 million years to complete one orbit through the Milky Way (a galactic year), so it is thought to have completed 20–25 orbits during the lifetime of the Sun. The orbital speed of the Solar System about the centre of the Milky Way is approximately 251 km/s (156 mi/s).","[-0.014743676409125328, -0.022924307733774185, 0.00033256917959079146, 0.0036730633582919836, -0.012449704110622406, -0.024759305641055107, -0.07729010283946991, 0.02129475586116314, 0.06665439158678055, -0.08384734392166138, 0.05114540457725525, -0.025477135553956032, 0.013699143193662167, -0.0546678751707077, 0.05235240235924721, -0.08682065457105637, 0.0304503683000803, -0.08256792277097702, -0.0025893489364534616, 0.026799049228429794, 0.04093174636363983, -0.009606942534446716, -0.01862100325524807, 0.04789174348115921, 0.03365776687860489, -0.006959009915590286, -0.006106158718466759, -0.09108555316925049, -0.053975217044353485, -0.037219464778900146, 0.036398209631443024, 0.00737376743927598, -0.03206511214375496, 0.0559014156460762, -0.06192110851407051, -0.026178643107414246, 0.031233716756105423, -0.0626436173915863, 0.10431359708309174, -0.06058992072939873, 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66,"to have completed 20–25 orbits during the lifetime of the Sun . The orbital speed of the Solar System about the centre of the Milky Way is approximately 251 km/s ( 156 mi/s ) .At this speed, it takes around 1,190 years for the Solar System to travel a distance of 1 light-year, or 7 days to travel 1 AU. The Milky Way is moving with respect to the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) in the direction of the constellation Hydra with a speed of 550 km/s, but since the Sun is moving with respect to the Galactic Centre in the direction of Cygnus (galactic longitude 90°; latitude 0°) at more than 200 km/sec, the resultant velocity with respect to the CMB is about 370 km/s in the direction of Crater or Leo (galactic latitude 264°, latitude 48°). This is 132° away from Cygnus. Observational history
Early understanding
In many prehistoric and ancient cultures, the Sun was thought to be a solar deity or other supernatural entity. In the early 1st millennium BC, Babylonian astronomers observed that the Sun's motion along the ecliptic is not uniform, though they did not know why; it is today known that this is due to the movement of Earth in an elliptic orbit, moving faster when it is nearer to the Sun at perihelion and moving slower when it is farther away at aphelion. One of the first people to offer a scientific or philosophical explanation for the Sun was the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras. He reasoned that it was a giant flaming ball of metal even larger than the land of the Peloponnesus and that the Moon reflected the light of the Sun.","[0.020247459411621094, 0.02039760909974575, 0.032665181905031204, -0.007254662457853556, -0.03853483870625496, -0.032472874969244, -0.06068142130970955, 0.033269573003053665, 0.04089632257819176, -0.016601555049419403, 0.004143818747252226, -0.0897231325507164, 0.01632867380976677, -0.027679739519953728, 0.011678841896355152, -0.1099785789847374, 0.045020800083875656, -0.1002943217754364, 0.03922702372074127, 0.06410069763660431, -0.013867424800992012, -0.008369036950170994, -0.02417352795600891, 0.06003420054912567, 0.04543124511837959, -0.0031144311651587486, 0.022540725767612457, -0.07612980902194977, -0.04435793682932854, 0.013997377827763557, 0.03305431082844734, 0.02275954745709896, -0.0319058783352375, -0.01479247771203518, -0.06365051120519638, 0.014412169344723225, 0.024697646498680115, -0.0863572359085083, 0.08349733054637909, 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67,"the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras . He reasoned that it was a giant flaming ball of metal even larger than the land of the Peloponnesus and that the Moon reflected the light of the Sun .Eratosthenes estimated the distance between Earth and the Sun in the 3rd century BC as ""of stadia myriads 400 and 80000"", the translation of which is ambiguous, implying either 4,080,000 stadia (755,000 km) or 804,000,000 stadia (148 to 153 million kilometres or 0.99 to 1.02 AU); the latter value is correct to within a few per cent. In the 1st century AD, Ptolemy estimated the distance as 1,210 times the radius of Earth, approximately 7.71 million kilometres (0.0515 AU). The theory that the Sun is the centre around which the planets orbit was first proposed by the ancient Greek Aristarchus of Samos in the 3rd century BC, and later adopted by Seleucus of Seleucia (see Heliocentrism). This view was developed in a more detailed mathematical model of a heliocentric system in the 16th century by Nicolaus Copernicus. Development of scientific understanding
Observations of sunspots were recorded by Chinese astronomers during the Han dynasty (202 BC – AD 220), with records of their observations being maintained for centuries. Averroes also provided a description of sunspots in the 12th century. The invention of the telescope in the early 17th century permitted detailed observations of sunspots by Thomas Harriot, Galileo Galilei and other astronomers. Galileo posited that sunspots were on the surface of the Sun rather than small objects passing between Earth and the Sun. Medieval Islamic astronomical contributions include al-Battani's discovery that the direction of the Sun's apogee (the place in the Sun's orbit against the fixed stars where it seems to be moving slowest) is changing. In modern heliocentric terms, this is caused by a gradual motion of the aphelion of the Earth's orbit.","[0.04282376170158386, 0.06794074177742004, -0.0658646821975708, -0.026277683675289154, -0.05002579092979431, -0.05961831659078598, 0.022105183452367783, 0.08357280492782593, 0.036429524421691895, 0.038173943758010864, -0.028403043746948242, -0.04001268744468689, 0.013296619057655334, -0.02010626159608364, -0.01756272278726101, -0.07712610810995102, 0.0037160261999815702, -0.029305264353752136, -0.009616545401513577, 0.006523594725877047, 0.021193480119109154, -0.048536814749240875, 0.018569190055131912, 0.03513065353035927, 0.017738424241542816, 0.03937662020325661, -0.0009898236021399498, -0.07548709213733673, -0.08974699676036835, 0.05348379537463188, 0.04746674373745918, -0.013888947665691376, 0.07789137214422226, -0.058507125824689865, -0.03903062641620636, 0.006246572360396385, 0.007324494421482086, -0.023752577602863312, -0.02668571285903454, 0.01952148973941803, 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68,"the fixed stars where it seems to be moving slowest ) is changing . In modern heliocentric terms , this is caused by a gradual motion of the aphelion of the Earth 's orbit .Ibn Yunus observed more than 10,000 entries for the Sun's position for many years using a large astrolabe. The first reasonably accurate distance to the Sun was determined in 1684 by Giovanni Domenico Cassini. Knowing that direct measurements of the solar parallax were difficult, he chose to measure the Martian parallax. Having sent Jean Richer to Cayenne, part of French Guiana, for simultaneous measurements, Cassini in Paris determined the parallax of Mars when Mars was at its closest to Earth in 1672. Using the circumference distance between the two observations, Cassini calculated the Earth–Mars distance, then used Kepler's laws to determine the Earth–Sun distance. His value, about 10% smaller than modern values, was much larger than all previous estimates. From an observation of a transit of Venus in 1032, the Persian astronomer and polymath Ibn Sina concluded that Venus was closer to Earth than the Sun. In 1677, Edmond Halley observed a transit of Mercury across the Sun, leading him to realise that observations of the solar parallax of a planet (more ideally using the transit of Venus) could be used to trigonometrically determine the distances between Earth, Venus, and the Sun. Careful observations of the 1769 transit of Venus allowed astronomers to calculate the average Earth–Sun distance as 93,726,900 miles (150,838,800 km), only 0.8% greater than the modern value. In 1666, Isaac Newton observed the Sun's light using a prism, and showed that it is made up of light of many colours. In 1800, William Herschel discovered infrared radiation beyond the red part of the solar spectrum.","[0.00511445477604866, -0.003936923574656248, -0.028940899297595024, -0.0053522358648478985, 0.007916487753391266, -0.08882205933332443, -0.04130394756793976, 0.05149776488542557, -0.006626291200518608, 0.04497141018509865, 0.04117414727807045, -0.005323838442564011, 0.019603746011853218, 0.0014714444987475872, -0.05674503371119499, -0.10472819209098816, -0.025870028883218765, 0.0027766346465796232, -0.004422029945999384, 0.011135976761579514, -0.0347239188849926, -0.002160364296287298, 0.039647940546274185, 0.02631503716111183, 0.009543398395180702, 0.011123158037662506, -0.0528256930410862, 0.0001787988148862496, -0.00023762029013596475, 0.028035633265972137, -0.022789521142840385, 0.04260677099227905, -0.04504627361893654, -0.026642929762601852, -0.0704774558544159, 0.01657586358487606, 0.0808602124452591, -0.022446690127253532, 0.02957860194146633, -0.03439883142709732, 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69,"light using a prism , and showed that it is made up of light of many colours . In 1800 , William Herschel discovered infrared radiation beyond the red part of the solar spectrum .The 19th century saw advancement in spectroscopic studies of the Sun; Joseph von Fraunhofer recorded more than 600 absorption lines in the spectrum, the strongest of which are still often referred to as Fraunhofer lines. The 20th century brought about several specialised systems for observing the Sun, especially at different narrowband wavelengths, such as those using Calcium-H (396.9 nm), Calcium-K (393.37 nm) and Hydrogen-alpha (656.46 nm) filtering. During early studies of the optical spectrum of the photosphere, some absorption lines were found that did not correspond to any chemical elements then known on Earth. In 1868, Norman Lockyer hypothesised that these absorption lines were caused by a new element that he dubbed helium, after the Greek Sun god Helios. Twenty-five years later, helium was isolated on Earth. In the early years of the modern scientific era, the source of the Sun's energy was a significant puzzle. Lord Kelvin suggested that the Sun is a gradually cooling liquid body that is radiating an internal store of heat. Kelvin and Hermann von Helmholtz then proposed a gravitational contraction mechanism to explain the energy output, but the resulting age estimate was only 20 million years, well short of the time span of at least 300 million years suggested by some geological discoveries of that time. In 1890, Lockyer proposed a meteoritic hypothesis for the formation and evolution of the Sun. Not until 1904 was a documented solution offered. Ernest Rutherford suggested that the Sun's output could be maintained by an internal source of heat, and suggested radioactive decay as the source.","[-0.07232793420553207, 0.03588945046067238, -0.04847593605518341, 0.06322268396615982, 0.06914197653532028, -0.008592560887336731, 0.05368952080607414, 0.07744143903255463, 0.01782967522740364, 0.055240146815776825, -0.02656858041882515, -0.04182373732328415, -0.029970120638608932, -0.032192159444093704, 0.03054606169462204, 0.002997979987412691, -0.02346012555062771, -0.03155208379030228, -0.00769853126257658, -0.037466902285814285, -0.08388165384531021, -0.032284293323755264, -0.019064847379922867, -0.0931430459022522, 0.032456159591674805, 0.05329740792512894, 0.014426651410758495, -0.05312143266201019, 0.012057666666805744, 0.04742041230201721, 0.008732384070754051, -0.008574329316616058, 0.047617897391319275, 0.01707453653216362, 0.04612863436341286, 0.0011803138768300414, 0.08455066382884979, -0.021669141948223114, 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70,"Not until 1904 was a documented solution offered . Ernest Rutherford suggested that the Sun 's output could be maintained by an internal source of heat , and suggested radioactive decay as the source .However, it would be Albert Einstein who would provide the essential clue to the source of the Sun's energy output with his mass–energy equivalence relation E = mc2. In 1920, Sir Arthur Eddington proposed that the pressures and temperatures at the core of the Sun could produce a nuclear fusion reaction that merged hydrogen (protons) into helium nuclei, resulting in a production of energy from the net change in mass. The preponderance of hydrogen in the Sun was confirmed in 1925 by Cecilia Payne using the ionisation theory developed by Meghnad Saha. The theoretical concept of fusion was developed in the 1930s by the astrophysicists Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar and Hans Bethe. Bethe calculated the details of the two main energy-producing nuclear reactions that power the Sun. In 1957, Margaret Burbidge, Geoffrey Burbidge, William Fowler and Fred Hoyle showed that most of the elements in the universe have been synthesised by nuclear reactions inside stars, some like the Sun. Solar space missions
The first satellites designed for long term observation of the Sun from interplanetary space were Pioneer 6, 7, 8, and 9, which were launched by NASA between 1959 and 1968. These probes orbited the Sun at a distance similar to that of Earth, and made the first detailed measurements of the solar wind and the solar magnetic field. Pioneer 9 operated for a particularly long time, transmitting data until May 1983. In the 1970s, two Helios spacecraft and the Skylab Apollo Telescope Mount provided scientists with significant new data on solar wind and the solar corona. The Helios 1 and 2 probes were U.S.–German collaborations that studied the solar wind from an orbit carrying the spacecraft inside Mercury's orbit at perihelion.","[-0.07651437819004059, 0.029157036915421486, -0.06390369683504105, 0.07985221594572067, 0.040160708129405975, -0.009004347026348114, 0.04106152802705765, 0.023441217839717865, -0.05273979902267456, 0.08132952451705933, 0.00427195243537426, -0.0015408116159960628, 0.02521533891558647, -0.03756197541952133, 0.03246911242604256, -0.004952389746904373, -0.02287844568490982, 0.02350015938282013, 0.017689695581793785, -0.035423196852207184, -0.07596353441476822, -0.019571103155612946, 0.002642872277647257, -0.007474047131836414, 0.07561878114938736, 0.06398243457078934, -0.0006889838841743767, -0.08874226361513138, -0.05883670225739479, 0.07158374041318893, 0.05789073184132576, -0.05405004695057869, 0.035882048308849335, -0.011391892097890377, 0.06302493810653687, 0.015684949234128, 0.012744344770908356, -0.015512235462665558, 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71,"on solar wind and the solar corona . The Helios 1 and 2 probes were U.S.–German collaborations that studied the solar wind from an orbit carrying the spacecraft inside Mercury 's orbit at perihelion .The Skylab space station, launched by NASA in 1973, included a solar observatory module called the Apollo Telescope Mount that was operated by astronauts resident on the station. Skylab made the first time-resolved observations of the solar transition region and of ultraviolet emissions from the solar corona. Discoveries included the first observations of coronal mass ejections, then called ""coronal transients"", and of coronal holes, now known to be intimately associated with the solar wind. In 1980, the Solar Maximum Mission probes were launched by NASA. This spacecraft was designed to observe gamma rays, X-rays and ultraviolet radiation from solar flares during a time of high solar activity and solar luminosity. Just a few months after launch, however, an electronics failure caused the probe to go into standby mode, and it spent the next three years in this inactive state. In 1984, Space Shuttle Challenger mission STS-41-C retrieved the satellite and repaired its electronics before re-releasing it into orbit. The Solar Maximum Mission subsequently acquired thousands of images of the solar corona before re-entering Earth's atmosphere in June 1989. Launched in 1991, Japan's Yohkoh (Sunbeam) satellite observed solar flares at X-ray wavelengths. Mission data allowed scientists to identify several different types of flares and demonstrated that the corona away from regions of peak activity was much more dynamic and active than had previously been supposed. Yohkoh observed an entire solar cycle but went into standby mode when an annular eclipse in 2001 caused it to lose its lock on the Sun. It was destroyed by atmospheric re-entry in 2005. The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, jointly built by the European Space Agency and NASA, was launched on 2 December 1995.","[-0.030427025631070137, 0.024564001709222794, 0.01194832008332014, 0.10629353672266006, -0.023781582713127136, -0.020683709532022476, 0.031576644629240036, 0.045183777809143066, 0.024479014798998833, -0.03429427370429039, 0.019872142001986504, 0.014855793677270412, 0.017371226102113724, 0.04826943203806877, 0.0093021085485816, 0.014267145656049252, 0.049309778958559036, -0.07308407127857208, 0.059623461216688156, -0.014229760505259037, -0.03528667613863945, -0.01651015132665634, -0.09501834958791733, 0.013162150047719479, 0.03239228203892708, 0.09232547134160995, -0.09557104855775833, -0.08111737668514252, -0.061594199389219284, 0.040199629962444305, -0.01574307307600975, -0.03697195276618004, -0.0397026427090168, 0.047180213034152985, 0.06632392108440399, 0.056776486337184906, 0.027714762836694717, -0.09972521662712097, -0.035315535962581635, 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72,"the Sun . It was destroyed by atmospheric re-entry in 2005 . The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory , jointly built by the European Space Agency and NASA , was launched on 2 December 1995 .Originally intended to serve a two-year mission, SOHO remains in operation as of 2024. Situated at the Lagrangian point between Earth and the Sun (at which the gravitational pull from both is equal), SOHO has provided a constant view of the Sun at many wavelengths since its launch. Besides its direct solar observation, SOHO has enabled the discovery of a large number of comets, mostly tiny sungrazing comets that incinerate as they pass the Sun. All these satellites have observed the Sun from the plane of the ecliptic, and so have only observed its equatorial regions in detail. The Ulysses probe was launched in 1990 to study the Sun's polar regions. It first travelled to Jupiter, to ""slingshot"" into an orbit that would take it far above the plane of the ecliptic. Once Ulysses was in its scheduled orbit, it began observing the solar wind and magnetic field strength at high solar latitudes, finding that the solar wind from high latitudes was moving at about 750 km/s, which was slower than expected, and that there were large magnetic waves emerging from high latitudes that scattered galactic cosmic rays. Elemental abundances in the photosphere are well known from spectroscopic studies, but the composition of the interior of the Sun is more poorly understood. A solar wind sample return mission, Genesis, was designed to allow astronomers to directly measure the composition of solar material. Observation by eyes
Exposure to the eye
The brightness of the Sun can cause pain from looking at it with the naked eye; however, doing so for brief periods is not hazardous for normal non-dilated eyes.","[-0.026398416608572006, -0.009946375153958797, 0.024467112496495247, 0.0065550049766898155, 0.05327332392334938, -0.09174137562513351, -0.05521547421813011, -0.03539824113249779, -0.0026152802165597677, 0.020413856953382492, -0.048891738057136536, 0.09312629699707031, 0.0029121912084519863, 0.0027816996444016695, 0.035785235464572906, 0.0021285121329128742, 0.02984892763197422, -0.13529901206493378, 0.0384238176047802, -0.03791772574186325, -0.017636094242334366, -0.033842504024505615, -0.0061441585421562195, 0.029363879933953285, 0.06493857502937317, 0.03343377262353897, -0.01915351115167141, -0.10487566888332367, -0.12066188454627991, 0.03745073452591896, -0.03105061873793602, -0.0010859944159165025, -0.12272804975509644, 0.032364100217819214, -0.006524829659610987, 0.049384716898202896, 0.0527762845158577, 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73,"to the eye The brightness of the Sun can cause pain from looking at it with the naked eye ; however , doing so for brief periods is not hazardous for normal non-dilated eyes .Looking directly at the Sun, known as sungazing, causes phosphene visual artefacts and temporary partial blindness. It also delivers about 4 milliwatts of sunlight to the retina, slightly heating it and potentially causing damage in eyes that cannot respond properly to the brightness. Viewing of the direct Sun with the naked eye can cause UV-induced, sunburn-like lesions on the retina beginning after about 100 seconds, particularly under conditions where the UV light from the Sun is intense and well focused. Viewing the Sun through light-concentrating optics such as binoculars may result in permanent damage to the retina without an appropriate filter that blocks UV and substantially dims the sunlight. When using an attenuating filter to view the Sun, the viewer is cautioned to use a filter specifically designed for that use. Some improvised filters that pass UV or IR rays, can actually harm the eye at high brightness levels. Brief glances at the midday Sun through an unfiltered telescope can cause permanent damage. During sunrise and sunset, sunlight is attenuated because of Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering from a particularly long passage through Earth's atmosphere, and the Sun is sometimes faint enough to be viewed comfortably with the naked eye or safely with optics (provided there is no risk of bright sunlight suddenly appearing through a break between clouds). Hazy conditions, atmospheric dust, and high humidity contribute to this atmospheric attenuation. Phenomena
An optical phenomenon, known as a green flash, can sometimes be seen shortly after sunset or before sunrise. The flash is caused by light from the Sun just below the horizon being bent (usually through a temperature inversion) towards the observer.","[-0.012057993561029434, 0.05163951590657234, 0.053211599588394165, 0.06626498699188232, 0.12465730309486389, -0.05586450546979904, 0.0933733731508255, 0.04163365438580513, 0.0059186676517128944, 0.03815797343850136, 0.013195453211665154, -0.004257365129888058, -0.00474909832701087, 0.06615515798330307, 0.010953476652503014, 0.037081073969602585, 0.033159755170345306, 0.006544367875903845, -0.03990978002548218, 0.0050061228685081005, 0.0835854634642601, -0.028899671509861946, -0.07175927609205246, -0.036217059940099716, 0.0012661549262702465, 0.0011400276562198997, 0.0013419899623841047, -0.009940065443515778, -0.04585355520248413, 0.008922175504267216, -0.04937552288174629, -0.01802264153957367, -0.09927508980035782, 0.04095835983753204, -0.044436629861593246, 0.02376776747405529, 0.01835029199719429, -0.06773073971271515, -0.08523073047399521, 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74,"be seen shortly after sunset or before sunrise . The flash is caused by light from the Sun just below the horizon being bent ( usually through a temperature inversion ) towards the observer .Light of shorter wavelengths (violet, blue, green) is bent more than that of longer wavelengths (yellow, orange, red) but the violet and blue light is scattered more, leaving light that is perceived as green. Religious aspects
Solar deities play a major role in many world religions and mythologies. Worship of the Sun was central to civilisations such as the ancient Egyptians, the Inca of South America and the Aztecs of what is now Mexico. In religions such as Hinduism, the Sun is still considered a god, known as Surya. Many ancient monuments were constructed with solar phenomena in mind; for example, stone megaliths accurately mark the summer or winter solstice (for example in Nabta Playa, Egypt; Mnajdra, Malta; and Stonehenge, England); Newgrange, a prehistoric human-built mount in Ireland, was designed to detect the winter solstice; the pyramid of El Castillo at Chichén Itzá in Mexico is designed to cast shadows in the shape of serpents climbing the pyramid at the vernal and autumnal equinoxes. The ancient Sumerians believed that the Sun was Utu, the god of justice and twin brother of Inanna, the Queen of Heaven. Later, Utu was identified with the East Semitic god Shamash. Utu was regarded as a helper-deity, who aided those in distress. From at least the Fourth Dynasty of Ancient Egypt, the Sun was worshipped as the god Ra, portrayed as a falcon-headed divinity surmounted by the solar disk. In the New Empire period, the Sun became identified with the dung beetle.","[-0.006392574403434992, 0.05159672722220421, 0.009440373629331589, 0.08238410204648972, 0.018250349909067154, -0.09341419488191605, -0.024982968345284462, -0.04789178818464279, 0.08613111078739166, -0.0016940663335844874, -0.006997834425419569, -0.08203405141830444, 0.005397005006670952, 0.022030923515558243, 0.08215487003326416, 0.016219910234212875, -0.031680118292570114, -0.01636393368244171, 0.048147883266210556, -0.039544280618429184, 0.056336693465709686, -0.09551767259836197, -0.10255497694015503, -0.029901018366217613, -0.033954158425331116, -0.02487482689321041, -0.016514066606760025, -0.022655192762613297, 0.008330249227583408, 0.03724343702197075, -0.00940107274800539, 0.04619661718606949, -0.056488510221242905, 0.0015346106374636292, -0.010696323588490486, 0.05783851444721222, 0.09826553612947464, -0.050887931138277054, -0.038267988711595535, -0.01948375068604946, -0.010588322766125202, 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0.04423698037862778]",Sun,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.
75,"the Sun was worshipped as the god Ra , portrayed as a falcon-headed divinity surmounted by the solar disk . In the New Empire period , the Sun became identified with the dung beetle .In the form of the sun disc Aten, the Sun had a brief resurgence during the Amarna Period when it again became the preeminent, if not only, divinity for the Pharaoh Akhenaten. The Egyptians portrayed the god Ra as being carried across the sky in a solar barque, accompanied by lesser gods, and to the Greeks, he was Helios, carried by a chariot drawn by fiery horses. From the reign of Elagabalus in the late Roman Empire the Sun's birthday was a holiday celebrated as Sol Invictus (literally 'Unconquered Sun') soon after the winter solstice. The Sun appears from Earth to revolve once a year along the ecliptic through the zodiac, and so Greek astronomers categorised it as one of the seven planets (from Greek planetes, 'wanderer'); the naming of the days of the weeks after the seven planets dates to the Roman era. In Proto-Indo-European religion, the Sun was personified as the goddess *Seh2ul. Derivatives of this goddess in Indo-European languages include the Old Norse Sól, Sanskrit Surya, Gaulish Sulis, Lithuanian Saulė, and Slavic Solntse. In ancient Greek religion, the sun deity was the male god Helios, who in later times was syncretised with Apollo. In ancient Roman culture, Sunday was the day of the sun god. In paganism, the Sun was a source of life. It was the centre of a popular cult among Romans, who would stand at dawn to catch the first rays of sunshine as they prayed. The celebration of the winter solstice (which influenced Christmas) was part of the Roman cult of Sol Invictus. It was adopted as the Sabbath day by Christians.","[-0.037352513521909714, 0.09134125709533691, 0.030648723244667053, 0.08998563140630722, -0.034538064152002335, -0.023325558751821518, 0.07948911190032959, -0.03676263242959976, 0.03645515441894531, 0.010413219220936298, 0.007156929466873407, -0.04308027774095535, -0.03808028995990753, -0.02851169928908348, 0.00455244118347764, -0.07667676359415054, -0.06842843443155289, -0.014527196995913982, -0.010104826651513577, -0.01944858394563198, 0.030039159581065178, -0.07949899882078171, -0.058204714208841324, 0.020431160926818848, 0.0036891174968332052, 0.0467243418097496, -0.045058682560920715, -0.019345415756106377, -0.004509711638092995, 0.019596248865127563, 0.026284819468855858, -0.01807529665529728, -0.029243677854537964, 0.022876271978020668, -0.0558718666434288, 0.037507422268390656, 0.06817590445280075, -0.03124644234776497, 0.007705903612077236, -0.01768219657242298, 0.07506682723760605, -0.039890725165605545, 0.009252635762095451, 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76,"as they prayed . The celebration of the winter solstice ( which influenced Christmas ) was part of the Roman cult of Sol Invictus . It was adopted as the Sabbath day by Christians .The symbol of light was a pagan device adopted by Christians, and perhaps the most important one that did not come from Jewish traditions. Christian churches were built so that the congregation faced toward the sunrise. In the Bible, the Book of Malachi mentions the ""Sun of Righteousness"", which some Christians have interpreted as a reference to the Messiah (Christ). Tonatiuh, the Aztec god of the sun, was closely associated with human sacrifice. The sun goddess Amaterasu is the most important deity in the Shinto religion, and she is believed to be the direct ancestor of all Japanese emperors. See also
Notes
References
Further reading
Cohen, Richard (2010). Chasing the sun: the epic story of the star that gives us life. New York, NY: Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-6875-3. Hudson, Hugh (2008). ""Solar activity"". Scholarpedia. Vol. 3. p. 3967. Bibcode:2008SchpJ...3.3967H. doi:10.4249/scholarpedia.3967. ISSN 1941-6016. Archived from the original on 3 October 2015. Retrieved 27 September 2015. Thompson, Michael J (August 2004). ""Helioseismology and the Sun's interior"". Astronomy & Geophysics. 45 (4): 4.21 – 4.25. Bibcode:2004A&G....45d..21T. doi:10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45421.x. 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77,"`` Helioseismology and the Sun 's interior '' . Astronomy & Geophysics . 45 ( 4 ) : 4.21 – 4.25 . Bibcode:2004A & G .... 45d .. 21T . doi:10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45421.x . ISSN 1366-8781 .External links

Astronomy Cast: The Sun Archived 12 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine
Satellite observations of solar luminosity Archived 11 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine
Animation – The Future of the Sun
""Thermonuclear Art – The Sun In Ultra-HD"" Archived 4 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine | Goddard Space Flight Center
""A Decade of Sun"" Archived 3 December 2021 at the Wayback Machine | Goddard Space Flight Center","[-0.06992422789335251, 0.047729335725307465, 0.002276427811011672, 0.028764361515641212, -0.03109820932149887, -0.06664273887872696, -0.09267029166221619, -0.00784796942025423, -0.04823896288871765, -0.03862655535340309, -0.03354102373123169, 0.02173302322626114, 0.041260331869125366, -0.04092349484562874, 0.017777418717741966, -0.03742680326104164, 0.033474501222372055, -0.05951765552163124, 0.030789323151111603, -0.028592873364686966, -0.08117495477199554, -0.012557707726955414, -0.03268376737833023, 0.00888693705201149, 0.038465436547994614, 0.03552853688597679, -0.10900484770536423, -0.0319441519677639, -0.04109479859471321, -0.0354764424264431, -0.0725124403834343, 0.010894901119172573, -0.09606214612722397, -0.009613080881536007, 0.07498544454574585, 0.05566825717687607, 0.059732649475336075, -0.09979767352342606, -0.00709502911195159, -0.01489433366805315, 0.017970010638237, 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78," Mercury is the first planet from the Sun and the smallest in the Solar System. It is a rocky planet with a trace atmosphere and a surface gravity slightly higher than that of Mars. The surface of Mercury is similar to Earth's Moon, being heavily cratered, with an expansive rupes system generated from thrust faults, and bright ray systems, formed by ejecta. Its largest crater, Caloris Planitia, has a diameter of 1,550 km (960 mi), which is about one-third the diameter of the planet (4,880 km or 3,030 mi). Being the most inferior orbiting planet, it always appears close to the sun in Earth's sky, either as a ""morning star"" or an ""evening star"". It is the planet with the highest delta-v required for travel from Earth, as well as to and from the other planets in the Solar System. Mercury's sidereal year (88.0 Earth days) and sidereal day (58.65 Earth days) are in a 3:2 ratio, in a spin–orbit resonance. Consequently, one solar day (sunrise to sunrise) on Mercury lasts for around 176 Earth days: twice the planet's sidereal year. This means that one side of Mercury will remain in sunlight for one Mercurian year of 88 Earth days; while during the next orbit, that side will be in darkness all the time until the next sunrise after another 88 Earth days. Above the planet's surface is an extremely tenuous exosphere and a faint magnetic field that is strong enough to deflect solar winds. Combined with its high orbital eccentricity, the planet's surface has widely varying sunlight intensity and temperature, with the equatorial regions ranging from −170 °C (−270 °F) at night to 420 °C (790 °F) during sunlight. Due to its very small axial tilt, the planet's poles are permanently shadowed.","[0.1098872572183609, 0.023504959419369698, 0.07355356216430664, 0.01615620218217373, 0.019593093544244766, -0.06569758802652359, 0.03906713426113129, 0.06214389577507973, 0.04740758612751961, -0.09229592233896255, -0.044081445783376694, -0.052399858832359314, -0.027692528441548347, -0.008525968529284, 0.07071953266859055, -0.06772073358297348, -0.00039798711077310145, -0.05481383204460144, 0.04056571051478386, 0.07792354375123978, 0.005771166644990444, -0.03792544826865196, -0.02472246065735817, 0.09921970963478088, -0.1035080999135971, 0.06842836737632751, -0.027951614931225777, 0.04057404398918152, -0.0037881755270063877, 0.01389131136238575, -0.03619362413883209, 0.019893070682883263, 0.006202832330018282, -0.020641745999455452, -0.023070288822054863, 0.0250344630330801, 0.026689913123846054, -0.004794922657310963, -0.06663525849580765, -0.08811826258897781, 0.0028296273667365313, 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79,"from −170 °C ( −270 °F ) at night to 420 °C ( 790 °F ) during sunlight . Due to its very small axial tilt , the planet 's poles are permanently shadowed .This strongly suggests that water ice could be present in the craters. Like the other planets in the Solar System, Mercury formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago. There are many competing hypotheses about Mercury's origins and development, some of which incorporate collision with planetesimals and rock vaporization; as of the early 2020s, many broad details of Mercury's geological history are still under investigation or pending data from space probes. Its mantle is highly homogeneous, which suggests that Mercury had a magma ocean early in its history, like the Moon. According to current models, Mercury may have a solid silicate crust and mantle overlaying a solid outer core, a deeper liquid core layer, and a solid inner core. Mercury is expected to be destroyed, along with Venus, and possibly the Earth and the Moon, when the Sun becomes a Red Giant in approximately seven or eight billion years. Mercury is a classical planet that has been observed and recognized throughout history as a planet (or wandering star). In English, it is named after the ancient Roman god Mercurius (Mercury), god of commerce and communication, and the messenger of the gods. The first successful flyby of Mercury was conducted by Mariner 10 in 1974, and it has since been visited and explored by the MESSENGER and BepiColombo orbiters. Nomenclature
Historically, humans knew Mercury by different names depending on whether it was an evening star or a morning star. By about 350 BC, the ancient Greeks had realized the two stars were one.","[0.029891937971115112, 0.013012999668717384, 0.08630863577127457, 0.04616762697696686, 0.06459883600473404, -0.033150531351566315, -0.01649416796863079, 0.03795453533530235, 0.026592066511511803, -0.04689379781484604, -0.04808250814676285, -0.05269888788461685, -0.01764148660004139, -0.0542239211499691, 0.04627367481589317, -0.0532834492623806, -0.016094518825411797, -0.05633211135864258, 0.03581424802541733, 0.023765677586197853, 0.018597468733787537, -0.026029404252767563, -0.10363143682479858, 0.014984307810664177, -0.056721031665802, 0.06149983033537865, -0.008920243941247463, 0.012568059377372265, 0.00114399753510952, 0.04825906455516815, -0.021716631948947906, -0.02567381039261818, 0.03450774401426315, 0.03294498845934868, -0.027599932625889778, 0.020256707444787025, 0.03101733699440956, -0.001495378790423274, -0.10031869262456894, -0.10731106996536255, -0.016474852338433266, -0.033409759402275085, 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80,"humans knew Mercury by different names depending on whether it was an evening star or a morning star . By about 350 BC , the ancient Greeks had realized the two stars were one .They knew the planet as Στίλβων Stilbōn, meaning ""twinkling"", and Ἑρμής Hermēs, for its fleeting motion, a name that is retained in modern Greek (Ερμής Ermis). The Romans named the planet after the swift-footed Roman messenger god, Mercury (Latin Mercurius), whom they equated with the Greek Hermes, because it moves across the sky faster than any other planet, though some associated the planet with Apollo instead, as detailed by Pliny the Elder. The astronomical symbol for Mercury is a stylized version of Hermes' caduceus; a Christian cross was added in the 16th century:. Physical characteristics
Mercury is one of four terrestrial planets in the Solar System, which means it is a rocky body like Earth. It is the smallest planet in the Solar System, with an equatorial radius of 2,439.7 kilometres (1,516.0 mi). Mercury is also smaller—albeit more massive—than the largest natural satellites in the Solar System, Ganymede and Titan. Mercury consists of approximately 70% metallic and 30% silicate material. Internal structure
Mercury appears to have a solid silicate crust and mantle overlying a solid, metallic outer core layer, a deeper liquid core layer, and a solid inner core. The composition of the iron-rich core remains uncertain, but it likely contains nickel, silicon and perhaps sulfur and carbon, plus trace amounts of other elements. The planet's density is the second highest in the Solar System at 5.427 g/cm3, only slightly less than Earth's density of 5.515 g/cm3.","[0.058313414454460144, 0.01302270870655775, 0.02584207057952881, 0.024705316871404648, 0.008931509219110012, -0.09127821773290634, 0.04629145935177803, 0.026296313852071762, 0.06058008223772049, -0.0498630627989769, -0.003624298609793186, -0.05774497240781784, -0.002216596156358719, -0.05915117263793945, -0.007820566184818745, -0.0795331597328186, -0.06036914139986038, -0.004047102760523558, 0.0626763254404068, 0.06555424630641937, 0.008593207225203514, -0.030541693791747093, -0.024033017456531525, 0.08664136379957199, -0.040454309433698654, 0.0645240768790245, -0.02868599258363247, -0.009997989982366562, 0.031101837754249573, 0.035273801535367966, 0.03296564891934395, 0.012675127014517784, 0.02813456580042839, 0.023312324658036232, -0.06599383801221848, 0.007018289063125849, 0.05529799684882164, 0.02744637057185173, -0.06186210736632347, 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81,", plus trace amounts of other elements . The planet 's density is the second highest in the Solar System at 5.427 g/cm3 , only slightly less than Earth 's density of 5.515 g/cm3 .If the effect of gravitational compression were to be factored out from both planets, the materials of which Mercury is made would be denser than those of Earth, with an uncompressed density of 5.3 g/cm3 versus Earth's 4.4 g/cm3. Mercury's density can be used to infer details of its inner structure. Although Earth's high density results appreciably from gravitational compression, particularly at the core, Mercury is much smaller and its inner regions are not as compressed. Therefore, for it to have such a high density, its core must be large and rich in iron. The radius of Mercury's core is estimated to be 2,020 ± 30 km (1,255 ± 19 mi), based on interior models constrained to be consistent with a moment of inertia factor of 0.346±0.014. Hence, Mercury's core occupies about 57% of its volume; for Earth this proportion is 17%. Research published in 2007 suggests that Mercury has a molten core. The mantle-crust layer is in total 420 km (260 mi) thick. Projections differ as to the size of the crust specifically; data from the Mariner 10 and MESSENGER probes suggests a thickness of 35 km (22 mi), whereas an Airy isostacy model suggests a thickness of 26 ± 11 km (16.2 ± 6.8 mi). One distinctive feature of Mercury's surface is the presence of numerous narrow ridges, extending up to several hundred kilometers in length. It is thought that these were formed as Mercury's core and mantle cooled and contracted at a time when the crust had already solidified.","[0.07147027552127838, -0.02793392539024353, 0.007447018288075924, 0.007285866886377335, 0.11632833629846573, -0.06816061586141586, -0.003322278382256627, 0.06294230371713638, -0.007678664289414883, -0.05271368846297264, -0.0966191217303276, -0.06504011899232864, 0.024972975254058838, -0.01970154419541359, 0.055098842829465866, -0.08817797154188156, 0.052898507565259933, 0.014749591238796711, -0.024813352152705193, 0.08946757018566132, 0.018953880295157433, -0.0038365470245480537, 0.030338088050484657, 0.05751515552401543, -0.042296282947063446, -0.007293113507330418, -0.0976712703704834, 0.02929352968931198, -0.005149503704160452, -0.004595171194523573, -0.026090547442436218, -0.03820060193538666, 0.03733466565608978, -0.015341074205935001, -0.03812960907816887, -0.009836053475737572, 0.0010532394517213106, 0.012422769330441952, 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82,"extending up to several hundred kilometers in length . It is thought that these were formed as Mercury 's core and mantle cooled and contracted at a time when the crust had already solidified .Mercury's core has a higher iron content than that of any other planet in the Solar System, and several theories have been proposed to explain this. The most widely accepted theory is that Mercury originally had a metal–silicate ratio similar to common chondrite meteorites, thought to be typical of the Solar System's rocky matter, and a mass approximately 2.25 times its current mass. Early in the Solar System's history, Mercury may have been struck by a planetesimal of approximately 1⁄6 Mercury's mass and several thousand kilometers across. The impact would have stripped away much of the original crust and mantle, leaving the core behind as a relatively major component. A similar process, known as the giant impact hypothesis, has been proposed to explain the formation of Earth's Moon. Alternatively, Mercury may have formed from the solar nebula before the Sun's energy output had stabilized. It would initially have had twice its present mass, but as the protosun contracted, temperatures near Mercury could have been between 2,500 and 3,500 K and possibly even as high as 10,000 K. Much of Mercury's surface rock could have been vaporized at such temperatures, forming an atmosphere of ""rock vapor"" that could have been carried away by the solar wind. A third hypothesis proposes that the solar nebula caused drag on the particles from which Mercury was accreting, which meant that lighter particles were lost from the accreting material and not gathered by Mercury. Each hypothesis predicts a different surface composition, and two space missions have been tasked with making observations of this composition.","[0.05438142269849777, 0.008508442901074886, 0.11190149933099747, 0.05522962659597397, 0.10524289309978485, -0.04420985281467438, -0.0013279874110594392, 0.10438773036003113, -0.029015425592660904, -0.016977673396468163, -0.03456869721412659, -0.05370107293128967, -0.007825811393558979, -0.06094391644001007, 0.049867406487464905, -0.06995301693677902, 0.00850147195160389, -0.0333341546356678, 0.0069018700160086155, 0.09690679609775543, -0.010521183721721172, -0.031073443591594696, -0.08055099099874496, 0.03467877581715584, -0.011880280449986458, 0.08790402114391327, -0.05552634969353676, 0.05035439506173134, -0.035454846918582916, 0.06984725594520569, -0.0390569232404232, -0.0005164165631867945, 0.031541578471660614, 0.034711308777332306, -0.0009651990840211511, -0.019318103790283203, 0.01667891815304756, 0.027266910299658775, 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83,"particles were lost from the accreting material and not gathered by Mercury . Each hypothesis predicts a different surface composition , and two space missions have been tasked with making observations of this composition .The first MESSENGER, which ended in 2015, found higher-than-expected potassium and sulfur levels on the surface, suggesting that the giant impact hypothesis and vaporization of the crust and mantle did not occur because said potassium and sulfur would have been driven off by the extreme heat of these events. BepiColombo, which will arrive at Mercury in 2025, will make observations to test these hypotheses. The findings so far would seem to favor the third hypothesis; however, further analysis of the data is needed. Surface geology
Mercury's surface is similar in appearance to that of the Moon, showing extensive mare-like plains and heavy cratering, indicating that it has been geologically inactive for billions of years. It is more heterogeneous than the surface of Mars or the Moon, both of which contain significant stretches of similar geology, such as maria and plateaus. Albedo features are areas of markedly different reflectivity, which include impact craters, the resulting ejecta, and ray systems. Larger albedo features correspond to higher reflectivity plains. Mercury has ""wrinkle-ridges"" (dorsa), Moon-like highlands, mountains (montes), plains (planitiae), escarpments (rupes), and valleys (valles). The planet's mantle is chemically heterogeneous, suggesting the planet went through a magma ocean phase early in its history. Crystallization of minerals and convective overturn resulted in a layered, chemically heterogeneous crust with large-scale variations in chemical composition observed on the surface. The crust is low in iron but high in sulfur, resulting from the stronger early chemically reducing conditions than is found on other terrestrial planets.","[0.03218013793230057, 0.008648985996842384, 0.1775204837322235, 0.05463655665516853, 0.11178038269281387, -0.01721120811998844, -0.054214999079704285, 0.05420384928584099, -0.0007229875773191452, -0.02866697683930397, -0.0473799854516983, -0.0882985070347786, -0.04058725759387016, -0.046843551099300385, -0.0031201725360006094, -0.024949414655566216, 0.051150284707546234, -0.04551960527896881, 0.010502532124519348, 0.050931815057992935, 0.006906732451170683, 0.03320883959531784, -0.05692657455801964, 0.04574226215481758, -0.05461945757269859, 0.09591039270162582, -0.04791025072336197, 0.07942067086696625, -0.022605765610933304, 0.01918966695666313, -0.003118966706097126, 0.03728906065225601, -0.028216442093253136, -0.01684878207743168, -0.0052651711739599705, 0.07136385142803192, -0.005736367776989937, 0.011019911617040634, 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84,"in chemical composition observed on the surface . The crust is low in iron but high in sulfur , resulting from the stronger early chemically reducing conditions than is found on other terrestrial planets .The surface is dominated by iron-poor pyroxene and olivine, as represented by enstatite and forsterite, respectively, along with sodium-rich plagioclase and minerals of mixed magnesium, calcium, and iron-sulfide. The less reflective regions of the crust are high in carbon, most likely in the form of graphite. Names for features on Mercury come from a variety of sources and are set according to the IAU planetary nomenclature system. Names coming from people are limited to the deceased. Craters are named for artists, musicians, painters, and authors who have made outstanding or fundamental contributions to their field. Ridges, or dorsa, are named for scientists who have contributed to the study of Mercury. Depressions or fossae are named for works of architecture. Montes are named for the word ""hot"" in a variety of languages. Plains or planitiae are named for Mercury in various languages. Escarpments or rupēs are named for ships of scientific expeditions. Valleys or valles are named for abandoned cities, towns, or settlements of antiquity. Impact basins and craters
Mercury was heavily bombarded by comets and asteroids during and shortly following its formation 4.6 billion years ago, as well as during a possibly separate subsequent episode called the Late Heavy Bombardment that ended 3.8 billion years ago. Mercury received impacts over its entire surface during this period of intense crater formation, facilitated by the lack of any atmosphere to slow impactors down. During this time Mercury was volcanically active; basins were filled by magma, producing smooth plains similar to the maria found on the Moon.","[0.008681208826601505, -0.016979772597551346, 0.035169120877981186, 0.04244165122509003, 0.022818490862846375, -0.07607442885637283, 0.02947961539030075, 0.05950003117322922, 0.028203465044498444, -0.03399987146258354, -0.007931564003229141, -0.0862911194562912, -0.005453817546367645, -0.03542313352227211, -0.03691036254167557, -0.004821113310754299, 0.024825651198625565, 0.03793863579630852, 0.05930519849061966, 0.02916623279452324, 0.04801930487155914, 0.02238011173903942, -0.02053079754114151, -0.013097621500492096, -0.02979583479464054, 0.09542043507099152, -0.053883131593465805, 0.09570031613111496, 0.01979147642850876, 0.0453818254172802, 0.007233608979731798, 0.04460233449935913, 0.05582550913095474, -0.0037747046444565058, 0.014900397509336472, 0.07109037786722183, -0.09773475676774979, 0.04633739963173866, -0.12610939145088196, 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85,"lack of any atmosphere to slow impactors down . During this time Mercury was volcanically active ; basins were filled by magma , producing smooth plains similar to the maria found on the Moon .One of the most unusual craters is Apollodorus, or ""the Spider"", which hosts a series of radiating troughs extending outwards from its impact site. Craters on Mercury range in diameter from small bowl-shaped cavities to multi-ringed impact basins hundreds of kilometers across. They appear in all states of degradation, from relatively fresh rayed craters to highly degraded crater remnants. Mercurian craters differ subtly from lunar craters in that the area blanketed by their ejecta is much smaller, a consequence of Mercury's stronger surface gravity. According to International Astronomical Union rules, each new crater must be named after an artist who was famous for more than fifty years, and dead for more than three years, before the date the crater is named. The largest known crater is Caloris Planitia, or Caloris Basin, with a diameter of 1,550 km (960 mi). The impact that created the Caloris Basin was so powerful that it caused lava eruptions and left a concentric mountainous ring ~2 km (1.2 mi) tall surrounding the impact crater. The floor of the Caloris Basin is filled by a geologically distinct flat plain, broken up by ridges and fractures in a roughly polygonal pattern. It is not clear whether they were volcanic lava flows induced by the impact or a large sheet of impact melt. At the antipode of the Caloris Basin is a large region of unusual, hilly terrain known as the ""Weird Terrain"". One hypothesis for its origin is that shock waves generated during the Caloris impact traveled around Mercury, converging at the basin's antipode (180 degrees away). The resulting high stresses fractured the surface.","[0.058131422847509384, 0.019267860800027847, 0.07602204382419586, 0.017007606104016304, 0.01377875916659832, -0.08176258951425552, -0.07511668652296066, 0.04971420019865036, 0.051197562366724014, -0.07796014845371246, -0.04812956601381302, -0.08846747875213623, -0.04283037781715393, 0.00419969018548727, 0.01862669363617897, 0.009148474782705307, -0.08115215599536896, 0.027051489800214767, 0.06096427142620087, 0.026204779744148254, 0.06270697712898254, 0.03151889890432358, -0.05931393802165985, 0.006749450694769621, -0.04358924552798271, 0.056395191699266434, -0.04840625077486038, 0.07806149125099182, 0.00655582919716835, 0.015254341997206211, 0.0012241286458447576, 0.011756275780498981, -0.003361867042258382, -0.02363365888595581, 0.01656392402946949, 0.03167492523789406, -0.10967260599136353, 0.06670781970024109, -0.017547374591231346, -0.10457978397607803, -0.054015278816223145, 0.029070738703012466, 0.07282024621963501, 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86,"its origin is that shock waves generated during the Caloris impact traveled around Mercury , converging at the basin 's antipode ( 180 degrees away ) . The resulting high stresses fractured the surface .Alternatively, it has been suggested that this terrain formed as a result of the convergence of ejecta at this basin's antipode. Overall, 46 impact basins have been identified. A notable basin is the 400 km (250 mi)-wide, multi-ring Tolstoj Basin that has an ejecta blanket extending up to 500 km (310 mi) from its rim and a floor that has been filled by smooth plains materials. Beethoven Basin has a similar-sized ejecta blanket and a 625 km (388 mi)-diameter rim. Like the Moon, the surface of Mercury has likely incurred the effects of space weathering processes, including solar wind and micrometeorite impacts. Plains
There are two geologically distinct plains regions on Mercury. Gently rolling, hilly plains in the regions between craters are Mercury's oldest visible surfaces, predating the heavily cratered terrain. These inter-crater plains appear to have obliterated many earlier craters, and show a general paucity of smaller craters below about 30 km (19 mi) in diameter. Smooth plains are widespread flat areas that fill depressions of various sizes and bear a strong resemblance to lunar maria. Unlike lunar maria, the smooth plains of Mercury have the same albedo as the older inter-crater plains. Despite a lack of unequivocally volcanic characteristics, the localization and rounded, lobate shape of these plains strongly support volcanic origins. All the smooth plains of Mercury formed significantly later than the Caloris basin, as evidenced by appreciably smaller crater densities than on the Caloris ejecta blanket. Compressional features
An unusual feature of Mercury's surface is the numerous compression folds, or rupes, that crisscross the plains. These exist on the Moon, but are much more prominent on Mercury.","[0.039836518466472626, 0.07508032768964767, 0.11351069808006287, 0.040856875479221344, 0.013873723335564137, -0.01805994287133217, -0.040589023381471634, 0.12770234048366547, 0.0265202596783638, -0.05495820567011833, -0.05676919221878052, -0.09435798972845078, -0.06436692923307419, -0.03887039050459862, 0.010205408558249474, 0.007178819738328457, -0.021165484562516212, -0.017403027042746544, 0.030781913548707962, 0.010340387932956219, 0.04923322796821594, 0.03663603961467743, -0.018692338839173317, -0.010459368117153645, -0.04966552183032036, 0.05953865125775337, -0.11642614752054214, 0.12433001399040222, 0.05163084715604782, 0.008650737814605236, -0.017066586762666702, -0.003941467497497797, -0.059279631823301315, -0.001992683159187436, 0.028673985973000526, 0.0180264450609684, -0.035807326436042786, 0.07188453525304794, -0.0663287416100502, -0.07191699743270874, -0.023979419842362404, 0.03498489782214165, 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87,"An unusual feature of Mercury 's surface is the numerous compression folds , or rupes , that crisscross the plains . These exist on the Moon , but are much more prominent on Mercury .As Mercury's interior cooled, it contracted and its surface began to deform, creating wrinkle ridges and lobate scarps associated with thrust faults. The scarps can reach lengths of 1,000 km (620 mi) and heights of 3 km (1.9 mi). These compressional features can be seen on top of other features, such as craters and smooth plains, indicating they are more recent. Mapping of the features has suggested a total shrinkage of Mercury's radius in the range of ~1–7 km (0.62–4.35 mi). Most activity along the major thrust systems probably ended about 3.6–3.7 billion years ago. Small-scale thrust fault scarps have been found, tens of meters in height and with lengths in the range of a few kilometers, that appear to be less than 50 million years old, indicating that compression of the interior and consequent surface geological activity continue to the present. Volcanism
There is evidence for pyroclastic flows on Mercury from low-profile shield volcanoes. Fifty-one pyroclastic deposits have been identified, where 90% of them are found within impact craters. A study of the degradation state of the impact craters that host pyroclastic deposits suggests that pyroclastic activity occurred on Mercury over a prolonged interval. A ""rimless depression"" inside the southwest rim of the Caloris Basin consists of at least nine overlapping volcanic vents, each individually up to 8 km (5.0 mi) in diameter. It is thus a ""compound volcano"". The vent floors are at least 1 km (0.62 mi) below their brinks and they bear a closer resemblance to volcanic craters sculpted by explosive eruptions or modified by collapse into void spaces created by magma withdrawal back down into a conduit.","[0.025839606299996376, 0.008814334869384766, 0.1209326982498169, 0.021828198805451393, 0.011766220442950726, -0.04201199486851692, -0.09429504722356796, 0.09457912296056747, -0.03108096867799759, -0.07695585489273071, -0.02251935936510563, -0.04644949734210968, -0.05420602485537529, -0.004113074392080307, -0.015768812969326973, -0.006580589804798365, -0.05836236849427223, 0.028611009940505028, 0.04332394525408745, 0.06937365233898163, 0.021152060478925705, 0.004885190632194281, -0.07798931002616882, 0.07952272146940231, -0.0802464634180069, 0.06493565440177917, -0.05008381977677345, 0.05787866935133934, 0.014601294882595539, 0.0029895780608057976, -0.04294972866773605, -0.06490667164325714, -0.07113733142614365, 0.006783524993807077, 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88,"mi ) below their brinks and they bear a closer resemblance to volcanic craters sculpted by explosive eruptions or modified by collapse into void spaces created by magma withdrawal back down into a conduit .Scientists could not quantify the age of the volcanic complex system but reported that it could be on the order of a billion years. Surface conditions and exosphere
The surface temperature of Mercury ranges from 100 to 700 K (−173 to 427 °C; −280 to 800 °F). It never rises above 180 K at the poles, due to the absence of an atmosphere and a steep temperature gradient between the equator and the poles. At perihelion, the equatorial subsolar point is located at longitude 0°W or 180°W, and it climbs to a temperature of about 700 K. During aphelion, this occurs at 90° or 270°W and reaches only 550 K. On the dark side of the planet, temperatures average 110 K. The intensity of sunlight on Mercury's surface ranges between 4.59 and 10.61 times the solar constant (1,370 W·m−2). Although daylight temperatures at the surface of Mercury are generally extremely high, observations strongly suggest that ice (frozen water) exists on Mercury. The floors of deep craters at the poles are never exposed to direct sunlight, and temperatures there remain below 102 K, far lower than the global average. This creates a cold trap where ice can accumulate. Water ice strongly reflects radar, and observations by the 70-meter Goldstone Solar System Radar and the VLA in the early 1990s revealed that there are patches of high radar reflection near the poles. Although ice was not the only possible cause of these reflective regions, astronomers thought it to be the most likely explanation. The presence of water ice was confirmed using MESSENGER images of craters at the north pole.","[0.03481431305408478, 0.028399066999554634, 0.07612594217061996, -0.0010525149991735816, 0.04630570113658905, -0.056588467210531235, -0.029175536707043648, 0.06106391176581383, 0.04745594412088394, -0.022072963416576385, -0.001607739832252264, -0.08686603605747223, 0.018714532256126404, -0.032018031924963, 0.08298145234584808, -0.03359580412507057, -0.017118213698267937, -0.0456114187836647, 0.06378749012947083, 0.044705066829919815, 0.023571688681840897, -0.03582482039928436, -0.06219710037112236, 0.006372777279466391, -0.07558712363243103, 0.011394089087843895, -0.04918384179472923, 0.04684802517294884, -0.004646891262382269, 0.09884689003229141, -0.06998424232006073, -0.04444585740566254, -0.002654175739735365, 0.009255893528461456, 0.032867733389139175, 5.920662806602195e-05, 0.0196855328977108, 0.0077017140574753284, -0.09023323655128479, -0.06468887627124786, -0.006463241763412952, 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89,"only possible cause of these reflective regions , astronomers thought it to be the most likely explanation . The presence of water ice was confirmed using MESSENGER images of craters at the north pole .The icy crater regions are estimated to contain about 1014–1015 kg of ice, and may be covered by a layer of regolith that inhibits sublimation. By comparison, the Antarctic ice sheet on Earth has a mass of about 4×1018 kg, and Mars's south polar cap contains about 1016 kg of water. The origin of the ice on Mercury is not yet known, but the two most likely sources are from outgassing of water from the planet's interior and deposition by impacts of comets. Mercury is too small and hot for its gravity to retain any significant atmosphere over long periods of time; it does have a tenuous surface-bounded exosphere at a surface pressure of less than approximately 0.5 nPa (0.005 picobars). It includes hydrogen, helium, oxygen, sodium, calcium, potassium, magnesium, silicon, and hydroxide, among others. This exosphere is not stable—atoms are continuously lost and replenished from a variety of sources. Hydrogen atoms and helium atoms probably come from the solar wind, diffusing into Mercury's magnetosphere before later escaping back into space. The radioactive decay of elements within Mercury's crust is another source of helium, as well as sodium and potassium. Water vapor is present, released by a combination of processes such as comets striking its surface, sputtering creating water out of hydrogen from the solar wind and oxygen from rock, and sublimation from reservoirs of water ice in the permanently shadowed polar craters. The detection of high amounts of water-related ions like O+, OH−, and H3O+ was a surprise.","[0.0338640958070755, 0.005484391935169697, 0.10017605125904083, 0.044347409158945084, 0.12429974973201752, -0.05401420220732689, 0.023372085765004158, 0.03889787197113037, 0.04413217306137085, 0.005781893152743578, -0.03913986310362816, -0.059429872781038284, -0.028973521664738655, -0.0659966766834259, 0.06559407711029053, -0.02644706517457962, -0.03518229350447655, -0.07058728486299515, 0.019981618970632553, 0.03832852840423584, 0.031896065920591354, -0.017261844128370285, -0.05352460592985153, -0.00936413649469614, -0.0703534260392189, 0.0812530368566513, -0.04224614426493645, 0.07677483558654785, 0.06461533904075623, 0.07103270292282104, -0.008034360595047474, -0.003446755465120077, -0.014326250180602074, -0.041563086211681366, 0.08565104752779007, 0.02977057732641697, 0.016176223754882812, -0.014401070773601532, -0.05514068529009819, -0.1043541356921196, 0.008632770739495754, 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90,"rock , and sublimation from reservoirs of water ice in the permanently shadowed polar craters . The detection of high amounts of water-related ions like O+ , OH− , and H3O+ was a surprise .Because of the quantities of these ions that were detected in Mercury's space environment, scientists surmise that these molecules were blasted from the surface or exosphere by the solar wind. Sodium, potassium, and calcium were discovered in the atmosphere during the 1980s–1990s, and are thought to result primarily from the vaporization of surface rock struck by micrometeorite impacts including presently from Comet Encke. In 2008, magnesium was discovered by MESSENGER. Studies indicate that, at times, sodium emissions are localized at points that correspond to the planet's magnetic poles. This would indicate an interaction between the magnetosphere and the planet's surface. According to NASA, Mercury is not a suitable planet for Earth-like life. It has a surface boundary exosphere instead of a layered atmosphere, extreme temperatures, and high solar radiation. It is unlikely that any living beings can withstand those conditions. Some parts of the subsurface of Mercury may have been habitable, and perhaps life forms, albeit likely primitive microorganisms, may have existed on the planet. Magnetic field and magnetosphere
Despite its small size and slow 59-day-long rotation, Mercury has a significant, and apparently global, magnetic field. According to measurements taken by Mariner 10, it is about 1.1% the strength of Earth's. The magnetic-field strength at Mercury's equator is about 300 nT. Like that of Earth, Mercury's magnetic field is dipolar and nearly aligned with the planet's spin axis (10° dipolar tilt, compared to 11° for Earth). Measurements from both the Mariner 10 and MESSENGER space probes have indicated that the strength and shape of the magnetic field are stable.","[-0.02897491306066513, 0.029858628287911415, 0.12716397643089294, 0.01229802891612053, 0.12089568376541138, -0.03384621813893318, 0.07400636374950409, 0.03516339510679245, -0.0118405194953084, 0.014651132747530937, -0.008919666521251202, -0.04478384554386139, 0.06936154514551163, 0.007969534024596214, 0.027337245643138885, -0.024680601432919502, 0.008200762793421745, -0.004024734254926443, 0.016915053129196167, 0.06526336073875427, 0.032465483993291855, 0.045888274908065796, -0.06899779289960861, -0.0007637723465450108, -0.05199292302131653, 0.13751208782196045, -0.014442844316363335, 0.029504597187042236, -0.019195228815078735, 0.054038502275943756, -0.04490797221660614, 0.00497338455170393, -0.004427716135978699, -0.08849143981933594, 0.052506234496831894, 0.05960782617330551, -0.003393670544028282, 0.02145421877503395, -0.06697499752044678, 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91,"10° dipolar tilt , compared to 11° for Earth ) . Measurements from both the Mariner 10 and MESSENGER space probes have indicated that the strength and shape of the magnetic field are stable .It is likely that this magnetic field is generated by a dynamo effect, in a manner similar to the magnetic field of Earth. This dynamo effect would result from the circulation of the planet's iron-rich liquid core. Particularly strong tidal heating effects caused by the planet's high orbital eccentricity would serve to keep part of the core in the liquid state necessary for this dynamo effect. Mercury's magnetic field is strong enough to deflect the solar wind around the planet, creating a magnetosphere. The planet's magnetosphere, though small enough to fit within Earth, is strong enough to trap solar wind plasma. This contributes to the space weathering of the planet's surface. Observations taken by the Mariner 10 spacecraft detected this low energy plasma in the magnetosphere of the planet's nightside. Bursts of energetic particles in the planet's magnetotail indicate a dynamic quality to the planet's magnetosphere. During its second flyby of the planet on October 6, 2008, MESSENGER discovered that Mercury's magnetic field can be extremely ""leaky"". The spacecraft encountered magnetic ""tornadoes""—twisted bundles of magnetic fields connecting the planetary magnetic field to interplanetary space—that were up to 800 km wide or a third of the radius of the planet. These twisted magnetic flux tubes, technically known as flux transfer events, form open windows in the planet's magnetic shield through which the solar wind may enter and directly impact Mercury's surface via magnetic reconnection. This also occurs in Earth's magnetic field. The MESSENGER observations showed the reconnection rate was ten times higher at Mercury, but its proximity to the Sun only accounts for about a third of the reconnection rate observed by MESSENGER.","[0.009505919180810452, 0.0004805161734111607, 0.07599377632141113, 0.019648483023047447, 0.1138659417629242, -0.0052882912568748, 0.01351992692798376, 0.02659764140844345, -0.00161564105655998, -0.06890546530485153, -0.07077624648809433, -0.012532797642052174, 0.03830584138631821, -0.039836905896663666, 0.0717373639345169, -0.002266464289277792, 0.03507085144519806, -0.06316390633583069, 0.025084633380174637, 0.07642261683940887, -0.07970107346773148, 0.0032408179249614477, -0.03737739473581314, 0.04296989366412163, -0.062194906175136566, -0.003550806315615773, -0.04131270945072174, -0.010037677362561226, -0.08368463069200516, 0.009664684534072876, 0.015056650154292583, 0.048994965851306915, -0.09612052142620087, 0.057693228125572205, -0.056630685925483704, 0.039254289120435715, 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92,". The MESSENGER observations showed the reconnection rate was ten times higher at Mercury , but its proximity to the Sun only accounts for about a third of the reconnection rate observed by MESSENGER .Orbit, rotation, and longitude
Mercury has the most eccentric orbit of all the planets in the Solar System; its eccentricity is 0.21 with its distance from the Sun ranging from 46,000,000 to 70,000,000 km (29,000,000 to 43,000,000 mi). It takes 87.969 Earth days to complete an orbit. The diagram illustrates the effects of the eccentricity, showing Mercury's orbit overlaid with a circular orbit having the same semi-major axis. Mercury's higher velocity when it is near perihelion is clear from the greater distance it covers in each 5-day interval. In the diagram, the varying distance of Mercury to the Sun is represented by the size of the planet, which is inversely proportional to Mercury's distance from the Sun. This varying distance to the Sun leads to Mercury's surface being flexed by tidal bulges raised by the Sun that are about 17 times stronger than the Moon's on Earth. Combined with a 3:2 spin–orbit resonance of the planet's rotation around its axis, it also results in complex variations of the surface temperature. The resonance makes a single solar day (the length between two meridian transits of the Sun) on Mercury last exactly two Mercury years, or about 176 Earth days. Mercury's orbit is inclined by 7 degrees to the plane of Earth's orbit (the ecliptic), the largest of all eight known solar planets. As a result, transits of Mercury across the face of the Sun can only occur when the planet is crossing the plane of the ecliptic at the time it lies between Earth and the Sun, which is in May or November. This occurs about every seven years on average.","[0.12098339200019836, -0.014445801265537739, 0.055764053016901016, -0.0009250951115973294, 0.00979153998196125, -0.0568530410528183, -0.011244606226682663, 0.042550913989543915, 0.048815466463565826, -0.06841162592172623, 0.049487050622701645, 0.006282942369580269, 0.004132331348955631, -0.04924292862415314, 0.07733117043972015, -0.005005163140594959, 0.02036432735621929, -0.03936284780502319, 0.00014065540744923055, 0.03462585061788559, -0.04272403568029404, -0.10093089193105698, -0.013110761530697346, 0.0769520178437233, -0.07869984954595566, -0.006453222595155239, 0.002987890038639307, 0.008981922641396523, -0.07548229396343231, -0.0021110118832439184, -0.0671001747250557, -0.005804099142551422, -0.018808986991643906, -0.006201086100190878, -0.0757211446762085, 0.02854105271399021, 0.014228999614715576, 0.004673761781305075, -0.02295599691569805, -0.08358469605445862, 0.04137902334332466, 0.007771732285618782, 0.08976958692073822, 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93,"planet is crossing the plane of the ecliptic at the time it lies between Earth and the Sun , which is in May or November . This occurs about every seven years on average .Mercury's axial tilt is almost zero, with the best measured value as low as 0.027 degrees. This is significantly smaller than that of Jupiter, which has the second smallest axial tilt of all planets at 3.1 degrees. This means that to an observer at Mercury's poles, the center of the Sun never rises more than 2.1 arcminutes above the horizon. By comparison, the angular size of the Sun as seen from Mercury ranges from 1+1⁄4 to 2 degrees across. At certain points on Mercury's surface, an observer would be able to see the Sun peek up a little more than two-thirds of the way over the horizon, then reverse and set before rising again, all within the same Mercurian day. This is because approximately four Earth days before perihelion, Mercury's angular orbital velocity equals its angular rotational velocity so that the Sun's apparent motion ceases; closer to perihelion, Mercury's angular orbital velocity then exceeds the angular rotational velocity. Thus, to a hypothetical observer on Mercury, the Sun appears to move in a retrograde direction. Four Earth days after perihelion, the Sun's normal apparent motion resumes. A similar effect would have occurred if Mercury had been in synchronous rotation: the alternating gain and loss of rotation over a revolution would have caused a libration of 23.65° in longitude.","[0.06651034951210022, -0.007811646908521652, 0.046750374138355255, -0.0005315484013408422, 0.07625923305749893, -0.03630679100751877, -0.06427036225795746, 0.04010830447077751, 0.10388368368148804, -0.06618409603834152, 0.007550650741904974, -0.040598656982183456, -0.02161015383899212, -0.08156275749206543, 0.06763209402561188, -0.027303578332066536, -0.05747801810503006, 0.005197461228817701, 0.06517499685287476, 0.052402086555957794, -0.010319242253899574, -0.09538286924362183, -0.014038151130080223, 0.11626744270324707, -0.11627376079559326, -0.004129290115088224, -0.037190571427345276, 0.018282104283571243, 0.0016996184131130576, 0.0169429499655962, -0.06313905119895935, 0.014422782696783543, -0.04819045588374138, 0.04167300462722778, -0.051672011613845825, -0.035820793360471725, 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94,". A similar effect would have occurred if Mercury had been in synchronous rotation : the alternating gain and loss of rotation over a revolution would have caused a libration of 23.65° in longitude .For the same reason, there are two points on Mercury's equator, 180 degrees apart in longitude, at either of which, around perihelion in alternate Mercurian years (once a Mercurian day), the Sun passes overhead, then reverses its apparent motion and passes overhead again, then reverses a second time and passes overhead a third time, taking a total of about 16 Earth-days for this entire process. In the other alternate Mercurian years, the same thing happens at the other of these two points. The amplitude of the retrograde motion is small, so the overall effect is that, for two or three weeks, the Sun is almost stationary overhead, and is at its most brilliant because Mercury is at perihelion, its closest to the Sun. This prolonged exposure to the Sun at its brightest makes these two points the hottest places on Mercury. Maximum temperature occurs when the Sun is at an angle of about 25 degrees past noon due to diurnal temperature lag, at 0.4 Mercury days and 0.8 Mercury years past sunrise. Conversely, there are two other points on the equator, 90 degrees of longitude apart from the first ones, where the Sun passes overhead only when the planet is at aphelion in alternate years, when the apparent motion of the Sun in Mercury's sky is relatively rapid. These points, which are the ones on the equator where the apparent retrograde motion of the Sun happens when it is crossing the horizon as described in the preceding paragraph, receive much less solar heat than the first ones described above.","[0.03921036422252655, 0.04402580112218857, 0.10442161560058594, 0.028172094374895096, 0.0319855660200119, -0.053518906235694885, -0.07009553164243698, -0.021860754117369652, 0.035039450973272324, -0.06969025731086731, 0.03872069716453552, -0.029989613220095634, 0.0438997857272625, -0.07786410301923752, 0.10063685476779938, -0.057672642171382904, -0.032909948378801346, -0.006611545570194721, 0.025517746806144714, 0.04068094864487648, -0.0016070565907284617, -0.10372064262628555, -0.07344484329223633, 0.069154292345047, -0.07509066164493561, 0.011712792329490185, -0.05808081850409508, 0.04913743585348129, -0.013483102433383465, 0.027484919875860214, -0.06404345482587814, 0.0049651809968054295, -0.058924924582242966, 0.0037842276506125927, 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95,"equator where the apparent retrograde motion of the Sun happens when it is crossing the horizon as described in the preceding paragraph , receive much less solar heat than the first ones described above .Mercury attains an inferior conjunction (nearest approach to Earth) every 116 Earth days on average, but this interval can range from 105 days to 129 days due to the planet's eccentric orbit. Mercury can come as near as 82,200,000 km (0.549 astronomical units; 51.1 million miles) to Earth, and that is slowly declining: The next approach to within 82,100,000 km (51 million mi) is in 2679, and to within 82,000,000 km (51 million mi) in 4487, but it will not be closer to Earth than 80,000,000 km (50 million mi) until 28,622. Its period of retrograde motion as seen from Earth can vary from 8 to 15 days on either side of an inferior conjunction. This large range arises from the planet's high orbital eccentricity. Essentially, because Mercury is closest to the Sun, when taking an average over time, Mercury is most often the closest planet to the Earth, and—in that measure—it is the closest planet to each of the other planets in the Solar System. Longitude convention
The longitude convention for Mercury puts the zero of longitude at one of the two hottest points on the surface, as described above. However, when this area was first visited, by Mariner 10, this zero meridian was in darkness, so it was impossible to select a feature on the surface to define the exact position of the meridian. Therefore, a small crater further west was chosen, called Hun Kal, which provides the exact reference point for measuring longitude. The center of Hun Kal defines the 20° west meridian. A 1970 International Astronomical Union resolution suggests that longitudes be measured positively in the westerly direction on Mercury.","[0.10417318344116211, 0.021276386454701424, 0.07892752438783646, 0.013263463042676449, 0.03952877223491669, -0.037611473351716995, -0.0462474599480629, 0.04549038037657738, 0.034771986305713654, -0.05724503844976425, 0.03259192034602165, -0.0407714918255806, 0.012896092608571053, -0.05054238811135292, 0.07498794794082642, -0.06423886120319366, 0.005314795766025782, -0.03235108032822609, 0.008162587881088257, 0.04339658468961716, -0.03415634110569954, -0.01735384203493595, -0.017273681238293648, 0.07022108137607574, -0.10190752893686295, -0.00040984575753100216, -0.03803255781531334, -0.011323361657559872, -0.043022848665714264, 0.04780518636107445, -0.06370332837104797, 0.009597907774150372, -0.0199899785220623, 0.003549007000401616, -0.07393199950456619, 0.014279433526098728, 0.0022602002136409283, 0.015542279928922653, -0.03590822592377663, 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96,"point for measuring longitude . The center of Hun Kal defines the 20° west meridian . A 1970 International Astronomical Union resolution suggests that longitudes be measured positively in the westerly direction on Mercury .The two hottest places on the equator are therefore at longitudes 0° W and 180° W, and the coolest points on the equator are at longitudes 90° W and 270° W. However, the MESSENGER project uses an east-positive convention. Spin-orbit resonance
For many years it was thought that Mercury was synchronously tidally locked with the Sun, rotating once for each orbit and always keeping the same face directed towards the Sun, in the same way that the same side of the Moon always faces Earth. Radar observations in 1965 proved that the planet has a 3:2 spin-orbit resonance, rotating three times for every two revolutions around the Sun. The eccentricity of Mercury's orbit makes this resonance stable—at perihelion, when the solar tide is strongest, the Sun is nearly stationary in Mercury's sky. The 3:2 resonant tidal locking is stabilized by the variance of the tidal force along Mercury's eccentric orbit, acting on a permanent dipole component of Mercury's mass distribution. In a circular orbit there is no such variance, so the only resonance stabilized in such an orbit is at 1:1 (e.g., Earth–Moon), when the tidal force, stretching a body along the ""center-body"" line, exerts a torque that aligns the body's axis of least inertia (the ""longest"" axis, and the axis of the aforementioned dipole) to always point at the center. However, with noticeable eccentricity, like that of Mercury's orbit, the tidal force has a maximum at perihelion and therefore stabilizes resonances, like 3:2, ensuring that the planet points its axis of least inertia roughly at the Sun when passing through perihelion.","[-0.03194244205951691, 0.001089876051992178, -0.016501344740390778, -0.010237092152237892, -0.027765927836298943, -0.031855951994657516, -0.03560398146510124, -0.035703714936971664, 0.10132116079330444, -0.05279795825481415, 0.05681376904249191, 0.031068505719304085, 0.012835872359573841, -0.08773160725831985, 0.06945713609457016, -0.028380563482642174, -0.06578195095062256, -0.0013644072460010648, 0.02064398303627968, 0.007548143155872822, -0.01910693757236004, -0.07247383892536163, -0.005741772707551718, 0.1115775853395462, -0.07976314425468445, 0.017078939825296402, 0.014035936444997787, 0.031540848314762115, -0.027905412018299103, 0.014931296929717064, -0.03694797679781914, 0.04102122411131859, 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97,"the tidal force has a maximum at perihelion and therefore stabilizes resonances , like 3:2 , ensuring that the planet points its axis of least inertia roughly at the Sun when passing through perihelion .The original reason astronomers thought it was synchronously locked was that, whenever Mercury was best placed for observation, it was always nearly at the same point in its 3:2 resonance, hence showing the same face. This is because, coincidentally, Mercury's rotation period is almost exactly half of its synodic period with respect to Earth. Due to Mercury's 3:2 spin-orbit resonance, a solar day lasts about 176 Earth days. A sidereal day (the period of rotation) lasts about 58.7 Earth days. Simulations indicate that the orbital eccentricity of Mercury varies chaotically from nearly zero (circular) to more than 0.45 over millions of years due to perturbations from the other planets. This was thought to explain Mercury's 3:2 spin-orbit resonance (rather than the more usual 1:1), because this state is more likely to arise during a period of high eccentricity. However, accurate modeling based on a realistic model of tidal response has demonstrated that Mercury was captured into the 3:2 spin-orbit state at a very early stage of its history, within 20 (more likely, 10) million years after its formation. Numerical simulations show that a future secular orbital resonant interaction with the perihelion of Jupiter may cause the eccentricity of Mercury's orbit to increase to the point where there is a 1% chance that the orbit will be destabilized in the next five billion years. If this happens, Mercury may fall into the Sun, collide with Venus, be ejected from the Solar System, or even disrupt the rest of the inner Solar System.","[0.0460052527487278, 0.0008771469001658261, 0.0937826931476593, -0.02148197777569294, 0.0032726770732551813, -0.06255603581666946, -0.06775040924549103, -0.03789251670241356, 0.05463387817144394, -0.07746262103319168, -0.0019104459788650274, -0.0223253034055233, -0.0008212726097553968, -0.09683060646057129, 0.09018516540527344, -0.03797833248972893, -0.04610981419682503, -0.0449998639523983, 0.0026759360916912556, 0.08652283996343613, -0.03794990852475166, -0.08301279693841934, -0.021327326074242592, 0.08688550442457199, -0.12363749742507935, 0.07545603811740875, -0.020340468734502792, -0.010861336253583431, -0.008336796425282955, -0.0196281298995018, -0.06611686199903488, 0.026650210842490196, -0.04772701486945152, -0.03749454393982887, -0.06069287285208702, -0.021204983815550804, 0.015500739216804504, -0.02258353866636753, 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98,"years . If this happens , Mercury may fall into the Sun , collide with Venus , be ejected from the Solar System , or even disrupt the rest of the inner Solar System .Advance of perihelion
In 1859, the French mathematician and astronomer Urbain Le Verrier reported that the slow precession of Mercury's orbit around the Sun could not be completely explained by Newtonian mechanics and perturbations by the known planets. He suggested, among possible explanations, that another planet (or perhaps instead a series of smaller ""corpuscules"") might exist in an orbit even closer to the Sun than that of Mercury, to account for this perturbation. Other explanations considered included a slight oblateness of the Sun. The success of the search for Neptune based on its perturbations of the orbit of Uranus led astronomers to place faith in this possible explanation, and the hypothetical planet was named Vulcan, but no such planet was ever found. The observed perihelion precession of Mercury is 5,600 arcseconds (1.5556°) per century relative to Earth, or 574.10±0.65 arcseconds per century relative to the inertial ICRF. Newtonian mechanics, taking into account all the effects from the other planets and including 0.0254 arcseconds per century due to the oblateness of the Sun, predicts a precession of 5,557 arcseconds (1.5436°) per century relative to Earth, or 531.63±0.69 arcseconds per century relative to ICRF. In the early 20th century, Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity provided the explanation for the observed precession, by formalizing gravitation as being mediated by the curvature of spacetime. The effect is small: just 42.980±0.001 arcseconds per century (or 0.43 arcsecond per year, or 0.1035 arcsecond per orbital period) for Mercury; it therefore requires a little over 12.5 million orbits, or 3 million years, for a full excess turn.","[0.014595817774534225, -0.02473783679306507, 0.05571828410029411, 0.019778529182076454, 0.05363265424966812, -0.05227406695485115, -0.04576374590396881, 0.05630103498697281, 0.06442882865667343, 0.0015168501995503902, 0.06643740832805634, -0.000996326212771237, 0.033436696976423264, -0.056798893958330154, -0.02420239895582199, -0.02236189693212509, -0.01877201907336712, 0.00723788607865572, 0.029209837317466736, 0.09807722270488739, -0.033809129148721695, -0.033349305391311646, -0.030970102176070213, 0.00449051009491086, -0.07784750312566757, -0.034981321543455124, -0.034095399081707, -0.007850182242691517, -0.020505869761109352, 0.05299263074994087, -0.004209660459309816, -0.015537193045020103, -0.03223295882344246, 0.012612109072506428, 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99,"arcsecond per year , or 0.1035 arcsecond per orbital period ) for Mercury ; it therefore requires a little over 12.5 million orbits , or 3 million years , for a full excess turn .Similar, but much smaller, effects exist for other Solar System bodies: 8.6247 arcseconds per century for Venus, 3.8387 for Earth, 1.351 for Mars, and 10.05 for 1566 Icarus. Observation
Mercury's apparent magnitude is calculated to vary between −2.48 (brighter than Sirius) around superior conjunction and +7.25 (below the limit of naked-eye visibility) around inferior conjunction. The mean apparent magnitude is 0.23 while the standard deviation of 1.78 is the largest of any planet. The mean apparent magnitude at superior conjunction is −1.89 while that at inferior conjunction is +5.93. Observation of Mercury is complicated by its proximity to the Sun, as it is lost in the Sun's glare for much of the time. Mercury can be observed for only a brief period during either morning or evening twilight. Ground-based telescope observations of Mercury reveal only an illuminated partial disk with limited detail. The Hubble Space Telescope cannot observe Mercury at all, due to safety procedures that prevent its pointing too close to the Sun. Because the shift of 0.15 revolutions of Earth in a Mercurian year makes up a seven-Mercurian-year cycle (0.15 × 7 ≈ 1.0), in the seventh Mercurian year, Mercury follows almost exactly (earlier by 7 days) the sequence of phenomena it showed seven Mercurian years before. Like the Moon and Venus, Mercury exhibits phases as seen from Earth. It is ""new"" at inferior conjunction and ""full"" at superior conjunction. The planet is rendered invisible from Earth on both of these occasions because of its being obscured by the Sun, except at its new phase during a transit. Mercury is technically brightest as seen from Earth when it is at a full phase.","[0.09869774430990219, -0.07504350692033768, 0.005959409289062023, 0.008410157635807991, 0.026868104934692383, -0.08938729017972946, -0.09706038981676102, 0.08180028945207596, 0.020105386152863503, -0.029410677030682564, -0.019911495968699455, -0.02754867449402809, 0.009786178357899189, -0.0633724108338356, -0.006455466151237488, -0.03343146666884422, 0.08595900982618332, -0.03347679227590561, 0.037456199526786804, 0.049700770527124405, 0.011800650507211685, -0.07677240669727325, -0.05815618485212326, -0.01203114166855812, -0.07225125283002853, 0.020976807922124863, -0.06228790059685707, -0.02846263162791729, -0.02425125241279602, 0.01677744835615158, -0.036945682018995285, 0.02813844382762909, 0.00812267605215311, 0.005923921708017588, -0.05949210375547409, -0.021976955235004425, 0.017788615077733994, -0.03579128161072731, -0.04034554585814476, -0.07753989100456238, 0.019774192944169044, 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100,"occasions because of its being obscured by the Sun , except at its new phase during a transit . Mercury is technically brightest as seen from Earth when it is at a full phase .Although Mercury is farthest from Earth when it is full, the greater illuminated area that is visible and the opposition brightness surge more than compensates for the distance. The opposite is true for Venus, which appears brightest when it is a crescent, because it is much closer to Earth than when gibbous. Mercury is best observed at the first and last quarter, although they are phases of lesser brightness. The first and last quarter phases occur at greatest elongation east and west of the Sun, respectively. At both of these times, Mercury's separation from the Sun ranges anywhere from 17.9° at perihelion to 27.8° at aphelion. At greatest western elongation, Mercury rises at its earliest before sunrise, and at greatest eastern elongation, it sets at its latest after sunset. Mercury is more often and easily visible from the Southern Hemisphere than from the Northern. This is because Mercury's maximum western elongation occurs only during early autumn in the Southern Hemisphere, whereas its greatest eastern elongation happens only during late winter in the Southern Hemisphere. In both of these cases, the angle at which the planet's orbit intersects the horizon is maximized, allowing it to rise several hours before sunrise in the former instance and not set until several hours after sundown in the latter from southern mid-latitudes, such as Argentina and South Africa. An alternate method for viewing Mercury involves observing the planet with a telescope during daylight hours when conditions are clear, ideally when it is at its greatest elongation. This allows the planet to be found easily, even when using telescopes with 8 cm (3.1 in) apertures.","[0.06643262505531311, -0.0483124665915966, 0.06603233516216278, 0.0007515998440794647, 0.08611943572759628, -0.024067217484116554, -0.061652589589357376, 0.004434652626514435, 0.04162858426570892, -0.04170100390911102, -0.003245873609557748, -0.025465600192546844, 0.005899609532207251, -0.06792557239532471, 0.13892915844917297, -0.035858143121004105, 0.1196468323469162, -0.059917304664850235, 0.0322432778775692, 0.02029666304588318, 0.05115705356001854, -0.09839563816785812, -0.035517189651727676, 0.04913065955042839, -0.05325697734951973, 0.006038934923708439, -0.0472571961581707, 0.021828927099704742, 0.03211754187941551, 0.026902679353952408, -0.05201162397861481, -0.02916288748383522, -0.018887396901845932, 0.028795914724469185, -0.06885024905204773, -0.030037619173526764, 0.056747082620859146, 0.0046266852878034115, -0.001831925823353231, -0.09061920642852783, 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101,"conditions are clear , ideally when it is at its greatest elongation . This allows the planet to be found easily , even when using telescopes with 8 cm ( 3.1 in ) apertures .However, great care must be taken to obstruct the Sun from sight because of the extreme risk for eye damage. This method bypasses the limitation of twilight observing when the ecliptic is located at a low elevation (e.g. on autumn evenings). The planet is higher in the sky and less atmospheric effects affect the view of the planet. Mercury can be viewed as close as 4° to the Sun near superior conjunction when it is almost at its brightest. Mercury can, like several other planets and the brightest stars, be seen during a total solar eclipse. Observation history
Ancient astronomers
The earliest known recorded observations of Mercury are from the MUL.APIN tablets. These observations were most likely made by an Assyrian astronomer around the 14th century BC. The cuneiform name used to designate Mercury on the MUL.APIN tablets is transcribed as UDU.IDIM.GU\U4.UD (""the jumping planet""). Babylonian records of Mercury date back to the 1st millennium BC. The Babylonians called the planet Nabu after the messenger to the gods in their mythology. The Greco-Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy wrote about the possibility of planetary transits across the face of the Sun in his work Planetary Hypotheses. He suggested that no transits had been observed either because planets such as Mercury were too small to see, or because transits were too infrequent. In ancient China, Mercury was known as ""the Hour Star"" (Chen-xing 辰星). It was associated with the direction north and the phase of water in the Five Phases system of metaphysics. Modern Chinese, Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese cultures refer to the planet literally as the ""water star"" (水星), based on the Five elements.","[0.028575750067830086, 0.015327108092606068, 0.04760831221938133, 0.009777488186955452, 0.043986205011606216, -0.08112119883298874, 0.013255327939987183, 0.04317883402109146, 0.07803842425346375, -0.045546237379312515, 0.04624946415424347, -0.03160974755883217, 0.02245716191828251, -0.05618634447455406, -0.04595371335744858, -0.07592299580574036, 0.023419557139277458, -0.027784591540694237, 0.026813283562660217, 0.008901906199753284, 0.015497851185500622, -0.025950556620955467, -0.028241725638508797, 0.02443810924887657, -0.04867038130760193, 0.01187293790280819, -0.025266407057642937, -0.010223307646811008, 0.06274749338626862, 0.023066071793437004, -0.01893617771565914, 0.013313233852386475, 0.00100791547447443, 0.040458522737026215, -0.05585910379886627, -0.0026237014681100845, 0.03856160119175911, -0.016443800181150436, 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102,"Phases system of metaphysics . Modern Chinese , Korean , Japanese and Vietnamese cultures refer to the planet literally as the `` water star '' ( 水星 ) , based on the Five elements .Hindu mythology used the name Budha for Mercury, and this god was thought to preside over Wednesday. The god Odin (or Woden) of Germanic paganism was associated with the planet Mercury and Wednesday. The Maya may have represented Mercury as an owl (or possibly four owls; two for the morning aspect and two for the evening) that served as a messenger to the underworld. Mercury was sometimes known as Stilbon (Greek: Στίλβων) meaning 'the shining, glittering'. In medieval Islamic astronomy, the Andalusian astronomer Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī in the 11th century described the deferent of Mercury's geocentric orbit as being oval, like an egg or a pignon, although this insight did not influence his astronomical theory or his astronomical calculations. In the 12th century, Ibn Bajjah observed ""two planets as black spots on the face of the Sun"", which was later suggested as the transit of Mercury and/or Venus by the Maragha astronomer Qotb al-Din Shirazi in the 13th century. Most such medieval reports of transits were later taken as observations of sunspots. In India, the Kerala school astronomer Nilakantha Somayaji in the 15th century developed a partially heliocentric planetary model in which Mercury orbits the Sun, which in turn orbits Earth, similar to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century. Ground-based telescopic research
The first telescopic observations of Mercury were made by Thomas Harriot and Galileo from 1610. In 1612, Simon Marius observed the brightness of Mercury varied with the planet's orbital position and concluded it had phases ""in the same way as Venus and the Moon"".","[0.004890347830951214, 0.07647682726383209, -0.015106623992323875, 0.09076564013957977, -0.019957933574914932, -0.08549322187900543, 0.015036636963486671, -0.047101181000471115, 0.09086370468139648, -0.0848599299788475, -0.03275708481669426, -0.08084071427583694, -0.007245643530040979, -0.03173213452100754, 0.01587638631463051, -0.06924598664045334, -0.10199184715747833, -0.02172868140041828, 0.04720952734351158, 0.0501907579600811, -0.0010322288144379854, -0.016816146671772003, -0.03420713543891907, 0.03267970681190491, -0.02540682442486286, 0.036644481122493744, 0.014092182740569115, -0.0017735937144607306, 0.020267853513360023, 0.04035662114620209, -0.01016550324857235, 0.06901281327009201, -0.08867211639881134, 0.0028494291473180056, -0.059553973376750946, 0.011196146719157696, 0.06393661350011826, 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103,". In 1612 , Simon Marius observed the brightness of Mercury varied with the planet 's orbital position and concluded it had phases `` in the same way as Venus and the Moon '' .In 1631, Pierre Gassendi made the first telescopic observations of the transit of a planet across the Sun when he saw a transit of Mercury predicted by Johannes Kepler. In 1639, Giovanni Zupi used a telescope to discover that the planet had orbital phases similar to Venus and the Moon. The observation demonstrated conclusively that Mercury orbited the Sun. A rare event in astronomy is the passage of one planet in front of another (occultation), as seen from Earth. Mercury and Venus occult each other every few centuries, and the event of May 28, 1737, is the only one historically observed, having been seen by John Bevis at the Royal Greenwich Observatory. The next occultation of Mercury by Venus will be on December 3, 2133. The difficulties inherent in observing Mercury meant that it was far less studied than the other planets. In 1800, Johann Schröter made observations of surface features, claiming to have observed 20-kilometre-high (12 mi) mountains. Friedrich Bessel used Schröter's drawings to erroneously estimate the rotation period as 24 hours and an axial tilt of 70°. In the 1880s, Giovanni Schiaparelli mapped the planet more accurately, and suggested that Mercury's rotational period was 88 days, the same as its orbital period due to tidal locking. This phenomenon is known as synchronous rotation. The effort to map the surface of Mercury was continued by Eugenios Antoniadi, who published a book in 1934 that included both maps and his own observations. Many of the planet's surface features, particularly the albedo features, take their names from Antoniadi's map.","[-0.016240224242210388, -0.021753599867224693, 0.024371081963181496, 0.07877565920352936, 0.06193450465798378, -0.08313260972499847, -0.011099639348685741, 0.01991712488234043, 0.032370444387197495, -0.03562776371836662, -0.027252478525042534, -0.007993051782250404, 0.04512983560562134, -0.03625868260860443, -0.024552520364522934, -0.04313322901725769, -0.005875987932085991, 0.0076972502283751965, 0.06892777979373932, 0.05416855961084366, -0.04752248898148537, -0.05115954950451851, -0.034515734761953354, 0.012113911099731922, 0.012581335380673409, 0.01735590770840645, -0.030362285673618317, -0.03329848870635033, 0.03968793526291847, 0.08697352558374405, 0.0016861455515027046, 0.00036888098111376166, -0.09692151844501495, 0.047432877123355865, -0.05119208246469498, -0.007225595880299807, 0.06920208036899567, -0.009706132113933563, -0.005468705669045448, -0.09250423312187195, 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104,"published a book in 1934 that included both maps and his own observations . Many of the planet 's surface features , particularly the albedo features , take their names from Antoniadi 's map .In June 1962, Soviet scientists at the Institute of Radio-engineering and Electronics of the USSR Academy of Sciences, led by Vladimir Kotelnikov, became the first to bounce a radar signal off Mercury and receive it, starting radar observations of the planet. Three years later, radar observations by Americans Gordon H. Pettengill and Rolf B. Dyce, using the 300-metre-wide (330 yd) Arecibo radio telescope in Puerto Rico, showed conclusively that the planet's rotational period was about 59 days. The theory that Mercury's rotation was synchronous had become widely held, and it was a surprise to astronomers when these radio observations were announced. If Mercury were tidally locked, its dark face would be extremely cold, but measurements of radio emission revealed that it was much hotter than expected. Astronomers were reluctant to drop the synchronous rotation theory and proposed alternative mechanisms such as powerful heat-distributing winds to explain the observations. In 1965, Italian astronomer Giuseppe Colombo noted that the rotation value was about two-thirds of Mercury's orbital period, and proposed that the planet's orbital and rotational periods were locked into a 3:2 rather than a 1:1 resonance. Data from Mariner 10 subsequently confirmed this view. This means that Schiaparelli's and Antoniadi's maps were not ""wrong"". Instead, the astronomers saw the same features during every second orbit and recorded them, but disregarded those seen in the meantime, when Mercury's other face was toward the Sun, because the orbital geometry meant that these observations were made under poor viewing conditions.","[0.025097249075770378, 0.04648203030228615, -0.0464307963848114, 0.07099046558141708, 0.006206977646797895, -0.08469279110431671, -0.04380575940012932, 0.0068713887594640255, -0.03729436919093132, -0.00801805965602398, 0.026063038036227226, 0.007085162680596113, 0.036668747663497925, -0.10101340711116791, -0.029066845774650574, -0.018355708569288254, -0.03360417112708092, -0.015640482306480408, 0.0538160502910614, 0.053851258009672165, -0.07248449325561523, -0.00415445864200592, -0.025013400241732597, 0.028168585151433945, -0.003900344017893076, 0.06882528960704803, -0.023609694093465805, -0.03905399143695831, -0.043440356850624084, 0.05194450169801712, -0.03343770280480385, 0.057742778211832047, 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105,"them , but disregarded those seen in the meantime , when Mercury 's other face was toward the Sun , because the orbital geometry meant that these observations were made under poor viewing conditions .Ground-based optical observations did not shed much further light on Mercury, but radio astronomers using interferometry at microwave wavelengths, a technique that enables removal of the solar radiation, were able to discern physical and chemical characteristics of the subsurface layers to a depth of several meters. Not until the first space probe flew past Mercury did many of its most fundamental morphological properties become known. Moreover, technological advances have led to improved ground-based observations. In 2000, high-resolution lucky imaging observations were conducted by the Mount Wilson Observatory 1.5-metre (4.9 ft) Hale telescope. They provided the first views that resolved surface features on the parts of Mercury that were not imaged in the Mariner 10 mission. Most of the planet has been mapped by the Arecibo radar telescope, with 5 km (3.1 mi) resolution, including polar deposits in shadowed craters of what may be water ice. Research with space probes
Reaching Mercury from Earth poses significant technical challenges, because it orbits so much closer to the Sun than Earth. A Mercury-bound spacecraft launched from Earth must travel over 91 million kilometres (57 million miles) into the Sun's gravitational potential well. Mercury has an orbital speed of 47.4 km/s (29.5 mi/s), whereas Earth's orbital speed is 29.8 km/s (18.5 mi/s). Therefore, the spacecraft must make a larger change in velocity (delta-v) to get to Mercury and then enter orbit, as compared to the delta-v required for, say, Mars planetary missions. The potential energy liberated by moving down the Sun's potential well becomes kinetic energy, requiring a delta-v change to do anything other than pass by Mercury.","[0.001814638264477253, -0.004865681286901236, 0.07018052041530609, 0.010925962589681149, 0.08466815203428268, -0.11213458329439163, -0.018262900412082672, 0.07302569597959518, -0.008951937779784203, -0.058539073914289474, -0.03763452544808388, -0.06047903001308441, 0.0292389877140522, -0.042558927088975906, 0.011688926257193089, -0.051017723977565765, 0.06544405966997147, -0.03832973539829254, 0.02355922758579254, 0.033020053058862686, -0.032427866011857986, -0.04532008618116379, -0.05093276873230934, -0.03686343878507614, -0.028532881289720535, 0.03561731055378914, -0.038247834891080856, -0.02574562467634678, -0.025120174512267113, 0.04803680256009102, -0.007212912198156118, 0.04560978710651398, -0.04299299791455269, -0.01958455517888069, 0.00952892191708088, 0.019113263115286827, 0.06917396932840347, 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106,"say , Mars planetary missions . The potential energy liberated by moving down the Sun 's potential well becomes kinetic energy , requiring a delta-v change to do anything other than pass by Mercury .Some portion of this delta-v budget can be provided from a gravity assist during one or more fly-bys of Venus. To land safely or enter a stable orbit the spacecraft would rely entirely on rocket motors. Aerobraking is ruled out because Mercury has a negligible atmosphere. A trip to Mercury requires more rocket fuel than that required to escape the Solar System completely. As a result, only three space probes have visited it so far. A proposed alternative approach would use a solar sail to attain a Mercury-synchronous orbit around the Sun. Mariner 10
The first spacecraft to visit Mercury was NASA's Mariner 10 (1974–1975). The spacecraft used the gravity of Venus to adjust its orbital velocity so that it could approach Mercury, making it both the first spacecraft to use this gravitational ""slingshot"" effect and the first NASA mission to visit multiple planets. Mariner 10 provided the first close-up images of Mercury's surface, which immediately showed its heavily cratered nature, and revealed many other types of geological features, such as the giant scarps that were later ascribed to the effect of the planet shrinking slightly as its iron core cools. Unfortunately, the same face of the planet was lit at each of Mariner 10's close approaches. This made close observation of both sides of the planet impossible, and resulted in the mapping of less than 45% of the planet's surface. The spacecraft made three close approaches to Mercury, the closest of which took it to within 327 km (203 mi) of the surface.","[0.022729218006134033, -0.008864632807672024, 0.018337445333600044, 0.025367669761180878, 0.018874678760766983, -0.04739208519458771, -0.019406868144869804, 0.01532446127384901, 0.0018033110536634922, 0.016817063093185425, -0.02030106447637081, -0.013838926330208778, -0.02789200283586979, 0.014958329498767853, 0.06954166293144226, -0.0009457691921852529, 0.033293288201093674, 0.03938695043325424, 0.032276615500450134, 0.07227645069360733, -0.009175206534564495, -0.023937085643410683, 0.018153732642531395, 0.007202075328677893, -0.05295651778578758, 0.0044227116741240025, -0.10747046768665314, 0.024807097390294075, -0.004791519604623318, 0.013066137209534645, -0.038897283375263214, -0.015344968065619469, -0.09635204076766968, 0.014818381518125534, -0.016962595283985138, 0.10143516957759857, -0.026229655370116234, -0.01691458933055401, -0.04677398130297661, 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107,"45 % of the planet 's surface . The spacecraft made three close approaches to Mercury , the closest of which took it to within 327 km ( 203 mi ) of the surface .At the first close approach, instruments detected a magnetic field, to the great surprise of planetary geologists—Mercury's rotation was expected to be much too slow to generate a significant dynamo effect. The second close approach was primarily used for imaging, but at the third approach, extensive magnetic data were obtained. The data revealed that the planet's magnetic field is much like Earth's, which deflects the solar wind around the planet. For many years after the Mariner 10 encounters, the origin of Mercury's magnetic field remained the subject of several competing theories. On March 24, 1975, just eight days after its final close approach, Mariner 10 ran out of fuel. Because its orbit could no longer be accurately controlled, mission controllers instructed the probe to shut down. Mariner 10 is thought to be still orbiting the Sun, passing close to Mercury every few months. MESSENGER
A second NASA mission to Mercury, named MESSENGER (MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging), was launched on August 3, 2004. It made a fly-by of Earth in August 2005, and of Venus in October 2006 and June 2007 to place it onto the correct trajectory to reach an orbit around Mercury. A first fly-by of Mercury occurred on January 14, 2008, a second on October 6, 2008, and a third on September 29, 2009. Most of the hemisphere not imaged by Mariner 10 was mapped during these fly-bys. The probe successfully entered an elliptical orbit around the planet on March 18, 2011. The first orbital image of Mercury was obtained on March 29, 2011.","[0.005914191249758005, 0.006892621051520109, 0.03300865367054939, -0.006066579837352037, 0.11712124943733215, -0.06587908416986465, -0.015150784514844418, 0.04757741466164589, 0.027328576892614365, -0.03403947874903679, 0.024267442524433136, -0.023734135553240776, 0.0019451577682048082, -0.004370595794171095, 0.05130552873015404, 0.019328836351633072, -0.0023499259259551764, -0.07014250755310059, -0.01061386801302433, 0.05793441832065582, -0.0815611183643341, 0.03210960701107979, -0.03550131991505623, 0.025737809017300606, -0.09392508119344711, 0.03039839118719101, -0.02072242461144924, -0.023814639076590538, -0.07773447781801224, 0.04301553964614868, -0.026060771197080612, 0.041792649775743484, -0.06444374471902847, 0.026860633864998817, -0.02966414950788021, 0.051674406975507736, 0.009411928243935108, 0.026323886588215828, -0.037015121430158615, -0.04217873141169548, -0.0612228699028492, -0.05144135653972626, 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108,"mapped during these fly-bys . The probe successfully entered an elliptical orbit around the planet on March 18 , 2011 . The first orbital image of Mercury was obtained on March 29 , 2011 .The probe finished a one-year mapping mission, and then entered a one-year extended mission into 2013. In addition to continued observations and mapping of Mercury, MESSENGER observed the 2012 solar maximum. The mission was designed to clear up six key issues: Mercury's high density, its geological history, the nature of its magnetic field, the structure of its core, whether it has ice at its poles, and where its tenuous atmosphere comes from. To this end, the probe carried imaging devices that gathered much-higher-resolution images of much more of Mercury than Mariner 10, assorted spectrometers to determine the abundances of elements in the crust, and magnetometers and devices to measure velocities of charged particles. Measurements of changes in the probe's orbital velocity were expected to be used to infer details of the planet's interior structure. MESSENGER's final maneuver was on April 24, 2015, and it crashed into Mercury's surface on April 30, 2015. The spacecraft's impact with Mercury occurred at 3:26:01 p.m. EDT on April 30, 2015, leaving a crater estimated to be 16 m (52 ft) in diameter. BepiColombo
The European Space Agency and the Japanese Space Agency developed and launched a joint mission called BepiColombo, which will orbit Mercury with two probes: one to map the planet and the other to study its magnetosphere. BepiColombo was launched on October 20, 2018. It will release a magnetometer probe into an elliptical orbit, then chemical rockets will fire to deposit the mapper probe into a circular orbit. Both probes will operate for one terrestrial year.","[0.03654232621192932, 0.02387925051152706, 0.04199298098683357, 0.023381713777780533, 0.08197417110204697, -0.07355018705129623, -0.01572641357779503, 0.02694723755121231, 0.00028201821260154247, -0.020703056827187538, 0.009524091146886349, 0.008422588929533958, -0.019230972975492477, -0.0015572692500427365, 0.004757438786327839, -0.024690700694918633, 0.0073517849668860435, -0.0775899663567543, 0.04076739773154259, 0.031855687499046326, -0.06879517436027527, -0.04292762652039528, -0.019741112366318703, 0.021258320659399033, -0.06931177526712418, 0.011643845587968826, -0.03171724081039429, -0.04830488562583923, -0.05256760120391846, 0.04226192831993103, -0.008810828439891338, 0.04781195521354675, -0.026166081428527832, 0.023118818178772926, 0.04041729122400284, 0.06507112830877304, 0.058150988072156906, -0.05302530154585838, 0.018926190212368965, -0.10282580554485321, -0.029063502326607704, -0.0449867881834507, 0.08722978085279465, 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109,"It will release a magnetometer probe into an elliptical orbit , then chemical rockets will fire to deposit the mapper probe into a circular orbit . Both probes will operate for one terrestrial year .The mapper probe carries an array of spectrometers similar to those on MESSENGER, and will study the planet at many different wavelengths including infrared, ultraviolet, X-ray and gamma ray. BepiColombo conducted the first of its six planned Mercury flybys on October 1, 2021, and the sixth was completed on January 9, 2025. The spacecraft will enter the planet's orbit in 2026. See also
Notes
References
External links

Atlas of Mercury. NASA. 1978. SP-423. Mercury nomenclature and map with feature names from the USGS/IAU Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature
Equirectangular map of Mercury Archived May 20, 2016, at the Wayback Machine by Applied Coherent Technology Corp
3D globe of Mercury by Google
Mercury at Solarviews.com
Mercury by Astronomy Cast
MESSENGER mission web site
BepiColombo mission web site","[0.0580420084297657, -0.03865553066134453, 0.006205434910953045, -0.014471719972789288, 0.016706714406609535, -0.02686047926545143, -0.04642963409423828, 0.01760617084801197, -0.04398548603057861, -0.04328411817550659, -0.006095264572650194, -0.01801443099975586, -0.015314089134335518, -0.07122808694839478, -0.027828866615891457, 0.0019564118701964617, 0.0047971634194254875, -0.07697375118732452, 0.11214179545640945, -0.0059253135696053505, 0.0009496008860878646, -0.019206495955586433, -0.01596629060804844, 0.02004658803343773, -0.09680972993373871, 0.0452001616358757, -0.05736863240599632, 0.016012245789170265, -0.017357774078845978, 0.04028693586587906, 0.009261623956263065, 0.010255294851958752, -0.06471508741378784, 0.019286610186100006, -0.022327395156025887, 0.047036312520504, 0.0156133146956563, 0.010358624160289764, -0.029551256448030472, -0.07549915462732315, 0.022082623094320297, -0.049665194004774094, 0.03375868499279022, 0.07625100016593933, 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110," Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is often called Earth's ""twin"" or ""sister"" among the planets of the Solar System for its orbit being the closest to Earth's, both being rocky planets, and having the most similar and nearly equal size, mass, and surface gravity. Venus, though, is significantly different, especially as it has no liquid water, and its atmosphere is far thicker and denser than that of any other rocky body in the Solar System. The atmosphere is composed mostly of carbon dioxide and has a thick cloud layer of sulfuric acid that spans the whole planet. At the mean surface level, the atmosphere reaches a temperature of 737 K (464 °C; 867 °F) and a pressure 92 times greater than Earth's at sea level, turning the lowest layer of the atmosphere into a supercritical fluid. From Earth, Venus is visible as a star-like point of light, appearing brighter than any other natural point of light in the sky, and as an inferior planet always relatively close to the Sun, either as the brightest ""morning star"" or ""evening star"". The orbits of Venus and Earth make the two planets approach each other in synodic periods of 1.6 years. In the course of this, Venus comes closer to Earth than any other planet, in contrast to Mercury which stays closer over the course of an orbit to Earth than any other planet, due to its orbit being closer to the Sun. In interplanetary spaceflight from Earth, Venus is frequently used as a waypoint for gravity assists, offering a faster and more economical route. Venus has no moons and a very slow retrograde rotation about its axis, a result of competing forces of solar tidal locking and differential heating of Venus's massive atmosphere.","[-0.008978991769254208, -0.07894676178693771, -0.0208507739007473, 0.018581848591566086, 0.038465000689029694, -0.0028694302309304476, 0.0014497785596176982, 0.01604979671537876, 0.08917904645204544, -0.011122292838990688, -0.08282974362373352, -0.0411464162170887, 0.0452423132956028, -0.07046264410018921, 0.10205220431089401, -0.059566330164670944, 0.09203892946243286, -0.052168820053339005, 0.01625221036374569, 0.042840324342250824, 0.06301659345626831, 0.003374087391421199, 0.0009871675865724683, 0.018232181668281555, -0.053802091628313065, 0.005992043763399124, -0.07646450400352478, 0.07566384971141815, -0.043121349066495895, 0.026756368577480316, 0.015150699764490128, -0.018927572295069695, -0.01011123601347208, 0.07610868662595749, -0.07013989239931107, 0.012432319112122059, 0.009808940812945366, 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111,"economical route . Venus has no moons and a very slow retrograde rotation about its axis , a result of competing forces of solar tidal locking and differential heating of Venus 's massive atmosphere .As a result, a Venusian day is 116.75 Earth days long, about half a Venusian solar year, which is 224.7 Earth days long. Venus has a weak magnetosphere; lacking an internal dynamo, it is induced by the solar wind interacting with the atmosphere. Internally, Venus has a core, a mantle, and a crust. Internal heat escapes through active volcanism, resulting in resurfacing, instead of plate tectonics. Venus may have had liquid surface water early in its history with a habitable environment, before a runaway greenhouse effect evaporated any water and turned Venus into its present state. There are atmospheric conditions at cloud layer altitudes that are the most similar ones to Earth in the Solar System and have been identified as possibly favourable for life on Venus, with potential biomarkers found in 2020, spurring new research and missions to Venus. Throughout history humans  across the globe have observed Venus and it has acquired particular importance in many cultures. With telescopes, the phases of Venus became discernible and, by 1613, were presented as decisive evidence disproving the then-dominant geocentric model and supporting the heliocentric model. Venus was visited for the first time in 1961 by Venera 1, which flew past the planet, achieving the first interplanetary spaceflight. The first data from Venus were returned during the second interplanetary mission, Mariner 2, in 1962. In 1967, the first interplanetary impactor, Venera 4, reached Venus, followed by the lander Venera 7 in 1970. As of 2025, Solar Orbiter is on its way to fly-by Venus in 2026, and the next mission planned to launch to Venus is the Venus Life Finder, scheduled for 2026 as well.","[-0.07289303094148636, -0.028942987322807312, 0.07286814600229263, -0.012606062926352024, 0.08753548562526703, -0.013158834539353848, -0.03961622342467308, -0.041645392775535583, -0.013989671133458614, 0.002218069275841117, -0.06748317182064056, -0.03277335688471794, 0.030345460399985313, 0.017163868993520737, 0.06774409115314484, -0.06098160892724991, -0.009388240054249763, -0.019450044259428978, 0.03906445950269699, 0.04324651509523392, -0.03515878692269325, 0.06977468729019165, -0.05394921079277992, 0.0249387975782156, -0.0349607914686203, 0.0365169532597065, -0.06587399542331696, 0.031023617833852768, -0.03504364937543869, 0.06395014375448227, 0.023051446303725243, 0.028958667069673538, -0.016114486381411552, 0.0522652342915535, -0.0889308899641037, 0.041895125061273575, -0.031451817601919174, -0.04394723102450371, 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112,"2025 , Solar Orbiter is on its way to fly-by Venus in 2026 , and the next mission planned to launch to Venus is the Venus Life Finder , scheduled for 2026 as well .Physical characteristics
Venus is one of the four terrestrial planets in the Solar System, meaning that it is a rocky body like Earth. It is similar to Earth in size and mass and is often described as Earth's ""sister"" or ""twin"". Venus is very close to spherical due to its slow rotation. It has a diameter of 12,103.6 km (7,520.8 mi)—only 638.4 km (396.7 mi) less than Earth's—and its mass is 81.5% of Earth's, making it the third-smallest planet in the Solar System. Conditions on the surface of Venus differ radically from those on Earth because its dense atmosphere is 96.5% carbon dioxide, causing an intense greenhouse effect, with most of the remaining 3.5% being nitrogen. The surface pressure is 9.3 megapascals (93 bars), and the average surface temperature is 737 K (464 °C; 867 °F), above the critical points of both major constituents and making the surface atmosphere a supercritical fluid of mainly supercritical carbon dioxide and some supercritical nitrogen. Natural history
Formation
The rocky terrestrial planets including Venus are thought to have formed in 5 stages: dust settling, planetesimal formation, planetary embryos, giant impacts, and finally formation of atmospheres. Limited measurements from Venus have prevented a more detailed analysis of the formation timeline. Future
Venus is expected to be destroyed, along with Mercury, and possibly the Earth and the Moon, when the Sun becomes a red giant in approximately seven or eight billion years. Geography
The Venusian surface was a subject of speculation until some of its secrets were revealed by probes in the 20th century.","[0.013910433277487755, -0.08417680114507675, -0.023714719340205193, -0.034190259873867035, 0.03346090018749237, 0.0031003898475319147, 0.010923231951892376, 0.002073955489322543, 0.016773302108049393, 0.07364858686923981, -0.08956282585859299, -0.034178998321294785, 0.021954189985990524, -0.05111776292324066, 0.0633227750658989, -0.0679749920964241, 0.056049104779958725, -0.050442300736904144, -0.034313593059778214, 0.07175904512405396, 0.043215058743953705, 0.08465912938117981, 0.0005008913576602936, 0.031992197036743164, -0.06363511830568314, -0.018559418618679047, -0.07469052076339722, 0.050952717661857605, -0.06889763474464417, 0.06883324682712555, -0.006005306262522936, 0.017590167000889778, -0.016598111018538475, 0.01829744130373001, -0.05598115548491478, 0.031351324170827866, -0.07183472067117691, -0.03358323499560356, 0.026758085936307907, 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113,"becomes a red giant in approximately seven or eight billion years . Geography The Venusian surface was a subject of speculation until some of its secrets were revealed by probes in the 20th century .Venera landers in 1975 and 1982 returned images of a surface covered in sediment and relatively angular rocks. The surface was mapped in detail by Magellan in 1990–91. There is evidence of extensive volcanism, and variations in the atmospheric sulphur dioxide may indicate that there are active volcanoes. About 80% of the Venusian surface is covered by smooth, volcanic plains, consisting of 70% plains with wrinkle ridges and 10% smooth or lobate plains. Two highland ""continents"" make up the rest of its surface area, one lying in the planet's northern hemisphere and the other just south of the equator. The northern continent is called Ishtar Terra after Ishtar, the Babylonian goddess of love, and is about the size of Australia. The Maxwell Montes mountain range lies on Ishtar Terra. Its peak Skadi Mons is the highest point on Venus, 11 km (7 mi) above the Venusian average surface elevation. The southern continent is called Aphrodite Terra, after the Greek mythological goddess of love, and is the larger of the two highland regions at roughly the size of South America. A network of fractures and faults covers much of this area. There is recent evidence of lava flow on Venus (2024), such as flows on Sif Mons, a shield volcano, and on Niobe Planitia, a flat plain. There are visible calderas. The planet has few impact craters, demonstrating that the surface is relatively young, at 300–600 million years old. Venus has some unique surface features in addition to the impact craters, mountains, and valleys commonly found on rocky planets.","[-0.0314226932823658, -0.029973112046718597, 0.016292043030261993, -0.01911984011530876, 0.051477670669555664, -0.06055327132344246, -0.04805433377623558, 0.020608335733413696, 0.026931006461381912, 0.023402618244290352, -0.079355888068676, -0.0529492050409317, -0.01054479368031025, 0.022832974791526794, 0.02975941076874733, -0.027346642687916756, -0.006403638981282711, 0.004837517626583576, 0.05211537703871727, 0.018881523981690407, 0.015842128545045853, 0.05394871532917023, -0.019685013219714165, 0.03820769116282463, 0.0009459228604100645, -0.04208758473396301, -0.006861147470772266, 0.07268854975700378, -0.026940850540995598, 0.06905203312635422, 0.01968730054795742, -0.021347593516111374, -0.04218444600701332, 0.06486687809228897, -0.07621141523122787, 0.04797089472413063, -0.08418627083301544, 0.004085821565240622, 0.003615467343479395, 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114,"the surface is relatively young , at 300–600 million years old . Venus has some unique surface features in addition to the impact craters , mountains , and valleys commonly found on rocky planets .Among these are flat-topped volcanic features called ""farra"", which look somewhat like pancakes and range in size from 20 to 50 km (12 to 31 mi) across, and from 100 to 1,000 m (330 to 3,280 ft) high; radial, star-like fracture systems called ""novae""; features with both radial and concentric fractures resembling spider webs, known as ""arachnoids""; and ""coronae"", circular rings of fractures sometimes surrounded by a depression. These features are volcanic in origin. Most Venusian surface features are named after historical and mythological women. Exceptions are Maxwell Montes, named after James Clerk Maxwell, and highland regions Alpha Regio, Beta Regio, and Ovda Regio. The last three features were named before the current system was adopted by the International Astronomical Union, the body which oversees planetary nomenclature. The longitude of physical features on Venus is expressed relative to its prime meridian. The original prime meridian passed through the radar-bright spot at the centre of the oval feature Eve, located south of Alpha Regio. After the Venera missions were completed, the prime meridian was redefined to pass through the central peak in the crater Ariadne on Sedna Planitia. The stratigraphically oldest tessera terrains have consistently lower thermal emissivity than the surrounding basaltic plains measured by Venus Express and Magellan, indicating a different, possibly a more felsic, mineral assemblage. The mechanism to generate a large amount of felsic crust usually requires the presence of a water ocean and plate tectonics, implying that habitable condition existed on early Venus, with large bodies of water at some point. However, the nature of tessera terrains is far from certain.","[-0.014923353679478168, -0.05361019819974899, 0.03574397414922714, 0.021113287657499313, 0.06182888522744179, -0.03641683608293533, -0.06395936012268066, 0.023097053170204163, 0.02043638564646244, -0.021860161796212196, -0.08226797729730606, 0.010760124772787094, -0.060607437044382095, 0.017110001295804977, 0.009426299482584, -0.03820773959159851, -0.014535678550601006, 0.03718164190649986, 0.1051427572965622, 0.14683353900909424, 0.043736860156059265, 0.024716364219784737, -0.01602206751704216, 0.016210608184337616, -0.023890342563390732, 0.06580201536417007, -0.006842073984444141, 0.08138296008110046, -0.010494277812540531, -0.0001948660210473463, 0.04554705321788788, 0.07806573063135147, -0.034308645874261856, 0.05841778218746185, -0.04766666516661644, 0.003849575063213706, -0.08911143988370895, -0.002143619116395712, -0.05056446045637131, -0.03442051634192467, 0.031413592398166656, -0.09964023530483246, 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115,"ocean and plate tectonics , implying that habitable condition existed on early Venus , with large bodies of water at some point . However , the nature of tessera terrains is far from certain .Studies reported in 2023 suggested for the first time that Venus may have had plate tectonics during ancient times and, as a result, may have had a more habitable environment, possibly one capable of sustaining life. Venus has gained interest as a case for research into the development of Earth-like planets and their habitability. Volcanism
Much of the Venusian surface appears to have been shaped by volcanic activity. Venus has several times as many volcanoes as Earth, and it has 167 large volcanoes that are over 100 km (60 mi) across. The only volcanic complex of this size on Earth is the Big Island of Hawaii. More than 85,000 volcanoes on Venus have been identified and mapped. This is not because Venus is more volcanically active than Earth, but because its crust is older and is not subject to the erosion processes active on Earth. Earth's oceanic crust is continually recycled by subduction at the boundaries of tectonic plates, and has an average age of about 100 million years, whereas the Venusian surface is estimated to be 300–600 million years old. Several lines of evidence point to ongoing volcanic activity on Venus. Sulfur dioxide concentrations in the upper atmosphere dropped by a factor of 10 between 1978 and 1986, jumped in 2006, and again declined 10-fold. This may mean that levels were boosted several times by large volcanic eruptions. It has been suggested that Venusian lightning (discussed below) could originate from volcanic activity (i.e. volcanic lightning). In January 2020, astronomers reported evidence suggesting that Venus is currently volcanically active, specifically the detection of olivine, a volcanic product that would weather quickly on the planet's surface.","[-0.0025746372994035482, -0.05878591164946556, 0.05588798224925995, -0.06260179728269577, -0.011757801286876202, -0.008584578521549702, -0.11834009736776352, -0.0077882749028503895, 0.0025726326275616884, 0.024741530418395996, -0.03878491371870041, -0.07094846665859222, 0.0365121066570282, 0.02236183173954487, 0.05910215899348259, -0.057192642241716385, -0.0402211993932724, -0.027534732595086098, 0.06005271524190903, 0.04445080831646919, 0.043474651873111725, 0.11604218930006027, -0.04471023008227348, 0.002692329930141568, -0.026436377316713333, 0.014726217836141586, -0.03237413987517357, 0.029725149273872375, -0.04248518869280815, 0.028715452179312706, 0.02130817249417305, -0.004235547501593828, 0.02216220088303089, 0.015640834346413612, -0.036913786083459854, 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116,". In January 2020 , astronomers reported evidence suggesting that Venus is currently volcanically active , specifically the detection of olivine , a volcanic product that would weather quickly on the planet 's surface .This massive volcanic activity is fuelled by a hot interior, which models say could be explained by energetic collisions when the planet was young, as well as radioactive decay as in the case of the earth. Impacts would have had significantly higher velocity than on Earth, both because Venus moves faster due to its closer proximity to the Sun and because high-eccentricity objects colliding with the planet would have high speeds. In 2008 and 2009, the first direct evidence for ongoing volcanism was observed by Venus Express, in the form of four transient localized infrared hot spots within the rift zone Ganis Chasma, near the shield volcano Maat Mons. Three of the spots were observed in more than one successive orbit. These spots are thought to represent lava freshly released by volcanic eruptions. The actual temperatures are not known, because the size of the hot spots could not be measured, but are likely to have been in the 800–1,100 K (527–827 °C; 980–1,520 °F) range, relative to a normal temperature of 740 K (467 °C; 872 °F). In 2023, scientists reexamined topographical images of the Maat Mons region taken by the Magellan orbiter. Using computer simulations, they determined that the topography had changed during an 8-month interval, and concluded that active volcanism was the cause. Craters
There are almost a thousand impact craters on Venus, evenly distributed across its surface. On other cratered bodies, such as Earth and the Moon, craters show a range of states of degradation. On the Moon, degradation is caused by subsequent impacts, whereas on Earth it is caused by wind and rain erosion.","[-0.026586521416902542, -0.050962094217538834, 0.0791955441236496, 0.058648139238357544, 0.06504416465759277, -0.053459394723176956, -0.02622331492602825, -0.020213276147842407, 0.08316421508789062, 0.007803983986377716, -0.036553479731082916, -0.023680681362748146, 0.048907570540905, -0.01981765404343605, 0.028384236618876457, -0.03085171803832054, 0.02830297313630581, -0.005543987732380629, 0.041205763816833496, -0.001986872870475054, -0.0018909096252173185, 0.050005458295345306, -0.0917816236615181, -0.0009789776522666216, 0.006559545639902353, -0.023136679083108902, -0.050737105309963226, 0.05942222848534584, -0.06523370742797852, -0.0033614784479141235, 0.01051564421504736, -0.05652302876114845, -0.04993384703993797, 0.07120164483785629, -0.024479089304804802, 0.027541421353816986, -0.026270950213074684, -0.03272375091910362, -0.05219341441988945, 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117,"the Moon , craters show a range of states of degradation . On the Moon , degradation is caused by subsequent impacts , whereas on Earth it is caused by wind and rain erosion .On Venus, about 85% of the craters are in pristine condition. The number of craters, together with their well-preserved condition, indicates the planet underwent a global resurfacing event 300–600 million years ago, followed by a decay in volcanism. Whereas Earth's crust is in continuous motion, Venus is thought to be unable to sustain such a process. Without plate tectonics to dissipate heat from its mantle, Venus instead undergoes a cyclical process in which mantle temperatures rise until they reach a critical level that weakens the crust. Then, over a period of about 100 million years, subduction occurs on an enormous scale, completely recycling the crust. Venusian craters range from 3 to 280 km (2 to 174 mi) in diameter. No craters are smaller than 3 km, because of the effects of the dense atmosphere on incoming objects. Objects with less than a certain kinetic energy are slowed so much by the atmosphere that they do not create an impact crater. Incoming projectiles less than 50 m (160 ft) in diameter will fragment and burn up in the atmosphere before reaching the ground. Internal structure
Without data from reflection seismology or knowledge of its moment of inertia, little direct information has been available about the internal structure and geochemistry of Venus. The similarity in size and density between Venus and Earth suggests that they share a similar internal structure: a core, mantle, and crust. Like that of Earth, the Venusian core is most likely at least partially liquid because the two planets have been cooling at about the same rate, although a completely solid core cannot be ruled out.","[0.02175404690206051, -0.04588792100548744, 0.1344592124223709, -0.015113312751054764, 0.023357052356004715, -0.05477483943104744, -0.10701485723257065, 0.012017084285616875, 0.04436313733458519, 0.03486056253314018, -0.06328125298023224, -0.036220867186784744, 0.011826811358332634, -0.03927294909954071, -0.0011084299767389894, 0.001469067414291203, 0.0070902034640312195, 0.05191275477409363, -0.010297599248588085, 0.0400322824716568, 0.01813019998371601, 0.09718190133571625, -0.08841703832149506, 0.053549110889434814, -0.045079417526721954, 0.013431059196591377, -0.058124229311943054, 0.03700060024857521, -0.005267161875963211, 0.04105140268802643, -0.006093722768127918, -0.01274530217051506, -0.017710857093334198, 0.05180354788899422, -0.06001737713813782, 0.082977794110775, 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-0.04113946110010147]",Venus,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.
118,", the Venusian core is most likely at least partially liquid because the two planets have been cooling at about the same rate , although a completely solid core can not be ruled out .The slightly smaller size of Venus means pressures are 24% lower in its deep interior than Earth's. The predicted values for the moment of inertia based on planetary models suggest a core radius of 2,900–3,450 km. There is now an estimate of 3,500 km from the moment of inertia based on the rate of axial precession, measured between 2006 and 2020. The crust of Venus is estimated to be 40 kilometers thick on average and at most 65 kilometers thick. The principal difference between the two planets is the lack of evidence for plate tectonics on Venus, possibly because its crust is too strong to subduct without water to make it less viscous. This results in reduced heat loss from the planet, preventing it from cooling and providing a likely explanation for its lack of an internally generated magnetic field. Instead, Venus may lose its internal heat in periodic major resurfacing events. Magnetic field and core
In 1967, Venera 4 found Venus's magnetic field to be much weaker than that of Earth. This magnetic field is induced by an interaction between the ionosphere and the solar wind, rather than by an internal dynamo as in the Earth's core. Venus's small induced magnetosphere provides negligible protection to the atmosphere against solar and cosmic radiation. The lack of an intrinsic magnetic field on Venus was surprising, given that it is similar to Earth in size and was expected to contain a dynamo at its core. A dynamo requires three things: a conducting liquid, rotation, and convection. The core is thought to be electrically conductive and, although its rotation is often thought to be too slow, simulations show it is adequate to produce a dynamo.","[-0.014386005699634552, -0.09587191045284271, 0.004580762702971697, -0.042659904807806015, 0.06346370279788971, -0.03147468343377113, -0.10604347288608551, 0.050233423709869385, -0.01667558215558529, 0.017549695447087288, -0.08901519328355789, -0.016793252900242805, 0.05886916443705559, -0.029870785772800446, 0.044744040817022324, -0.04466801509261131, 0.047045767307281494, -0.015401645563542843, -0.029857488349080086, 0.08799783885478973, -0.021154260262846947, 0.05180085822939873, -0.018648244440555573, 0.05576009303331375, -0.005376403219997883, 0.011292935349047184, -0.08663100004196167, 0.020561642944812775, -0.08996552973985672, 0.06672371178865433, -0.004140916746109724, -0.006015462335199118, -0.03499232232570648, 0.046485066413879395, -0.10521167516708374, 0.020362572744488716, -0.043210484087467194, 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119,", and convection . The core is thought to be electrically conductive and , although its rotation is often thought to be too slow , simulations show it is adequate to produce a dynamo .This implies that the dynamo is missing because of a lack of convection in Venus's core. On Earth, convection occurs in the liquid outer layer of the core because the bottom of the liquid layer is much higher in temperature than the top. On Venus, a global resurfacing event may have shut down plate tectonics and led to a reduced heat flux through the crust. This insulating effect would cause the mantle temperature to increase, thereby reducing the heat flux out of the core. As a result, no internal geodynamo is available to drive a magnetic field. Instead, the heat from the core is reheating the crust. One possibility is that Venus has no solid inner core, or that its core is not cooling, so that the entire liquid part of the core is at approximately the same temperature. Another possibility is that its core has already been completely solidified. The state of the core is highly dependent on the concentration of sulphur, which is unknown at present. Another possibility is that the absence of a large impact on Venus (contra the Earth's ""Moon-forming"" impact) left the core of Venus stratified from the core's incremental formation, and without the forces to initiate/sustain convection, and thus a ""geodynamo"". The weak magnetosphere around Venus means that the solar wind interacts directly with its outer atmosphere. Here, ions of hydrogen and oxygen are being created by the dissociation of water molecules due to ultraviolet radiation. The solar wind then supplies energy that gives some of these ions sufficient speed to escape Venus's gravity field.","[-0.03043578937649727, -0.04652930051088333, 0.054046545177698135, -0.01022065244615078, 0.04995579645037651, -0.005723269190639257, -0.04191066697239876, -0.03512027859687805, 0.05679783225059509, 0.00047574404743500054, -0.08879221975803375, -0.002637782832607627, 0.05771283060312271, -0.03487237170338631, 0.0868559256196022, -0.06960813701152802, 0.015262489207088947, -0.038435131311416626, -0.01010867115110159, 0.004189248196780682, -0.02538229711353779, 0.05302034318447113, -0.05173949524760246, 0.04665203392505646, -0.0380091518163681, 0.027156110852956772, -0.0754614770412445, 0.022971222177147865, -0.04955347254872322, 0.07069859653711319, 0.00030108614009805024, -0.015952253714203835, -0.061343200504779816, 0.09637223184108734, -0.06677502393722534, 0.06745322048664093, -0.05952044203877449, 0.019560199230909348, -0.032834745943546295, 0.018659425899386406, 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120,"are being created by the dissociation of water molecules due to ultraviolet radiation . The solar wind then supplies energy that gives some of these ions sufficient speed to escape Venus 's gravity field .This erosion process results in a steady loss of low-mass hydrogen, helium, and oxygen ions, whereas higher-mass molecules, such as carbon dioxide, are more likely to be retained. Atmospheric erosion by the solar wind could have led to the loss of most of Venus's water during the first billion years after it formed. However, the planet may have retained a dynamo for its first 2–3 billion years, so the water loss may have occurred more recently. The erosion has increased the ratio of higher-mass deuterium to lower-mass hydrogen in the atmosphere 100 times compared to the rest of the solar system. Atmosphere and climate
Venus has a dense atmosphere composed of 96.5% carbon dioxide, 3.5% nitrogen—both exist as supercritical fluids at the planet's surface with a density 6.5% that of water—and traces of other gases including sulphur dioxide. The mass of its atmosphere is 92 times that of Earth's, whereas the pressure at its surface is about 93 times that at Earth's—a pressure equivalent to that at a depth of nearly 1 km (5⁄8 mi) under Earth's ocean surfaces. The density at the surface is 65 kg/m3 (4.1 lb/cu ft), 6.5% that of water or 50 times as dense as Earth's atmosphere at 293 K (20 °C; 68 °F) at sea level. The CO2-rich atmosphere generates the strongest greenhouse effect in the Solar System, creating surface temperatures of at least 735 K (462 °C; 864 °F).","[-0.018287543207406998, -0.00015955122944433242, 0.0814521312713623, 0.022875258699059486, 0.07406405359506607, 0.01278407871723175, 0.028506971895694733, -0.0028727927710860968, 0.07726693153381348, 0.023349154740571976, -0.1083727702498436, -0.020942164584994316, 0.05000085011124611, -0.03420167416334152, 0.053719889372587204, -0.012155701406300068, -0.011380632407963276, 0.03778678923845291, -0.0022213852498680353, 0.043538693338632584, -0.00738399475812912, 0.05340384691953659, -0.051365215331315994, 0.049645621329545975, -0.00843113288283348, -0.013541665859520435, -0.07078411430120468, 0.06762553006410599, -0.01075346302241087, -0.0022587706334888935, 0.03226534277200699, 0.0029812881257385015, 0.0032924627885222435, 0.050761278718709946, -0.04049649089574814, 0.04518595337867737, -0.023194532841444016, 0.0033880802802741528, 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121,"°F ) at sea level . The CO2-rich atmosphere generates the strongest greenhouse effect in the Solar System , creating surface temperatures of at least 735 K ( 462 °C ; 864 °F ) .This makes the Venusian surface hotter than Mercury's, which has a minimum surface temperature of 53 K (−220 °C; −364 °F) and maximum surface temperature of 700 K (427 °C; 801 °F), even though Venus is nearly twice Mercury's distance from the Sun and thus receives only around a quarter of Mercury's solar irradiance, of 2,600 W/m2 (double that of Earth). Because of its runaway greenhouse effect, Venus has been identified by scientists such as Carl Sagan as a warning and research object linked to climate change on Earth. Therefore Venus has been called a greenhouse planet, a planet under a greenhouse inferno. Venus's atmosphere is rich in primordial noble gases compared to that of Earth. This enrichment indicates an early divergence from Earth in evolution. An unusually large comet impact or accretion of a more massive primary atmosphere from the solar nebula have been proposed to explain the enrichment. However, the atmosphere is poor in radiogenic argon-40, a proxy for mantle degassing, suggesting an early shutdown of major magmatism. Studies have suggested that billions of years ago, the atmosphere of Venus may have been much more like the one surrounding the early Earth, and there may have been substantial quantities of liquid water on the surface. After a period of 600 million to several billion years, the rising luminosity of the Sun and possibly large volcanic resurfacing caused the evaporation of the original water. A runaway greenhouse effect was created once a critical level of greenhouse gases (including water) was reached in the atmosphere.","[-0.01326650008559227, 0.0023075772915035486, -0.022637661546468735, 0.021321319043636322, 0.09843957424163818, 0.008643600158393383, 0.0038001539651304483, 0.055438365787267685, 0.01784387230873108, 0.04371705651283264, -0.081612728536129, -0.07954791933298111, 0.06422603130340576, -0.03216012939810753, 0.09709075838327408, -0.056988053023815155, 0.035039935261011124, -0.0376494862139225, -0.0037375662941485643, 0.00971209816634655, -0.028619984164834023, 0.06959008425474167, -0.038801293820142746, -0.010899604298174381, -0.04432259872555733, -0.03380966559052467, -0.04151396453380585, 0.09055156260728836, -0.021757299080491066, 0.09199483692646027, -0.0025254166685044765, 0.002443858655169606, 0.001351865939795971, 0.051923103630542755, -0.06003199517726898, 0.0247108805924654, -0.05551431328058243, -0.02170286513864994, -0.023103689774870872, 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122,"possibly large volcanic resurfacing caused the evaporation of the original water . A runaway greenhouse effect was created once a critical level of greenhouse gases ( including water ) was reached in the atmosphere .Although the surface conditions on Venus are no longer hospitable to any terrestrial-like life that might have formed before this event, there is speculation that life may exist in the upper cloud layers of Venus, 50 km (30 mi) above the surface, where atmospheric conditions are the most Earth-like in the Solar System, with temperatures ranging between 303 and 353 K (30 and 80 °C; 86 and 176 °F), and the pressure and radiation being about the same as at Earth's surface, but with acidic clouds and the carbon dioxide air. More specifically, between heights of 48 and 59 km temperature and radiation conditions are suitable for life. At lower elevations water would evaporate and at higher elevation UV radiation would be too strong. The putative detection of an absorption line of phosphine in Venus's atmosphere, with no known pathway for abiotic production, led to speculation in September 2020 that there could be extant life currently present in the atmosphere. Later research attributed the spectroscopic signal that was interpreted as phosphine to sulphur dioxide, or found that in fact there was no absorption line. Thermal inertia and the transfer of heat by winds in the lower atmosphere mean that the surface temperature does not vary significantly between the hemispheres facing and not facing the Sun, despite Venus's slow rotation. Winds at the surface are slow, moving at a few kilometres per hour, but because of the high density of the atmosphere at the surface, they exert a significant amount of force against obstructions, and transport dust and small stones across the surface.","[-0.08308213949203491, -0.03616286814212799, 0.01926104538142681, 0.016240425407886505, 0.11133252084255219, -0.028497770428657532, -0.008023934438824654, 0.001734245102852583, 0.029380161315202713, 0.0634809285402298, 0.010775192640721798, -0.01225449051707983, 0.04297716170549393, 0.049997325986623764, 0.055914174765348434, 0.04017132520675659, -0.015506194904446602, -0.030940091237425804, 0.013813895173370838, 0.0872388407588005, 0.012445788830518723, 0.06237063929438591, -0.08020935207605362, 0.013077779673039913, -0.03671729192137718, 0.021602658554911613, -0.016963357105851173, 0.054591454565525055, -0.07048213481903076, 0.10069070011377335, 0.004455447196960449, -0.02088862657546997, 0.01652980037033558, 0.005701739341020584, 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123,"hour , but because of the high density of the atmosphere at the surface , they exert a significant amount of force against obstructions , and transport dust and small stones across the surface .This alone would make it difficult for a human to walk through, even without the heat, pressure, and lack of oxygen. Above the dense CO2 layer are thick clouds 45 to 70 km above the surface, consisting mainly of sulphuric acid, which is formed by a reaction catalyzed by UV radiation from sulphur dioxide molecules and then water, resulting in sulphuric acid hydrate. Additionally, the clouds contain approximately 1% ferric chloride. Other possible constituents of the cloud particles are ferric sulfate, aluminium chloride and phosphoric anhydride. Clouds at different levels have different compositions and particle size distributions. These clouds reflect, like thick cloud cover on Earth, about 70% of the sunlight that falls on them back into space, and since they cover the whole planet they prevent visual observation of the surface. The permanent cloud cover means that although Venus is closer than Earth to the Sun, it receives less sunlight on the ground, with only 10% of the received sunlight reaching the surface, resulting in average daytime levels of illumination at the surface of 14,000 lux, comparable to that on Earth ""in the daytime with overcast clouds"". Venus's atmosphere rotates much faster than its solid body, a phenomenon known as atmospheric super-rotation. This results in strong 300 km/h (185 mph) winds at the cloud tops, which complete a full rotation around the planet in about 4 days, corresponding to 60 times the speed of the planet's rotation, whereas Earth's strongest winds reach only 10–20% of its rotational speed. Although Venus looks featureless in visible light, there are bands or streaks in the UV, whose origin has not been pinned down.","[0.0030845580622553825, -0.04391074180603027, 0.0770992785692215, 0.05729159712791443, 0.16347311437129974, 0.00830882042646408, 0.07421617954969406, -0.01502781081944704, 0.085557721555233, 0.0011771868448704481, -0.0746990218758583, -0.04618530347943306, -0.02405020222067833, -0.014571718871593475, 0.02112726867198944, -0.011874057352542877, 0.13272105157375336, -0.030521035194396973, -0.0019702324643731117, 0.036476630717515945, 0.056796230375766754, 0.03353383019566536, -0.008819845505058765, 0.007027095183730125, -0.07276979088783264, 0.06228702515363693, -0.08167646825313568, 0.00560698751360178, -0.007699629757553339, -0.011196326464414597, 0.024929644539952278, -0.029685189947485924, -0.02449810318648815, 0.04950704425573349, -0.023027809336781502, -0.007713315077126026, -0.01193136628717184, -0.05899307504296303, 0.012433215044438839, 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124,"winds reach only 10–20 % of its rotational speed . Although Venus looks featureless in visible light , there are bands or streaks in the UV , whose origin has not been pinned down .The absorption of UV may be due to a compound of oxygen and sulfur, OSSO, which has a double bond between the sulfur atoms and exists in ""cis"" and ""trans"" forms, or due to polysulfur compounds from S2 to S8. The surface of Venus is effectively isothermal; it retains a constant temperature not only between the two hemispheres but between the equator and the poles. Venus's minute axial tilt—less than 3°, compared to 23° on Earth—also minimizes seasonal temperature variation. Altitude is one of the few factors that affect Venusian temperatures. The highest point on Venus, Skadi Mons of the Maxwell Montes range, is therefore the coolest point on Venus, with a temperature of about 655 K (380 °C; 715 °F) and an atmospheric pressure of about 4.5 MPa (45 bar). In 1995, the Magellan spacecraft imaged a highly reflective substance at the tops of the highest mountain peaks, a ""Venus snow"" that bore a strong resemblance to terrestrial snow. This substance likely formed by a similar process to snow, albeit at a far higher temperature. Too volatile to condense on the surface, it rose in gaseous form to higher elevations, where it is cooler and could precipitate. The identity of this substance is not known with certainty, but speculation has ranged from elemental tellurium to lead sulfide (galena). Although Venus has no seasons, in 2019 astronomers identified a cyclical variation in sunlight absorption by the atmosphere, possibly caused by opaque, absorbing particles suspended in the upper clouds.","[-0.04879800230264664, -0.05936373397707939, 0.033564094454050064, -0.002957032760605216, 0.07391829788684845, -0.018577590584754944, 0.003566740546375513, 0.02423914708197117, 0.06112294644117355, 0.017424186691641808, -0.06608116626739502, 0.00572283985093236, 0.035589952021837234, -0.05498213693499565, 0.11581584066152573, -0.013969596475362778, 0.08412288129329681, 0.062415141612291336, 0.05431891977787018, 0.051949452608823776, 0.05519983172416687, 0.0013476075837388635, -0.046467382460832596, 0.020223617553710938, -0.01863618940114975, -0.016025738790631294, -0.05174397677183151, 0.06618968397378922, -0.03775176405906677, 0.06676219403743744, -0.03208891674876213, -0.030011797323822975, -0.07870300114154816, 0.026901766657829285, -0.07961389422416687, 0.015545714646577835, 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125,") . Although Venus has no seasons , in 2019 astronomers identified a cyclical variation in sunlight absorption by the atmosphere , possibly caused by opaque , absorbing particles suspended in the upper clouds .The variation causes observed changes in the speed of Venus's zonal winds and appears to rise and fall in time with the Sun's 11-year sunspot cycle. The existence of lightning in the atmosphere of Venus has been controversial since the first suspected bursts were detected by the Soviet Venera probes. In 2006–07, Venus Express clearly detected whistler mode waves, the signatures of lightning. Their intermittent appearance indicates a pattern associated with weather activity. According to these measurements, the lightning rate is at least half that on Earth, however other instruments have not detected lightning at all. The origin of any lightning remains unclear, but could originate from clouds or Venusian volcanoes. In 2007, Venus Express discovered that a huge double atmospheric polar vortex exists at the south pole. Venus Express discovered, in 2011, that an ozone layer exists high in the atmosphere of Venus. In 2013 ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to ""the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions."" In December 2015, and to a lesser extent in April and May 2016, researchers working on Japan's Akatsuki mission observed bow-shaped objects in the atmosphere of Venus. This was considered direct evidence of the existence of perhaps the largest stationary gravity waves in the solar system. Colour and sound of the atmosphere at the surface have been recorded, with the sky having an orange-yellow colour, while at higher altitudes being white. Orbit and rotation
Venus orbits the Sun at an average distance of about 0.72 AU (108 million km; 67 million mi), and completes an orbit every 224.7 days.","[-0.06397130340337753, -0.10322386771440506, 0.04910098761320114, 0.05499127507209778, 0.060071248561143875, -0.004332346376031637, -0.015645718201994896, -0.04306274652481079, 0.07589571177959442, -0.0013973762979730964, -0.037308625876903534, 0.02680385299026966, -0.016650142148137093, 0.0012317385990172625, 0.042334504425525665, 0.009953235276043415, 0.02395888790488243, -0.05529782176017761, 0.06550208479166031, 0.0020287910010665655, -0.019253062084317207, 0.0023885751143097878, -0.020740782842040062, -0.005295611452311277, 0.022365661337971687, 0.04299836978316307, -0.04421568661928177, 0.03416341170668602, -0.021467123180627823, 0.057528261095285416, 0.01817997545003891, 0.02509530819952488, -0.1102217435836792, 0.07166049629449844, -0.059435538947582245, -0.023792508989572525, 0.022716503590345383, 0.001988509902730584, 0.019121751189231873, 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126,"white . Orbit and rotation Venus orbits the Sun at an average distance of about 0.72 AU ( 108 million km ; 67 million mi ) , and completes an orbit every 224.7 days .It completes 13 orbits in 7.998 years, so its position in our sky almost repeats every eight years. Although all planetary orbits are elliptical, Venus's orbit is currently the closest to circular, with an eccentricity of less than 0.01. Simulations of the early solar system orbital dynamics have shown that the eccentricity of the Venus orbit may have been substantially larger in the past, reaching values as high as 0.31 and possibly impacting early climate evolution. Venus has retrograde rotation, meaning that unlike most planets including Earth it rotates clockwise around its own axis, opposite to its anticlockwise rotation around the Sun. Therefore Venusian sidereal day, 243 Earth days,  lasts longer than a Venusian year, 224.7 Earth days. If Venus were tidally locked to the Sun, it would always have the same face pointed to the Sun and its sidereal day would be 224.7 days. However, Venus's atmosphere is massive and it is close to the Sun, so differential heating of the atmosphere gives Venus a small retrograde rotation. The day length also fluctuates 
by up to 20 minutes for the same reason. Venus's rotation period measured with Magellan spacecraft data over a 500-day period is smaller than the rotation period measured during the 16-year period between the Magellan spacecraft and Venus Express visits, with a difference of about 6.5 minutes. Because of the retrograde rotation, the length of a solar day on Venus is significantly shorter than the sidereal day, at 116.75 Earth days. One Venusian year is about 1.92 Venusian solar days.","[0.06364894658327103, -0.046434856951236725, 0.04079131782054901, 0.023489229381084442, 0.005754237528890371, -0.016298465430736542, -0.05932307243347168, -0.025252392515540123, 0.01907413825392723, 0.03532271459698677, -0.03249908611178398, 0.04914570227265358, 0.01850566454231739, -0.016899624839425087, 0.09161799401044846, -0.05387217923998833, 0.007572992239147425, 0.0007723579183220863, 0.021633081138134003, 0.07160662859678268, -0.05996398627758026, 0.010215355083346367, 0.0013596030184999108, 0.08247343450784683, -0.0714336559176445, -0.005274465773254633, 0.0006534166168421507, 0.018338803201913834, -0.042384400963783264, 0.0212868582457304, -0.02521861344575882, 0.008831600658595562, 0.03156288340687752, 0.020072652027010918, -0.11774107813835144, -0.026402145624160767, -0.04518561810255051, -0.0552058182656765, -0.018387559801340103, -0.029573433101177216, 0.07272252440452576, -0.0014257541624829173, 0.02509586699306965, 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127,"the retrograde rotation , the length of a solar day on Venus is significantly shorter than the sidereal day , at 116.75 Earth days . One Venusian year is about 1.92 Venusian solar days .To an observer on the surface of Venus, the Sun would rise in the west and set in the east, although Venus's opaque clouds prevent observing the Sun from the planet's surface. Venus may have formed from the solar nebula with a different rotation period and obliquity, reaching its current state because of chaotic spin changes caused by planetary perturbations and tidal effects on its dense atmosphere, a change that would have occurred over the course of billions of years. The rotation period of Venus may represent an equilibrium state between tidal locking to the Sun's gravitation, which tends to slow rotation, and an atmospheric tide created by solar heating of the thick Venusian atmosphere. The 584-day average interval between successive close approaches to Earth is almost exactly equal to 5 Venusian solar days (5.001444 to be precise), but the hypothesis of a spin-orbit resonance with Earth has been discounted. Venus has no natural satellites. It has several trojan asteroids: the quasi-satellite 524522 Zoozve and two other temporary trojans, 2001 CK32 and 2012 XE133. In the 17th century, Giovanni Cassini reported a moon orbiting Venus, which was named Neith and numerous sightings were reported over the following 200 years, but most were determined to be stars in the vicinity. Alex Alemi's and David Stevenson's 2006 study of models of the early Solar System at the California Institute of Technology shows Venus likely had at least one moon created by a huge impact event billions of years ago. About 10 million years later, according to the study, another impact reversed the planet's spin direction and the resulting tidal deceleration caused the Venusian moon gradually to spiral inward until it collided with Venus.","[-0.013510209508240223, -0.05839335173368454, 0.09074658155441284, -0.043280161917209625, -0.03806643933057785, -0.048476338386535645, -0.07109714299440384, -0.07013054192066193, 0.015381078235805035, -0.00097269268007949, -0.036496732383966446, 0.05116524547338486, 0.05219212919473648, -0.05567118898034096, 0.10776733607053757, -0.04844021052122116, -5.6647353630978614e-05, 0.02934524230659008, 0.04193658381700516, 0.1067056655883789, -0.038638122379779816, 0.006856531370431185, -0.04357398673892021, 0.06474562734365463, -0.08662808686494827, 1.4733113857801072e-05, -0.029316192492842674, -0.009939744137227535, -0.050564467906951904, 0.03730952367186546, -0.04894516244530678, 0.047737788408994675, -0.028347725048661232, 0.01193227618932724, -0.13058745861053467, 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128,"years later , according to the study , another impact reversed the planet 's spin direction and the resulting tidal deceleration caused the Venusian moon gradually to spiral inward until it collided with Venus .If later impacts created moons, these were removed in the same way. An alternative explanation for the lack of satellites is the effect of strong solar tides, which can destabilize large satellites orbiting the inner terrestrial planets. The orbital space of Venus has a dust ring-cloud, with a suspected origin either from Venus–trailing asteroids, interplanetary dust migrating in waves, or the remains of the Solar System's original circumstellar disc that formed the planetary system. Orbit in respect to Earth
Earth and Venus have a near orbital resonance of 13:8 (Earth orbits eight times for every 13 orbits of Venus). Therefore, they approach each other and reach inferior conjunction in synodic periods of 584 days, on average. The path that Venus makes in relation to Earth viewed geocentrically draws a pentagram over five synodic periods, shifting every period by 144°. This pentagram of Venus is sometimes referred to as the petals of Venus due to the path's visual similarity to a flower. When Venus lies between Earth and the Sun in inferior conjunction, it makes the closest approach to Earth of any planet at an average distance of 41 million km (25 million mi). Because of the decreasing eccentricity of Earth's orbit, the minimum distances will become greater over tens of thousands of years. From the year 1 to 5383, there are 526 approaches less than 40 million km (25 million mi); then, there are none for about 60,158 years. While Venus approaches Earth the closest, Mercury is more often the closest to Earth of all planets and to any other planet.","[0.0009237083722837269, -0.11125883460044861, 0.06078751012682915, -0.040850769728422165, -0.03099401667714119, -0.04463120177388191, -0.01874680444598198, -0.014268957078456879, 0.1304766982793808, 0.003985796123743057, -0.009312331676483154, 0.06309108436107635, 0.026153480634093285, -0.09662267565727234, 0.052595146000385284, -0.03328098729252815, 0.007417686283588409, -0.026572227478027344, -0.002135863294824958, 0.05384664982557297, -0.0046875677071511745, -0.004905118141323328, -0.0650816410779953, 0.011427388526499271, -0.0835532546043396, 0.03914175555109978, -0.028338121250271797, -0.018771475180983543, -0.02721935696899891, 0.003132848534733057, 0.023853600025177002, 0.05275673791766167, -0.07629591226577759, 0.049493737518787384, -0.07682669162750244, -0.0060460628010332584, -0.062543585896492, -0.026620980352163315, 0.045228563249111176, 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-0.008179466240108013]",Venus,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.
129,"; then , there are none for about 60,158 years . While Venus approaches Earth the closest , Mercury is more often the closest to Earth of all planets and to any other planet .Venus has been used as a waypoint for gravity assist maneuvers, which has been identified as a faster and economic way to travel to Mercury, the Sun, asteroids, Mars, Jupiter and beyond. Tidally Venus exerts the third strongest tidal force on Earth, after the Moon and the Sun, though significantly less. Observability
To the naked eye, Venus appears as a white point of light with a maximum apparent magnitude of −4.92 brighter than any other planet or star apart from the Sun, even when faintest during its transit with an apparent magnitude of −2.98. The planet's mean apparent magnitude is −4.14 with a standard deviation of 0.31. The brightest magnitude occurs during the crescent phase about one month before or after an inferior conjunction. Venus fades to about magnitude −3 when it is backlit by the Sun, although the exact value depends on the phase angle. The planet is bright enough to be seen in broad daylight, but is more easily visible when the Sun is low on the horizon or setting. As an inferior planet, it always lies within about 47° of the Sun. Venus ""overtakes"" Earth every 584 days as it orbits the Sun. As it does so, it changes from the ""Evening Star"", visible after sunset, to the ""Morning Star"", visible before sunrise. Although Mercury, the other inferior planet, reaches a maximum elongation of only 28° and is often difficult to discern in twilight, Venus is hard to miss when it is at its brightest. Its greater maximum elongation means it is visible in dark skies long after sunset.","[0.07156134396791458, -0.11520253121852875, -0.03326490893959999, -0.004131230991333723, 0.026451589539647102, -0.0023525096476078033, -0.10054313391447067, 0.014494922943413258, 0.04774072393774986, 0.02414056845009327, -0.034173060208559036, -0.008725673891603947, 0.05075526610016823, -0.04864339157938957, 0.08557161688804626, -0.03934113681316376, 0.14887937903404236, -0.0006213115993887186, 0.019911177456378937, 0.06834672391414642, 0.016689196228981018, -0.007309043779969215, 0.001285454141907394, 0.00553693575784564, -0.04055411368608475, -0.05307631939649582, -0.05429806187748909, 0.00033776686177589, -0.007900761440396309, 0.03588222339749336, -0.0715603455901146, -0.021944560110569, -0.03144215792417526, 0.049982987344264984, -0.088689424097538, -0.002486490411683917, 0.026058141142129898, -0.03238029405474663, -0.03251109644770622, -0.023967234417796135, 0.05143467336893082, 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130,"is often difficult to discern in twilight , Venus is hard to miss when it is at its brightest . Its greater maximum elongation means it is visible in dark skies long after sunset .As the brightest point-like object in the sky, Venus is a commonly misreported ""unidentified flying object"". Because Venus comes close to the earth at inferior conjunction and has an orbit inclined to the plane of the earth's orbit, it can appear more than 8° north or south of the ecliptic, more than any other planet or the moon. Every eight years around March it appears this far north of the ecliptic, in Pisces (such as in mid-March 2025), and every eight years it appears this far south of the ecliptic in August or September in Virgo (as in late August 2023). Venus can thus be north of the sun and appear as a morning star and an evening star on the same day, in the northern hemisphere. The timing of these north or south excursions  gets slowly earlier in the year, and over 30 cycles (240 years) the cycle is gradually replaced by another cycle offset by three years, so the situation returns close to the original situation after 243 orbits of Earth, 395 of Venus. Lunar occultations of Venus, in which the moon blocks the view of Venus for observers in certain parts of the earth, occur on average about twice a year, sometimes several times in a year (though rarely). Phases
As it orbits the Sun, Venus displays phases like those of the Moon in a telescopic view. The planet appears as a small and ""full"" disc when it is on the opposite side of the Sun (at superior conjunction).","[0.006761242635548115, -0.07089665532112122, 0.05405082926154137, 0.0030437333043664694, 0.02896246127784252, -0.009161947295069695, -0.09616024047136307, -0.07041969895362854, 0.07516089081764221, -0.003851298475638032, -0.0335036963224411, 0.028375297784805298, 0.0053604221902787685, -0.07847712934017181, 0.0744212195277214, -0.06737872213125229, 0.03785058856010437, -0.0382496640086174, 0.07402544468641281, 0.04783196747303009, 0.010620097629725933, -0.026443224400281906, -0.04678128659725189, 0.09331165254116058, -0.015515963546931744, 0.002133771311491728, -0.040777962654829025, -0.013568767346441746, -0.019092662259936333, -0.016178293153643608, 0.002705746330320835, 0.06733626127243042, -0.04210713505744934, 0.0883931890130043, -0.09068525582551956, -0.013520258478820324, -0.03200240433216095, -0.06440284103155136, 0.009154100902378559, -0.02305883727967739, 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131,"of the Moon in a telescopic view . The planet appears as a small and `` full '' disc when it is on the opposite side of the Sun ( at superior conjunction ) .Venus shows a larger disc and ""quarter phase"" at its maximum elongations from the Sun, and appears at its brightest in the night sky. The planet presents a much larger thin ""crescent"" in telescopic views as it passes along the near side between Earth and the Sun. Venus displays its largest size and ""new phase"" when it is between Earth and the Sun (at inferior conjunction). Its atmosphere is visible through telescopes by the halo of sunlight refracted around it. The phases are clearly visible in a 4"" telescope. Although naked eye visibility of Venus's phases is disputed, records exist of observations of its crescent. Daylight apparitions
When Venus is sufficiently bright with enough angular distance from the sun, it is easily observed in a clear daytime sky with the naked eye, though most people do not know to look for it. Astronomer Edmund Halley calculated its maximum naked eye brightness in 1716, when many Londoners were alarmed by its appearance in the daytime. French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte once witnessed a daytime apparition of the planet while at a reception in Luxembourg. Another historical daytime observation of the planet took place during the inauguration of the American president Abraham Lincoln in Washington, D.C., on 4 March 1865. Transits
A transit of Venus is the appearance of Venus in front of the Sun, during inferior conjunction. Since the orbit of Venus is slightly inclined relative to Earth's orbit, most inferior conjunctions with Earth, which occur every synodic period of 1.6 years, do not produce a transit of Venus.","[0.011718964204192162, -0.028309514746069908, -0.015732821077108383, -0.023615354672074318, 0.03193468227982521, -0.10180765390396118, -0.009546398185193539, 0.02894689328968525, 0.038936227560043335, 0.04019690677523613, -0.03898359090089798, -0.012466342188417912, 0.04995591938495636, -0.056995317339897156, 0.05442854389548302, -0.04806734248995781, 0.10028039664030075, -0.04152153432369232, 0.008608904667198658, 0.003110842779278755, 0.03248964995145798, -0.012909541837871075, -0.021525928750634193, 0.014557910151779652, -0.0025687571614980698, 0.014851924031972885, -0.03277921676635742, 0.003184044035151601, 0.016497580334544182, 0.005208534654229879, -0.022750195115804672, 0.05595683306455612, -0.06354647874832153, 0.04908382520079613, -0.036386068910360336, -0.042167969048023224, 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132,"orbit of Venus is slightly inclined relative to Earth 's orbit , most inferior conjunctions with Earth , which occur every synodic period of 1.6 years , do not produce a transit of Venus .Consequently, Venus transits only occur when an inferior conjunction takes place during some days of June or December, when the orbits of Venus and Earth cross a straight line with the Sun. This results in Venus transiting above Earth in a sequence currently of 8 years, 105.5 years, 8 years and 121.5 years, forming cycles of 243 years. Historically, transits of Venus were important, because they allowed astronomers to determine the size of the astronomical unit, and hence the size of the Solar System as shown by Jeremiah Horrocks in 1639 with the first known observation of a Venus transit (after history's first observed planetary transit in 1631, of Mercury). Only seven Venus transits have been observed so far, since their occurrences were calculated in the 1621 by Johannes Kepler. Captain Cook sailed to Tahiti in 1768 to record the third observed transit of Venus, which subsequently resulted in the exploration of the east coast of Australia. The latest pair was June 8, 2004 and June 5–6, 2012. The transit could be watched live from many online outlets or observed locally with the right equipment and conditions. The preceding pair of transits occurred in December 1874 and December 1882. The next transit will occur in December 2117 and December 2125. Ashen light
A long-standing mystery of Venus observations is the so-called ashen light—an apparent weak illumination of its dark side, seen when the planet is in the crescent phase. The first claimed observation of ashen light was made in 1643, but the existence of the illumination has never been reliably confirmed.","[-0.006065062712877989, -0.07216589897871017, 0.04227932170033455, 0.04249383881688118, -0.01595553196966648, -0.029310449957847595, -0.05226031690835953, -0.06739287078380585, -0.0034812490921467543, 0.05196791887283325, -0.014059865847229958, 0.0016457877354696393, 0.0401637926697731, -0.004929199814796448, 0.0026734047569334507, -0.0494808666408062, -9.47675434872508e-05, -0.04802841693162918, 0.07013727724552155, 0.06948225200176239, -0.023971110582351685, -0.05270613729953766, -0.07268891483545303, 0.00471566803753376, -0.008571050129830837, -0.024601951241493225, -0.08060231804847717, -0.04224962368607521, -0.001133615616708994, 0.07032054662704468, -0.03479861840605736, 0.004245301708579063, -0.05868735536932945, 0.040192779153585434, -0.0998675674200058, 0.011976370587944984, 0.006088456604629755, -0.04920727014541626, 0.04904812574386597, 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133,", seen when the planet is in the crescent phase . The first claimed observation of ashen light was made in 1643 , but the existence of the illumination has never been reliably confirmed .Observers have speculated it may result from electrical activity in the Venusian atmosphere, but it could be illusory, resulting from the physiological effect of observing a bright, crescent-shaped object. The ashen light has often been sighted when Venus is in the evening sky, when the evening terminator of the planet is towards Earth. Observation and exploration history
Early observation
Venus is in Earth's sky bright enough to be visible without aid, making it one of the classical planets that human cultures have known and identified throughout history, particularly for being the third brightest object in Earth's sky after the Sun and the Moon. Because the movements of Venus appear to be discontinuous (it disappears due to its proximity to the sun, for many days at a time, and then reappears on the other horizon), some cultures did not recognize Venus as a single entity; instead, they assumed it to be two separate stars on each horizon: the morning and evening star. Nonetheless, a cylinder seal from the Jemdet Nasr period and the Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa from the First Babylonian dynasty indicate that the ancient Sumerians already knew that the morning and evening stars were the same celestial object. In the Old Babylonian period, the planet Venus was known as Ninsi'anna, and later as Dilbat. The name ""Ninsi'anna"" translates to ""divine lady, illumination of heaven"", which refers to Venus as the brightest visible ""star"".","[-0.05258592963218689, -0.02764263190329075, -0.009977304376661777, 0.04163942113518715, 0.05460972338914871, -0.05023998022079468, 0.0476512610912323, -0.03799467161297798, 0.11311100423336029, 0.03885200619697571, -0.0439312607049942, -0.024884874001145363, 0.03557436168193817, -0.03351102024316788, 0.005135116633027792, -0.050871215760707855, 0.05684216320514679, -0.035084690898656845, 0.05669142305850983, 0.011614139191806316, 0.0324799083173275, -0.0026035895571112633, 0.024238303303718567, 0.0038280512671917677, -0.023980483412742615, 0.007705394644290209, -0.008058288134634495, 0.019048282876610756, 0.04400387406349182, -0.0015808390453457832, 0.005871946923434734, 0.027972502633929253, -0.05394254997372627, 0.09847565740346909, -0.0809275209903717, 3.093469422310591e-05, 0.022836904972791672, -0.03859403356909752, 0.013223935849964619, 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134,"Ninsi'anna , and later as Dilbat . The name `` Ninsi'anna '' translates to `` divine lady , illumination of heaven '' , which refers to Venus as the brightest visible `` star '' .Earlier spellings of the name were written with the cuneiform sign si4 (= SU, meaning ""to be red""), and the original meaning may have been ""divine lady of the redness of heaven"", in reference to the colour of the morning and evening sky. The Chinese historically referred to the morning Venus as ""the Great White"" (Tàibái 太白) or ""the Opener (Starter) of Brightness"" (Qǐmíng 啟明), and the evening Venus as ""the Excellent West One"" (Chánggēng 長庚). The ancient Greeks initially believed Venus to be two separate stars: Phosphorus, the morning star, and Hesperus, the evening star. Pliny the Elder credited the realization that they were a single object to Pythagoras in the sixth century BC, while Diogenes Laërtius argued that Parmenides (early fifth century) was probably responsible for this discovery. Though they recognized Venus as a single object, the ancient Romans continued to designate the morning aspect of Venus as Lucifer, literally ""Light-Bringer"", and the evening aspect as Vesper, both of which are literal translations of their traditional Greek names. In the second century, in his astronomical treatise Almagest, Ptolemy theorized that both Mercury and Venus were located between the Sun and the Earth. The 11th-century Persian astronomer Avicenna claimed to have observed a transit of Venus (although there is some doubt about it), which later astronomers took as confirmation of Ptolemy's theory.","[-0.09165064245462418, 0.02429218962788582, 0.03940817341208458, 0.08171238750219345, -0.032626986503601074, -0.05569177493453026, 0.05369742214679718, -0.001565295271575451, 0.05013858154416084, -0.04451276361942291, -0.06698967516422272, -0.00846120249480009, -0.011447743512690067, -0.011937916278839111, -0.04235859960317612, -0.01696413941681385, 0.014744487591087818, 0.0008471733890473843, 0.00702223414555192, 0.022730495780706406, 0.019735025241971016, -0.052798472344875336, 0.0016824532067403197, -0.02447965182363987, 0.002371066715568304, 0.005519304424524307, 0.005426977761089802, -0.03109162300825119, 0.05155377462506294, 0.02213161438703537, 0.021079007536172867, 0.01809796504676342, 0.06656710058450699, 0.03271913528442383, -0.06302926689386368, 0.028193488717079163, 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0.03596150875091553]",Venus,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.
135,". The 11th-century Persian astronomer Avicenna claimed to have observed a transit of Venus ( although there is some doubt about it ) , which later astronomers took as confirmation of Ptolemy 's theory .In the 12th century, the Andalusian astronomer Ibn Bajjah observed ""two planets as black spots on the face of the Sun""; these were thought to be the transits of Venus and Mercury by 13th-century Maragha astronomer Qotb al-Din Shirazi, though this cannot be true as there were no Venus transits in Ibn Bajjah's lifetime. Venus and early modern astronomy
When the planet was first observed with a telescope in December 1610, by the Italian physicist Galileo Galilei, he found it showed phases like the Moon, varying from crescent to gibbous to full and vice versa. When Venus is furthest from the Sun in the sky, it shows a half-lit phase, and when it is closest to the Sun in the sky, it shows as a crescent or full phase. This could be possible only if Venus orbited the Sun, reported by Galileo in his 1613 Letters on Sunspots, becoming one of the first observations to clearly contradict the Ptolemaic geocentric model that the Solar System was concentric and centred on Earth. The 1631 transit of Venus, while not recorded, was the first one successfully predicted, by Johannes Kepler and his calculations, which he published in 1629. The following 1639 transit of Venus was accurately predicted by Jeremiah Horrocks and observed by him and his friend, William Crabtree, at each of their respective homes, on 4 December 1639 (24 November under the Julian calendar in use at that time). The atmosphere of Venus was discovered in 1761 by Russian polymath Mikhail Lomonosov. Venus's atmosphere was observed in 1790 by German astronomer Johann Schröter. Schröter found when the planet was a thin crescent, the cusps extended through more than 180°.","[-0.042289070785045624, -0.049978967756032944, -0.032917819917201996, 0.03512435778975487, -0.035210732370615005, -0.05109468102455139, -0.032377760857343674, -0.05825402960181236, 0.028041133657097816, -0.060724224895238876, -0.017185518518090248, -0.024486631155014038, 0.04608016833662987, -0.03434361144900322, 0.0273416917771101, -0.07644312083721161, -0.005306178703904152, -0.00113477383274585, 0.07008696347475052, 0.0380522646009922, -0.032789506018161774, -0.041643910109996796, -0.0048654465936124325, 0.02559216134250164, -0.0002947082102764398, 0.01144744548946619, -0.048208557069301605, -0.03202567622065544, -0.01352913212031126, 0.06018953397870064, -0.03382083773612976, 0.04571663215756416, -0.10872386395931244, 0.06404869258403778, -0.059887032955884933, 0.0015497597632929683, 0.01916855201125145, -0.0033539754804223776, 0.045118920505046844, -0.08253075927495956, 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-0.022804750129580498]",Venus,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus.
136,"polymath Mikhail Lomonosov . Venus 's atmosphere was observed in 1790 by German astronomer Johann Schröter . Schröter found when the planet was a thin crescent , the cusps extended through more than 180° .He correctly surmised this was due to scattering of sunlight in a dense atmosphere. Later, American astronomer Chester Smith Lyman observed a complete ring around the dark side of the planet when it was at inferior conjunction, providing further evidence for an atmosphere. The atmosphere complicated efforts to determine a rotation period for the planet, and observers such as Italian-born astronomer Giovanni Cassini and Schröter incorrectly estimated periods of about 24 h from the motions of markings on the planet's apparent surface. Early 20th century advances
Little more was discovered about Venus until the 20th century. Its almost featureless disc gave no hint what its surface might be like, and it was only with the development of spectroscopic and ultraviolet observations that more of its secrets were revealed. The first ultraviolet observations were carried out in the 1920s, when Frank E. Ross found that ultraviolet photographs revealed considerable detail that was absent in visible and infrared radiation. He suggested this was due to a dense, yellow lower atmosphere with high cirrus clouds above it. It had been noted that Venus had no discernible oblateness in its disk, suggesting a slow rotation, and some astronomers concluded based on this that it was tidally locked like Mercury was believed to be at the time; but other researchers had detected a significant quantity of heat coming from the planet's nightside, suggesting a quick rotation (a high surface temperature was not suspected at the time), confusing the issue. Later work in the 1950s showed the rotation was retrograde. First missions to Venus
The first interplanetary spaceflight attempt was in 1961 when the robotic space probe Venera 1 of the Soviet Venera programme flew to Venus. 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137,". First missions to Venus The first interplanetary spaceflight attempt was in 1961 when the robotic space probe Venera 1 of the Soviet Venera programme flew to Venus . It lost contact en route .The first successful interplanetary mission, also to Venus, was Mariner 2 of the United States' Mariner programme, passing on 14 December 1962 at 34,833 km (21,644 mi) above the surface of Venus and gathering data on the planet's atmosphere. Additionally radar observations of Venus were first carried out in the 1960s, and provided the first measurements of the rotation period, which were close to the actual value. Venera 3, launched in 1966, became humanity's first probe and lander to reach and impact another celestial body other than the Moon, but could not return data as it crashed into the surface of Venus. In 1967, Venera 4 was launched and successfully deployed science experiments in the Venusian atmosphere before impacting. Venera 4 showed the surface temperature was hotter than Mariner 2 had calculated, at almost 500 °C (932 °F), determined that the atmosphere was 95% carbon dioxide (CO2), and discovered that Venus's atmosphere was considerably denser than Venera 4's designers had anticipated. In an early example of space cooperation the data of Venera 4 was joined with the 1967 Mariner 5 data, analysed by a combined Soviet–American science team in a series of colloquia over the following year. On 15 December 1970, Venera 7 became the first spacecraft to soft land on another planet and the first to transmit data from there back to Earth. In 1974, Mariner 10 swung by Venus to bend its path towards Mercury and took ultraviolet photographs of the clouds, revealing the extraordinarily high wind speeds in the Venusian atmosphere. This was the first interplanetary gravity assist ever used, a technique which would be used by later probes.","[-0.05799073725938797, -0.0665881410241127, -0.045215606689453125, -0.01042745728045702, 0.020351378247141838, -0.07354617118835449, -0.09417647868394852, 0.023652026429772377, -0.003913057968020439, 0.06390117108821869, -0.007940529845654964, -0.0010022004134953022, 0.025523966178297997, -0.031048551201820374, -0.016856495290994644, 0.03260185196995735, 0.029739953577518463, -0.011023478582501411, 0.0427573099732399, 0.026147613301873207, -0.0470263808965683, 0.0714416354894638, -0.001401790650561452, -0.006405936554074287, 0.03101484477519989, -0.0195112656801939, -0.0357145331799984, 0.016657372936606407, -0.024866806343197823, 0.06409113109111786, 0.01596021093428135, -0.002612912096083164, -0.013709542341530323, 0.044277627021074295, -0.011971821077167988, 0.020554086193442345, -0.014791637659072876, -0.052137017250061035, 0.003674032399430871, 0.008556395769119263, 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138,"of the clouds , revealing the extraordinarily high wind speeds in the Venusian atmosphere . This was the first interplanetary gravity assist ever used , a technique which would be used by later probes .Radar observations in the 1970s revealed details of the Venusian surface for the first time. Pulses of radio waves were beamed at the planet using the 300 m (1,000 ft) radio telescope at Arecibo Observatory, and the echoes revealed two highly reflective regions, designated the Alpha and Beta regions. The observations revealed a bright region attributed to mountains, which was called Maxwell Montes. These three features are now the only ones on Venus that do not have female names. In 1975, the Soviet Venera 9 and 10 landers transmitted the first images from the surface of Venus, which were in black and white. NASA obtained additional data with the Pioneer Venus project, consisting of two separate missions: the Pioneer Venus Multiprobe and Pioneer Venus Orbiter, orbiting Venus between 1978 and 1992. In 1982 the first monochrome colour filters images of the surface were obtained with the Soviet Venera 13 and 14 landers. After Venera 15 and 16 operated between 1983 and 1984 in orbit, conducting detailed mapping of 25% of Venus's terrain (from the north pole to 30°N latitude), the Soviet Venera programme came to a close. In 1985 the Soviet Vega programme with its Vega 1 and Vega 2 missions carried the last entry probes and carried the first ever extraterrestrial aerobots for the first time achieving atmospheric flight outside Earth by employing inflatable balloons. Between 1990 and 1994, Magellan operated in orbit until deorbiting, mapping the surface of Venus. Furthermore, probes like Galileo (1990), and Cassini–Huygens (1998/1999) visited Venus with flybys en route to other destinations.","[-0.050234559923410416, -0.03289533779025078, -0.0333256796002388, -0.00708773173391819, 0.0860675647854805, -0.05662551149725914, -0.02057739347219467, 0.01207608263939619, -0.014634973369538784, -0.007289385423064232, -0.055134955793619156, 0.015129553154110909, 0.049404945224523544, -0.020421594381332397, -0.03226056322455406, 0.034738678485155106, 0.04904552549123764, -0.005945869721472263, 0.06167737767100334, -9.104327909881249e-05, -0.03896144777536392, 0.029485896229743958, 0.011689606122672558, -0.046654388308525085, 0.029176177456974983, -0.010124520398676395, -0.05874749645590782, 0.03697919100522995, 0.01657712832093239, 0.023267723619937897, 0.0435846745967865, 0.03873026743531227, 0.015604202635586262, 0.06044641509652138, -0.06875701248645782, -0.0003553721180651337, -0.03352612629532814, -0.03373769670724869, -0.012491926550865173, 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139,"in orbit until deorbiting , mapping the surface of Venus . Furthermore , probes like Galileo ( 1990 ) , and Cassini–Huygens ( 1998/1999 ) visited Venus with flybys en route to other destinations .Renewed exploration
In April 2006, Venus Express, the first dedicated Venus mission by the European Space Agency (ESA), entered orbit around Venus. Venus Express provided unprecedented observation of Venus's atmosphere. ESA concluded the Venus Express mission in December 2014 deorbiting it in January 2015. The same and following year MESSENGER visited Venus with flybys en route to other destinations. In 2010, the first successful interplanetary solar sail spacecraft IKAROS travelled to Venus for a flyby. Between 2015 and 2024 Japan's Akatsuki probe was active in orbit around Venus and BepiColombo performed flybys in 2020/2021. Active and planned missions
As of 2025 there are no active probes at Venus, with Parker Solar Probe scheduled to return repeatedly to Venus until 2030. Several probes are under development as well as multiple proposed missions still in their early conceptual stages. The next Venus mission scheduled is the Venus Life Finder, expected to launch not earlier than summer 2026. Indian ISRO is working on Venus Orbiter Mission, aiming to launch it in 2028. UAE mission to asteroids, MBR Explorer, will perform a flyby of the planet. NASA approved two missions to the planet, VERITAS and DAVINCI, planned to be launched not earlier then 2031. ESA plans to launch EnVision also in 2031. Objectives
Venus has been identified for future research as an important case for understanding:

the origins of the solar system and Earth, and if systems and planets like ours are common or rare in the universe. how planetary bodies evolve from their primordial states to today's diverse objects. the development of conditions leading to habitable environments and life.","[-0.09242220968008041, -0.08556804060935974, -0.0019331421935930848, 0.04257988929748535, 0.03145172446966171, -0.058936379849910736, 0.017179807648062706, -0.0236420426517725, -0.0307940486818552, 0.0763348862528801, -0.02484339289367199, 0.01878301054239273, -0.05808041989803314, 0.04889281094074249, 0.013895343989133835, 0.02857084572315216, 0.0366322323679924, -0.07962053269147873, 0.0783989205956459, 0.03249311447143555, -0.004978875629603863, 0.007768481969833374, -0.010752377100288868, -0.0010197944939136505, 0.006951605435460806, -0.0029633010271936655, 0.002871182980015874, -0.027798639610409737, -0.0474785640835762, 0.08423847705125809, -0.01082291454076767, 0.014328476041555405, -0.08062849938869476, 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140,"like ours are common or rare in the universe . how planetary bodies evolve from their primordial states to today 's diverse objects . the development of conditions leading to habitable environments and life .Crewed mission concepts
Venus has been considered since the 1960s as a waypoint for crewed missions to Mars through opposition missions instead of direct conjunction missions with Venus gravity assist flybys, demonstrating that they should be quicker and safer missions to Mars, with better return or abort flight windows, and less or the same amount of radiation exposure from the flight as direct Mars flights. Possible atmospheric habitation
While the surface conditions of Venus are extremely hostile, the atmospheric pressure, temperature, and solar and cosmic radiation 50 km above the surface are similar to those at Earth's surface (""clement conditions""). Among the many engineering challenges for any human presence in the atmosphere of Venus are the corrosive amounts of sulfuric acid in the atmosphere. Aerostats for crewed exploration and possibly for permanent ""floating cities"" in the Venusian atmosphere have been proposed as an alternative to the popular idea of living on planetary surfaces such as Mars. NASA's High Altitude Venus Operational Concept was a training concept to study a crewed aerostat design. Possibility of life
Speculation on the possibility of life on Venus's surface decreased significantly after the early 1960s when it became clear that conditions were extreme compared to those on Earth. Venus's extreme temperatures and atmospheric pressure make water-based life, as currently known, unlikely. Some scientists have speculated that thermoacidophilic extremophile microorganisms might exist in the cooler, acidic upper layers of the Venusian atmosphere.","[-0.008533149026334286, -0.050853829830884933, 0.002938241232186556, 0.06210307776927948, 0.07184410840272903, -0.011880148202180862, 0.03906426206231117, 0.007452063728123903, -0.01650598645210266, 0.067497618496418, -0.06319824606180191, -0.02657761238515377, 0.013890798203647137, 0.018703315407037735, 0.073733851313591, 0.004303382243961096, 0.06533602625131607, -0.022401684895157814, -0.006973055191338062, 0.16001448035240173, -0.05657847598195076, 0.06953049451112747, -0.03635415434837341, 0.05872020870447159, -0.08147258311510086, 0.030605018138885498, -0.02114023268222809, 0.08358562737703323, 0.0007647622842341661, 0.04862979054450989, -0.006535544525831938, 0.06771033257246017, -0.0039557949639856815, 0.005662298295646906, -0.06757033616304398, 0.09968800097703934, -0.0372028686106205, -0.05239342153072357, 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141,"and atmospheric pressure make water-based life , as currently known , unlikely . Some scientists have speculated that thermoacidophilic extremophile microorganisms might exist in the cooler , acidic upper layers of the Venusian atmosphere .Such speculations go back to 1967, when Carl Sagan and Harold J. Morowitz suggested in a Nature article that tiny objects detected in Venus's clouds might be organisms similar to Earth's bacteria (which are of approximately the same size):

While the surface conditions of Venus make the hypothesis of life there implausible, the clouds of Venus are a different story altogether. As was pointed out some years ago, water, carbon dioxide and sunlight—the prerequisites for photosynthesis—are plentiful in the vicinity of the clouds. In August 2019, astronomers led by Yeon Joo Lee reported that long-term pattern of absorbance and albedo changes in the atmosphere of the planet Venus caused by ""unknown absorbers"", which may be chemicals or even large colonies of microorganisms high up in the atmosphere of the planet, affect the climate. Their light absorbance is almost identical to that of micro-organisms in Earth's clouds. Similar conclusions have been reached by other studies. In September 2020, a team of astronomers led by Jane Greaves from Cardiff University announced the likely detection of phosphine, a gas not known to be produced by any known chemical processes on the Venusian surface or atmosphere, in the upper levels of the planet's clouds. One proposed source for this phosphine is living organisms. The phosphine was detected at heights of at least 30 miles (48 km) above the surface, and primarily at mid-latitudes with none detected at the poles. The discovery prompted NASA administrator Jim Bridenstine to publicly call for a new focus on the study of Venus, describing the phosphine find as ""the most significant development yet in building the case for life off Earth"".","[-0.12741714715957642, -0.020091885700821877, 0.032025184482336044, 0.06254561245441437, 0.14676886796951294, -0.02314610406756401, 0.018591932952404022, -0.008826560340821743, 0.020557686686515808, 0.06161770969629288, -0.027485329657793045, -0.06409173458814621, 0.03208713233470917, 0.021112913265824318, -0.004490219987928867, 0.0377400740981102, 0.02078218013048172, -0.02317335642874241, -0.022567681968212128, 0.05680997669696808, 0.006408656481653452, 0.06644143164157867, -0.07424955070018768, -0.026245448738336563, -0.04731178656220436, -0.00276041473262012, -0.02413424476981163, 0.03917348012328148, -0.04881646856665611, 0.06912729889154434, 0.052670422941446304, -0.0001964229450095445, 0.029278483241796494, 0.036766353994607925, 0.055299170315265656, 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142,"Bridenstine to publicly call for a new focus on the study of Venus , describing the phosphine find as `` the most significant development yet in building the case for life off Earth '' .Subsequent analysis of the data-processing used to identify phosphine in the atmosphere of Venus has raised concerns that the detection-line may be an artefact. The use of a 12th-order polynomial fit may have amplified noise and generated a false reading (see Runge's phenomenon). Observations of the atmosphere of Venus at other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum in which a phosphine absorption line would be expected did not detect phosphine. By late October 2020, re-analysis of data with a proper subtraction of background did not show a statistically significant detection of phosphine. Members of the team around Greaves, are working as part of a project by the MIT to send with the rocket company Rocket Lab the first private interplanetary space craft, to look for organics by entering the atmosphere of Venus with a probe named Venus Life Finder. Planetary protection
Due to the harsh surface environment of Venus, Venus has been under the planetary protection category two, the second lowest. This gives it only a remote chance that spacecraft-borne interplanetary contamination could compromise investigations. However with findings of potential biosignatures this categorization for at least some atmospheric layers has been called into question, but since these layers have not been identified as sufficiently conductive to live, adjusting the categorization has not been recommended. Habitability for humans
While the surface of Venus is very inhospitable to humans, conditions at altitudes of 50 km above the surface have been identified to be not only hospitable for indigenous but also for human life, more so than anywhere else in the Solar System other than Earth. Conditions, from atmospheric pressure, gravity, and temperature to radiation, but except chemical, are all very much like conditions on Earth at surface level.","[-0.09695254266262054, -0.03788125142455101, 0.03427514433860779, -0.004526931792497635, 0.12647448480129242, -0.05325093865394592, 0.0032227179035544395, 0.004701127763837576, 0.011668906547129154, 0.03205914422869682, 0.004743391647934914, 0.03341004624962807, -0.004715269431471825, 0.005509146489202976, -0.03576333448290825, 0.0006616371683776379, 0.054946478456258774, -0.018954629078507423, 0.001933469669893384, 0.08914460986852646, 0.00936082936823368, 0.036950163543224335, -0.01935490593314171, 0.06782161444425583, -0.03679606318473816, 0.029853789135813713, -0.03016924485564232, 0.009964223951101303, -0.06786064803600311, 0.027301529422402382, 0.004009086638689041, 0.05910009145736694, -0.01682722382247448, 0.06221739575266838, -0.05346984788775444, 0.022379830479621887, 0.008035595528781414, -0.01467854529619217, 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143,"Solar System other than Earth . Conditions , from atmospheric pressure , gravity , and temperature to radiation , but except chemical , are all very much like conditions on Earth at surface level .Because of this prospect, floating habitats for humans at such altitudes have been suggested for humans going to Venus. In culture
Venus is among the most prominent features in the night sky, and has been treated as particularly important in mythology, astrology and fiction across many different cultures. Several hymns praise Inanna in her role as the goddess of the planet Venus. Theology professor Jeffrey Cooley has argued that, in many myths, Inanna's movements may correspond with the movements of the planet Venus in the sky. The discontinuous movements of Venus relate to both mythology as well as Inanna's dual nature. In Inanna's Descent to the Underworld, unlike any other deity, Inanna is able to descend into the netherworld and return to the heavens. The planet Venus appears to make a similar descent, setting in the West and then rising again in the East. An introductory hymn describes Inanna leaving the heavens and heading for Kur, what could be presumed to be, the mountains, replicating the rising and setting of Inanna to the West. In Inanna and Shukaletuda and Inanna's Descent into the Underworld appear to parallel the motion of the planet Venus. In Inanna and Shukaletuda, Shukaletuda is described as scanning the heavens in search of Inanna, possibly searching the eastern and western horizons. In the same myth, while searching for her attacker, Inanna herself makes several movements that correspond with the movements of Venus in the sky. Via Mesopotamian influence, it is possible that the Ancient Egyptians and Greeks knew that the morning star and the evening star were one and the same as early as the second millennium BC—or the Late Period at the latest.","[0.010312771424651146, -0.03321992978453636, -0.015857920050621033, 0.020617516711354256, 0.02363181859254837, -0.057776954025030136, 0.049562569707632065, -0.0860399380326271, 0.12260083109140396, 0.005501780193299055, -0.04594032093882561, -0.07520317286252975, -0.029219089075922966, -0.033740974962711334, 0.08747837692499161, 0.029352942481637, 0.008425283245742321, 0.005848240107297897, -0.010855410248041153, 0.018150363117456436, -0.05881211906671524, 0.05327223986387253, -0.024496685713529587, 0.07683444768190384, -0.06654230505228043, -0.04108582064509392, -0.02668907679617405, 0.028407342731952667, -0.00883410032838583, -0.04394826665520668, -0.056385669857263565, 0.029415898025035858, -0.12592315673828125, 0.025600697845220566, -0.06955356895923615, 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144,"possible that the Ancient Egyptians and Greeks knew that the morning star and the evening star were one and the same as early as the second millennium BC—or the Late Period at the latest .The Egyptians knew the morning star as Tioumoutiri and the evening star as Ouaiti. They depicted Venus at first as a phoenix or heron (see Bennu), calling it 'the crosser' or 'star with crosses', associating it with Osiris, and later depicting it as two-headed (with human or falcon heads), and associated it with Horus, son of Isis (which during the even later Hellenistic period was together with Hathor identified with Aphrodite). The Greeks used the names Phōsphoros, meaning 'light-bringer' (whence the element phosphorus; alternately Ēōsphoros, meaning 'dawn-bringer'), for the morning star, and Hesperos, meaning 'Western one', for the evening star, both children of dawn Eos and therefore grandchildren of Aphrodite. Though by the Roman era they were recognized as one celestial object, known as ""the star of Venus"", the traditional two Greek names continued to be used, though usually translated to Latin as Lucifer and Vesper. Classical poets such as Homer, Sappho, Ovid and Virgil spoke of the star and its light. Poets such as William Blake, Robert Frost, Letitia Elizabeth Landon, Alfred Lord Tennyson and William Wordsworth wrote odes to it. The composer Holst included it as the second movement of his The Planets suite. In India, the name for Venus in Sanskrit was Shukra Graha, meaning 'the planet Shukra'—in reference to Shukra, a powerful saint. As appears in Vedic astrology, the Sanskrit name Shukra means 'clear, pure' or 'brightness, clearness'.","[-0.06534671038389206, 0.06631327420473099, -0.011288701556622982, 0.05449296161532402, -0.058129340410232544, -0.11028077453374863, 0.10391896218061447, -0.04121548309922218, 0.036547768861055374, 0.02517394721508026, 0.011413765139877796, -0.02575972117483616, -0.037853822112083435, -0.014980251900851727, -0.0009235438774339855, -0.0011374546447768807, -0.01246995385736227, -0.0014797992771491408, 0.07112044095993042, 0.07617881894111633, 0.037367019802331924, -0.018896514549851418, 0.029259469360113144, 0.04390557482838631, 0.060793910175561905, 0.09896307438611984, -0.020606841892004013, 0.05305717885494232, 0.03389996662735939, -0.040014155209064484, 0.07249560952186584, 0.01631776988506317, 0.02019319124519825, 0.0350615568459034, -0.0645647868514061, 0.044635429978370667, 0.07385118305683136, -0.02341638132929802, -0.04153838008642197, 0.0012954771518707275, 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145,"Graha , meaning 'the planet Shukra'—in reference to Shukra , a powerful saint . As appears in Vedic astrology , the Sanskrit name Shukra means 'clear , pure ' or 'brightness , clearness ' .One of the nine Navagraha, it is held to affect wealth, pleasure and reproduction; it was the son of Bhrgu, preceptor of the Daityas, and guru of the Asuras. The English name Venus stems originally from the ancient Romans. Romans named Venus after their goddess of love, who in turn was based on the ancient Greek love goddess Aphrodite, who was herself based on the similar Sumerian religion goddess Inanna (which is Ishtar in Akkadian religion), all of whom were associated with the planet. The weekday of the planet and these goddesses is Friday, named after the Germanic goddess Frigg, who has been associated with the Roman goddess Venus. In Chinese, the planet is called metal star or gold star (金星; Jīnxīng); of the five elements of traditional Chinese philosophy, Venus was historically associated with metal. These traditions are shared among modern Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese cultures, including a name for the planet literally meaning 'metal star' (金星) in each language. The Maya considered Venus to be the most important celestial body after the Sun and Moon. They called it Chac ek, or Noh Ek', 'the Great Star'. The cycles of Venus were important to their calendar and were described in some of their books, such as the Maya Codex of Mexico and Dresden Codex. The flag of Chile (Estrella Solitaria, 'Lone Star') depicts Venus. Modern culture
The impenetrable Venusian cloud cover gave science fiction writers free rein to speculate on conditions at its surface; all the more so when early observations showed that not only was it similar in size to Earth, it possessed a substantial atmosphere.","[-0.08817904442548752, 0.012272543273866177, -0.04140371084213257, 0.05921254679560661, -0.00471543287858367, -0.05987977236509323, 0.1346849501132965, -0.048519935458898544, 0.08605697005987167, -0.03685249388217926, 0.0028793253004550934, -0.03611280769109726, -0.00020263734040781856, -0.05452357977628708, 0.010154789313673973, -0.056326404213905334, -0.011085235513746738, 0.008182563818991184, -0.001998085295781493, 0.008944261819124222, 0.025914208963513374, -0.011557657271623611, -0.019168587401509285, 0.011148839257657528, 0.02048994041979313, 0.037669721990823746, -0.03878794237971306, 0.030573314055800438, 0.019316231831908226, 0.03332186117768288, 0.01096685416996479, 0.032347261905670166, -0.054489415138959885, 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146,"free rein to speculate on conditions at its surface ; all the more so when early observations showed that not only was it similar in size to Earth , it possessed a substantial atmosphere .Closer to the Sun than Earth, the planet was often depicted as warmer, but still habitable by humans. The genre reached its peak between the 1930s and 1950s, at a time when science had revealed some aspects of Venus, but not yet the harsh reality of its surface conditions. Findings from the first missions to Venus showed reality to be quite different and brought this particular genre to an end. As scientific knowledge of Venus advanced, science fiction authors tried to keep pace, particularly by conjecturing human attempts to terraform Venus. Symbols
The symbol of a circle with a small cross beneath is the so-called Venus symbol, gaining its name for being used as the astronomical symbol for Venus. The symbol is of ancient Greek origin, and represents more generally femininity, adopted by biology as gender symbol for female, like the Mars symbol for male and sometimes the Mercury symbol for hermaphrodite. This gendered association of Venus and Mars has been used to pair them heteronormatively, describing women and men stereotypically as being so different that they can be understood as coming from different planets, an understanding popularized in 1992 by the book titled Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus. The Venus symbol was also used in Western alchemy representing the element copper (like the symbol of Mercury is also the symbol of the element mercury), and since polished copper has been used for mirrors from antiquity the symbol for Venus has sometimes been called Venus mirror, representing the mirror of the goddess, although this origin has been discredited as an unlikely origin.","[0.0010877583408728242, -0.045207858085632324, 0.012557433918118477, 0.11231104284524918, 0.08293696492910385, -0.03410534933209419, 0.017957128584384918, -0.05706231668591499, 0.08964744210243225, 0.0435982272028923, -0.016370873898267746, -0.0024247141554951668, -0.0040090386755764484, -0.02984161674976349, 0.08514094352722168, -0.03136975318193436, 0.018138865008950233, 0.01642226055264473, 0.04348185658454895, 0.07938643544912338, -0.002424804726615548, -0.009251132607460022, -0.021636564284563065, 0.04057991877198219, -0.04294218868017197, 0.018463343381881714, -0.04293205589056015, 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147,"been used for mirrors from antiquity the symbol for Venus has sometimes been called Venus mirror , representing the mirror of the goddess , although this origin has been discredited as an unlikely origin .Besides the Venus symbol, many other symbols have been associated with Venus, other common ones are the crescent or particularly the star, as with the Star of Ishtar. See also
Outline of Venus
Physical properties of planets in the Solar System
Venus zone

Notes
References
Further reading
O'Rourke, Joseph G.; Wilson, Colin F.; Borrelli, Madison E.; Byrne, Paul K.; Dumoulin, Caroline; Ghail, Richard; Gülcher, Anna J. P.; Jacobson, Seth A.; Korablev, Oleg; Spohn, Tilman; Way, M. J.; Weller, Matt; Westall, Frances (6 February 2023). ""Venus, the Planet: Introduction to the Evolution of Earth's Sister Planet"". Space Science Reviews. 219 (1): 10. Bibcode:2023SSRv..219...10O. doi:10.1007/s11214-023-00956-0. hdl:20.500.11850/598198. ISSN 1572-9672. Retrieved 6 February 2025. Widemann, Thomas; et al. (October 2023). ""Venus Evolution Through Time: Key Science Questions, Selected Mission Concepts and Future Investigations"". Space Science Reviews. 219 (7): 56. 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148,"Through Time : Key Science Questions , Selected Mission Concepts and Future Investigations '' . Space Science Reviews . 219 ( 7 ) : 56 . Bibcode:2023SSRv .. 219 ... 56W . doi:10.1007/s11214-023-00992-w. hdl:10852/109541 .External links
Venus profile at NASA's Solar System Exploration site
Missions to Venus Archived 10 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine and Image catalogue Archived 29 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine at the National Space Science Data Center
Soviet Exploration of Venus and Image catalogue at Mentallandscape.com
Image catalogue from the Venera missions
Venus page at The Nine Planets
Transits of Venus Archived 19 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine at NASA.gov
Geody Venus, a search engine for surface features
Interactive 3D gravity simulation of the pentagram that the orbit of Venus traces when Earth is held fixed at the centre of the coordinate system

Cartographic resources
Map-a-Planet: Venus by the U.S. Geological Survey
Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature: Venus by the International Astronomical Union
Venus crater database by the Lunar and Planetary Institute
Map of Venus by Eötvös Loránd University
Google Venus 3D, interactive map of the planet","[-0.04090039059519768, -0.1244884803891182, -0.01467855740338564, -0.03827866166830063, 0.03208979591727257, -0.0554165318608284, -0.06960435211658478, 0.008023417554795742, 0.056543346494436264, 0.03400035202503204, -0.054080281406641006, 0.016984619200229645, -0.03622132167220116, -0.015607977285981178, 0.008445336483418941, -0.010792671702802181, 0.017781145870685577, 0.028413383290171623, 0.06735388189554214, 0.06667788326740265, -0.006081248167902231, -0.027026088908314705, 0.0340578518807888, 0.01949121244251728, -0.015589868649840355, -0.027454480528831482, -0.06734591722488403, 0.030396755784749985, -0.019158916547894478, 0.010750372894108295, -0.024812256917357445, 0.004781897179782391, -0.06469487398862839, 0.00848605390638113, -0.08177980035543442, 0.008915040642023087, -0.055633217096328735, -0.03513194993138313, 0.02416129969060421, -0.027488768100738525, 0.06295695900917053, -0.07283923774957657, 0.013169300742447376, 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149," Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to harbor life. This is enabled by Earth being an ocean world, the only one in the Solar System sustaining liquid surface water. Almost all of Earth's water is contained in its global ocean, covering 70.8% of Earth's crust. The remaining 29.2% of Earth's crust is land, most of which is located in the form of continental landmasses within Earth's land hemisphere. Most of Earth's land is at least somewhat humid and covered by vegetation, while large ice sheets at Earth's polar deserts retain more water than Earth's groundwater, lakes, rivers, and atmospheric water combined. Earth's crust consists of slowly moving tectonic plates, which interact to produce mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes. Earth has a liquid outer core that generates a magnetosphere capable of deflecting most of the destructive solar winds and cosmic radiation. Earth has a dynamic atmosphere, which sustains Earth's surface conditions and protects it from most meteoroids and UV-light at entry. It is composed primarily of nitrogen and oxygen. Water vapor is widely present in the atmosphere, forming clouds that cover most of the planet. The water vapor acts as a greenhouse gas and, together with other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2), creates the conditions for both liquid surface water and water vapor to persist via the capturing of energy from the Sun's light. This process maintains the current average surface temperature of 14.76 °C (58.57 °F), at which water is liquid under normal atmospheric pressure.","[0.03834265097975731, -0.007166901603341103, 0.09962831437587738, -0.047258127480745316, 0.13004297018051147, -0.027593210339546204, 0.05512973666191101, -0.005168739706277847, 0.03403450548648834, 0.00791799183934927, -0.0707264095544815, -0.17242208123207092, 0.030755942687392235, -0.021334482356905937, 0.06677588075399399, -0.08142530918121338, 0.023196011781692505, -0.08997907489538193, -0.018531346693634987, 0.0229411069303751, 0.020982278510928154, 0.10312224179506302, 0.003140693064779043, 0.01132661197334528, -0.05539913475513458, 0.054124895483255386, -0.02813342958688736, 0.047934673726558685, -0.07532858103513718, 0.006267013493925333, 0.00377658405341208, -0.03317044675350189, 0.08137138187885284, -0.05423252657055855, -0.022426120936870575, 0.057142432779073715, -0.026443222537636757, 0.0003102320770267397, 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150,"capturing of energy from the Sun 's light . This process maintains the current average surface temperature of 14.76 °C ( 58.57 °F ) , at which water is liquid under normal atmospheric pressure .Differences in the amount of captured energy between geographic regions (as with the equatorial region receiving more sunlight than the polar regions) drive atmospheric and ocean currents, producing a global climate system with different climate regions, and a range of weather phenomena such as precipitation, allowing components such as carbon and nitrogen to cycle. Earth is rounded into an ellipsoid with a circumference of about 40,000 kilometres (24,900 miles). It is the densest planet in the Solar System. Of the four rocky planets, it is the largest and most massive. Earth is about eight light-minutes (1 AU) away from the Sun and orbits it, taking a year (about 365.25 days) to complete one revolution. Earth rotates around its own axis in slightly less than a day (in about 23 hours and 56 minutes). Earth's axis of rotation is tilted with respect to the perpendicular to its orbital plane around the Sun, producing seasons. Earth is orbited by one permanent natural satellite, the Moon, which orbits Earth at 384,400 km (238,855 mi)—1.28 light seconds—and is roughly a quarter as wide as Earth. The Moon's gravity helps stabilize Earth's axis, causes tides and gradually slows Earth's rotation. Likewise, Earth's gravitational pull has already made the Moon's rotation tidally locked, keeping the same near side facing Earth. Earth, like most other bodies in the Solar System, formed about 4.5 billion years ago from gas and dust in the early Solar System. During the first billion years of Earth's history, the ocean formed and then life developed within it.","[0.0576300285756588, 0.043395157903432846, 0.052190616726875305, 0.00228288141079247, 0.030756354331970215, -0.042317066341638565, 0.004565505310893059, 0.0054541160352528095, 0.04552978277206421, 0.03496553748846054, -0.06950417906045914, -0.07888489961624146, 0.04425725340843201, -0.05845819413661957, 0.06471529603004456, -0.04137256368994713, 0.022349249571561813, -0.035018403083086014, -0.03715638443827629, -0.04192938283085823, 0.03938128799200058, 0.01987873762845993, -0.03714562952518463, 0.0696302205324173, -0.07313703000545502, -0.010167613625526428, -0.08051446080207825, 0.019374815747141838, -0.07024475187063217, 0.038261231034994125, -0.036905642598867416, -0.0042000748217105865, 0.05884939432144165, -0.02090395614504814, -0.04358429089188576, 0.05794154852628708, -0.013598869554698467, -0.02959921769797802, -0.001312923151999712, 0.0053672753274440765, 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151,"about 4.5 billion years ago from gas and dust in the early Solar System . During the first billion years of Earth 's history , the ocean formed and then life developed within it .Life spread globally and has been altering Earth's atmosphere and surface, leading to the Great Oxidation Event two billion years ago. Humans emerged 300,000 years ago in Africa and have spread across every continent on Earth. Humans depend on Earth's biosphere and natural resources for their survival, but have increasingly impacted the planet's environment. Humanity's current impact on Earth's climate and biosphere is unsustainable, threatening the livelihood of humans and many other forms of life, and causing widespread extinctions. Etymology
The Modern English word  Earth developed, via Middle English, from an Old English noun most often spelled eorðe. It has cognates in every Germanic language, from which Proto-Germanic *erþō has been reconstructed. In its earliest attestation, the word eorðe was used to translate the many senses of Latin terra and Greek gē: the ground, its soil, dry land, the human world, the surface of the world (including the sea), and the globe itself. As with Roman Terra (or Tellus) and Greek Gaia, Earth may have been a personified goddess in Germanic paganism: late Norse mythology included Jörð ('Earth'), a giantess often given as the mother of Thor. Historically, Earth has been written in lowercase. During the Early Middle English period, its definite sense as ""the globe"" began being expressed using the phrase the earth. By the period of Early Modern English, capitalization of nouns began to prevail, and the earth was also written the Earth, particularly when referenced along with other heavenly bodies.","[0.003242759732529521, 0.03511302173137665, 0.09279177337884903, 0.009313911199569702, 0.0953807681798935, -0.027068430557847023, -0.0008117547840811312, 0.0599098727107048, 0.025440506637096405, 0.06504473090171814, 0.049208398908376694, -0.055753786116838455, 0.0255170576274395, 0.0196459349244833, -0.002047406742349267, -0.02939516119658947, -0.11667097359895706, -0.09499557316303253, -0.052915267646312714, 0.003140160581097007, 0.023809798061847687, 0.12245728075504303, -0.00807496253401041, 0.010755380615592003, 0.008752748370170593, 0.008444642648100853, 0.0017552219796925783, 0.005475538782775402, 0.0005892797489650548, 0.0722939670085907, 0.06271982192993164, -0.011404825374484062, 0.12976498901844025, 0.0003493691619951278, -0.051962826400995255, 0.03199068829417229, 0.02122526429593563, 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152,"earth . By the period of Early Modern English , capitalization of nouns began to prevail , and the earth was also written the Earth , particularly when referenced along with other heavenly bodies .More recently, the name is sometimes simply given as Earth, by analogy with the names of the other planets, though earth and forms with the earth remain common. House styles now vary: Oxford spelling recognizes the lowercase form as the more common, with the capitalized form an acceptable variant. Another convention capitalizes Earth when appearing as a name, such as a description of the ""Earth's atmosphere"", but employs the lowercase when it is preceded by the, such as ""the atmosphere of the earth"". It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as ""what on earth are you doing?"" The name Terra  TERR-ə is occasionally used in scientific writing; it also sees use in science fiction to distinguish humanity's inhabited planet from others, while in poetry Tellus  TELL-əs has been used to denote personification of the Earth. Terra is also the name of the planet in some Romance languages, languages that evolved from Latin, like Italian and Portuguese, while in other Romance languages the word gave rise to names with slightly altered spellings, like the Spanish Tierra and the French Terre. The Latinate form Gaea (English:  DJEE-ə) of the Greek poetic name Gaia ([ɡâi̯.a] or [ɡâj.ja]) is rare, though the alternative spelling Gaia has become common due to the Gaia hypothesis, in which case its pronunciation is  GYE-ə rather than the more traditional English  GAY-ə. There are a number of adjectives for the planet Earth. The word earthly is derived from Earth. From the Latin Terra comes terran  TERR-ən, terrestrial  tərr-EHST-ree-əl, and (via French) terrene  tə-REEN, and from the Latin Tellus comes tellurian  teh-LUURR-ee-ən and telluric.","[0.056629445403814316, -0.0024186549708247185, 0.06847026944160461, -0.015183546580374241, 0.011829426512122154, -0.12711353600025177, 0.0651155337691307, -0.02098201774060726, 0.09238392859697342, -0.00758808059617877, -0.014742174185812473, -0.05641597881913185, 0.04106568917632103, -0.01620253175497055, 0.06134772673249245, -0.0718889832496643, 0.004878590814769268, -0.025540359318256378, 0.003477636259049177, 0.01611621119081974, -0.0040977452881634235, 0.12217719852924347, -0.006367466878145933, 0.04167121648788452, 0.03246183320879936, 0.029211992397904396, -0.040074076503515244, 0.08266927301883698, -0.019492486491799355, 0.015288645401597023, 0.010520399548113346, -0.024149887263774872, 0.12848831713199615, -0.030635906383395195, -0.0475434809923172, 0.054249200969934464, -0.026878654956817627, 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-0.0021376176737248898]",Earth,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.
153,"is derived from Earth . From the Latin Terra comes terran TERR-ən , terrestrial tərr-EHST-ree-əl , and ( via French ) terrene tə-REEN , and from the Latin Tellus comes tellurian teh-LUURR-ee-ən and telluric .Natural history
Formation
The oldest material found in the Solar System is dated to 4.5682+0.0002−0.0004 Ga (billion years) ago. By 4.54±0.04 Ga the primordial Earth had formed. The bodies in the Solar System formed and evolved with the Sun. In theory, a solar nebula partitions a volume out of a molecular cloud by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and flatten into a circumstellar disk, and then the planets grow out of that disk with the Sun. A nebula contains gas, ice grains, and dust (including primordial nuclides). According to nebular theory, planetesimals formed by accretion, with the primordial Earth being estimated as likely taking anywhere from 70 to 100 million years to form. Estimates of the age of the Moon range from 4.5 Ga to significantly younger. A leading hypothesis is that it was formed by accretion from material loosed from Earth after a Mars-sized object with about 10% of Earth's mass, named Theia, collided with Earth. It hit Earth with a glancing blow and some of its mass merged with Earth. Between approximately 4.0 and 3.8 Ga, numerous asteroid impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment caused significant changes to the greater surface environment of the Moon and, by inference, to that of Earth. After formation
Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by volcanic activity and outgassing. Water vapor from these sources condensed into the oceans, augmented by water and ice from asteroids, protoplanets, and comets. Sufficient water to fill the oceans may have been on Earth since it formed. In this model, atmospheric greenhouse gases kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only 70% of its current luminosity.","[-0.05484530329704285, -0.03930900618433952, 0.06607784330844879, 0.016004182398319244, 0.03646978363394737, -0.04544961079955101, 0.017320483922958374, 0.041606031358242035, 0.06719055026769638, 0.07566868513822556, 0.01110103353857994, -0.09197065234184265, 0.00572203891351819, -0.038901690393686295, 0.01581835001707077, -0.03568468615412712, -0.06906089186668396, -0.10819464176893234, 0.040532857179641724, 0.052042990922927856, 0.03269117698073387, 0.06218055635690689, -0.041083116084337234, 0.008060607127845287, 0.06164052337408066, 0.01372277271002531, -0.045444682240486145, -0.05437884107232094, 0.09047599881887436, 0.06659447401762009, 0.032348982989788055, -0.025227347388863564, 0.08071832358837128, 0.055412523448467255, 0.006581223104149103, -0.026068245992064476, 0.03815287724137306, -0.001930678030475974, -0.010519502684473991, 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154,"may have been on Earth since it formed . In this model , atmospheric greenhouse gases kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only 70 % of its current luminosity .By 3.5 Ga, Earth's magnetic field was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind. As the molten outer layer of Earth cooled it formed the first solid crust, which is thought to have been mafic in composition. The first continental crust, which was more felsic in composition, formed by the partial melting of this mafic crust. The presence of grains of the mineral zircon of Hadean age in Eoarchean sedimentary rocks suggests that at least some felsic crust existed as early as 4.4 Ga, only 140 Ma after Earth's formation. There are two main models of how this initial small volume of continental crust evolved to reach its current abundance: (1) a relatively steady growth up to the present day, which is supported by the radiometric dating of continental crust globally and (2) an initial rapid growth in the volume of continental crust during the Archean, forming the bulk of the continental crust that now exists, which is supported by isotopic evidence from hafnium in zircons and neodymium in sedimentary rocks. The two models and the data that support them can be reconciled by large-scale recycling of the continental crust, particularly during the early stages of Earth's history. New continental crust forms as a result of plate tectonics, a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth's interior. Over the period of hundreds of millions of years, tectonic forces have caused areas of continental crust to group together to form supercontinents that have subsequently broken apart. At approximately 750 Ma, one of the earliest known supercontinents, Rodinia, began to break apart.","[-0.10716988891363144, 0.023283734917640686, 0.03221603482961655, 0.08415207266807556, 0.09933916479349136, -0.020870959386229515, -0.01263092365115881, 0.020093752071261406, -0.028675617650151253, 0.04673703387379646, -0.03625365346670151, -0.05505722016096115, 0.04670986160635948, -0.030446497723460197, 0.023387836292386055, -0.04985851049423218, 0.0006170475389808416, -0.10901238769292831, 0.014614550396800041, 0.02747567556798458, 0.0577930249273777, 0.06906407326459885, 0.0027467801701277494, -0.02573937550187111, -0.014675568789243698, -0.030331233516335487, -0.09475316852331161, 0.06331062316894531, -0.017763512209057808, -0.012971596792340279, -0.022535327821969986, 0.0011746843811124563, 0.11704632639884949, 0.009674888104200363, -0.001335768960416317, 0.006798253394663334, 0.00736579205840826, -0.0030810139141976833, -0.03932550922036171, 0.005240218713879585, 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155,"areas of continental crust to group together to form supercontinents that have subsequently broken apart . At approximately 750 Ma , one of the earliest known supercontinents , Rodinia , began to break apart .The continents later recombined to form Pannotia at 600–540 Ma, then finally Pangaea, which also began to break apart at 180 Ma. The most recent pattern of ice ages began about 40 Ma, and then intensified during the Pleistocene about 3 Ma. High- and middle-latitude regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating about every 21,000, 41,000, and 100,000 years. The Last Glacial Period, colloquially called the ""last ice age"", covered large parts of the continents, to the middle latitudes, in ice and ended about 11,700 years ago. Origin of life and evolution
Chemical reactions led to the first self-replicating molecules about four billion years ago. A half billion years later, the last common ancestor of all current life arose. The evolution of photosynthesis allowed the Sun's energy to be harvested directly by life forms. The resultant molecular oxygen (O2) accumulated in the atmosphere and due to interaction with ultraviolet solar radiation, formed a protective ozone layer (O3) in the upper atmosphere. The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the development of complex cells called eukaryotes. True multicellular organisms formed as cells within colonies became increasingly specialized. Aided by the absorption of harmful ultraviolet radiation by the ozone layer, life colonized Earth's surface. Among the earliest fossil evidence for life is microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone in Western Australia, biogenic graphite found in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks in Western Greenland, and remains of biotic material found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. The earliest direct evidence of life on Earth is contained in 3.45 billion-year-old Australian rocks showing fossils of microorganisms.","[-0.11127838492393494, -0.029423458501696587, 0.03428305312991142, 0.013669217005372047, 0.0534653440117836, -0.021480783820152283, -0.05832619592547417, 0.06260083615779877, -0.0002996369730681181, 0.05749504640698433, 0.01645916886627674, -0.03939492255449295, -0.055823519825935364, -0.003930003847926855, 0.041825029999017715, 0.013332953676581383, -0.12151608616113663, -0.0668235570192337, -0.014217193238437176, 0.00580243906006217, 0.11052919179201126, 0.035066258162260056, -0.05809861794114113, -0.0017370247514918447, -0.008249340578913689, 0.058651551604270935, -0.053156252950429916, -0.023827331140637398, 0.02377006970345974, 0.09636294841766357, 0.013342170976102352, 0.005131464917212725, 0.07259964942932129, -0.009449749253690243, 0.04720917344093323, 0.01126011461019516, 0.012900096364319324, -0.021332405507564545, 0.016013456508517265, 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156,", and remains of biotic material found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia . The earliest direct evidence of life on Earth is contained in 3.45 billion-year-old Australian rocks showing fossils of microorganisms .During the Neoproterozoic, 1000 to 539 Ma, much of Earth might have been covered in ice. This hypothesis has been termed ""Snowball Earth"", and it is of particular interest because it preceded the Cambrian explosion, when multicellular life forms significantly increased in complexity. Following the Cambrian explosion, 535 Ma, there have been at least five major mass extinctions and many minor ones. Apart from the proposed current Holocene extinction event, the most recent was 66 Ma, when an asteroid impact triggered the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs and other large reptiles, but largely spared small animals, such as insects, mammals, lizards, and birds. Mammalian life has diversified over the past 66 Mys, and several million years ago, an African ape species gained the ability to stand upright. This facilitated tool use and encouraged communication that provided the nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain, which led to the evolution of humans. The development of agriculture, and then civilization, led to humans having an influence on Earth and the nature and quantity of other life forms that continues to this day. Future
Earth's expected long-term future is tied to that of the Sun. Over the next 1.1 billion years, solar luminosity will increase by 10%, and over the next 3.5 billion years by 40%. Earth's increasing surface temperature will accelerate the inorganic carbon cycle, possibly reducing CO2 concentration to levels lethally low for current plants (10 ppm for C4 photosynthesis) in approximately 100–900 million years. A lack of vegetation would result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere, making current animal life impossible.","[-0.027275869622826576, 0.05824853852391243, 0.0935140922665596, 0.06555487215518951, 0.01715138740837574, 0.042592957615852356, -0.010050403885543346, 0.04956916347146034, -0.018055349588394165, 0.1809816211462021, -0.03085201233625412, -0.08193229138851166, -0.04198875650763512, 0.04958701133728027, 0.020068218931555748, 0.019632166251540184, -0.07981344312429428, -0.10778097063302994, -0.011168822646141052, 0.04730384051799774, 0.03708970919251442, 0.08630973100662231, -0.01687738113105297, -0.0033471095375716686, -0.016504468396306038, 0.011370805092155933, -0.05994199216365814, 0.0019963623490184546, -0.01668073795735836, 0.03529556095600128, 0.022144759073853493, 0.027802426367998123, 0.09920444339513779, -0.06959881633520126, 0.06698912382125854, 0.03074432909488678, -0.0055117360316216946, -0.0395306721329689, -0.010956324636936188, -0.006770051084458828, 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157,"plants ( 10 ppm for C4 photosynthesis ) in approximately 100–900 million years . A lack of vegetation would result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere , making current animal life impossible .Due to the increased luminosity, Earth's mean temperature may reach 100 °C (212 °F) in 1.5 billion years, and all ocean water will evaporate and be lost to space, which may trigger a runaway greenhouse effect, within an estimated 1.6 to 3 billion years. Even if the Sun were stable and eternal, a significant fraction of the water in the modern oceans would descend into the mantle, due to reduced steam venting from mid-ocean ridges as the core of the Earth slowly cools. The Sun will evolve to become a red giant in about 5 billion years. Models predict that the Sun will expand to roughly 1 AU (150 million km; 93 million mi), about 250 times its present radius. Earth's fate is less clear. As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal effects, Earth will move to an orbit 1.7 AU (250 million km; 160 million mi) from the Sun when the star reaches its maximum radius, otherwise, with tidal effects, it may enter the Sun's atmosphere and be vaporized, with the heavier elements sinking to the core of the dying sun. Physical characteristics
Size and shape
Earth has a rounded shape, through hydrostatic equilibrium, with an average diameter of 12,742 kilometres (7,918 mi), making it the fifth largest planetary sized and largest terrestrial object of the Solar System. Due to Earth's rotation it has the shape of an ellipsoid, bulging at its equator; its diameter is 43 kilometres (27 mi) longer there than at its poles.","[-0.027992049232125282, 0.0716145783662796, 0.04822075366973877, 0.047718070447444916, 0.02492545358836651, -0.027000119909644127, -0.09004586189985275, 0.026905454695224762, 0.014873112551867962, 0.03545995429158211, 0.004048449452966452, -0.03235683962702751, 0.01648884266614914, -0.024396264925599098, 0.08374270796775818, 0.06890805810689926, -0.015257786028087139, -0.03441658616065979, -0.0700322762131691, 0.001211212482303381, -0.01651230826973915, -0.01856042630970478, -0.08103781193494797, -0.021160000935196877, -0.10443227738142014, -0.04991121217608452, -0.0609351210296154, -0.03272334113717079, -0.08171257376670837, 0.02216600999236107, -0.019231395795941353, -0.038801439106464386, 0.05710620805621147, 0.023122461512684822, 0.012090210802853107, 0.07023147493600845, -0.0019555806647986174, -0.09133840352296829, 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158,". Due to Earth 's rotation it has the shape of an ellipsoid , bulging at its equator ; its diameter is 43 kilometres ( 27 mi ) longer there than at its poles .Earth's shape also has local topographic variations; the largest local variations, like the Mariana Trench (10,925 metres or 35,843 feet below local sea level), shortens Earth's average radius by 0.17% and Mount Everest (8,848 metres or 29,029 feet above local sea level) lengthens it by 0.14%. Since Earth's surface is farthest out from its center of mass at its equatorial bulge, the summit of the volcano Chimborazo in Ecuador (6,384.4 km or 3,967.1 mi) is its farthest point out. Parallel to the rigid land topography the ocean exhibits a more dynamic topography. To measure the local variation of Earth's topography, geodesy employs an idealized Earth producing a geoid shape. Such a shape is gained if the ocean is idealized, covering Earth completely and without any perturbations such as tides and winds. The result is a smooth but irregular geoid surface, providing a mean sea level as a reference level for topographic measurements. Surface
Earth's surface is the boundary between the atmosphere and the solid Earth and oceans. Defined in this way, it has an area of about 510 million km2 (197 million sq mi). Earth can be divided into two hemispheres: by latitude into the polar Northern and Southern hemispheres; or by longitude into the continental Eastern and Western hemispheres. Most of Earth's surface is ocean water: 70.8% or 361 million km2 (139 million sq mi). This vast pool of salty water is often called the world ocean, and makes Earth with its dynamic hydrosphere a water world or ocean world. Indeed, in Earth's early history the ocean may have covered Earth completely.","[0.031690195202827454, 0.02547200582921505, 0.07730882614850998, -0.05294431000947952, 0.020372282713651657, -0.04702315852046013, -0.06536596268415451, 0.12114781141281128, 0.0047435215674340725, -0.03792686015367508, -0.019635338336229324, -0.040319617837667465, 0.017450397834181786, 0.03134625032544136, 0.04493696242570877, -0.01260281354188919, -0.013697351329028606, -0.035178232938051224, -0.021381381899118423, 0.024708151817321777, 0.11719029396772385, 0.06851176917552948, 0.026589957997202873, 0.07557374984025955, -0.06299678981304169, -0.016092607751488686, -0.015137767419219017, 0.03725883737206459, -0.04256674647331238, 0.009376020170748234, -0.00779844680801034, -0.057117022573947906, 0.03750361129641533, -0.03611612692475319, -0.009898119606077671, 0.04050952568650246, -0.04285053908824921, 0.06696730852127075, 0.00963517278432846, 0.04886641725897789, -0.052697133272886276, -0.0418197363615036, 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159,"often called the world ocean , and makes Earth with its dynamic hydrosphere a water world or ocean world . Indeed , in Earth 's early history the ocean may have covered Earth completely .The world ocean is commonly divided into the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean, from largest to smallest. The ocean covers Earth's oceanic crust, with the shelf seas covering the shelves of the continental crust to a lesser extent. The oceanic crust forms large oceanic basins with features like abyssal plains, seamounts, submarine volcanoes, oceanic trenches, submarine canyons, oceanic plateaus, and a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system. At Earth's polar regions, the ocean surface is covered by seasonally variable amounts of sea ice that often connects with polar land, permafrost and ice sheets, forming polar ice caps. Earth's land covers 29.2%, or 149 million km2 (58 million sq mi) of Earth's surface. The land surface includes many islands around the globe, but most of the land surface is taken by the four continental landmasses, which are (in descending order): Africa-Eurasia, America, Antarctica, and Australia. These landmasses are further broken down and grouped into the continents. The terrain of the land surface varies greatly and consists of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and other landforms. The elevation of the land surface varies from a low point of −418 m (−1,371 ft) at the Dead Sea, to a maximum altitude of 8,848 m (29,029 ft) at the top of Mount Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is about 797 m (2,615 ft). Land can be covered by surface water, snow, ice, artificial structures or vegetation.","[0.0380743034183979, 0.014111178927123547, 0.06035183370113373, -0.04922563582658768, 0.05152176320552826, -0.04131757840514183, -0.00620102696120739, 0.046753767877817154, 0.03996267914772034, 0.02152976393699646, -0.07892893254756927, -0.08172190934419632, -0.003629579907283187, 0.03387507423758507, 0.043509624898433685, -0.04731728136539459, -0.07230034470558167, -0.08440670371055603, -0.03775545209646225, 0.04405956342816353, 0.0792972669005394, 0.10996437072753906, -0.014547480270266533, -0.05294129252433777, -0.12288367748260498, 0.024055240675807, 0.04504189267754555, 0.010941524058580399, -0.04786568135023117, 0.02812575362622738, -0.03493616729974747, -0.0369453988969326, 0.1410166323184967, 0.00032859478960745037, -0.025715766474604607, 0.009051179513335228, -0.06606400012969971, 0.050018295645713806, 0.0072300066240131855, 0.0732981488108635, -0.0618719756603241, -0.00352501287125051, 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160,". The mean height of land above sea level is about 797 m ( 2,615 ft ) . Land can be covered by surface water , snow , ice , artificial structures or vegetation .Most of Earth's land hosts vegetation, but considerable amounts of land are ice sheets (10%, not including the equally large area of land under permafrost) or deserts (33%). The pedosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's land surface and is composed of soil and subject to soil formation processes. Soil is crucial for land to be arable. Earth's total arable land is 10.7% of the land surface, with 1.3% being permanent cropland. Earth has an estimated 16.7 million km2 (6.4 million sq mi) of cropland and 33.5 million km2 (12.9 million sq mi) of pastureland. The land surface and the ocean floor form the top of Earth's crust, which together with parts of the upper mantle form Earth's lithosphere. Earth's crust may be divided into oceanic and continental crust. Beneath the ocean-floor sediments, the oceanic crust is predominantly basaltic, while the continental crust may include lower density materials such as granite, sediments and metamorphic rocks. Nearly 75% of the continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks, although they form about 5% of the mass of the crust. Earth's surface topography comprises both the topography of the ocean surface, and the shape of Earth's land surface. The submarine terrain of the ocean floor has an average bathymetric depth of 4 km, and is as varied as the terrain above sea level. Earth's surface is continually being shaped by internal plate tectonic processes including earthquakes and volcanism; by weathering and erosion driven by ice, water, wind and temperature; and by biological processes including the growth and decomposition of biomass into soil.","[0.05529269576072693, 0.007133094593882561, 0.08633001893758774, -0.06285125017166138, 0.07054397463798523, -0.04247892647981644, -0.0027804060373455286, 0.08788945525884628, 0.04505227878689766, 0.06035366654396057, -0.03883608803153038, -0.15549711883068085, 0.038039498031139374, -0.011732795275747776, 0.06147586554288864, -0.01569688506424427, 0.0013842418557032943, -0.03964771702885628, -0.049816157668828964, 0.0024871162604540586, 0.10823045670986176, 0.08546485751867294, 0.04037409648299217, -0.044742025434970856, -0.0538133904337883, -0.011622105725109577, -0.04613611847162247, 0.051255740225315094, -0.06127854064106941, -0.007314355578273535, 0.003600051859393716, 0.05714412033557892, 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161,"tectonic processes including earthquakes and volcanism ; by weathering and erosion driven by ice , water , wind and temperature ; and by biological processes including the growth and decomposition of biomass into soil .Tectonic plates
Earth's mechanically rigid outer layer of Earth's crust and upper mantle, the lithosphere, is divided into tectonic plates. These plates are rigid segments that move relative to each other at one of three boundaries types: at convergent boundaries, two plates come together; at divergent boundaries, two plates are pulled apart; and at transform boundaries, two plates slide past one another laterally. Along these plate boundaries, earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation can occur. The tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere, the solid but less-viscous part of the upper mantle that can flow and move along with the plates. As the tectonic plates migrate, oceanic crust is subducted under the leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries. At the same time, the upwelling of mantle material at divergent boundaries creates mid-ocean ridges. The combination of these processes recycles the oceanic crust back into the mantle. Due to this recycling, most of the ocean floor is less than 100 Ma old. The oldest oceanic crust is located in the Western Pacific and is estimated to be 200 Ma old. By comparison, the oldest dated continental crust is 4,030 Ma, although zircons have been found preserved as clasts within Eoarchean sedimentary rocks that give ages up to 4,400 Ma, indicating that at least some continental crust existed at that time. The seven major plates are the Pacific, North American, Eurasian, African, Antarctic, Indo-Australian, and South American. Other notable plates include the Arabian Plate, the Caribbean Plate, the Nazca Plate off the west coast of South America and the Scotia Plate in the southern Atlantic Ocean.","[-0.07050932198762894, -0.02230953797698021, 0.11877275258302689, -0.03970059007406235, 0.011920808814466, -0.08711515367031097, -0.09475382417440414, 0.015056109987199306, 0.08711037039756775, 0.026166075840592384, -0.048038750886917114, -0.0840068832039833, -0.01255842950195074, -0.008078744634985924, 0.04276980087161064, -0.0757705569267273, -0.07884708791971207, -0.03735240176320076, -0.028863906860351562, 0.021739866584539413, 0.11742909252643585, 0.06037240847945213, -0.07212997227907181, -0.01630583591759205, -0.04625015705823898, 0.02081356570124626, -0.07620321214199066, 0.025694411247968674, 0.007014727219939232, -0.02822619490325451, 0.010881616733968258, -0.031777773052453995, -0.04006420448422432, 0.03588462993502617, 0.0004484881355892867, 0.10413143038749695, -0.004138986114412546, 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162,"South American . Other notable plates include the Arabian Plate , the Caribbean Plate , the Nazca Plate off the west coast of South America and the Scotia Plate in the southern Atlantic Ocean .The Australian Plate fused with the Indian Plate between 50 and 55 Ma. The fastest-moving plates are the oceanic plates, with the Cocos Plate advancing at a rate of 75 mm/a (3.0 in/year) and the Pacific Plate moving 52–69 mm/a (2.0–2.7 in/year). At the other extreme, the slowest-moving plate is the South American Plate, progressing at a typical rate of 10.6 mm/a (0.42 in/year). Internal structure
Earth's interior, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers by their chemical or physical (rheological) properties. The outer layer is a chemically distinct silicate solid crust, which is underlain by a highly viscous solid mantle. The crust is separated from the mantle by the Mohorovičić discontinuity. The thickness of the crust varies from about 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) under the oceans to 30–50 km (19–31 mi) for the continents. The crust and the cold, rigid, top of the upper mantle are collectively known as the lithosphere, which is divided into independently moving tectonic plates. Beneath the lithosphere is the asthenosphere, a relatively low-viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides. Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at 410 and 660 km (250 and 410 mi) below the surface, spanning a transition zone that separates the upper and lower mantle. Beneath the mantle, an extremely low viscosity liquid outer core lies above a solid inner core. Earth's inner core may be rotating at a slightly higher angular velocity than the remainder of the planet, advancing by 0.1–0.5° per year, although both somewhat higher and much lower rates have also been proposed.","[-0.001619240501895547, -0.04154597595334053, 0.01471850648522377, -0.053195834159851074, 0.02698020078241825, -0.04693317785859108, -0.09223616868257523, 0.012300114147365093, 0.015604502521455288, 0.00948763731867075, 0.0008650721865706146, -0.12148813903331757, -0.025641361251473427, 0.029857337474822998, 0.02188553847372532, -0.08974231034517288, 0.04743272066116333, -0.07925697416067123, 0.02917448803782463, 0.08341352641582489, 0.033668454736471176, 0.024551203474402428, -0.05310468748211861, 0.027105581015348434, -0.008812888525426388, -0.024174049496650696, -0.10920608043670654, -0.00865120068192482, -0.0443006306886673, 0.012629176490008831, -0.038105256855487823, -0.01920432224869728, 0.032562289386987686, 0.005654983688145876, -0.0007062287186272442, 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163,"may be rotating at a slightly higher angular velocity than the remainder of the planet , advancing by 0.1–0.5° per year , although both somewhat higher and much lower rates have also been proposed .The radius of the inner core is about one-fifth of that of Earth. The density increases with depth. Among the Solar System's planetary-sized objects, Earth is the object with the highest density. Chemical composition
Earth's mass is approximately 5.97×1024 kg (5.970 Yg). It is composed mostly of iron (32.1% by mass), oxygen (30.1%), silicon (15.1%), magnesium (13.9%), sulfur (2.9%), nickel (1.8%), calcium (1.5%), and aluminum (1.4%), with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to gravitational separation, the core is primarily composed of the denser elements: iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulfur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements. The most common rock constituents of the crust are oxides. Over 99% of the crust is composed of various oxides of eleven elements, principally oxides containing silicon (the silicate minerals), aluminum, iron, calcium, magnesium, potassium, or sodium. Internal heat
The major contributors to Earth's internal heat are primordial heat (heat left over from Earth's formation) and radiogenic heat (heat produced by radioactive decay). The major heat-producing isotopes within Earth are potassium-40, uranium-238, and thorium-232. At the center, the temperature may be up to 6,000 °C (10,830 °F), and the pressure could reach 360 GPa (52 million psi).","[0.018942123278975487, -0.05952681601047516, 0.014257737435400486, -0.016483809798955917, 0.09923745691776276, -0.02833659015595913, 0.048130102455616, 0.06418777257204056, -0.0017235884442925453, 0.021369559690356255, -0.0828685387969017, -0.0760626569390297, 0.013168943114578724, -0.05119236558675766, 0.0736599937081337, -0.07625431567430496, 0.10241883248090744, -0.016655778512358665, -0.04186522588133812, 0.06907320022583008, -0.009507212787866592, 0.031214028596878052, 0.000689182837959379, 0.0469168983399868, -0.015495465137064457, 0.0659550130367279, -0.07509984076023102, -0.02938091941177845, -0.06830686330795288, -0.04031995311379433, 0.021283727139234543, -0.00872413907200098, 0.08168573677539825, -0.012344111688435078, -0.009807039983570576, 0.010416886769235134, -0.05218181014060974, -0.011759777553379536, -0.045432060956954956, -0.05199485272169113, 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164,"uranium-238 , and thorium-232 . At the center , the temperature may be up to 6,000 °C ( 10,830 °F ) , and the pressure could reach 360 GPa ( 52 million psi ) .Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay, scientists postulate that early in Earth's history, before isotopes with short half-lives were depleted, Earth's heat production was much higher. At approximately 3 Gyr, twice the present-day heat would have been produced, increasing the rates of mantle convection and plate tectonics, and allowing the production of uncommon igneous rocks such as komatiites that are rarely formed today. The mean heat loss from Earth is 87 mW/m2, for a global heat loss of 4.42×1013 W. A portion of the core's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by mantle plumes, a form of convection consisting of upwellings of higher-temperature rock. These plumes can produce hotspots and flood basalts. More of the heat in Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with mid-ocean ridges. The final major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs under the oceans. Gravitational field
The gravity of Earth is the acceleration that is imparted to objects due to the distribution of mass within Earth. Near Earth's surface, gravitational acceleration is approximately 9.8 m/s2 (32 ft/s2). Local differences in topography, geology, and deeper tectonic structure cause local and broad regional differences in Earth's gravitational field, known as gravity anomalies. Magnetic field
The main part of Earth's magnetic field is generated in the core, the site of a dynamo process that converts the kinetic energy of thermally and compositionally driven convection into electrical and magnetic field energy. The field extends outwards from the core, through the mantle, and up to Earth's surface, where it is, approximately, a dipole.","[-0.011709082871675491, 0.04160940274596214, 0.08835717290639877, 0.030799610540270805, 0.048045627772808075, -0.04511137679219246, -0.05886448547244072, 0.010566052049398422, 0.011159271001815796, 0.05457661300897598, -0.06406401842832565, -0.12105194479227066, 0.0721980556845665, -0.058223992586135864, 0.06628384441137314, -0.035267215222120285, -0.010984738357365131, -0.07182472944259644, -0.06979670375585556, 0.012992074713110924, 0.00851127877831459, 0.048860084265470505, -0.04841167479753494, 0.03640495240688324, 0.025186864659190178, -0.04689434543251991, -0.07929842919111252, -0.03171427175402641, -0.03594493865966797, 0.07840310037136078, -0.046340301632881165, -0.047141194343566895, 0.030605319887399673, -0.006716984324157238, 0.030355794355273247, 0.07484269887208939, -0.050296783447265625, -0.015874100849032402, -0.074669748544693, 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165,"into electrical and magnetic field energy . The field extends outwards from the core , through the mantle , and up to Earth 's surface , where it is , approximately , a dipole .The poles of the dipole are located close to Earth's geographic poles. At the equator of the magnetic field, the magnetic-field strength at the surface is 3.05×10−5 T, with a magnetic dipole moment of 7.79×1022 Am2 at epoch 2000, decreasing nearly 6% per century (although it still remains stronger than its long time average). The convection movements in the core are chaotic; the magnetic poles drift and periodically change alignment. This causes secular variation of the main field and field reversals at irregular intervals averaging a few times every million years. The most recent reversal occurred approximately 700,000 years ago. The extent of Earth's magnetic field in space defines the magnetosphere. Ions and electrons of the solar wind are deflected by the magnetosphere; solar wind pressure compresses the day-side of the magnetosphere, to about 10 Earth radii, and extends the night-side magnetosphere into a long tail. Because the velocity of the solar wind is greater than the speed at which waves propagate through the solar wind, a supersonic bow shock precedes the day-side magnetosphere within the solar wind. Charged particles are contained within the magnetosphere; the plasmasphere is defined by low-energy particles that essentially follow magnetic field lines as Earth rotates. The ring current is defined by medium-energy particles that drift relative to the geomagnetic field, but with paths that are still dominated by the magnetic field, and the Van Allen radiation belts are formed by high-energy particles whose motion is essentially random, but contained in the magnetosphere.","[0.024601558223366737, 0.02168416604399681, 0.08278142660856247, 0.006654950324445963, 0.04646754637360573, -0.020878897979855537, -0.048894789069890976, 0.04336570203304291, 0.020988021045923233, -0.032988883554935455, -0.05407864972949028, 0.03987690433859825, 0.00048372126184403896, -0.08961298316717148, 0.06984373182058334, -0.03093343786895275, 0.028487665578722954, -0.07756567001342773, 0.01467747613787651, 0.05262048542499542, -0.06296016275882721, -0.033661965280771255, -0.05962487310171127, -0.02336234413087368, -0.016948528587818146, 0.025096366181969643, -0.08813606202602386, -0.028291545808315277, -0.10818690806627274, -0.004278442356735468, -0.014234338887035847, 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166,"but with paths that are still dominated by the magnetic field , and the Van Allen radiation belts are formed by high-energy particles whose motion is essentially random , but contained in the magnetosphere .During magnetic storms and substorms, charged particles can be deflected from the outer magnetosphere and especially the magnetotail, directed along field lines into Earth's ionosphere, where atmospheric atoms can be excited and ionized, causing an aurora. Orbit and rotation
Rotation
Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun—its mean solar day—is 86,400 seconds of mean solar time (86,400.0025 SI seconds). Because Earth's solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to tidal deceleration, each day varies between 0 and 2 ms longer than the mean solar day. Earth's rotation period relative to the fixed stars, called its stellar day by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS), is 86,164.0989 seconds of mean solar time (UT1), or 23h 56m 4.0989s. Earth's rotation period relative to the precessing or moving mean March equinox (when the Sun is at 90° on the equator), is 86,164.0905 seconds of mean solar time (UT1) (23h 56m 4.0905s). Thus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4 ms.
Apart from meteors within the atmosphere and low-orbiting satellites, the main apparent motion of celestial bodies in Earth's sky is to the west at a rate of 15°/h = 15'/min. For bodies near the celestial equator, this is equivalent to an apparent diameter of the Sun or the Moon every two minutes; from Earth's surface, the apparent sizes of the Sun and the Moon are approximately the same. Orbit
Earth orbits the Sun, making Earth the third-closest planet to the Sun and part of the inner Solar System.","[0.05234462395310402, 0.011201190762221813, 0.06313115358352661, -0.0036294879391789436, 0.01583789847791195, -0.04282451421022415, -0.007775591220706701, -0.04499364271759987, 0.065654456615448, -0.0712919682264328, -0.010968096554279327, -0.00021409508190117776, 0.07960611581802368, -0.07476752251386642, 0.08074100315570831, -0.04972103610634804, -0.020751953125, -0.07368874549865723, -0.03359896317124367, 0.05576818808913231, 0.002206970239058137, 0.022848330438137054, -0.030812127515673637, 0.023849789053201675, -0.02203514240682125, 0.029007548466324806, -0.015367547981441021, -0.0766596645116806, -0.09594473242759705, -0.008882674388587475, 0.028402358293533325, 0.010361297987401485, -0.012613419443368912, 0.033823661506175995, -0.07122445106506348, -0.0500277616083622, 0.053146518766880035, -0.003969752229750156, -0.0004616494115907699, 0.03479769825935364, 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167,"apparent sizes of the Sun and the Moon are approximately the same . Orbit Earth orbits the Sun , making Earth the third-closest planet to the Sun and part of the inner Solar System .Earth's average orbital distance is about 150 million km (93 million mi), which is the basis for the astronomical unit (AU) and is equal to roughly 8.3 light minutes or 380 times Earth's distance to the Moon. Earth orbits the Sun every 365.2564 mean solar days, or one sidereal year. With an apparent movement of the Sun in Earth's sky at a rate of about 1°/day eastward, which is one apparent Sun or Moon diameter every 12 hours. Due to this motion, on average it takes 24 hours—a solar day—for Earth to complete a full rotation about its axis so that the Sun returns to the meridian. The orbital speed of Earth averages at 29.7827 km/s (107,218 km/h; 66,622 mph), which is fast enough to travel a distance equal to Earth's diameter, about 12,742 km (7,918 mi), in seven minutes, and the distance from Earth to the Moon, 384,400 km (238,855 mi), in about 3.5 hours. The Moon and Earth orbit a common barycenter every 27.32 days relative to the background stars. When combined with the Earth–Moon system's common orbit around the Sun, the period of the synodic month, from new moon to new moon, is 29.53 days. Viewed from the celestial north pole, the motion of Earth, the Moon, and their axial rotations are all counterclockwise. Viewed from a vantage point above the Sun and Earth's north poles, Earth orbits in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun.","[0.10969054698944092, -0.01861763745546341, 0.026166468858718872, 0.009450719691812992, -0.0486312210559845, -0.06443057954311371, -0.019220156595110893, -0.007768155541270971, 0.025797724723815918, -0.011171624064445496, 0.013957204297184944, -0.054663509130477905, -0.01480895560234785, -0.03533826395869255, 0.06146303564310074, -0.05827626958489418, 0.03188071399927139, 0.006509722676128149, -0.03504443168640137, 0.028491823002696037, -0.04787633195519447, -0.041789837181568146, 0.00590822659432888, 0.04911813139915466, -0.01194007322192192, 0.052584998309612274, -0.025835933163762093, -0.06288371980190277, -0.09885867685079575, 0.014656264334917068, -0.0547068752348423, 0.011855403892695904, 0.023703405633568764, -0.03477448225021362, -0.0740114152431488, 0.00838448479771614, 0.0005808071000501513, -0.07019713521003723, 0.030640097334980965, 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168,"the Moon , and their axial rotations are all counterclockwise . Viewed from a vantage point above the Sun and Earth 's north poles , Earth orbits in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun .The orbital and axial planes are not precisely aligned: Earth's axis is tilted some 23.44 degrees from the perpendicular to the Earth–Sun plane (the ecliptic), and the Earth-Moon plane is tilted up to ±5.1 degrees against the Earth–Sun plane. Without this tilt, there would be an eclipse every two weeks, alternating between lunar eclipses and solar eclipses. The Hill sphere, or the sphere of gravitational influence, of Earth is about 1.5 million km (930,000 mi) in radius. This is the maximum distance at which Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than that of the more distant Sun and planets. Objects must orbit Earth within this radius, or they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun. Earth, along with the Solar System, is situated in the Milky Way and orbits about 28,000 light-years from its center. It is about 20 light-years above the galactic plane in the Orion Arm. Axial tilt and seasons
The axial tilt of Earth is approximately 23.439281° with the axis of the plane of the Earth's orbit by definition pointing always towards the Celestial Poles. Due to Earth's axial tilt, the amount of sunlight reaching any given point on the surface varies over the course of the year. This causes the seasonal change in climate, with summer in the Northern Hemisphere occurring when the Tropic of Cancer is facing the Sun, and in the Southern Hemisphere when the Tropic of Capricorn faces the Sun. In each instance, winter occurs simultaneously in the opposite hemisphere. During the summer, the day lasts longer, and the Sun climbs higher in the sky. In winter, the climate becomes cooler and the days shorter.","[0.028818244114518166, -0.01329081878066063, 0.038812097162008286, -0.05225014686584473, -0.09266279637813568, -0.0435582734644413, -0.09050518274307251, 0.011635071597993374, 0.10201503336429596, -0.03224394842982292, 0.014861606992781162, -0.016196465119719505, -0.001172256306745112, -0.06335438787937164, 0.04602167010307312, -0.06488800048828125, -0.005068620201200247, -0.017423108220100403, -0.0037572323344647884, 0.03460510075092316, 0.004903290420770645, -0.01989462971687317, 0.0023988366592675447, 0.11127331107854843, -0.05629260465502739, 0.029933622106909752, -0.020202182233333588, -0.032320115715265274, -0.09830310195684433, -0.020528819411993027, 0.0015178228495642543, 0.032678183168172836, -0.06772662699222565, 0.013750824145972729, -0.07089534401893616, -0.0015208465047180653, 0.02681080810725689, -0.04975350201129913, 0.06051386892795563, -0.038404565304517746, -0.03659911826252937, -0.024122115224599838, 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169,"in the opposite hemisphere . During the summer , the day lasts longer , and the Sun climbs higher in the sky . In winter , the climate becomes cooler and the days shorter .Above the Arctic Circle and below the Antarctic Circle there is no daylight at all for part of the year, causing a polar night, and this night extends for several months at the poles themselves. These same latitudes also experience a midnight sun, where the sun remains visible all day. By astronomical convention, the four seasons can be determined by the solstices—the points in the orbit of maximum axial tilt toward or away from the Sun—and the equinoxes, when Earth's rotational axis is aligned with its orbital axis. In the Northern Hemisphere, winter solstice currently occurs around 21 December; summer solstice is near 21 June, spring equinox is around 20 March and autumnal equinox is about 22 or 23 September. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is reversed, with the summer and winter solstices exchanged and the spring and autumnal equinox dates swapped. The angle of Earth's axial tilt is relatively stable over long periods of time. Its axial tilt does undergo nutation; a slight, irregular motion with a main period of 18.6 years. The orientation (rather than the angle) of Earth's axis also changes over time, precessing around in a complete circle over each 25,800-year cycle; this precession is the reason for the difference between a sidereal year and a tropical year. Both of these motions are caused by the varying attraction of the Sun and the Moon on Earth's equatorial bulge. The poles also migrate a few meters across Earth's surface. This polar motion has multiple, cyclical components, which collectively are termed quasiperiodic motion. In addition to an annual component to this motion, there is a 14-month cycle called the Chandler wobble.","[0.02815823256969452, -0.031732264906167984, 0.07930994033813477, 0.025811059400439262, 0.007996156811714172, -0.003272945061326027, -0.06415030360221863, -0.0024566869251430035, 0.0814676433801651, 0.02687021717429161, -0.009158515371382236, 0.026212653145194054, 0.042597636580467224, -0.008321492932736874, 0.12127583473920822, -0.040142130106687546, -0.04991501569747925, -0.006823386065661907, 0.06399345397949219, 0.032083913683891296, 0.00986089650541544, -0.12054571509361267, -0.07495563477277756, 0.043696463108062744, -0.06470983475446701, -0.013085959479212761, -0.051890164613723755, -0.014101635664701462, -0.08485996723175049, 0.04394490644335747, -0.050531499087810516, 0.07212498784065247, -0.02038654498755932, 0.007476571947336197, -0.040492504835128784, -0.006301265675574541, 0.03822660446166992, -0.08668520301580429, -0.011135549284517765, 0.01908208429813385, 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170,"polar motion has multiple , cyclical components , which collectively are termed quasiperiodic motion . In addition to an annual component to this motion , there is a 14-month cycle called the Chandler wobble .Earth's rotational velocity also varies in a phenomenon known as length-of-day variation. Earth's annual orbit is elliptical rather than circular, and its closest approach to the Sun is called perihelion. In modern times, Earth's perihelion occurs around 3 January, and its aphelion around 4 July. These dates shift over time due to precession and changes to the orbit, the latter of which follows cyclical patterns known as Milankovitch cycles. The annual change in the Earth–Sun distance causes an increase of about 6.8% in solar energy reaching Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Because the Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the Southern Hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. This effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the Southern Hemisphere. Earth–Moon system
Moon
The Moon is a relatively large, terrestrial, planet-like natural satellite, with a diameter about one-quarter of Earth's. It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet, although Charon is larger relative to the dwarf planet Pluto. The natural satellites of other planets are also referred to as ""moons"", after Earth's. The most widely accepted theory of the Moon's origin, the giant-impact hypothesis, states that it formed from the collision of a Mars-size protoplanet called Theia with the early Earth.","[0.012328450568020344, 0.004330961033701897, 0.09124239534139633, 0.005146429408341646, 0.00509055657312274, -0.06929458677768707, -0.03790334612131119, -0.039642054587602615, 0.10237476229667664, -0.019260939210653305, 0.02567763440310955, -0.03711026534438133, 0.0118425777181983, -0.006531841121613979, 0.10046626627445221, 0.01464449055492878, -0.024593045935034752, 0.00871820468455553, 0.036301109939813614, 0.05905614793300629, -0.016259945929050446, -0.06041129305958748, -0.05566662922501564, 0.0722898319363594, -0.021868767216801643, 0.020681221038103104, -0.026970528066158295, 0.056024160236120224, -0.09320925921201706, 0.03208189457654953, -0.029212143272161484, 0.09616716206073761, -0.03057817928493023, -0.014001637697219849, -0.018022527918219566, 0.009700797498226166, 0.0010086166439577937, 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171,"'s . The most widely accepted theory of the Moon 's origin , the giant-impact hypothesis , states that it formed from the collision of a Mars-size protoplanet called Theia with the early Earth .This hypothesis explains the Moon's relative lack of iron and volatile elements and the fact that its composition is nearly identical to that of Earth's crust. Computer simulations suggest that two blob-like remnants of this protoplanet could be inside the Earth. The gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon causes lunar tides on Earth. The same effect on the Moon has led to its tidal locking: its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit Earth. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet. As the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the lunar phases. Due to their tidal interaction, the Moon recedes from Earth at the rate of approximately 38 mm/a (1+1⁄2 in/year). Over millions of years, these tiny modifications—and the lengthening of Earth's day by about 23 μs/yr—add up to significant changes. During the Ediacaran period, for example, (approximately 620 Ma) there were 400±7 days in a year, with each day lasting 21.9±0.4 hours. The Moon may have dramatically affected the development of life by moderating the planet's climate. Paleontological evidence and computer simulations show that Earth's axial tilt is stabilized by tidal interactions with the Moon. Some theorists think that without this stabilization against the torques applied by the Sun and planets to Earth's equatorial bulge, the rotational axis might be chaotically unstable, exhibiting large changes over millions of years, as is the case for Mars, though this is disputed. Viewed from Earth, the Moon is just far enough away to have almost the same apparent-sized disk as the Sun.","[0.02239542081952095, 0.03617260977625847, 0.1462932825088501, 0.01946728490293026, 0.049432966858148575, -0.038158904761075974, -0.023126358166337013, -0.02364831231534481, 0.010532130487263203, 0.026591183617711067, -0.00740984408184886, -0.04368114098906517, -0.03709643706679344, -0.09230498969554901, 0.04242934286594391, -0.06476827710866928, -0.01851782016456127, 0.006486373953521252, -0.05068911984562874, 0.07600422948598862, -0.000839617510791868, 0.005426442250609398, -0.049620967358350754, 0.059820666909217834, -0.08125534653663635, 0.07979437708854675, -0.011454688385128975, 0.08196365088224411, -0.0317983403801918, -0.08019369840621948, -0.05859322473406792, 0.013834601268172264, 0.001216262113302946, 0.01210026815533638, -0.07149995863437653, 0.037844590842723846, 0.024087639525532722, -0.002561722882091999, -0.0007888564723543823, -0.07207011431455612, 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172,", as is the case for Mars , though this is disputed . Viewed from Earth , the Moon is just far enough away to have almost the same apparent-sized disk as the Sun .The angular size (or solid angle) of these two bodies match because, although the Sun's diameter is about 400 times as large as the Moon's, it is also 400 times more distant. This allows total and annular solar eclipses to occur on Earth. Asteroids and artificial satellites
Earth's co-orbital asteroids population consists of quasi-satellites, objects with a horseshoe orbit and trojans. There are at least seven quasi-satellites, including 469219 Kamoʻoalewa, ranging in diameter from 10 m to 5000 m. A trojan asteroid companion, 2010 TK7, is librating around the leading Lagrange triangular point, L4, in Earth's orbit around the Sun. The tiny near-Earth asteroid 2006 RH120 makes close approaches to the Earth–Moon system roughly every twenty years. During these approaches, it can orbit Earth for brief periods of time. As of September 2021, there are 4,550 operational, human-made satellites orbiting Earth. There are also inoperative satellites, including Vanguard 1, the oldest satellite currently in orbit, and over 16,000 pieces of tracked space debris. Earth's largest artificial satellite is the International Space Station (ISS). Hydrosphere
Earth's hydrosphere is the sum of Earth's water and its distribution. Most of Earth's hydrosphere consists of Earth's global ocean. Earth's hydrosphere also consists of water in the atmosphere and on land, including clouds, inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters. The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35×1018 metric tons or about 1/4400 of Earth's total mass.","[0.025910306721925735, -0.034239597618579865, -0.002152692526578903, -0.030648259446024895, -0.036722563207149506, -0.10881783068180084, -0.060134802013635635, 0.06281273066997528, 0.01863502338528633, 0.051065459847450256, -0.02579469606280327, -0.004229228477925062, 0.04721670225262642, -0.053589168936014175, 0.07154380530118942, -0.0315384604036808, 0.057863615453243256, -0.0643385574221611, -0.01411353424191475, 0.07779692113399506, -0.06414832174777985, 0.0018884966848418117, -0.04455161839723587, 0.050889503210783005, -0.05988018959760666, 0.01856745220720768, 0.030746731907129288, -0.0123601658269763, -0.09861454367637634, -0.017691481858491898, -0.042265936732292175, -0.017877856269478798, -0.07738222181797028, -0.020736364647746086, -0.008251892402768135, 0.03397855907678604, -0.06716914474964142, -0.05801118165254593, 0.010136725381016731, -0.010206097736954689, 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173,"land , including clouds , inland seas , lakes , rivers , and underground waters . The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35×1018 metric tons or about 1/4400 of Earth 's total mass .The oceans cover an area of 361.8 million km2 (139.7 million sq mi) with a mean depth of 3,682 m (12,080 ft), resulting in an estimated volume of 1.332 billion km3 (320 million cu mi). If all of Earth's crustal surface were at the same elevation as a smooth sphere, the depth of the resulting world ocean would be 2.7 to 2.8 km (1.68 to 1.74 mi). About 97.5% of the water is saline; the remaining 2.5% is fresh water. Most fresh water, about 68.7%, is present as ice in ice caps and glaciers. The remaining 30% is ground water, 1% surface water (covering only 2.8% of Earth's land) and other small forms of fresh water deposits such as permafrost, water vapor in the atmosphere, biological binding, etc. In Earth's coldest regions, snow survives over the summer and changes into ice. This accumulated snow and ice eventually forms into glaciers, bodies of ice that flow under the influence of their own gravity. Alpine glaciers form in mountainous areas, whereas vast ice sheets form over land in polar regions. The flow of glaciers erodes the surface, changing it dramatically, with the formation of U-shaped valleys and other landforms. Sea ice in the Arctic covers an area about as big as the United States, although it is quickly retreating as a consequence of climate change. The average salinity of Earth's oceans is about 35 grams of salt per kilogram of seawater (3.5% salt). Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks.","[-0.0008709027897566557, 0.004544255789369345, 0.08709553629159927, -0.0428813137114048, 0.010296400636434555, -0.046604182571172714, -0.007414096500724554, 0.07516685128211975, 0.028633108362555504, 0.021999122574925423, -0.08331513404846191, -0.13114258646965027, 0.056531451642513275, 0.005487114191055298, 0.025844968855381012, 0.0031461718026548624, 0.009121986106038094, 0.0012822115095332265, -0.08584783226251602, 0.05149579420685768, 0.07896915823221207, 0.07173309475183487, 0.0008597242413088679, -0.03942546620965004, -0.07325860857963562, 0.01893087662756443, 0.001702482346445322, 0.0026089802850037813, -0.034433066844940186, 0.01660805195569992, -0.05672197788953781, -0.008958125486969948, 0.1208845004439354, -0.06653095781803131, 0.06049071624875069, 0.04131177440285683, -0.056112151592969894, 0.00306456396356225, 0.002490607090294361, 0.026447681710124016, -0.024125857278704643, 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174,"Earth 's oceans is about 35 grams of salt per kilogram of seawater ( 3.5 % salt ) . Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks .The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms. Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large heat reservoir. Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the El Niño–Southern Oscillation. The abundance of water, particularly liquid water, on Earth's surface is a unique feature that distinguishes it from other planets in the Solar System. Solar System planets with considerable atmospheres do partly host atmospheric water vapor, but they lack surface conditions for stable surface water. Despite some moons showing signs of large reservoirs of extraterrestrial liquid water, with possibly even more volume than Earth's ocean, all of them are large bodies of water under a kilometers thick frozen surface layer. Atmosphere
The atmospheric pressure at Earth's sea level averages 101.325 kPa (14.696 psi), with a scale height of about 8.5 km (5.3 mi). A dry atmosphere is composed of 78.084% nitrogen, 20.946% oxygen, 0.934% argon, and trace amounts of carbon dioxide and other gaseous molecules. Water vapor content varies between 0.01% and 4% but averages about 1%. Clouds cover around two-thirds of Earth's surface, more so over oceans than land. The height of the troposphere varies with latitude, ranging between 8 km (5 mi) at the poles to 17 km (11 mi) at the equator, with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors. Earth's biosphere has significantly altered its atmosphere. Oxygenic photosynthesis evolved 2.7 Gya, forming the primarily nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere of today.","[-0.03603053465485573, 0.014757568947970867, 0.0667504146695137, -0.055586569011211395, 0.07963299751281738, 0.00658334419131279, 0.07101152837276459, -0.025522705167531967, 0.06293836236000061, 0.0036746931727975607, -0.07670881599187851, -0.1308729499578476, 0.055994223803281784, -0.051064904779195786, 0.0399601049721241, -0.029963143169879913, -0.03673224523663521, -0.040912702679634094, -0.029914436861872673, 0.03206516429781914, 0.06306856870651245, 0.0937262699007988, -0.05605103075504303, -0.02324402704834938, -0.08026652038097382, 0.04602412134408951, -0.004299957770854235, 0.027416694909334183, -0.039491843432188034, 0.04792623594403267, -0.06240512803196907, 0.03224895894527435, 0.057398367673158646, -0.07352141290903091, 0.03569864481687546, 0.06701526790857315, -0.016780488193035126, -0.022270439192652702, -0.0637732446193695, 0.009874347597360611, -0.03228897973895073, 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175,"equator , with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors . Earth 's biosphere has significantly altered its atmosphere . Oxygenic photosynthesis evolved 2.7 Gya , forming the primarily nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere of today .This change enabled the proliferation of aerobic organisms and, indirectly, the formation of the ozone layer due to the subsequent conversion of atmospheric O2 into O3. The ozone layer blocks ultraviolet solar radiation, permitting life on land. Other atmospheric functions important to life include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases, causing small meteors to burn up before they strike the surface, and moderating temperature. This last phenomenon is the greenhouse effect: trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture thermal energy emitted from the surface, thereby raising the average temperature. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone are the primary greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Without this heat-retention effect, the average surface temperature would be −18 °C (−0.4 °F), in contrast to the current +15 °C (59 °F), and life on Earth probably would not exist in its current form. Weather and climate
Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, gradually becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first 11 km (6.8 mi) of the surface; this lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air. This lower-density air then rises and is replaced by cooler, higher-density air. The result is atmospheric circulation that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy. The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the trade winds in the equatorial region below 30° latitude and the westerlies in the mid-latitudes between 30° and 60°.","[-0.008789816871285439, 0.05835011973977089, 0.03208974376320839, 0.0332077257335186, 0.1401691883802414, -0.02075398899614811, 0.05499078333377838, 0.016597013920545578, 0.10343072563409805, 0.04764653369784355, 0.0047358316369354725, -0.06524678319692612, -0.029297204688191414, 0.004896017722785473, 0.08055755496025085, 0.0018261410295963287, 0.00039024880970828235, -0.052071671932935715, -0.04200858995318413, -0.01548766903579235, -0.0033147295471280813, 0.07993365824222565, -0.0158628411591053, -0.009342262521386147, -0.06887731701135635, -0.0386820025742054, -0.09021853655576706, 0.08699198067188263, -0.029811905696988106, 0.050956469029188156, -0.0013938805786892772, 0.007835396565496922, 0.06837691366672516, -0.015175950713455677, -0.0009366912418045104, 0.0026507473085075617, 0.04582648724317551, 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176,"climate through redistribution of thermal energy . The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the trade winds in the equatorial region below 30° latitude and the westerlies in the mid-latitudes between 30° and 60° .Ocean heat content and currents are also important factors in determining climate, particularly the thermohaline circulation that distributes thermal energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions. Earth receives 1361 W/m2 of solar irradiance. The amount of solar energy that reaches Earth's surface decreases with increasing latitude. At higher latitudes, the sunlight reaches the surface at lower angles, and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere. As a result, the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about 0.4 °C (0.7 °F) per degree of latitude from the equator. Earth's surface can be subdivided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate. Ranging from the equator to the polar regions, these are the tropical (or equatorial), subtropical, temperate and polar climates. Further factors that affect a location's climates are its proximity to oceans, the oceanic and atmospheric circulation, and topology. Places close to oceans typically have colder summers and warmer winters, due to the fact that oceans can store large amounts of heat. The wind transports the cold or the heat of the ocean to the land. Atmospheric circulation also plays an important role: San Francisco and Washington DC are both coastal cities at about the same latitude. San Francisco's climate is significantly more moderate as the prevailing wind direction is from sea to land. Finally, temperatures decrease with height causing mountainous areas to be colder than low-lying areas. Water vapor generated through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the atmosphere. When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm, humid air, this water condenses and falls to the surface as precipitation.","[0.05690549686551094, 0.016316264867782593, 0.03828071430325508, 0.0266097541898489, 0.04887799173593521, -0.023187225684523582, 0.0076382094994187355, -0.03277227282524109, 0.06281533092260361, 0.012444037944078445, -0.01570308767259121, -0.07440356910228729, 0.036664318293333054, -0.018119536340236664, 0.15149542689323425, -0.026099668815732002, 0.01368009950965643, -0.003916293382644653, -0.038613881915807724, -0.03299589455127716, 0.025936372578144073, 0.05824686586856842, -0.024275001138448715, -0.00016666390001773834, -0.03619765862822533, -0.06608492136001587, -0.05741167068481445, 0.03364149108529091, -0.07221198081970215, 0.1275699883699417, -0.07211848348379135, 0.05968473106622696, 0.012507066130638123, 0.030177105218172073, -0.018631238490343094, -0.0017463797703385353, -0.012161236256361008, -0.018601732328534126, -0.05667804926633835, 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177,"through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the atmosphere . When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm , humid air , this water condenses and falls to the surface as precipitation .Most of the water is then transported to lower elevations by river systems and usually returned to the oceans or deposited into lakes. This water cycle is a vital mechanism for supporting life on land and is a primary factor in the erosion of surface features over geological periods. Precipitation patterns vary widely, ranging from several meters of water per year to less than a millimeter. Atmospheric circulation, topographic features, and temperature differences determine the average precipitation that falls in each region. The commonly used Köppen climate classification system has five broad groups (humid tropics, arid, humid middle latitudes, continental and cold polar), which are further divided into more specific subtypes. The Köppen system rates regions based on observed temperature and precipitation. Surface air temperature can rise to around 55 °C (131 °F) in hot deserts, such as Death Valley, and can fall as low as −89 °C (−128 °F) in Antarctica. Upper atmosphere
The upper atmosphere, the atmosphere above the troposphere, is usually divided into the stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. Each layer has a different lapse rate, defining the rate of change in temperature with height. Beyond these, the exosphere thins out into the magnetosphere, where the geomagnetic fields interact with the solar wind. Within the stratosphere is the ozone layer, a component that partially shields the surface from ultraviolet light and thus is important for life on Earth. The Kármán line, defined as 100 km (62 mi) above Earth's surface, is a working definition for the boundary between the atmosphere and outer space.","[0.02590753696858883, -0.028771214187145233, 0.026600005105137825, -0.004871980287134647, 0.07975371181964874, -0.0490361712872982, 0.07425814121961594, -0.016212979331612587, 0.04902911186218262, 0.0183880515396595, -0.028897270560264587, -0.0894646868109703, 0.02979552187025547, 0.0037765696179121733, 0.035543572157621384, -0.02849116176366806, -0.050987083464860916, -0.05169740691781044, 0.020496487617492676, -0.009766130708158016, 0.053562432527542114, 0.01625751331448555, -0.13748794794082642, -0.04773963615298271, -0.009399610571563244, -0.0374426394701004, -0.07418303936719894, 0.04267280921339989, -0.05992715805768967, 0.05728401988744736, -0.052721746265888214, 0.07916036993265152, 0.049881041049957275, -0.061879388988018036, -0.006818701978772879, 0.07090793550014496, -0.034215763211250305, -0.012680329382419586, 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178,"life on Earth . The Kármán line , defined as 100 km ( 62 mi ) above Earth 's surface , is a working definition for the boundary between the atmosphere and outer space .Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity. This causes a slow but steady loss of the atmosphere into space. Because unfixed hydrogen has a low molecular mass, it can achieve escape velocity more readily, and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases. The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth's atmosphere and surface from an initially reducing state to its current oxidizing one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere. Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth. In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere. Life on Earth
Earth is the only known place that has ever been habitable for life. Earth's life developed in Earth's early bodies of water some hundred million years after Earth formed, roughly 4 billion years ago. Earth provides liquid water—an environment where complex organic molecules can assemble and interact, and sufficient energy to sustain a metabolism. Plants and other organisms take up nutrients from water, soils and the atmosphere. These nutrients are constantly recycled between different species. Earth's life has been shaping and inhabiting many particular ecosystems on Earth and has eventually expanded globally forming an overarching biosphere.","[-0.062121424823999405, 0.013275213539600372, 0.011477953754365444, 0.05300918594002724, 0.13237245380878448, 0.012636583298444748, 0.03527342900633812, 0.061391741037368774, 0.0649266242980957, 0.010689293034374714, 0.02771521545946598, -0.05759482830762863, -0.023689880967140198, -0.03222202509641647, 0.045296892523765564, 0.030974389985203743, -0.010142715647816658, -0.07461882382631302, -0.09497565031051636, -0.007091987412422895, 0.011337324045598507, 0.012010013684630394, -0.002724120393395424, 0.03722577169537544, -0.04310372844338417, 0.001575143774971366, -0.013220030814409256, 0.04773647338151932, -0.014073946513235569, -0.004395306576043367, 0.014587205834686756, 0.010518938302993774, 0.024802271276712418, -0.04342123493552208, 0.034290384501218796, 0.09392488747835159, 0.013459011912345886, -0.006101839244365692, 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179,"the atmosphere . These nutrients are constantly recycled between different species . Earth 's life has been shaping and inhabiting many particular ecosystems on Earth and has eventually expanded globally forming an overarching biosphere .Earth's life has also over time greatly diversified, allowing the biosphere to have different biomes, which are inhabited by comparatively similar plants and animals. The different biomes developed at distinct elevations or water depths, planetary temperature latitudes and on land also with different humidity. Earth's species diversity and biomass reaches a peak in shallow waters and with forests, particularly in equatorial, warm and humid conditions. While freezing polar regions and high altitudes, or extremely arid areas are relatively barren of plant and animal life. Therefore, life has impacted Earth, significantly altering Earth's atmosphere and surface over long periods of time, causing changes like the Great Oxidation Event. Humans furthermore have impacted Earth, its life and development. Challenges for life on Earth
Extreme weather, such as tropical cyclones, occurs over most of Earth's surface and has a large impact on life in those areas. From 1980 to 2000, these events caused an average of 11,800 human deaths per year. Many places are subject to earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, tornadoes, blizzards, floods, droughts, wildfires, and other calamities and disasters. Human impact is felt in many areas due to pollution of the air and water, acid rain, loss of vegetation (overgrazing, deforestation, desertification), loss of wildlife, species extinction, soil degradation, soil depletion and erosion. Human activities release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere which cause global warming. This is driving changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, a global rise in average sea levels, increased risk of drought and wildfires, and migration of species to colder areas.","[0.028083013370633125, -0.013972284272313118, 0.11212369799613953, 0.029306409880518913, 0.1435108184814453, -0.008723280392587185, -0.011930021457374096, 0.02727094665169716, 0.059743549674749374, 0.04679672792553902, -0.0045177931897342205, -0.08185906708240509, -0.017939439043402672, 0.039235033094882965, 0.03855340555310249, -0.011431092396378517, -0.08936548978090286, -0.06358703970909119, -0.03545477241277695, 0.04583551362156868, 0.04932623729109764, 0.07203146070241928, -0.10605844110250473, 0.019201872870326042, -0.1318899542093277, -0.04813440516591072, -0.038404032588005066, 0.060673583298921585, -0.06217048689723015, 0.044775206595659256, 0.017539745196700096, 0.05893158167600632, 0.06783980876207352, -0.032304197549819946, -0.0537392795085907, 0.07860303670167923, 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180,"driving changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets , a global rise in average sea levels , increased risk of drought and wildfires , and migration of species to colder areas .Human geography
Humans, who originated from earlier primates in Eastern Africa 300,000 years ago, have since been migrating around Earth, and with the advent of agriculture in the 10th millennium BCE, have been increasingly settling Earth's land. In the 20th century, Antarctica became the last continent to be explored and settled by humans, although human presence there remains limited. Since the 19th century, the human population has grown exponentially to eight billion in the 2020s, and is projected to peak at around ten billion in the second half of the 21st century. Most of the growth is expected to take place in sub-Saharan Africa. Distribution and density of human population varies greatly around the world with the majority living in south to eastern Asia and 90% inhabiting the Northern Hemisphere of Earth, partly due to the hemispherical predominance of the world's land mass, with 68% of the world's land mass being in the Northern Hemisphere. Furthermore, since the 19th century humans have increasingly converged into urban areas, with the majority living in urban areas by the 21st century. Beyond Earth's surface, humans have lived only in a few special-purpose deep underground and underwater presences and a few space stations. The human population virtually completely remains on Earth's surface, fully depending on Earth and the environment it sustains. Since the second half of the 20th century, some hundreds of humans have temporarily stayed beyond Earth, a tiny fraction of whom have reached another celestial body, the Moon. Earth has been subject to extensive human settlement, and humans have developed diverse societies and cultures.","[0.053578946739435196, -0.034160058945417404, 0.0321672298014164, 0.013521873392164707, 0.07327710837125778, -0.0200473815202713, -0.02344447560608387, 0.009215869009494781, -0.05062168464064598, 0.11826100945472717, 0.03585335984826088, -0.08607453107833862, -0.016020674258470535, 0.07670846581459045, 0.03285912796854973, -0.008249483071267605, -0.08900772035121918, -0.05733075365424156, -0.035941559821367264, 0.022475117817521095, -0.02668066695332527, 0.04498313367366791, 0.0033427223097532988, -0.0020863835234194994, -0.058228373527526855, -0.03956499323248863, -1.1522330169100314e-05, -0.013430521823465824, -0.031155120581388474, 0.1014394536614418, 0.02991177886724472, 0.07122030854225159, 0.10377605259418488, 0.0247638002038002, -0.03608135133981705, -0.03392122685909271, -0.0059598213993012905, -0.031130319461226463, -0.0028476188890635967, 0.007462495006620884, 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181,"beyond Earth , a tiny fraction of whom have reached another celestial body , the Moon . Earth has been subject to extensive human settlement , and humans have developed diverse societies and cultures .Most of Earth's land has been territorially claimed since the 19th century by sovereign states (countries) separated by political borders, and 205 such states exist today, with only parts of Antarctica and a few small regions remaining unclaimed. Together, most of these states form the United Nations, the leading worldwide intergovernmental organization, which extends human governance over the ocean and Antarctica, and therefore all of Earth. Natural resources and land use
Earth has resources that have been exploited by humans. Those termed non-renewable resources, such as fossil fuels, are only replenished over geological timescales. Large deposits of fossil fuels are obtained from Earth's crust, consisting of coal, petroleum, and natural gas. These deposits are used by humans both for energy production and as feedstock for chemical production. Mineral ore bodies have also been formed within the crust through a process of ore genesis, resulting from actions of magmatism, erosion, and plate tectonics. These metals and other elements are extracted by mining, a process which often causes environmental and health damage. Earth's biosphere produces many useful biological products for humans, including food, wood, pharmaceuticals, oxygen, and the recycling of organic waste. The land-based ecosystem depends upon topsoil and fresh water, and the oceanic ecosystem depends on dissolved nutrients washed down from the land.","[-0.02060149796307087, 0.044761382043361664, 0.09276784211397171, -0.010533034801483154, 0.11738887429237366, -0.0339663103222847, 0.022230040282011032, -0.02650117687880993, -0.053160544484853745, 0.021682508289813995, -0.0593617744743824, -0.09843182563781738, -0.04125487059354782, -0.04354849457740784, 0.007745341397821903, -0.01703374646604061, -0.033066898584365845, -0.06484495103359222, -0.03279697895050049, 0.0526529923081398, 0.07911265641450882, 0.023920346051454544, -0.02814709208905697, -0.00015976306167431176, -0.016169508919119835, 0.08798988908529282, -0.029635492712259293, -0.05137953907251358, 0.019887201488018036, 0.031782474368810654, -0.01979294791817665, 0.0254827830940485, 0.05722278356552124, -0.020037459209561348, -0.020768309012055397, 0.0954076498746872, -0.035980693995952606, 0.005426738411188126, 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-0.044377975165843964]",Earth,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth.
182,"pharmaceuticals , oxygen , and the recycling of organic waste . The land-based ecosystem depends upon topsoil and fresh water , and the oceanic ecosystem depends on dissolved nutrients washed down from the land .In 2019, 39 million km2 (15 million sq mi) of Earth's land surface consisted of forest and woodlands, 12 million km2 (4.6 million sq mi) was shrub and grassland, 40 million km2 (15 million sq mi) were used for animal feed production and grazing, and 11 million km2 (4.2 million sq mi) were cultivated as croplands. Of the 12–14% of ice-free land that is used for croplands, 2 percentage points were irrigated in 2015. Humans use natural and manufactured building materials to construct shelters and infrastructure. Humans and the environment
Human activities have impacted Earth's environments. Through activities such as the burning of fossil fuels, humans have been increasing the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, altering Earth's energy budget and climate. It is estimated that global temperatures in the year 2020 were 1.2 °C (2.2 °F) warmer than the preindustrial baseline. This increase in temperature, known as global warming, has contributed to the melting of glaciers, rising sea levels, increased risk of drought and wildfires, and migration of species to colder areas. The concept of planetary boundaries was introduced to quantify humanity's impact on Earth. Of the nine identified boundaries, five have been crossed: Biosphere integrity, climate change, chemical pollution, destruction of wild habitats and the nitrogen cycle are thought to have passed the safe threshold. As of 2018, no country meets the basic needs of its population without transgressing planetary boundaries. It is thought possible to provide all basic physical needs globally within sustainable levels of resource use. Cultural and historical viewpoint
Human cultures have developed many views of the planet.","[0.054117728024721146, 0.024579284712672234, 0.08096946030855179, 0.04290033131837845, 0.11146051436662674, -0.06257779896259308, 0.011810464784502983, 0.03209743648767471, 0.02907845936715603, 0.10623407363891602, -0.009099270217120647, -0.0841180756688118, -0.02273709513247013, 0.061859130859375, 0.042224012315273285, 0.0022957578767091036, -0.01854410581290722, -0.0266281608492136, -0.07113099843263626, -0.056772660464048386, 0.03981747478246689, 0.07923045754432678, -0.024993417784571648, -0.015234770253300667, -0.05414311960339546, -0.04435356333851814, -0.08678267896175385, 0.0256107896566391, -0.02924969792366028, 0.13378164172172546, 0.03920118883252144, 0.07649306952953339, 0.11557140946388245, -0.023113738745450974, 0.010761960409581661, 0.06085262447595596, 0.009985363110899925, -0.04036403074860573, -0.05725099518895149, 0.0633259043097496, -0.0412239134311676, -0.1518719494342804, 0.0385458767414093, 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183,"planetary boundaries . It is thought possible to provide all basic physical needs globally within sustainable levels of resource use . Cultural and historical viewpoint Human cultures have developed many views of the planet .The standard astronomical symbols of Earth are a quartered circle, , representing the four corners of the world, and a globus cruciger, . Earth is sometimes personified as a deity. In many cultures, it is a mother goddess that is also the primary fertility deity. Creation myths in many religions involve the creation of Earth by a supernatural deity or deities. The Gaia hypothesis, developed in the mid-20th century, compared Earth's environments and life as a single self-regulating organism leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of habitability. Images of Earth taken from space, particularly during the Apollo program, have been credited with altering the way that people viewed the planet that they lived on, called the overview effect, emphasizing its beauty, uniqueness and apparent fragility. In particular, this caused a realization of the scope of effects from human activity on Earth's environment. Enabled by science, particularly Earth observation, humans have started to take action on environmental issues globally, acknowledging the impact of humans and the interconnectedness of Earth's environments. Scientific investigation has resulted in several culturally transformative shifts in people's view of the planet. Initial belief in a flat Earth was gradually displaced in Ancient Greece by the idea of a spherical Earth, which was attributed to both the philosophers Pythagoras and Parmenides. Earth was generally believed to be the center of the universe until the 16th century, when scientists first concluded that it was a moving object, one of the planets of the Solar System. It was only during the 19th century that geologists realized Earth's age was at least many millions of years.","[0.01232337485998869, 0.02782229334115982, 0.025127822533249855, 0.01228327676653862, 0.07015056163072586, -0.09658884257078171, 0.03923977166414261, -0.0002903759013861418, 0.0627397671341896, 0.007722853217273951, -0.007759172935038805, -0.08289851993322372, -0.0013953851303085685, 0.008412410505115986, 0.007128437981009483, -0.03829239681363106, -0.03325347602367401, -0.04463952034711838, -0.046841882169246674, 0.018008125945925713, 0.017278147861361504, 0.025683563202619553, -0.035841796547174454, 0.08770294487476349, -0.09898237884044647, 0.014032750390470028, 0.05133208632469177, -0.02279829978942871, -0.01347124483436346, 0.0030151817481964827, 0.030868256464600563, 0.027306757867336273, 0.0764598473906517, -0.01953018829226494, -0.08592027425765991, 0.097913458943367, 0.005733205005526543, 0.030690332874655724, -0.0033085423056036234, -0.008476829156279564, 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184,"was a moving object , one of the planets of the Solar System . It was only during the 19th century that geologists realized Earth 's age was at least many millions of years .Lord Kelvin used thermodynamics to estimate the age of Earth to be between 20 million and 400 million years in 1864, sparking a vigorous debate on the subject; it was only when radioactivity and radioactive dating were discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that a reliable mechanism for determining Earth's age was established, proving the planet to be billions of years old. See also
Notes
References
External links

Earth – Profile – Solar System Exploration – NASA
Earth Observatory – NASA
Earth – Videos – International Space Station:
Video (01:02) on YouTube – Earth (time-lapse)
Video (00:27) on YouTube – Earth and auroras (time-lapse)
Google Earth 3D, interactive map
Interactive 3D visualization of the Sun, Earth and Moon system
GPlates Portal (University of Sydney)","[0.009961201809346676, 0.0758514404296875, 0.02664763107895851, 0.023079529404640198, 0.05544376000761986, 0.006254149600863457, -0.05255580693483353, 0.041240472346544266, -0.005720500368624926, 0.043114013969898224, -0.004051870200783014, -0.065268874168396, 0.07724177092313766, -0.01155740488320589, -0.02606213092803955, -0.0315798744559288, -0.0877772644162178, -0.0351632796227932, 0.0247071273624897, -0.019448064267635345, -0.02022421918809414, 0.003385250922292471, 0.005191144533455372, 0.015935612842440605, 0.004656975623220205, 0.03243489935994148, -0.06667102128267288, -0.08969409018754959, -0.03369501978158951, 0.08591733872890472, 0.06266336888074875, 0.04484760761260986, 0.1223803386092186, -0.00028383874450810254, -0.047936052083969116, 0.019463373348116875, 0.04976052790880203, -0.006336232181638479, -0.015903610736131668, -0.0127566484734416, -0.03693963214755058, -0.06680397689342499, 0.06460001319646835, -0.0052069867961108685, 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185," Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun. It is also known as the ""Red Planet"", for its orange-red appearance. Mars is a desert-like rocky planet with a tenuous atmosphere that is primarily carbon dioxide (CO2). At the average surface level the atmospheric pressure is a few thousandths of Earth’s, atmospheric temperature ranges from −153 to 20 °C (−243 to 68 °F), and cosmic radiation is high. Mars retains some water, in the ground as well as thinly in the atmosphere, forming cirrus clouds, fog, frost, larger polar regions of permafrost and ice caps (with seasonal CO2 snow), but no bodies of liquid surface water. Its surface gravity is roughly a third of Earth's or double that of the Moon. It is about half the Earth in width, or twice the Moon, with a diameter of 6,779 km (4,212 mi), and has a surface area the size of all the dry land of Earth. Fine dust is prevalent across the surface and the atmosphere, being picked up and spread at the low Martian gravity even by the weak wind of the tenuous atmosphere. The terrain of Mars roughly follows a north-south divide, the Martian dichotomy, with the northern hemisphere mainly consisting of relatively flat, low lying plains, and the southern hemisphere of cratered highlands. Geologically, the planet is fairly active with marsquakes trembling underneath the ground, but also hosts many enormous volcanoes that are extinct (the tallest is Olympus Mons, 21.9 km or 13.6 mi tall), as well as one of the largest canyons in the Solar System (Valles Marineris, 4,000 km or 2,500 mi long). Mars has two natural satellites that are small and irregular in shape: Phobos and Deimos.","[0.07695122063159943, 0.007609081920236349, 0.010032951831817627, 0.014975246042013168, 0.12376479059457779, -0.03571852669119835, 0.059776075184345245, -0.00700969947502017, 0.015272669494152069, 0.07854145765304565, -0.04157387837767601, -0.04845968633890152, 0.030680567026138306, -0.0179926585406065, 0.04527367278933525, -0.05284745618700981, 0.03567050024867058, -0.019385548308491707, -0.05574656277894974, 0.05310230702161789, 0.004085422493517399, 0.05749313533306122, -0.005726564675569534, 0.04598246142268181, -0.07155204564332962, 0.022497858852148056, -0.028544146567583084, 0.08389339596033096, -0.02413742057979107, -0.010410720482468605, -0.03615628555417061, -0.02539682388305664, 0.10450021177530289, -0.017492955550551414, -0.01130583230406046, 0.03649427369236946, 0.03555569425225258, 0.0055039264261722565, -0.0416407436132431, -0.010756798088550568, 0.01670011505484581, 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186,"largest canyons in the Solar System ( Valles Marineris , 4,000 km or 2,500 mi long ) . Mars has two natural satellites that are small and irregular in shape : Phobos and Deimos .With a significant axial tilt of 25 degrees, Mars experiences seasons, like Earth (which has an axial tilt of 23.5 degrees). A Martian solar year is equal to 1.88 Earth years (687 Earth days), a Martian solar day (sol) is equal to 24.6 hours. Mars formed along with the other planets approximately 4.5 billion years ago. During the martian Noachian period (4.5 to 3.5 billion years ago), its surface was marked by meteor impacts, valley formation, erosion, the possible presence of water oceans and the loss of its magnetosphere. The Hesperian period (beginning 3.5 billion years ago and ending 3.3–2.9 billion years ago) was dominated by widespread volcanic activity and flooding that carved immense outflow channels. The Amazonian period, which continues to the present, is the currently dominating and remaining influence on geological processes. Because of Mars's geological history, the possibility of past or present life on Mars remains an area of active scientific investigation, with some possible traces needing further examination. Being visible with the naked eye in Earth's sky as a red wandering star, Mars has been observed throughout history, acquiring diverse associations in different cultures. In 1963 the first flight to Mars took place with Mars 1, but communication was lost en route. The first successful flyby exploration of Mars was conducted in 1965 with Mariner 4. In 1971 Mariner 9 entered orbit around Mars, being the first spacecraft to orbit any body other than the Moon, Sun or Earth; following in the same year were the first uncontrolled impact (Mars 2) and first successful landing (Mars 3) on Mars.","[0.009427743032574654, 0.009936283342540264, 0.07159484177827835, -0.002730804029852152, 0.04917079582810402, -0.06372788548469543, -0.04844062775373459, -0.0029439707286655903, 0.022677231580018997, 0.08073362708091736, 0.03474877402186394, -0.021009843796491623, -0.018428906798362732, 0.014531932771205902, 0.04918850585818291, -0.03743172064423561, -0.10411661863327026, -0.03711099922657013, -0.021661734208464622, 0.08743194490671158, 0.01551204826682806, 0.02730848826467991, -0.09518860280513763, 0.041597794741392136, -0.06086832657456398, 0.08158095180988312, -0.04093090817332268, 0.057678110897541046, 0.012404863722622395, -0.005885958205908537, -0.0009066223283298314, 0.06940281391143799, 0.07359957695007324, 0.010887579061090946, 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187,"body other than the Moon , Sun or Earth ; following in the same year were the first uncontrolled impact ( Mars 2 ) and first successful landing ( Mars 3 ) on Mars .Probes have been active on Mars continuously since 1997. At times, more than ten probes have simultaneously operated in orbit or on the surface, more than at any other planet beyond Earth. Mars is an often proposed target for future crewed exploration missions, though no such mission is currently planned. Natural history
Formation
Scientists have theorized that during the Solar System's formation, Mars was created as the result of a random process of run-away accretion of material from the protoplanetary disk that orbited the Sun. Mars has many distinctive chemical features caused by its position in the Solar System. Elements with comparatively low boiling points, such as chlorine, phosphorus, and sulfur, are much more common on Mars than on Earth; these elements were probably pushed outward by the young Sun's energetic solar wind. Late Heavy Bombardment
After the formation of the planets, the inner Solar System may have been subjected to the so-called Late Heavy Bombardment. About 60% of the surface of Mars shows a record of impacts from that era, whereas much of the remaining surface is probably underlain by immense impact basins caused by those events. However, more recent modeling has disputed the existence of the Late Heavy Bombardment. There is evidence of an enormous impact basin in the Northern Hemisphere of Mars, spanning 10,600 by 8,500 kilometres (6,600 by 5,300 mi), or roughly four times the size of the Moon's South Pole–Aitken basin, which would be the largest impact basin yet discovered if confirmed. It has been hypothesized that the basin was formed when Mars was struck by a Pluto-sized body about four billion years ago.","[0.043519556522369385, -0.029236096888780594, 0.048827163875103, 0.07348077744245529, 0.134598046541214, -0.08826783299446106, 0.07031938433647156, 0.007536389399319887, 0.06141158193349838, 0.1220860481262207, 0.027567481622099876, -0.009546794928610325, 0.03865670785307884, -0.017570337280631065, 0.028721000999212265, -0.0737181156873703, 0.012960514985024929, -0.07612672448158264, -0.018620632588863373, 0.11060605943202972, -0.04340388625860214, 0.04069288820028305, -0.013478755950927734, 0.03296462818980217, -0.031412478536367416, 0.059480875730514526, -0.020453616976737976, 0.07268628478050232, 0.0015523749170824885, -0.016058020293712616, -0.042145486921072006, 0.04913802817463875, 0.03389333561062813, -0.000321862637065351, -0.0025823183823376894, 0.053315699100494385, -0.047103896737098694, 0.011836639605462551, -0.032974183559417725, 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188,"which would be the largest impact basin yet discovered if confirmed . It has been hypothesized that the basin was formed when Mars was struck by a Pluto-sized body about four billion years ago .The event, thought to be the cause of the Martian hemispheric dichotomy, created the smooth Borealis basin that covers 40% of the planet. A 2023 study shows evidence, based on the orbital inclination of Deimos (a small moon of Mars), that Mars may once have had a ring system 3.5 billion years to 4 billion years ago. This ring system may have been formed from a moon, 20 times more massive than Phobos, orbiting Mars billions of years ago; and Phobos would be a remnant of that ring. Geological periods
Epochs:

The geological history of Mars can be split into many periods, but the following are the three primary periods:

Noachian period: Formation of the oldest extant surfaces of Mars, 4.5 to 3.5 billion years ago. Noachian age surfaces are scarred by many large impact craters. The Tharsis bulge, a volcanic upland, is thought to have formed during this period, with extensive flooding by liquid water late in the period. Named after Noachis Terra. Hesperian period: 3.5 to between 3.3 and 2.9 billion years ago. The Hesperian period is marked by the formation of extensive lava plains. Named after Hesperia Planum. Amazonian period: between 3.3 and 2.9 billion years ago to the present. Amazonian regions have few meteorite impact craters but are otherwise quite varied. Olympus Mons formed during this period, with lava flows elsewhere on Mars. Named after Amazonis Planitia. Recent geological activity
Geological activity is still taking place on Mars. The Athabasca Valles is home to sheet-like lava flows created about 200 million years ago.","[-0.004521538503468037, 0.02811914123594761, 0.019394787028431892, -0.003687647869810462, 0.02417207881808281, -0.08567526936531067, -0.07013916224241257, 0.08127661794424057, 0.06890349090099335, 0.07782824337482452, -0.013553247787058353, -0.020328037440776825, -0.040506187826395035, -0.004092475865036249, 0.007467173971235752, -0.004945407155901194, -0.11405711621046066, -0.027974309399724007, 0.03412722423672676, 0.04033145308494568, 0.04208079352974892, 0.08654139190912247, -0.06450387835502625, 0.02666422538459301, -0.07134723663330078, 0.04415345564484596, 0.008791224099695683, 0.10507349669933319, 0.008171647787094116, -0.05283867567777634, -0.0013778737047687173, 0.02324920892715454, 0.07474425435066223, -0.0205930694937706, 0.03351485729217529, 0.024303732439875603, -0.039961349219083786, 0.023354792967438698, -0.0097131859511137, -0.03266133740544319, 0.03560947999358177, 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189,"Mars . Named after Amazonis Planitia . Recent geological activity Geological activity is still taking place on Mars . The Athabasca Valles is home to sheet-like lava flows created about 200 million years ago .Water flows in the grabens called the Cerberus Fossae occurred less than 20 million years ago, indicating equally recent volcanic intrusions. The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter has captured images of avalanches. Physical characteristics
Mars is approximately half the diameter of Earth or twice that of the Moon, with a surface area only slightly less than the total area of Earth's dry land. Mars is less dense than Earth, having about 15% of Earth's volume and 11% of Earth's mass, resulting in about 38% of Earth's surface gravity. Mars is the only presently known example of a desert planet, a rocky planet with a surface akin to that of Earth's deserts. The red-orange appearance of the Martian surface is caused by iron(III) oxide (nanophase Fe2O3) and the iron(III) oxide-hydroxide mineral goethite. It can look like butterscotch; other common surface colors include golden, brown, tan, and greenish, depending on the minerals present. Internal structure
Like Earth, Mars is differentiated into a dense metallic core overlaid by less dense rocky layers. The outermost layer is the crust, which is on average about 42–56 kilometres (26–35 mi) thick, with a minimum thickness of 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) in Isidis Planitia, and a maximum thickness of 117 kilometres (73 mi) in the southern Tharsis plateau. For comparison, Earth's crust averages 27.3 ± 4.8 km in thickness. The most abundant elements in the Martian crust are silicon, oxygen, iron, magnesium, aluminum, calcium, and potassium.","[0.02652924507856369, -0.011879603378474712, -0.010838677175343037, 0.012155124917626381, 0.08249202370643616, -0.06824364513158798, 0.027288855984807014, -0.007212496362626553, 0.08622261881828308, 0.07685411721467972, -0.05723641812801361, -0.09171126037836075, 0.058203622698783875, 0.009604151360690594, 0.025295840576291084, -0.05058698356151581, -0.017417503520846367, -0.049715470522642136, 0.006530898157507181, 0.057198118418455124, 0.008276057429611683, 0.036799341440200806, -0.008698909543454647, 0.018721215426921844, -0.06530512124300003, 0.022238757461309433, 0.0037922512274235487, 0.11524222046136856, -0.080164834856987, -0.07712305337190628, -0.011654150672256947, -0.04697703570127487, 0.09217135608196259, -0.012015498243272305, 0.00382330734282732, 0.06204114481806755, -0.045152291655540466, 0.06710661947727203, -0.09079910069704056, 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190,"Earth 's crust averages 27.3 ± 4.8 km in thickness . The most abundant elements in the Martian crust are silicon , oxygen , iron , magnesium , aluminum , calcium , and potassium .Mars is confirmed to be seismically active; in 2019, it was reported that InSight had detected and recorded over 450 marsquakes and related events. Beneath the crust is a silicate mantle responsible for many of the tectonic and volcanic features on the planet's surface. The upper Martian mantle is a low-velocity zone, where the velocity of seismic waves is lower than surrounding depth intervals. The mantle appears to be rigid down to the depth of about 250 km, giving Mars a very thick lithosphere compared to Earth. Below this the mantle gradually becomes more ductile, and the seismic wave velocity starts to grow again. The Martian mantle does not appear to have a thermally insulating layer analogous to Earth's lower mantle; instead, below 1050 km in depth, it becomes mineralogically similar to Earth's transition zone. At the bottom of the mantle lies a basal liquid silicate layer approximately 150–180 km thick. The Martian mantle appears to be highly heterogenous, with dense fragments up to 4 km across, likely injected deep into the planet by colossal impacts ~4.5 billion years ago; high-frequency waves from eight marsquakes slowed as they passed these localized regions, and modeling indicates the heterogeneities are compositionally distinct debris preserved because Mars lacks plate tectonics and has a sluggishly convecting interior that prevents complete homogenization. Mars's iron and nickel core is at least partially molten, and may have a solid inner core. It is around half of Mars's radius, approximately 1650–1675 km, and is enriched in light elements such as sulfur, oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen. The temperature of the core is estimated to be 2000–2400 K, compared to 5400–6230 K for Earth's solid inner core.","[0.006145371124148369, -0.0336381234228611, 0.06737980991601944, -0.0028373338282108307, 0.06463883072137833, -0.06763183325529099, -0.05735334753990173, 0.07343816757202148, 0.023550665006041527, 0.04080694168806076, -0.050910621881484985, -0.013828247785568237, 0.012154118157923222, -0.05080230161547661, 0.049841657280921936, -0.009311595000326633, 0.06959457695484161, -0.05171968787908554, -0.04415043443441391, 0.042452454566955566, 0.05686755105853081, 0.053488511592149734, -0.015627479180693626, 0.02101556584239006, -0.04923953115940094, 0.05815267190337181, -0.016977136954665184, 0.07755380868911743, -0.03571334481239319, 0.020174570381641388, -0.010075834579765797, -0.047428928315639496, 0.07308967411518097, -0.002721631433814764, -0.006115118507295847, 0.06659583747386932, -0.02897805906832218, 0.03200067952275276, -0.06130638346076012, -0.02373472973704338, 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191,"elements such as sulfur , oxygen , carbon , and hydrogen . The temperature of the core is estimated to be 2000–2400 K , compared to 5400–6230 K for Earth 's solid inner core .In 2025, based on data from the InSight lander, a group of researchers reported the detection of a solid inner core 613 kilometres (381 mi) ± 67 kilometres (42 mi) in radius. Surface geology
Mars is a terrestrial planet with a surface that consists of minerals containing silicon and oxygen, metals, and other elements that typically make up rock. The Martian surface is primarily composed of tholeiitic basalt, although parts are more silica-rich than typical basalt and may be similar to andesitic rocks on Earth, or silica glass. Regions of low albedo suggest concentrations of plagioclase feldspar, with northern low albedo regions displaying higher than normal concentrations of sheet silicates and high-silicon glass. Parts of the southern highlands include detectable amounts of high-calcium pyroxenes. Localized concentrations of hematite and olivine have been found. Much of the surface is deeply covered by finely grained iron(III) oxide dust. The Phoenix lander returned data showing Martian soil to be slightly alkaline and containing elements such as magnesium, sodium, potassium and chlorine. These nutrients are found in soils on Earth, and are necessary for plant growth. Experiments performed by the lander showed that the Martian soil has a basic pH of 7.7, and contains 0.6% perchlorate by weight, concentrations that are toxic to humans. Streaks are common across Mars and new ones appear frequently on steep slopes of craters, troughs, and valleys. The streaks are dark at first and get lighter with age. The streaks can start in a tiny area, then spread out for hundreds of metres. They have been seen to follow the edges of boulders and other obstacles in their path.","[0.03704722970724106, -0.041416771709918976, 0.034639861434698105, 0.021286314353346825, 0.1437162160873413, -0.08457670360803604, 0.03677859902381897, 0.02442098967730999, 0.012269711121916771, 0.050821468234062195, -0.092404305934906, -0.04595920816063881, 0.016560537740588188, 0.004919095430523157, -0.0042723920196294785, -0.024983800947666168, 0.04503548517823219, -0.07067905366420746, -0.007562487386167049, 0.10332734882831573, 0.050342533737421036, 0.06363610178232193, -0.02823408506810665, 0.014787769876420498, 0.0014951159246265888, 0.07586855441331863, -0.0413086898624897, 0.07485173642635345, -0.042805686593055725, 0.044877927750349045, -0.018958957865834236, -0.0012006195029243827, 0.06104930490255356, 0.018378030508756638, 0.0735761821269989, 0.06252950429916382, -0.0932612419128418, 0.03235696628689766, -0.11490253359079361, -0.06790228188037872, -0.01367712952196598, 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-0.03230322524905205]",Mars,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.
192,". The streaks can start in a tiny area , then spread out for hundreds of metres . They have been seen to follow the edges of boulders and other obstacles in their path .The commonly accepted hypotheses include that they are dark underlying layers of soil revealed after avalanches of bright dust or dust devils. Several other explanations have been put forward, including those that involve water or even the growth of organisms. Environmental radiation levels on the surface are on average 0.64 millisieverts of radiation per day, and significantly less than the radiation of 1.84 millisieverts per day or 22 millirads per day during the flight to and from Mars. For comparison the radiation levels in low Earth orbit, where Earth's space stations orbit, are around 0.5 millisieverts of radiation per day. Hellas Planitia has the lowest surface radiation at about 0.342 millisieverts per day, featuring lava tubes southwest of Hadriacus Mons with potentially levels as low as 0.064 millisieverts per day, comparable to radiation levels during flights on Earth. Magnetic characteristics
Although Mars has no evidence of a structured global magnetic field, observations show that parts of the planet's crust have been magnetized, suggesting that alternating polarity reversals of its dipole field have occurred in the past. This paleomagnetism of magnetically susceptible minerals is similar to the alternating bands found on Earth's ocean floors. One hypothesis, published in 1999 and re-examined in October 2005 (with the help of the Mars Global Surveyor), is that these bands suggest plate tectonic activity on Mars four billion years ago, before the planetary dynamo ceased to function and the planet's magnetic field faded. Geography and features
Although better remembered for mapping the Moon, Johann Heinrich von Mädler and Wilhelm Beer were the first areographers. They began by establishing that most of Mars's surface features were permanent and by more precisely determining the planet's rotation period.","[0.11370313912630081, 0.01400984451174736, 0.06841909885406494, 0.0355423279106617, 0.025069495663046837, -0.07818150520324707, 0.0041902149096131325, 0.04147078096866608, -0.018449267372488976, 0.04416155070066452, -0.03583430498838425, -0.09079378098249435, 0.0850246474146843, 0.0025546259712427855, 0.030182920396327972, -0.052219048142433167, 0.046263717114925385, -0.05999651551246643, -0.019387925043702126, 0.08241643756628036, -0.03696317598223686, 0.02993542142212391, -0.03205643966794014, 0.003102158661931753, -0.00868743285536766, 0.04424532875418663, 0.004220735747367144, 0.024335775524377823, -0.062071193009614944, -0.030749304220080376, -0.01658664643764496, 0.022485285997390747, 0.005943857599049807, -0.02917352132499218, 0.027582988142967224, 0.04616454988718033, -0.033043548464775085, -0.009058553725481033, 0.0018852670909836888, 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0.03548099473118782]",Mars,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.
193,"Heinrich von Mädler and Wilhelm Beer were the first areographers . They began by establishing that most of Mars 's surface features were permanent and by more precisely determining the planet 's rotation period .In 1840, Mädler combined ten years of observations and drew the first map of Mars. Features on Mars are named from a variety of sources. Albedo features are named for classical mythology. Craters larger than roughly 50 km are named for deceased scientists and writers and others who have contributed to the study of Mars. Smaller craters are named for towns and villages of the world with populations of less than 100,000. Large valleys are named for the word ""Mars"" or ""star"" in various languages; smaller valleys are named for rivers. Large albedo features retain many of the older names but are often updated to reflect new knowledge of the nature of the features. For example, Nix Olympica (the snows of Olympus) has become Olympus Mons (Mount Olympus). The surface of Mars as seen from Earth is divided into two kinds of areas, with differing albedo. The paler plains covered with dust and sand rich in reddish iron oxides were once thought of as Martian ""continents"" and given names like Arabia Terra (land of Arabia) or Amazonis Planitia (Amazonian plain). The dark features were thought to be seas, hence their names Mare Erythraeum, Mare Sirenum and Aurorae Sinus. The largest dark feature seen from Earth is Syrtis Major Planum. The permanent northern polar ice cap is named Planum Boreum. The southern cap is called Planum Australe. Mars's equator is defined by its rotation, but the location of its Prime Meridian was specified, as was Earth's (at Greenwich), by choice of an arbitrary point; Mädler and Beer selected a line for their first maps of Mars in 1830.","[0.03767526522278786, -0.004410357680171728, 0.027849897742271423, 0.032021455466747284, 0.050527192652225494, -0.10639563202857971, -0.013560251332819462, -0.002688526175916195, 0.023131513968110085, 0.017879728227853775, 0.03414493799209595, -0.032128483057022095, 0.023206651210784912, -0.0041643413715064526, -0.07952208071947098, -0.0021854895167052746, -0.0435074120759964, 0.028609583154320717, 0.009078274480998516, -0.012243082746863365, 0.030064942315220833, 0.0668562650680542, -0.003876664210110903, 0.010315895080566406, 0.06162252649664879, 0.0595104917883873, -0.055129148066043854, 0.1240287721157074, 0.008087516762316227, -0.002890255767852068, 0.027718331664800644, 0.04439123719930649, 0.09876194596290588, -0.02637537010014057, 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194,"Meridian was specified , as was Earth 's ( at Greenwich ) , by choice of an arbitrary point ; Mädler and Beer selected a line for their first maps of Mars in 1830 .After the spacecraft Mariner 9 provided extensive imagery of Mars in 1972, a small crater (later called Airy-0), located in the Sinus Meridiani (""Middle Bay"" or ""Meridian Bay""), was chosen by Merton E. Davies, Harold Masursky, and Gérard de Vaucouleurs for the definition of 0.0° longitude to coincide with the original selection. Because Mars has no oceans, and hence no ""sea level"", a zero-elevation surface had to be selected as a reference level; this is called the areoid of Mars, analogous to the terrestrial geoid. Zero altitude was defined by the height at which there is 610.5 Pa (6.105 mbar) of atmospheric pressure. This pressure corresponds to the triple point of water, and it is about 0.6% of the sea level surface pressure on Earth (0.006 atm). For mapping purposes, the United States Geological Survey divides the surface of Mars into thirty cartographic quadrangles, each named for a classical albedo feature it contains. In April 2023, The New York Times reported an updated global map of Mars based on images from the Hope spacecraft. A related, but much more detailed, global Mars map was released by NASA on 16 April 2023. Volcanoes
The vast upland region Tharsis contains several massive volcanoes, which include the shield volcano Olympus Mons. The edifice is over 600 km (370 mi) wide. Because the mountain is so large, with complex structure at its edges, giving a definite height to it is difficult.","[0.004124522674828768, 0.03270005062222481, 0.00854786392301321, -0.05219920352101326, 0.01580033265054226, -0.057404812425374985, -0.07036007940769196, 0.0339287631213665, 0.05557134374976158, 0.022863613441586494, 0.03346170485019684, -0.04205109551548958, -0.00143961061257869, 0.005935539025813341, -0.018549667671322823, -0.024432452395558357, -0.07071536779403687, -0.026102375239133835, 0.040905553847551346, 0.049016039818525314, 0.06401292234659195, 0.12523560225963593, 0.0265662781894207, -0.00047417773748748004, -0.023354198783636093, 0.002028214978054166, 0.01352548785507679, 0.09876324236392975, 0.029039792716503143, 0.044989485293626785, -0.012072441168129444, 0.03311401605606079, 0.03563476726412773, -0.046100929379463196, 0.07530190795660019, -0.017852798104286194, 0.06803447008132935, -0.0036691101267933846, -0.00786792766302824, 0.05367479473352432, 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195,"The edifice is over 600 km ( 370 mi ) wide . Because the mountain is so large , with complex structure at its edges , giving a definite height to it is difficult .Its local relief, from the foot of the cliffs which form its northwest margin to its peak, is over 21 km (13 mi), a little over twice the height of Mauna Kea as measured from its base on the ocean floor. The total elevation change from the plains of Amazonis Planitia, over 1,000 km (620 mi) to the northwest, to the summit approaches 26 km (16 mi), roughly three times the height of Mount Everest, which in comparison stands at just over 8.8 kilometres (5.5 mi). Consequently, Olympus Mons is either the tallest or second-tallest mountain in the Solar System; the only known mountain which might be taller is the Rheasilvia peak on the asteroid Vesta, at 20–25 km (12–16 mi). Impact topography
The dichotomy of Martian topography is striking: northern plains flattened by lava flows contrast with the southern highlands, pitted and cratered by ancient impacts. It is possible that, four billion years ago, the Northern Hemisphere of Mars was struck by an object one-tenth to two-thirds the size of Earth's Moon. If this is the case, the Northern Hemisphere of Mars would be the site of an impact crater 10,600 by 8,500 kilometres (6,600 by 5,300 mi) in size, or roughly the area of Europe, Asia, and Australia combined, surpassing Utopia Planitia and the Moon's South Pole–Aitken basin as the largest impact crater in the Solar System. Mars is scarred by 43,000 impact craters with a diameter of 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) or greater.","[0.024683447554707527, 0.10546863824129105, 0.06661414355039597, -0.031153397634625435, 0.03213278204202652, -0.07599829137325287, -0.10796447843313217, 0.12467414140701294, 0.04873238876461983, 0.07982730865478516, -0.03376195952296257, -0.0477965772151947, -0.02069944515824318, 3.31975934386719e-05, 0.04517047479748726, -0.021382756531238556, 4.681338032241911e-05, 0.03673987090587616, -0.0002725679660215974, 0.03893902152776718, 0.06747925281524658, 0.03394399210810661, 0.02340860478579998, 0.0912022590637207, -0.03946548327803612, 0.01072914432734251, -0.0418500192463398, 0.08588175475597382, -0.05708446726202965, -0.07341999560594559, -0.015578010119497776, -0.07117939740419388, 0.05012749508023262, -0.016443930566310883, 0.046511176973581314, 0.10623927414417267, 0.017352456226944923, -0.016851071268320084, -0.023107362911105156, -0.042289286851882935, -0.0004183012351859361, 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196,"Moon 's South Pole–Aitken basin as the largest impact crater in the Solar System . Mars is scarred by 43,000 impact craters with a diameter of 5 kilometres ( 3.1 mi ) or greater .The largest exposed crater is Hellas, which is 2,300 kilometres (1,400 mi) wide and 7,000 metres (23,000 ft) deep, and is a light albedo feature clearly visible from Earth. There are other notable impact features, such as Argyre, which is around 1,800 kilometres (1,100 mi) in diameter, and Isidis, which is around 1,500 kilometres (930 mi) in diameter. Due to the smaller mass and size of Mars, the probability of an object colliding with the planet is about half that of Earth. Mars is located closer to the asteroid belt, so it has an increased chance of being struck by materials from that source. Mars is more likely to be struck by short-period comets, i.e., those that lie within the orbit of Jupiter. Martian craters can have a morphology that suggests the ground became wet after the meteor impact. Tectonic sites
The large canyon, Valles Marineris (Latin for 'Mariner Valleys, also known as Agathodaemon in the old canal maps), has a length of 4,000 kilometres (2,500 mi) and a depth of up to 7 kilometres (4.3 mi). The length of Valles Marineris is equivalent to the length of Europe and extends across one-fifth the circumference of Mars. By comparison, the Grand Canyon on Earth is only 446 kilometres (277 mi) long and nearly 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) deep. Valles Marineris was formed due to the swelling of the Tharsis area, which caused the crust in the area of Valles Marineris to collapse.","[0.10917174071073532, -0.0004864547518081963, 0.05124010518193245, 0.00466086296364665, 0.06121530011296272, -0.060071006417274475, -0.05778159573674202, 0.11174978315830231, 0.039031557738780975, 0.0514812134206295, -0.019372330978512764, -0.0477898009121418, 0.0026688596699386835, 0.006830564700067043, -0.04164976626634598, -0.031835976988077164, 0.01871108077466488, 0.0025139159988611937, -0.013661163859069347, 0.05620431900024414, 0.03508106619119644, 0.0866914913058281, -0.021905621513724327, 0.0473514050245285, -0.023562688380479813, 0.03231115639209747, -0.027859767898917198, 0.11039261519908905, -0.03837643563747406, -0.030909458175301552, -0.008989190682768822, -0.0016881187912076712, 0.029460975900292397, -0.02550761215388775, 0.039089135825634, 0.04646502062678337, -0.02634155936539173, 0.01837713085114956, 0.04499999061226845, 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197,"nearly 2 kilometres ( 1.2 mi ) deep . Valles Marineris was formed due to the swelling of the Tharsis area , which caused the crust in the area of Valles Marineris to collapse .In 2012, it was proposed that Valles Marineris is not just a graben, but a plate boundary where 150 kilometres (93 mi) of transverse motion has occurred, making Mars a planet with possibly a two-tectonic plate arrangement. Holes and caves
Images from the Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) aboard NASA's Mars Odyssey orbiter have revealed seven possible cave entrances on the flanks of the volcano Arsia Mons. The caves, named after loved ones of their discoverers, are collectively known as the ""seven sisters"". Cave entrances measure from 100 to 252 metres (328 to 827 ft) wide and they are estimated to be at least 73 to 96 metres (240 to 315 ft) deep. Because light does not reach the floor of most of the caves, they may extend much deeper than these lower estimates and widen below the surface. ""Dena"" is the only exception; its floor is visible and was measured to be 130 metres (430 ft) deep. The interiors of these caverns may be protected from micrometeoroids, UV radiation, solar flares and high energy particles that bombard the planet's surface. Other features
Atmosphere
Mars lost its magnetosphere 4 billion years ago, possibly because of numerous asteroid strikes, so the solar wind interacts directly with the Martian ionosphere, lowering the atmospheric density by stripping away atoms from the outer layer. Both Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Express have detected ionized atmospheric particles trailing off into space behind Mars, and this atmospheric loss is being studied by the MAVEN orbiter. Compared to Earth, the atmosphere of Mars is quite rarefied.","[0.0362137071788311, 0.034703660756349564, 0.014356535859405994, -0.05164872482419014, -0.012975651770830154, -0.10790219902992249, -0.12722201645374298, 0.046864449977874756, 0.051613323390483856, 0.09103774279356003, -0.04546298086643219, -0.06165947765111923, 0.02590319886803627, -0.05018465220928192, 0.016189415007829666, -0.024879271164536476, -0.052543122321367264, 0.012761905789375305, -0.02758735977113247, 0.009957433678209782, 0.056068021804094315, 0.009423023089766502, -0.008237973786890507, 0.016616148874163628, -0.1044733077287674, -0.012238110415637493, -0.05256977677345276, 0.09397400170564651, -0.028800012543797493, -0.040163081139326096, -0.0450071319937706, 0.025749025866389275, 0.053389642387628555, -0.046066764742136, 0.08160975575447083, 0.11404193937778473, -0.015399587340652943, 0.041235532611608505, -0.01779508963227272, 0.0038974909111857414, 0.01855948008596897, -0.023972701281309128, 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198,"detected ionized atmospheric particles trailing off into space behind Mars , and this atmospheric loss is being studied by the MAVEN orbiter . Compared to Earth , the atmosphere of Mars is quite rarefied .Atmospheric pressure on the surface today ranges from a low of 30 Pa (0.0044 psi) on Olympus Mons to over 1,155 Pa (0.1675 psi) in Hellas Planitia, with a mean pressure at the surface level of 600 Pa (0.087 psi). The highest atmospheric density on Mars is equal to that found 35 kilometres (22 mi) above Earth's surface. The resulting mean surface pressure is only 0.6% of Earth's 101.3 kPa (14.69 psi). The scale height of the atmosphere is about 10.8 kilometres (6.7 mi), which is higher than Earth's 6 kilometres (3.7 mi), because the surface gravity of Mars is only about 38% of Earth's. The atmosphere of Mars consists of about 96% carbon dioxide, 1.93% argon and 1.89% nitrogen along with traces of oxygen and water. The atmosphere is quite dusty, containing particulates about 1.5 μm in diameter which give the Martian sky a tawny color when seen from the surface. It may take on a pink hue due to iron oxide particles suspended in it. The concentration of methane in the Martian atmosphere fluctuates from about 0.24 ppb during the northern winter to about 0.65 ppb during the summer. Estimates of its lifetime range from 0.6 to 4 years, so its presence indicates that an active source of the gas must be present. Methane is most likely produced by non-biological process such as serpentinization involving water, carbon dioxide, and the mineral olivine, which is known to be common on Mars, although it could also be produced by Martian life.","[0.009946629405021667, 0.06829554587602615, 0.030486077070236206, -0.028925636783242226, 0.08600630611181259, -0.06254441291093826, 0.084361732006073, 0.0052439565770328045, 0.013513040728867054, 0.10122951865196228, -0.03136681020259857, -0.050149597227573395, 0.032599154859781265, -0.002968353684991598, -0.031890757381916046, -0.043106984347105026, 0.06628508120775223, -0.0049307383596897125, -0.08100605010986328, 0.08034130185842514, 0.007400789298117161, 0.1201726645231247, 0.05067663639783859, 0.06971718370914459, -0.01858345791697502, 0.03138923645019531, -0.049883175641298294, 0.09085754305124283, -0.00044207542669028044, -0.038296088576316833, -0.03829389438033104, -0.046138133853673935, 0.06968304514884949, -0.043082788586616516, 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199,"non-biological process such as serpentinization involving water , carbon dioxide , and the mineral olivine , which is known to be common on Mars , although it could also be produced by Martian life .Compared to Earth, its higher concentration of atmospheric CO2 and lower surface pressure may be why sound is attenuated more on Mars, where natural sources are rare apart from the wind. Using acoustic recordings collected by the Perseverance rover, researchers concluded that the speed of sound there is approximately 240 m/s for frequencies below 240 Hz, and 250 m/s for those above. Auroras have been detected on Mars. Because Mars lacks a global magnetic field, the types and distribution of auroras there differ from those on Earth; rather than being mostly restricted to polar regions as is the case on Earth, a Martian aurora can encompass the planet. In September 2017, NASA reported radiation levels on the surface of the planet Mars were temporarily doubled, and were associated with an aurora 25 times brighter than any observed earlier, due to a massive, and unexpected, solar storm in the middle of the month. Climate
Mars has seasons, alternating between its northern and southern hemispheres, similar to on Earth. Additionally the orbit of Mars has, compared to Earth's, a large eccentricity and approaches perihelion when it is summer in its southern hemisphere and winter in its northern, and aphelion when it is winter in its southern hemisphere and summer in its northern. As a result, the seasons in its southern hemisphere are more extreme and the seasons in its northern are milder than would otherwise be the case. The summer temperatures in the south can be warmer than the equivalent summer temperatures in the north by up to 30 °C (54 °F).","[0.024096550419926643, -0.06655389070510864, 0.011689538136124611, 0.028064385056495667, 0.12353511154651642, -0.06574053317308426, -0.0015354156494140625, -0.09680105745792389, 0.012760921381413937, 0.050778280943632126, -0.01779770478606224, -0.03715662658214569, 0.024886086583137512, -0.015146886929869652, 0.032761067152023315, -0.023861601948738098, 0.06981989741325378, -0.03331182897090912, -0.02641104720532894, 0.013086619786918163, -0.04640266299247742, 0.024898426607251167, -0.011565949767827988, 0.04096108675003052, -0.02121613547205925, 0.03412742167711258, -0.060283269733190536, 0.06881175935268402, -0.04397417604923248, -0.003432417521253228, 0.027341540902853012, 0.0204022079706192, 0.051450494676828384, -0.054540883749723434, -0.025066960602998734, 0.02619335614144802, -0.0145664531737566, -0.031657278537750244, -0.01956554688513279, 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200,"milder than would otherwise be the case . The summer temperatures in the south can be warmer than the equivalent summer temperatures in the north by up to 30 °C ( 54 °F ) .Martian surface temperatures vary from lows of about −110 °C (−166 °F) to highs of up to 35 °C (95 °F) in equatorial summer. The wide range in temperatures is due to the thin atmosphere which cannot store much solar heat, the low atmospheric pressure (about 1% that of the atmosphere of Earth), and the low thermal inertia of Martian soil. The planet is 1.52 times as far from the Sun as Earth, resulting in just 43% of the amount of sunlight. Mars has the largest dust storms in the Solar System, reaching speeds of over 160 km/h (100 mph). These can vary from a storm over a small area, to gigantic storms that cover the entire planet. They tend to occur when Mars is closest to the Sun, and have been shown to increase global temperature. Seasons also produce dry ice covering polar ice caps. Hydrology
While Mars contains water in larger amounts, most of it is dust covered water ice at the Martian polar ice caps. The volume of water ice in the south polar ice cap, if melted, would be enough to cover most of the surface of the planet with a depth of 11 metres (36 ft). Water in its liquid form cannot persist on the surface due to Mars's low atmospheric pressure, which is less than 1% that of Earth. Only at the lowest of elevations are the pressure and temperature high enough for liquid water to exist for short periods.","[0.05112907662987709, -0.00430571474134922, 0.03174841031432152, 0.027827546000480652, 0.13838501274585724, -0.07919205725193024, -0.014946000650525093, -0.018385453149676323, 0.011118417605757713, 0.1204381138086319, -0.01593942753970623, -0.03484230861067772, 0.08817791938781738, 0.034159768372774124, 0.06306146085262299, -0.05269306153059006, 0.02970380336046219, -0.021229097619652748, -0.028773454949259758, 0.07316678017377853, 0.0038883790839463472, 0.061569519340991974, -0.054709624499082565, 0.07797175645828247, -0.03292657434940338, 0.021534178406000137, -0.017849551513791084, 0.1126759797334671, -0.047536563128232956, 0.06396855413913727, -0.047961629927158356, 0.018202507868409157, 0.048888709396123886, -0.030772186815738678, 0.0034507284872233868, 0.05412574112415314, 0.01628434844315052, 0.00074822420720011, -0.023108618333935738, 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201,"atmospheric pressure , which is less than 1 % that of Earth . Only at the lowest of elevations are the pressure and temperature high enough for liquid water to exist for short periods .Although little water is present in the atmosphere, there is enough to produce clouds of water ice and different cases of snow and frost, often mixed with snow of carbon dioxide dry ice. Past hydrosphere
Landforms visible on Mars strongly suggest that liquid water has existed on the planet's surface. Huge linear swathes of scoured ground, known as outflow channels, cut across the surface in about 25 places. These are thought to be a record of erosion caused by the catastrophic release of water from subsurface aquifers, though some of these structures have been hypothesized to result from the action of glaciers or lava. One of the larger examples, Ma'adim Vallis, is 700 kilometres (430 mi) long, much greater than the Grand Canyon, with a width of 20 kilometres (12 mi) and a depth of 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) in places. It is thought to have been carved by flowing water early in Mars's history. The youngest of these channels is thought to have formed only a few million years ago. Elsewhere, particularly on the oldest areas of the Martian surface, finer-scale, dendritic networks of valleys are spread across significant proportions of the landscape. Features of these valleys and their distribution strongly imply that they were carved by runoff resulting from precipitation in early Mars history. Subsurface water flow and groundwater sapping may play important subsidiary roles in some networks, but precipitation was probably the root cause of the incision in almost all cases. Along craters and canyon walls, there are thousands of features that appear similar to terrestrial gullies.","[0.012010373175144196, -0.020519904792308807, 0.07327450811862946, 0.014060038141906261, 0.052399832755327225, -0.08317112177610397, -0.0107788797467947, 0.028112415224313736, 0.022734304890036583, 0.023548539727926254, -0.07590712606906891, -0.02452169544994831, 0.02030297741293907, -0.0091632679104805, -0.024579642340540886, -0.017360061407089233, -0.06397687643766403, -0.0411355160176754, -0.020026732236146927, 0.038977522403001785, 0.09127933531999588, 0.07405392825603485, -0.05426938086748123, 0.07098768651485443, -0.037780553102493286, 0.029101988300681114, -0.006454077083617449, 0.1048513799905777, 0.028734585270285606, -0.0260695181787014, -0.019403601065278053, 0.047081563621759415, 0.03866617754101753, -0.04149133339524269, 0.06857821345329285, 0.10441690683364868, -0.003505339380353689, 0.048618800938129425, -0.04796847701072693, -0.009849315509200096, 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202,"networks , but precipitation was probably the root cause of the incision in almost all cases . Along craters and canyon walls , there are thousands of features that appear similar to terrestrial gullies .The gullies tend to be in the highlands of the Southern Hemisphere and face the Equator; all are poleward of 30° latitude. A number of authors have suggested that their formation process involves liquid water, probably from melting ice, although others have argued for formation mechanisms involving carbon dioxide frost or the movement of dry dust. No partially degraded gullies have formed by weathering and no superimposed impact craters have been observed, indicating that these are young features, possibly still active. Other geological features, such as deltas and alluvial fans preserved in craters, are further evidence for warmer, wetter conditions at an interval or intervals in earlier Mars history. Such conditions necessarily require the widespread presence of crater lakes across a large proportion of the surface, for which there is independent mineralogical, sedimentological and geomorphological evidence. Further evidence that liquid water once existed on the surface of Mars comes from the detection of specific minerals such as hematite and goethite, both of which sometimes form in the presence of water. History of observations and findings of water evidence
In 2004, Opportunity detected the mineral jarosite. This forms only in the presence of acidic water, showing that water once existed on Mars. The Spirit rover found concentrated deposits of silica in 2007 that indicated wet conditions in the past, and in December 2011, the mineral gypsum, which also forms in the presence of water, was found on the surface by NASA's Mars rover Opportunity.","[0.018665459007024765, -0.005739319138228893, 0.09299243986606598, 0.011696439236402512, 0.10746505856513977, -0.07677096128463745, 0.04252321645617485, -0.00011884644482051954, -0.015150858089327812, 0.029918864369392395, -0.011797436513006687, -0.083066426217556, 0.017873547971248627, 0.0033939070999622345, 0.0014860413502901793, -0.07105906307697296, -0.0531742125749588, -0.04033338278532028, 0.031477250158786774, 0.031199481338262558, 0.014297879301011562, 0.05376671254634857, -0.06516861170530319, 0.06379184126853943, -0.003844277933239937, 0.08591099828481674, -0.004028825089335442, 0.09146521240472794, 0.019778741523623466, -0.014382228255271912, -0.04392267391085625, 0.01052814070135355, 0.036671653389930725, -0.0232891496270895, 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203,"conditions in the past , and in December 2011 , the mineral gypsum , which also forms in the presence of water , was found on the surface by NASA 's Mars rover Opportunity .It is estimated that the amount of water in the upper mantle of Mars, represented by hydroxyl ions contained within Martian minerals, is equal to or greater than that of Earth at 50–300 parts per million of water, which is enough to cover the entire planet to a depth of 200–1,000 metres (660–3,280 ft). On 18 March 2013, NASA reported evidence from instruments on the Curiosity rover of mineral hydration, likely hydrated calcium sulfate, in several rock samples including the broken fragments of ""Tintina"" rock and ""Sutton Inlier"" rock as well as in veins and nodules in other rocks like ""Knorr"" rock and ""Wernicke"" rock. Analysis using the rover's DAN instrument provided evidence of subsurface water, amounting to as much as 4% water content, down to a depth of 60 centimetres (24 in), during the rover's traverse from the Bradbury Landing site to the Yellowknife Bay area in the Glenelg terrain. In September 2015, NASA announced that they had found strong evidence of hydrated brine flows in recurring slope lineae, based on spectrometer readings of the darkened areas of slopes. These streaks flow downhill in Martian summer, when the temperature is above −23 °C, and freeze at lower temperatures. These observations supported earlier hypotheses, based on timing of formation and their rate of growth, that these dark streaks resulted from water flowing just below the surface. However, later work suggested that the lineae may be dry, granular flows instead, with at most a limited role for water in initiating the process. A definitive conclusion about the presence, extent, and role of liquid water on the Martian surface remains elusive.","[-0.07876385748386383, 0.010272163897752762, 0.10852108150720596, 0.002678968943655491, 0.06664910912513733, -0.08606928586959839, 0.002582427579909563, 0.05482209101319313, 0.013020223006606102, 0.046785712242126465, -0.07419005781412125, -0.0744059681892395, 0.07896172255277634, 0.017692595720291138, -0.038391586393117905, -0.029399937018752098, 0.019854744896292686, 0.006995698902755976, -0.06309464573860168, 0.027476947754621506, 0.05104104429483414, 0.03311794996261597, 0.015352955088019371, -0.0019384814659133554, -0.06274641305208206, 0.05569097027182579, 0.013217571191489697, 0.04576998949050903, 0.015556510537862778, -0.004021554719656706, -0.04392958804965019, 0.037836309522390366, 0.00558733893558383, -0.136639803647995, 0.04889193922281265, 0.13994835317134857, -0.07606284320354462, -0.009970836341381073, -0.03061182238161564, -0.05362958461046219, 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204,", with at most a limited role for water in initiating the process . A definitive conclusion about the presence , extent , and role of liquid water on the Martian surface remains elusive .Researchers suspect much of the low northern plains of the planet were covered with an ocean hundreds of meters deep, though this theory remains controversial. In March 2015, scientists stated that such an ocean might have been the size of Earth's Arctic Ocean. This finding was derived from the ratio of protium to deuterium in the modern Martian atmosphere compared to that ratio on Earth. The amount of Martian deuterium (D/H = 9.3 ± 1.7 10−4) is five to seven times the amount on Earth (D/H = 1.56 10−4), suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water. Results from the Curiosity rover had previously found a high ratio of deuterium in Gale Crater, though not significantly high enough to suggest the former presence of an ocean. Other scientists caution that these results have not been confirmed, and point out that Martian climate models have not yet shown that the planet was warm enough in the past to support bodies of liquid water. Near the northern polar cap is the 81.4 kilometres (50.6 mi) wide Korolev Crater, which the Mars Express orbiter found to be filled with approximately 2,200 cubic kilometres (530 cu mi) of water ice. In November 2016, NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice in the Utopia Planitia region. The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior (which is 12,100 cubic kilometers). During observations from 2018 through 2021, the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter spotted indications of water, probably subsurface ice, in the Valles Marineris canyon system.","[-0.0006494676345027983, 0.045883845537900925, 0.020778320729732513, -0.006644620560109615, 0.10919895768165588, -0.11261630803346634, -0.044968996196985245, 0.06741955876350403, -0.027705470100045204, 0.05800537019968033, -0.06315363198518753, -0.07019653171300888, 0.019813433289527893, 0.041227929294109344, 0.03897761553525925, -0.06952390819787979, -0.001187663758173585, -0.04769962653517723, -0.010439353995025158, 0.057279009371995926, -0.03911145031452179, 0.05900796502828598, 0.03231769800186157, 0.035658691078424454, -0.02222190424799919, 0.04359212517738342, 0.021535824984312057, 0.09591859579086304, -0.03578135371208191, 0.027454610913991928, -0.005792608018964529, -0.025138212367892265, 0.09812334924936295, -0.061910126358270645, 0.052032388746738434, 0.06228499114513397, -0.040243104100227356, 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205,"which is 12,100 cubic kilometers ) . During observations from 2018 through 2021 , the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter spotted indications of water , probably subsurface ice , in the Valles Marineris canyon system .Orbital motion
Mars's average distance from the Sun is roughly 230 million km (143 million mi), and its orbital period is 687 (Earth) days. The solar day (or sol) on Mars is only slightly longer than an Earth day: 24 hours, 39 minutes, and 35.244 seconds. A Martian year is equal to 1.8809 Earth years, or 1 year, 320 days, and 18.2 hours. The gravitational potential difference and thus the delta-v needed to transfer between Mars and Earth is the second lowest for Earth. The axial tilt of Mars is 25.19° relative to its orbital plane, which is similar to the axial tilt of Earth. As a result, Mars has seasons like Earth, though on Mars they are nearly twice as long because its orbital period is that much longer. In the present day, the orientation of the north pole of Mars is close to the star Deneb. Mars has a relatively pronounced orbital eccentricity of about 0.09; of the seven other planets in the Solar System, only Mercury has a larger orbital eccentricity. It is known that in the past, Mars has had a much more circular orbit. At one point, 1.35 million Earth years ago, Mars had an eccentricity of roughly 0.002, much less than that of Earth today. Mars's cycle of eccentricity is 96,000 Earth years compared to Earth's cycle of 100,000 years. Mars has its closest approach to Earth (opposition) in a synodic period of 779.94 days. It should not be confused with Mars conjunction, where the Earth and Mars are at opposite sides of the Solar System and form a straight line crossing the Sun.","[0.037907686084508896, 0.016677163541316986, 0.0463981106877327, -0.020157843828201294, 0.046010278165340424, -0.0715433806180954, -0.032513633370399475, 0.016082357615232468, 0.02849508263170719, 0.04402150213718414, 0.01145975198596716, -0.02287081815302372, -0.014834128320217133, -0.009315514005720615, 0.05835612490773201, -0.06989311426877975, -0.03365303948521614, -0.0038833629805594683, -0.016647348180413246, 0.07704714685678482, -0.003176390891894698, -0.005258189979940653, -0.007942180149257183, 0.06837977468967438, -0.06786815822124481, 0.040649157017469406, -0.04536568000912666, 0.046813104301691055, -0.04417894780635834, 0.015042105689644814, -0.0412304513156414, 0.051553696393966675, 0.07440725713968277, -0.04518965259194374, -0.03324176371097565, 0.03866181522607803, -0.011952742002904415, -0.02207092009484768, 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206,"of 779.94 days . It should not be confused with Mars conjunction , where the Earth and Mars are at opposite sides of the Solar System and form a straight line crossing the Sun .The average time between the successive oppositions of Mars, its synodic period, is 780 days; but the number of days between successive oppositions can range from 764 to 812. The distance at close approach varies between about 54 and 103 million km (34 and 64 million mi) due to the planets' elliptical orbits, which causes comparable variation in angular size. At their furthest Mars and Earth can be as far as 401 million km (249 million mi) apart. Mars comes into opposition from Earth every 2.1 years. The planets come into opposition near Mars's perihelion in 2003, 2018 and 2035, with the 2020 and 2033 events being particularly close to perihelic opposition. The mean apparent magnitude of Mars is +0.71 with a standard deviation of 1.05. Because the orbit of Mars is eccentric, the magnitude at opposition from the Sun can range from about −3.0 to −1.4. The minimum brightness is magnitude +1.86 when the planet is near aphelion and in conjunction with the Sun. At its brightest, Mars (along with Jupiter) is second only to Venus in apparent brightness. Mars usually appears distinctly yellow, orange, or red. When farthest away from Earth, it is more than seven times farther away than when it is closest. Mars is usually close enough for particularly good viewing once or twice at 15-year or 17-year intervals. Optical ground-based telescopes are typically limited to resolving features about 300 kilometres (190 mi) across when Earth and Mars are closest because of Earth's atmosphere. As Mars approaches opposition, it begins a period of retrograde motion, which means it will appear to move backwards in a looping curve with respect to the background stars.","[0.05758848413825035, -0.004230540711432695, 0.03629887476563454, 0.02143934741616249, 0.025288302451372147, -0.08009400218725204, -0.10535487532615662, 0.02991425059735775, 0.029766594991087914, 0.07990642637014389, 0.027661962434649467, -0.023536961525678635, 0.018248893320560455, -0.06103042885661125, 0.015202682465314865, -0.02132868394255638, -0.016683243215084076, -0.027635186910629272, -0.014029120095074177, 0.1138690635561943, -0.041567761451005936, 0.014876562170684338, -0.019498834386467934, 0.04018670693039894, -0.07891174405813217, 0.006254489999264479, 0.002562660723924637, 0.03917454928159714, -0.0006121064070612192, -0.019150402396917343, -0.03531956672668457, -0.007162900175899267, 0.0698639452457428, -0.008018299005925655, -0.03213069587945938, -0.01982857473194599, 0.026945648714900017, 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207,"'s atmosphere . As Mars approaches opposition , it begins a period of retrograde motion , which means it will appear to move backwards in a looping curve with respect to the background stars .This retrograde motion lasts for about 72 days, and Mars reaches its peak apparent brightness in the middle of this interval. Moons
Mars has two relatively small (compared to Earth's) natural moons, Phobos (about 22 km (14 mi) in diameter) and Deimos (about 12 km (7.5 mi) in diameter), which orbit at 9,376 km (5,826 mi) and 23,460 km (14,580 mi) around the planet. The origin of both moons is unclear, although a popular theory states that they were asteroids captured into Martian orbit. Both satellites were discovered in 1877 by Asaph Hall and were named after the characters Phobos (the deity of panic and fear) and Deimos (the deity of terror and dread), twins from Greek mythology who accompanied their father Ares, god of war, into battle. Mars was the Roman equivalent to Ares. In modern Greek, the planet retains its ancient name Ares (Aris: Άρης). From the surface of Mars, the motions of Phobos and Deimos appear different from that of the Earth's satellite, the Moon. Phobos rises in the west, sets in the east, and rises again in just 11 hours. Deimos, being only just outside synchronous orbit – where the orbital period would match the planet's period of rotation – rises as expected in the east, but slowly. Because the orbit of Phobos is below a synchronous altitude, tidal forces from Mars are gradually lowering its orbit. In about 50 million years, it could either crash into Mars's surface or break up into a ring structure around the planet.","[-0.004461039789021015, 0.03543325141072273, -0.018576132133603096, 0.03517550975084305, 0.009951837360858917, -0.08092161267995834, -0.00305166095495224, 0.06049467250704765, 0.06566460430622101, 0.10266655683517456, 0.052457619458436966, 0.025638660416007042, -0.01262172032147646, -0.07793472707271576, -0.010341977700591087, 0.0024731080047786236, -0.029515204951167107, 0.04923276603221893, -0.03643152117729187, 0.04921501874923706, 0.020134536549448967, -0.05675952136516571, -0.05453133583068848, 0.06813927739858627, -0.05539659783244133, 0.12888267636299133, 0.010829358361661434, 0.0899057388305664, -0.01013544388115406, -0.011583082377910614, -0.00519300764426589, -0.08591993898153305, 0.0586976632475853, -0.015330294147133827, -0.012067416682839394, 0.044563177973032, 0.02913695015013218, -0.06568224728107452, -0.0017171213403344154, -0.13174249231815338, 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208,"tidal forces from Mars are gradually lowering its orbit . In about 50 million years , it could either crash into Mars 's surface or break up into a ring structure around the planet .The origin of the two satellites is not well understood. Their low albedo and carbonaceous chondrite composition have been regarded as similar to asteroids, supporting a capture theory. The unstable orbit of Phobos would seem to point toward a relatively recent capture. But both have circular orbits near the equator, which is unusual for captured objects, and the required capture dynamics are complex. Accretion early in the history of Mars is plausible, but would not account for a composition resembling asteroids rather than Mars itself, if that is confirmed. Mars may have yet-undiscovered moons, smaller than 50 to 100 metres (160 to 330 ft) in diameter, and a dust ring is predicted to exist between Phobos and Deimos. A third possibility for their origin as satellites of Mars is the involvement of a third body or a type of impact disruption. More-recent lines of evidence for Phobos having a highly porous interior, and suggesting a composition containing mainly phyllosilicates and other minerals known from Mars, point toward an origin of Phobos from material ejected by an impact on Mars that reaccreted in Martian orbit, similar to the prevailing theory for the origin of Earth's satellite. Although the visible and near-infrared (VNIR) spectra of the moons of Mars resemble those of outer-belt asteroids, the thermal infrared spectra of Phobos are reported to be inconsistent with chondrites of any class. It is also possible that Phobos and Deimos were fragments of an older moon, formed by debris from a large impact on Mars, and then destroyed by a more recent impact upon the satellite.","[0.022464219480752945, -0.003728725016117096, 0.011958202347159386, 0.011000762693583965, 0.059137847274541855, -0.05801447853446007, 0.018245672807097435, 0.031378086656332016, 0.017315497621893883, 0.1415230929851532, -0.002115091308951378, -0.06131262332201004, -0.013104316778481007, -0.004161800257861614, 0.05176626890897751, 0.005557089112699032, 0.04464469850063324, 0.04484736546874046, -0.02358834818005562, 0.153071328997612, 0.005642048083245754, 0.04543573781847954, -0.032472312450408936, 0.052847422659397125, -0.08615800738334656, 0.0634213462471962, 0.006740977987647057, 0.03781692683696747, -0.016352064907550812, -0.054932866245508194, -0.04204551875591278, -0.019520319998264313, 0.028609665110707283, -0.00514241261407733, 0.07329276949167252, 0.052498046308755875, -0.02613699994981289, 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209,"also possible that Phobos and Deimos were fragments of an older moon , formed by debris from a large impact on Mars , and then destroyed by a more recent impact upon the satellite .Human observations and exploration
The history of observations of Mars is marked by oppositions of Mars when the planet is closest to Earth and hence is most easily visible, which occur every couple of years. Even more notable are the perihelic oppositions of Mars, which are distinguished because Mars is close to perihelion, making it even closer to Earth. Ancient observations
The ancient Sumerians named Mars Nergal, the god of war and plague. During Sumerian times, Nergal was a minor deity of little significance, but, during later times, his main cult center was the city of Nineveh. In Mesopotamian texts, Mars is referred to as the ""star of judgement of the fate of the dead"". The existence of Mars as a wandering object in the night sky was also recorded by the ancient Egyptian astronomers and, by 1534 BCE, they were familiar with the retrograde motion of the planet. By the period of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the Babylonian astronomers were making regular records of the positions of the planets and systematic observations of their behavior. For Mars, they knew that the planet made 37 synodic periods, or 42 circuits of the zodiac, every 79 years. They invented arithmetic methods for making minor corrections to the predicted positions of the planets. In Ancient Greece, the planet was known as Πυρόεις. Commonly, the Greek name for the planet now referred to as Mars, was Ares. It was the Romans who named the planet Mars, for their god of war, often represented by the sword and shield of the planet's namesake.","[0.019515689462423325, 0.07697632163763046, 0.032413385808467865, 0.031928785145282745, 0.01595066674053669, -0.08562636375427246, -0.02692442573606968, 0.010538313537836075, 0.09009920805692673, 0.05747561529278755, -0.0006270273588597775, -0.03799135982990265, 0.001973317004740238, -0.053811270743608475, -0.11482243984937668, -0.03860672190785408, -0.0745386853814125, 0.018124671652913094, 0.027823904529213905, -0.004509705118834972, -0.02198944240808487, 0.044409800320863724, -0.07350515574216843, 0.011843902990221977, -0.017386419698596, 0.035670459270477295, -0.02755901962518692, 0.04990313574671745, 0.0071569159626960754, -0.0200929194688797, -0.006830298807471991, -0.023798055946826935, 0.005174810066819191, 0.029999680817127228, -0.026203986257314682, 0.06842181086540222, 0.024124234914779663, 0.037439048290252686, -0.07013951987028122, 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210,"as Mars , was Ares . It was the Romans who named the planet Mars , for their god of war , often represented by the sword and shield of the planet 's namesake .In the fourth century BCE, Aristotle noted that Mars disappeared behind the Moon during an occultation, indicating that the planet was farther away. Ptolemy, a Greek living in Alexandria, attempted to address the problem of the orbital motion of Mars. Ptolemy's model and his collective work on astronomy was presented in the multi-volume collection later called the Almagest (from the Arabic for ""greatest""), which became the authoritative treatise on Western astronomy for the next fourteen centuries. Literature from ancient China confirms that Mars was known by Chinese astronomers by no later than the fourth century BCE. In the East Asian cultures, Mars is traditionally referred to as the ""fire star"" (火星) based on the Wuxing system. Early modern observations
In 1609 Johannes Kepler published a 10 year study of Martian orbit, using the diurnal parallax of Mars, measured by Tycho Brahe, to make a preliminary calculation of the relative distance to the planet. From Brahe's observations of Mars, Kepler deduced that the planet orbited the Sun not in a circle, but in an ellipse. Moreover, Kepler showed that Mars sped up as it approached the Sun and slowed down as it moved farther away, in a manner that later physicists would explain as a consequence of the conservation of angular momentum. In 1610 the first use of a telescope for astronomical observation, including Mars, was performed by Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei. With the telescope the diurnal parallax of Mars was again measured in an effort to determine the Sun-Earth distance. This was first performed by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1672. The early parallax measurements were hampered by the quality of the instruments.","[-0.012383542023599148, 0.08793656527996063, -0.035026710480451584, 0.06355253607034683, -0.038870010524988174, -0.06264996528625488, 0.0033426417503505945, -0.016702547669410706, 0.0556282177567482, 0.08050709962844849, 0.0101487897336483, 0.019161289557814598, 0.03377445787191391, -0.034598082304000854, -0.055324114859104156, -0.07019384950399399, -0.05570673942565918, 0.019582785665988922, 0.04609416797757149, 0.0058670188300311565, -0.050325751304626465, 0.021171947941184044, 0.03126339614391327, 0.039409421384334564, 0.06602538377046585, 0.047339919954538345, -0.023143505677580833, 0.006272307597100735, -0.02483627013862133, 0.044606372714042664, -0.012181194499135017, 0.019000191241502762, 0.008308433927595615, 0.026758961379528046, -0.05443710833787918, 0.050173379480838776, 0.02355063520371914, -0.0016227132873609662, -0.03080008365213871, 0.004604678601026535, 0.0977572426199913, 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211,"again measured in an effort to determine the Sun-Earth distance . This was first performed by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1672 . The early parallax measurements were hampered by the quality of the instruments .The only occultation of Mars by Venus observed was that of 13 October 1590, seen by Michael Maestlin at Heidelberg. Martian ""canals""
By the 19th century, the resolution of telescopes reached a level sufficient for surface features to be identified. On 5 September 1877, a perihelic opposition to Mars occurred. The Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli used a 22-centimetre (8.7 in) telescope in Milan to help produce the first detailed map of Mars. These maps notably contained features he called canali, which, with the possible exception of the natural canyon Valles Marineris, were later shown to be an optical illusion. These canali were supposedly long, straight lines on the surface of Mars, to which he gave names of famous rivers on Earth. His term, which means ""channels"" or ""grooves"", was popularly mistranslated in English as ""canals"". Influenced by the observations, the orientalist Percival Lowell founded an observatory which had 30- and 45-centimetre (12- and 18-in) telescopes. The observatory was used for the exploration of Mars during the last good opportunity in 1894, and the following less favorable oppositions. He published several books on Mars and life on the planet, which had a great influence on the public. The canali were independently observed by other astronomers, like Henri Joseph Perrotin and Louis Thollon in Nice, using one of the largest telescopes of that time. The seasonal changes (consisting of the diminishing of the polar caps and the dark areas formed during Martian summers) in combination with the canals led to speculation about life on Mars, and it was a long-held belief that Mars contained vast seas and vegetation.","[-0.000885580840986222, -0.004875415936112404, -0.023688774555921555, -0.048845577985048294, -0.047993700951337814, -0.15478171408176422, -0.01155980583280325, 0.04171982407569885, -0.025095686316490173, -0.006739261094480753, 0.037461377680301666, -0.044694822281599045, -0.00960115808993578, 0.04838206246495247, -0.1492948830127716, -0.013668030500411987, -0.040126364678144455, 0.08269975334405899, -0.03861735388636589, 0.07796763628721237, 0.009110720828175545, 0.036050546914339066, -0.057503607124090195, -0.01343831792473793, 0.044685106724500656, 0.08439134061336517, -0.030722392722964287, 0.010599277913570404, 0.006865343078970909, 0.07807376235723495, -0.04127312824130058, 0.052991077303886414, 0.01920480653643608, 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212,"the dark areas formed during Martian summers ) in combination with the canals led to speculation about life on Mars , and it was a long-held belief that Mars contained vast seas and vegetation .As bigger telescopes were used, fewer long, straight canali were observed. During observations in 1909 by Antoniadi with an 84-centimetre (33 in) telescope, irregular patterns were observed, but no canali were seen. First exploration
The first spacecraft from Earth to visit Mars was Mars 1 of the Soviet Union, which flew by in 1963, but contact was lost en route. NASA's Mariner 4 followed and became the first spacecraft to successfully transmitted from Mars; launched on 28 November 1964, it made its closest approach to the planet on 15 July 1965. Mariner 4 detected the weak Martian radiation belt, measured at about 0.1% that of Earth, and captured the first images of another planet from deep space. Once spacecraft visited the planet during the 1960s and 1970s, many previous concepts of Mars were radically broken. After the results of the Viking life-detection experiments, the hypothesis of a dead planet was generally accepted. The data from Mariner 9 and Viking allowed better maps of Mars to be made. Renewed exploration
Until 1997 and after Viking 1 shut down in 1982, Mars was only visited by three unsuccessful probes, two flying past without contact (Phobos 1, 1988; Mars Observer, 1993), and one (Phobos 2 1989) malfunctioning in orbit before reaching its destination Phobos. In 1997 Mars Pathfinder became the first successful rover mission beyond the Moon and started together with Mars Global Surveyor (operated until late 2006) an uninterrupted active robotic presence at Mars that has lasted until today. It produced complete, extremely detailed maps of the Martian topography, magnetic field and surface minerals.","[0.05993522331118584, -0.02305442839860916, -0.03294798359274864, 0.016178946942090988, 0.0637432262301445, -0.14575515687465668, -0.09234768152236938, 0.029686251655220985, -0.028125660493969917, 0.03829609602689743, 0.08253750205039978, -0.005434134975075722, 0.038235459476709366, 0.029442569240927696, -0.02708597108721733, -0.014192228205502033, -0.010891905054450035, -0.03063718043267727, -0.0797189399600029, 0.011957909911870956, -0.09862258285284042, 0.09131693094968796, -0.0196326095610857, -0.0470510832965374, -0.030939297750592232, -0.014235658571124077, -0.015087329782545567, 0.007222404703497887, -0.0006496239802800119, 0.046499405056238174, -0.009709171950817108, -0.00303508248180151, -0.01272158045321703, 0.001133779645897448, 0.06804729253053665, 0.08527714014053345, 0.02329743653535843, -0.04163701832294464, -0.005846668034791946, 0.0439622700214386, 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-0.006499644368886948]",Mars,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.
213,"until late 2006 ) an uninterrupted active robotic presence at Mars that has lasted until today . It produced complete , extremely detailed maps of the Martian topography , magnetic field and surface minerals .Starting with these missions a range of new improved crewless spacecraft, including orbiters, landers, and rovers, have been sent to Mars, with successful missions by the NASA (United States), Jaxa (Japan), ESA, United Kingdom, ISRO (India), Roscosmos (Russia), the United Arab Emirates, and CNSA (China) to study the planet's surface, climate, and geology, uncovering the different elements of the history and dynamic of the hydrosphere of Mars and possible traces of ancient life. Current missions
As of 2023, Mars is host to ten functioning spacecraft. Eight are in orbit: 2001 Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN, ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter, the Hope orbiter, and the Tianwen-1 orbiter. Another two are on the surface: the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover and the Perseverance rover. Collected maps are available online at websites including Google Mars. NASA provides two online tools: Mars Trek, which provides visualizations of the planet using data from 50 years of exploration, and Experience Curiosity, which simulates traveling on Mars in 3-D with Curiosity. Future
Planned missions to Mars include:

NASA's EscaPADE spacecraft, planned to launch in 2025. The Rosalind Franklin rover mission, designed to search for evidence of past life, which was intended to be launched in 2018 but has been repeatedly delayed, with a launch date pushed to 2028 at the earliest. The project was restarted in 2024 with additional funding. A current concept for a joint NASA-ESA mission to return samples from Mars would launch in 2026.","[0.008238624781370163, -0.10659100860357285, -0.031538065522909164, 0.021127872169017792, 0.048280537128448486, -0.06787000596523285, -0.07679260522127151, 0.030505551025271416, -0.014922426082193851, 0.09852243214845657, 0.022868523374199867, 0.013751310296356678, 0.04248660430312157, 0.00823818426579237, -0.004288521595299244, -0.015577700920403004, 0.02254268154501915, -0.04722984880208969, -0.006862274371087551, -0.03285286948084831, -0.03518327698111534, 0.04469522088766098, 0.07678411900997162, 0.01954357884824276, -0.04899197071790695, 0.04747045412659645, -0.021463632583618164, -0.04185206815600395, -0.0603732168674469, -0.02306417003273964, -0.04079272598028183, -0.014969127252697945, 0.036931123584508896, 0.0006938508013263345, 0.054028939455747604, 0.14288003742694855, -0.01186723355203867, -0.02324279397726059, -0.028641710057854652, -0.06845869868993759, 0.028424348682165146, 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214,"pushed to 2028 at the earliest . The project was restarted in 2024 with additional funding . A current concept for a joint NASA-ESA mission to return samples from Mars would launch in 2026 .China's Tianwen-3, a sample return mission, scheduled to launch in either 2028 or 2030. As of February 2024, debris from these types of missions has reached over seven tons. Most of it consists of crashed and inactive spacecraft as well as discarded components. In April 2024, NASA selected several companies to begin studies on providing commercial services to further enable robotic science on Mars. Key areas include establishing telecommunications, payload delivery and surface imaging. Habitability and habitation
During the late 19th century, it was widely accepted in the astronomical community that Mars had life-supporting qualities, including the presence of oxygen and water. However, in 1894 W. W. Campbell at Lick Observatory observed the planet and found that ""if water vapor or oxygen occur in the atmosphere of Mars it is in quantities too small to be detected by spectroscopes then available"". That observation contradicted many of the measurements of the time and was not widely accepted. Campbell and V. M. Slipher repeated the study in 1909 using better instruments, but with the same results. It was not until the findings were confirmed by W. S. Adams in 1925 that the myth of the Earth-like habitability of Mars was finally broken. However, even in the 1960s, articles were published on Martian biology, putting aside explanations other than life for the seasonal changes on Mars. The current understanding of planetary habitability – the ability of a world to develop environmental conditions favorable to the emergence of life – favors planets that have liquid water on their surface.","[-0.07190751284360886, -0.032710205763578415, 0.04935957491397858, 0.014873482286930084, 0.08879439532756805, -0.07538332045078278, 0.014398100785911083, -0.000254506099736318, -0.04689599201083183, 0.10437717288732529, 0.04717748612165451, 0.03813595324754715, 0.016152741387486458, 0.03979332372546196, -0.008970564231276512, -0.03270547837018967, 0.003188860835507512, -0.04455770552158356, -0.07609343528747559, 0.007638903800398111, -0.021150125190615654, 0.06281483918428421, 0.028991587460041046, 0.00033460650593042374, -0.05738137289881706, 0.02453608810901642, -0.04776441678404808, -0.011465415358543396, 0.014331869781017303, 0.05762246623635292, -0.012204959988594055, 0.06886295229196548, 0.00027771471650339663, -0.05499645322561264, 0.10786363482475281, 0.14989860355854034, 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215,"Mars . The current understanding of planetary habitability – the ability of a world to develop environmental conditions favorable to the emergence of life – favors planets that have liquid water on their surface .Most often this requires the orbit of a planet to lie within the habitable zone, which for the Sun is estimated to extend from within the orbit of Earth to about that of Mars. During perihelion, Mars dips inside this region, but Mars's thin (low-pressure) atmosphere prevents liquid water from existing over large regions for extended periods. The past flow of liquid water demonstrates the planet's potential for habitability. Recent evidence has suggested that any water on the Martian surface may have been too salty and acidic to support regular terrestrial life. The environmental conditions on Mars are a challenge to sustaining organic life: the planet has little heat transfer across its surface, it has poor insulation against bombardment by the solar wind due to the absence of a magnetosphere and has insufficient atmospheric pressure to retain water in a liquid form (water instead sublimes to a gaseous state). Mars is nearly, or perhaps totally, geologically dead; the end of volcanic activity has apparently stopped the recycling of chemicals and minerals between the surface and interior of the planet. Evidence suggests that the planet was once significantly more habitable than it is today, but whether living organisms ever existed there remains unknown. The Viking probes of the mid-1970s carried experiments designed to detect microorganisms in Martian soil at their respective landing sites and had positive results, including a temporary increase in CO2 production on exposure to water and nutrients. This sign of life was later disputed by scientists, resulting in a continuing debate, with NASA scientist Gilbert Levin asserting that Viking may have found life.","[0.010030637495219707, 0.0052780467085540295, 0.03257853165268898, 0.013332015834748745, 0.16750071942806244, -0.03576093912124634, 0.039274200797080994, -0.004811704158782959, -0.007601485121995211, 0.09189578890800476, -0.030023690313100815, -0.06142406538128853, 0.02882741205394268, 0.0334310308098793, 0.016298098489642143, -0.05352659896016121, -0.05241074413061142, -0.02850610576570034, 0.01653597317636013, 0.09984332323074341, 0.01787608489394188, 0.07831856608390808, 0.017847111448645592, 0.030943449586629868, -0.07578473538160324, 0.08384966105222702, 0.0316416472196579, 0.07683595269918442, -0.012185616418719292, -0.0018495407421141863, -0.0005460588727146387, 0.041577406227588654, 0.010488555766642094, -0.09079533815383911, 0.03477923199534416, 0.14226248860359192, -0.010730486363172531, 0.009428494609892368, 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0.0023368385154753923]",Mars,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.
216,"exposure to water and nutrients . This sign of life was later disputed by scientists , resulting in a continuing debate , with NASA scientist Gilbert Levin asserting that Viking may have found life .A 2014 analysis of Martian meteorite EETA79001 found chlorate, perchlorate, and nitrate ions in sufficiently high concentrations to suggest that they are widespread on Mars. UV and X-ray radiation would turn chlorate and perchlorate ions into other, highly reactive oxychlorines, indicating that any organic molecules would have to be buried under the surface to survive. Small quantities of methane and formaldehyde detected by Mars orbiters are both claimed to be possible evidence for life, as these chemical compounds would quickly break down in the Martian atmosphere. Alternatively, these compounds may instead be replenished by volcanic or other geological means, such as serpentinite. Impact glass, formed by the impact of meteors, which on Earth can preserve signs of life, has also been found on the surface of the impact craters on Mars. Likewise, the glass in impact craters on Mars could have preserved signs of life, if life existed at the site. The Cheyava Falls rock discovered on Mars in June 2024 has been designated by NASA as a ""potential biosignature"" and was core sampled by the Perseverance rover for possible return to Earth and further examination. Although highly intriguing, no definitive final determination on a biological or abiotic origin of this rock can be made with the data currently available. Human mission proposals
Several plans for a human mission to Mars have been proposed, but none have come to fruition. The NASA Authorization Act of 2017 directed NASA to study the feasibility of a crewed Mars mission in the early 2030s; the resulting report concluded that this would be unfeasible. In addition, in 2021, China was planning to send a crewed Mars mission in 2033.","[-0.029937125742435455, 0.038386743515729904, 0.0223012063652277, 0.04956301301717758, 0.18938331305980682, -0.029090771451592445, 0.07220165431499481, 0.0032194461673498154, 0.038078662008047104, 0.04377499967813492, -0.0016121160006150603, -0.06410250812768936, 0.006798822432756424, 0.11340437829494476, -0.015583213418722153, -0.018835987895727158, -0.060748737305402756, -0.06322905421257019, -0.00691379327327013, 0.14385664463043213, -0.003339106449857354, 0.04455593228340149, -0.059117019176483154, 0.0030216637533158064, -0.011989591643214226, 0.08643311262130737, -0.005078371614217758, 0.06598573178052902, -0.005060410592705011, 0.006900968961417675, 0.03606406971812248, 0.011779848486185074, -0.04863078147172928, -0.0671306848526001, 0.03836431726813316, 0.08193151652812958, -0.006503703072667122, -0.00927670020610094, -0.01372088585048914, -0.00030400828109122813, -0.06842486560344696, 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217,"Mars mission in the early 2030s ; the resulting report concluded that this would be unfeasible . In addition , in 2021 , China was planning to send a crewed Mars mission in 2033 .Privately held companies such as SpaceX have also proposed plans to send humans to Mars, with the eventual goal to settle on the planet. As of 2024, SpaceX has proceeded with the development of the Starship launch vehicle with the goal of Mars colonization. In plans shared with the company in April 2024, Elon Musk envisions the beginning of a Mars colony within the next twenty years. This would be enabled by the planned mass manufacturing of Starship and initially sustained by resupply from Earth, and in situ resource utilization on Mars, until the Mars colony reaches full self sustainability. Any future human mission to Mars will likely take place within the optimal Mars launch window, which occurs every 26 months. The moon Phobos has been proposed as an anchor point for a space elevator. Besides national space agencies and space companies, groups such as the Mars Society and The Planetary Society advocate for human missions to Mars. In culture
Mars is named after the Roman god of war (Greek Ares), but was also associated with the demi-god Heracles (Roman Hercules) by ancient Greek astronomers, as detailed by Aristotle. This association between Mars and war dates back at least to Babylonian astronomy, in which the planet was named for the god Nergal, deity of war and destruction. It persisted into modern times, as exemplified by Gustav Holst's orchestral suite The Planets, whose famous first movement labels Mars ""the bringer of war"". The planet's symbol, a circle with a spear pointing out to the upper right, is also used as a symbol for the male gender.","[0.013160773552954197, -0.005498508922755718, 0.019189147278666496, -0.034083057194948196, -0.035840511322021484, -0.0708235651254654, -0.018100347369909286, -0.02982773445546627, -0.004691476467996836, 0.10494227707386017, 0.014054699800908566, 0.04159310460090637, -0.0026001730002462864, -0.00484730489552021, -0.04197525233030319, 0.0200990941375494, -0.030447689816355705, -0.0316581092774868, -0.01739029958844185, 0.06689389050006866, 0.03357858955860138, -0.05256841704249382, -0.01558170560747385, 0.022281961515545845, -0.09140437096357346, 0.011164044961333275, 0.04002515599131584, 0.03620171174407005, -0.0095211798325181, 0.05186796560883522, 0.009590505622327328, 0.012761655263602734, 0.0856669619679451, 0.01112671010196209, -0.014192944392561913, 0.14724957942962646, -0.00016740139108151197, -0.07611583918333054, -0.027689451351761818, 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218,"`` the bringer of war '' . The planet 's symbol , a circle with a spear pointing out to the upper right , is also used as a symbol for the male gender .The symbol dates from at least the 11th century, though a possible predecessor has been found in the Greek Oxyrhynchus Papyri. The idea that Mars was populated by intelligent Martians became widespread in the late 19th century. Schiaparelli's ""canali"" observations combined with Percival Lowell's books on the subject put forward the standard notion of a planet that was a drying, cooling, dying world with ancient civilizations constructing irrigation works. Many other observations and proclamations by notable personalities added to what has been termed ""Mars Fever"". In the present day, high-resolution mapping of the surface of Mars has revealed no artifacts of habitation, but pseudoscientific speculation about intelligent life on Mars still continues. Reminiscent of the canali observations, these speculations are based on small scale features perceived in the spacecraft images, such as ""pyramids"" and the ""Face on Mars"". In his book Cosmos, planetary astronomer Carl Sagan wrote: ""Mars has become a kind of mythic arena onto which we have projected our Earthly hopes and fears."" The depiction of Mars in fiction has been stimulated by its dramatic red color and by nineteenth-century scientific speculations that its surface conditions might support not just life but intelligent life. This gave way to many science fiction stories involving these concepts, such as H. G. Wells's The War of the Worlds, in which Martians seek to escape their dying planet by invading Earth; Ray Bradbury's The Martian Chronicles, in which human explorers accidentally destroy a Martian civilization; as well as Edgar Rice Burroughs's series Barsoom, C. S. Lewis's novel Out of the Silent Planet (1938), and a number of Robert A. Heinlein stories before the mid-sixties.","[0.01944640651345253, -0.004633297678083181, -0.014376801438629627, 0.041477520018815994, 0.08307909965515137, -0.11099023371934891, -0.011894329451024532, -0.021586518734693527, 0.01852487586438656, 0.0450618714094162, 0.039312854409217834, -0.006014615297317505, -0.017916643992066383, 0.006418641656637192, -0.0669049471616745, -0.03728099167346954, -0.11527324467897415, -0.0023862733505666256, -0.024981537833809853, 0.10574761033058167, -0.02790217660367489, 0.06845960766077042, -0.024841707199811935, 0.04178280010819435, -0.032952647656202316, 0.04253644123673439, 0.011254963465034962, 0.052377596497535706, -0.031418148428201675, 0.10067930072546005, 0.009134158492088318, 0.053321775048971176, 0.0007401071488857269, -0.03944707289338112, 0.017023513093590736, 0.0947418361902237, 0.014032375998795033, 0.0013819317100569606, 0.06730176508426666, -0.0488511398434639, 0.07167916744947433, -0.10602632164955139, 0.08519285917282104, 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-0.04293443635106087]",Mars,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.
219,"well as Edgar Rice Burroughs 's series Barsoom , C. S. Lewis 's novel Out of the Silent Planet ( 1938 ) , and a number of Robert A. Heinlein stories before the mid-sixties .Since then, depictions of Martians have also extended to animation. A comic figure of an intelligent Martian, Marvin the Martian, appeared in Haredevil Hare (1948) as a character in the Looney Tunes animated cartoons of Warner Brothers, and has continued as part of popular culture to the present. After the Mariner and Viking spacecraft had returned pictures of Mars as a lifeless and canal-less world, these ideas about Mars were abandoned; for many science-fiction authors, the new discoveries initially seemed like a constraint, but eventually the post-Viking knowledge of Mars became itself a source of inspiration for works like Kim Stanley Robinson's Mars trilogy. See also
Astronomy on Mars
Outline of Mars – Overview of and topical guide to Mars
List of missions to Mars
Magnetic field of Mars – Past magnetic field of the planet Mars
Mineralogy of Mars

Notes
References
Further reading
Weinersmith K, Weinersmith Z (2023). A city on Mars: can we settle space, should we settle space, and have we really thought this through?. New York: Penguin Press. ISBN 978-1-9848-8172-4. Shindell M (2023). For the love of Mars: a human history of the red planet. Chicago; London: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-82189-4. External links
Mars Trek, an integrated map browser of maps and datasets for Mars
Google Mars and Google Mars 3D, interactive maps of the planet
First TV image of Mars (15 July 1965), CNN News; 15 July 2023","[0.030795620754361153, -0.011915904469788074, -0.06787802278995514, 0.027284229174256325, 0.0259716734290123, -0.007513762917369604, -0.03166097402572632, -0.008326606824994087, 0.04201074317097664, 0.0641653910279274, 0.032037653028964996, 0.08735901862382889, 0.08579473942518234, -0.033737849444150925, -0.021582070738077164, 0.03602168709039688, -0.0644916370511055, 0.03423807770013809, 0.02063305675983429, -0.027447625994682312, -0.06306011229753494, 0.0176490917801857, 0.052190206944942474, 0.020624611526727676, -0.011749552562832832, 0.0072480845265090466, 0.02688976563513279, 0.03719708323478699, -0.0030107474885880947, -0.011311845853924751, -0.02129208855330944, 0.02892110124230385, 0.05495610460639, -0.0625363364815712, 0.0660414919257164, 0.056541334837675095, 0.022472728043794632, 0.06615664064884186, -0.010015921667218208, -0.03694183751940727, 0.06197131797671318, -0.02654150128364563, 0.07186087220907211, 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220," The asteroid belt is a torus-shaped region in the Solar System, centered on the Sun and roughly spanning the space between the orbits of the planets Jupiter and Mars. It contains a great many solid, irregularly shaped bodies called asteroids or minor planets. The identified objects are of many sizes, but much smaller than planets, and, on average, are about one million kilometers (or six hundred thousand miles) apart. This asteroid belt is also called the main asteroid belt or main belt to distinguish it from other asteroid populations in the Solar System. The  asteroid belt is the smallest and innermost circumstellar disc in the Solar System. Classes of small Solar System bodies in other regions are the near-Earth objects, the centaurs, the Kuiper belt objects, the scattered disc objects, the sednoids, and the Oort cloud objects. About 60% of the main belt mass is contained in the four largest asteroids: Ceres, Vesta, Pallas, and Hygiea. The total mass of the asteroid belt is estimated to be 3% that of the Moon. Ceres, the only object in the asteroid belt large enough to be a dwarf planet, is about 950 km in diameter, whereas Vesta, Pallas, and Hygiea have mean diameters less than 600 km. The remaining mineralogically classified bodies range in size down to a few metres. The asteroid material is so thinly distributed that numerous uncrewed spacecraft have traversed it without incident. Nonetheless, collisions between large asteroids occur and can produce an asteroid family, whose members have similar orbital characteristics and compositions. Individual asteroids within the belt are categorized by their spectra, with most falling into three basic groups: carbonaceous (C-type), silicate (S-type), and metal-rich (M-type). The asteroid belt formed from the primordial solar nebula as a group of planetesimals, the smaller precursors of the protoplanets.","[0.10485043376684189, 0.019283076748251915, -0.02539563737809658, -0.07341855764389038, 0.013907359912991524, -0.0957835242152214, -0.03398667275905609, 0.08775543421506882, 0.05067209154367447, 0.01790081150829792, 0.007343666162341833, -0.07904830574989319, 0.008905484341084957, -0.07100428640842438, 0.038142185658216476, -0.0539567731320858, 0.09571321308612823, 0.007843634113669395, -0.06882685422897339, 0.05844151973724365, 0.017874741926789284, 0.09648323804140091, -0.02376633696258068, 0.034632209688425064, -0.11090660840272903, -0.014734207652509212, -0.034711748361587524, -0.046315476298332214, -0.1184135228395462, -0.03570333868265152, -0.014848479069769382, -0.032375186681747437, 0.02770271897315979, 0.014579429291188717, 0.04260803014039993, 0.0236568171530962, 0.004469848237931728, -0.01433602161705494, 0.02004198729991913, 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221,") , silicate ( S-type ) , and metal-rich ( M-type ) . The asteroid belt formed from the primordial solar nebula as a group of planetesimals , the smaller precursors of the protoplanets .However, between Mars and Jupiter gravitational perturbations from Jupiter disrupted their accretion into a planet, imparting excess kinetic energy which shattered colliding planetesimals and most of the incipient protoplanets. As a result, 99.9% of the asteroid belt's original mass was lost in the first 100 million years of the Solar System's history. Some fragments eventually found their way into the inner Solar System, leading to meteorite impacts with the inner planets. Asteroid orbits continue to be appreciably perturbed whenever their period of revolution about the Sun forms an orbital resonance with Jupiter. At these orbital distances, a Kirkwood gap occurs as they are swept into other orbits. History of observation
In 1596, Johannes Kepler wrote, ""Between Mars and Jupiter, I place a planet,"" in his Mysterium Cosmographicum, stating his prediction that a planet would be found there. While analyzing Tycho Brahe's data, Kepler thought that too large a gap existed between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter to fit his own model of where planetary orbits should be found. In an anonymous footnote to his 1766 translation of Charles Bonnet's Contemplation de la Nature, the astronomer Johann Daniel Titius of Wittenberg noted an apparent pattern in the layout of the planets, now known as the Titius-Bode Law.","[0.013148929923772812, -0.032593175768852234, 0.0027440625708550215, 0.01501334086060524, 0.06046959385275841, -0.10179184377193451, -0.0004620253457687795, 0.09387919306755066, 0.038426805287599564, 0.03779091313481331, 0.006086539011448622, -0.019080858677625656, 0.050963062793016434, -0.08795130997896194, 0.020498257130384445, -0.056370560079813004, -0.011082050390541553, -0.030770318582654, 0.004300246015191078, 0.0822865217924118, -0.03308851644396782, 0.08919186145067215, -0.07212790101766586, 0.022996896877884865, -0.006843246053904295, 0.009542906656861305, 0.0039728120900690556, -0.0320686437189579, -0.07552146166563034, 0.02735373005270958, 0.003534243907779455, -0.05407826974987984, 0.02010301873087883, 0.022278141230344772, 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222,"translation of Charles Bonnet 's Contemplation de la Nature , the astronomer Johann Daniel Titius of Wittenberg noted an apparent pattern in the layout of the planets , now known as the Titius-Bode Law .If one began a numerical sequence at 0, then included 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, etc., doubling each time, and added four to each number and divided by 10, this produced a remarkably close approximation to the radii of the orbits of the known planets as measured in astronomical units, provided one allowed for a ""missing planet"" (equivalent to 24 in the sequence) between the orbits of Mars (12) and Jupiter (48). In his footnote, Titius declared, ""But should the Lord Architect have left that space empty? Not at all."" When William Herschel discovered Uranus in 1781, the planet's orbit closely matched the law, leading some astronomers to conclude that a planet had to be between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. On January 1, 1801, Giuseppe Piazzi, chairman of astronomy at the University of Palermo, Sicily, found a tiny moving object in an orbit with exactly the radius predicted by this pattern. He dubbed it ""Ceres"", after the Roman goddess of the harvest and patron of Sicily. Piazzi initially believed it to be a comet, but its lack of a coma suggested it was a planet. Thus, the aforementioned pattern predicted the semimajor axes of all eight planets of the time (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Ceres, Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus).","[-0.051679715514183044, -0.01367751881480217, -0.03065047785639763, -0.04586152732372284, -0.019668076187372208, -0.06122909113764763, -0.016404107213020325, 0.05833837389945984, 0.06072103604674339, 0.08458387851715088, 0.053467296063899994, -0.015302778221666813, 0.053602397441864014, -0.07631637156009674, -0.05862952023744583, -0.057312898337841034, -0.07751540839672089, 0.006516654975712299, 0.017869949340820312, 0.06273803859949112, 0.04941854998469353, 0.04174845293164253, -0.03435496985912323, 0.003811535658314824, 0.0280589796602726, 0.021506574004888535, 0.008001650683581829, -0.07860052585601807, -0.014350436627864838, 0.023619579151272774, 0.05891406536102295, 0.05915447697043419, 0.010022018104791641, -0.03333946317434311, -0.00023502728436142206, -0.002545770024880767, 0.05380000174045563, -0.035980224609375, 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belt,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.
223,"Thus , the aforementioned pattern predicted the semimajor axes of all eight planets of the time ( Mercury , Venus , Earth , Mars , Ceres , Jupiter , Saturn , and Uranus ) .Concurrent with the discovery of Ceres, an informal group of 24 astronomers dubbed the ""celestial police"" was formed under the invitation of Franz Xaver von Zach with the express purpose of finding additional planets; they focused their search for them in the region between Mars and Jupiter where the Titius–Bode law predicted there should be a planet. About 15 months later, Heinrich Olbers, a member of the celestial police, discovered a second object in the same region, Pallas. Unlike the other known planets, Ceres and Pallas remained points of light even under the highest telescope magnifications instead of resolving into discs. Apart from their rapid movement, they appeared indistinguishable from stars. Accordingly, in 1802, William Herschel suggested they be placed into a separate category, named ""asteroids"", after the Greek asteroeides, meaning ""star-like"". Upon completing a series of observations of Ceres and Pallas, he concluded,

Neither the appellation of planets nor that of comets can with any propriety of language be given to these two stars ... They resemble small stars so much as hardly to be distinguished from them. From this, their asteroidal appearance, if I take my name, and call them Asteroids; reserving for myself, however, the liberty of changing that name, if another, more expressive of their nature, should occur. By 1807, further investigation revealed two new objects in the region: Juno and Vesta. The burning of Lilienthal in the Napoleonic Wars, where the main body of work had been done, brought this first period of discovery to a close.","[-0.026602163910865784, -0.02087285742163658, -0.008815756998956203, -0.015073848888278008, 0.06781937181949615, -0.07124481350183487, -0.025103911757469177, 0.008293802849948406, 0.05847416818141937, 0.10911646485328674, 0.07496944069862366, -0.054110556840896606, 0.031560733914375305, -0.02483159862458706, -0.024005714803934097, -0.08993875235319138, -0.04457361251115799, -0.06426268815994263, -0.03835291787981987, 0.08939218521118164, 0.02952766604721546, 0.05874483659863472, 0.019399670884013176, 0.0006947642541490495, 0.0020175129175186157, 0.032926179468631744, -0.03726610913872719, -0.05935145542025566, 0.014777307398617268, -0.012802385725080967, 0.0726238563656807, 0.041855618357658386, 0.022086381912231445, 0.03872867301106453, -0.011195743456482887, -0.026524482294917107, 0.09873293340206146, -0.050590880215168, 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224,"region : Juno and Vesta . The burning of Lilienthal in the Napoleonic Wars , where the main body of work had been done , brought this first period of discovery to a close .Despite Herschel's coinage, for several decades it remained common practice to refer to these objects as planets and to prefix their names with numbers representing their sequence of discovery: 1 Ceres, 2 Pallas, 3 Juno, 4 Vesta. In 1845, though, the astronomer Karl Ludwig Hencke detected a fifth object (5 Astraea) and, shortly thereafter, new objects were found at an accelerating rate. Counting them among the planets became increasingly cumbersome. Eventually, they were dropped from the planet list (as first suggested by Alexander von Humboldt in the early 1850s) and Herschel's coinage, ""asteroids"", gradually came into common use. The discovery of Neptune in 1846 led to the discrediting of the Titius–Bode law in the eyes of scientists because its orbit was nowhere near the predicted position. To date, no scientific explanation for the law has been given, and astronomers' consensus regards it as a coincidence. The expression ""asteroid belt"" came into use in the early 1850s, although pinpointing who coined the term is difficult. The first English use seems to be in the 1850 translation (by Elise Otté) of Alexander von Humboldt's Cosmos: ""[...] and the regular appearance, about the 13th of November and the 11th of August, of shooting stars, which probably form part of a belt of asteroids intersecting the Earth's orbit and moving with planetary velocity"". Another early appearance occurred in Robert James Mann's A Guide to the Knowledge of the Heavens: ""The orbits of the asteroids are placed in a wide belt of space, extending between the extremes of [...]"".","[-0.05417603626847267, -0.037322234362363815, 0.012211990542709827, -0.03359081968665123, 0.025493469089269638, -0.07843094319105148, 0.01921909861266613, 0.04113147407770157, 0.05783659592270851, 0.0796913430094719, 0.03810018673539162, -0.025951189920306206, 0.034280482679605484, -0.04737986996769905, -0.040126215666532516, -0.029272466897964478, -0.0008886873838491738, -0.009274651296436787, -0.014531105756759644, 0.037715844810009, -0.03180032595992088, 0.08118453621864319, -0.03222459927201271, 0.018670056015253067, 0.05017736926674843, -0.024091292172670364, -0.036027416586875916, -0.1265283077955246, -0.01034978125244379, 0.029422348365187645, 0.018904581665992737, 0.016657093539834023, -0.0043562003411352634, 0.03478912264108658, 0.007372732739895582, -0.01286028977483511, 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225,"'s A Guide to the Knowledge of the Heavens : `` The orbits of the asteroids are placed in a wide belt of space , extending between the extremes of [ ... ] '' .The American astronomer Benjamin Peirce seems to have adopted that terminology and to have been one of its promoters. Over 100 asteroids had been located by mid-1868, and in 1891, the introduction of astrophotography by Max Wolf accelerated the rate of discovery. A total of 1,000 asteroids had been found by 1921, 10,000 by 1981, and 100,000 by 2000. Modern asteroid survey systems now use automated means to locate new minor planets in ever-increasing numbers. On 22 January 2014, European Space Agency (ESA) scientists reported the detection, for the first definitive time, of water vapor on Ceres, the largest object in the asteroid belt. The detection was made by using the far-infrared abilities of the Herschel Space Observatory. The finding was unexpected because comets, not asteroids, are typically considered to ""sprout jets and plumes"". According to one of the scientists, ""The lines are becoming more and more blurred between comets and asteroids"". Origin
Formation
In 1802, shortly after discovering Pallas, Olbers suggested to Herschel and Carl Gauss that Ceres and Pallas were fragments of a much larger planet that once occupied the Mars–Jupiter region, with this planet having suffered an internal explosion or a cometary impact many million years before, while Odesan astronomer K. N. Savchenko suggested that Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta were escaped moons rather than fragments of the exploded planet. The large amount of energy required to destroy a planet, combined with the belt's low combined mass, which is only about 4% of the mass of  Earth's Moon, does not support these hypotheses.","[0.035188719630241394, -0.02604963257908821, -0.020045729354023933, -0.021794255822896957, 0.028702622279524803, -0.11834188550710678, -0.04935090243816376, 0.07154195010662079, 0.017673764377832413, 0.06935669481754303, 0.011291596107184887, 0.0038296475540846586, 0.027258172631263733, -0.0026462299283593893, -0.062183674424886703, -0.014493872411549091, 0.041541680693626404, -0.05072712525725365, -0.04808123782277107, -0.007740349043160677, -0.02267509140074253, 0.036721326410770416, -0.002296474762260914, -0.04580291733145714, 0.017401231452822685, 0.007116200868040323, -0.03363128751516342, -0.11951363831758499, -0.027018574997782707, -0.012460306286811829, 0.046681590378284454, -0.01681770756840706, 0.05895247682929039, 0.02601321041584015, 0.08708711713552475, -0.025905465707182884, 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226,"required to destroy a planet , combined with the belt 's low combined mass , which is only about 4 % of the mass of Earth 's Moon , does not support these hypotheses .Further, the significant chemical differences between the asteroids become difficult to explain if they come from the same planet. A modern hypothesis for the asteroid belt's creation relates to how, in general for the Solar System, planetary formation is thought to have occurred via a process comparable to the long-standing nebular hypothesis; a cloud of interstellar dust and gas collapsed under the influence of gravity to form a rotating disc of material that then conglomerated to form the Sun and planets. During the first few million years of the Solar System's history, an accretion process of sticky collisions caused the clumping of small particles, which gradually increased in size. Once the clumps reached sufficient mass, they could draw in other bodies through gravitational attraction and become planetesimals. This gravitational accretion led to the formation of the planets. Planetesimals within the region that would become the asteroid belt were strongly perturbed by Jupiter's gravity. Orbital resonances occurred where the orbital period of an object in the belt formed an integer fraction of the orbital period of Jupiter, perturbing the object into a different orbit; the region lying between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter contains many such orbital resonances. As Jupiter migrated inward following its formation, these resonances would have swept across the asteroid belt, dynamically exciting the region's population and increasing their velocities relative to each other. In regions where the average velocity of the collisions was too high, the shattering of planetesimals tended to dominate over accretion, preventing the formation of a planet. Instead, they continued to orbit the Sun as before, occasionally colliding.","[-0.013254867866635323, -0.02308007702231407, 0.04488147795200348, -0.007074498571455479, 0.05844295769929886, -0.10158491879701614, -0.020153453573584557, 0.06275796890258789, 0.07678863406181335, 0.04735293984413147, -0.022033048793673515, -0.024282515048980713, 0.06936641782522202, -0.10638536512851715, 0.033919792622327805, -0.012642624787986279, -0.0057587712071835995, -0.026032647117972374, -0.049749888479709625, 0.04731591418385506, 0.013940650969743729, 0.023967618122696877, -0.04815877974033356, 0.03478357195854187, -0.058423276990652084, 0.05302887409925461, -0.021767714992165565, -0.04732665419578552, -0.04328891634941101, 0.02142392098903656, 0.03999164700508118, -0.044841330498456955, 0.029949750751256943, 0.018577849492430687, 0.010670804418623447, 0.008342166431248188, 0.009187399409711361, 0.028188692405819893, -0.0059263743460178375, -0.03139861673116684, -0.05740703269839287, 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belt,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.
227,"was too high , the shattering of planetesimals tended to dominate over accretion , preventing the formation of a planet . Instead , they continued to orbit the Sun as before , occasionally colliding .During the early history of the Solar System, the asteroids melted to some degree, allowing elements within them to be differentiated by mass. Some of the progenitor bodies may even have undergone periods of explosive volcanism and formed magma oceans. Because of the relatively small size of the bodies, though, the period of melting was necessarily brief compared to the much larger planets, and had generally ended about 4.5 billion years ago, in the first tens of millions of years of formation. In August 2007, a study of zircon crystals in an Antarctic meteorite believed to have originated from Vesta suggested that it, and by extension the rest of the asteroid belt, had formed rather quickly, within 10 million years of the Solar System's origin. Evolution
The asteroids are not pristine samples of the primordial Solar System. They have undergone considerable evolution since their formation, including internal heating (in the first few tens of millions of years), surface melting from impacts, space weathering from radiation, and bombardment by micrometeorites. Although some scientists refer to the asteroids as residual planetesimals, other scientists consider them distinct. The current asteroid belt is believed to contain only a small fraction of the mass of the primordial belt. Computer simulations suggest that the original asteroid belt may have contained mass equivalent to the Earth's. Primarily because of gravitational perturbations, most of the material was ejected from the belt within about 1 million years of formation, leaving behind less than 0.1% of the original mass. Since its formation, the size distribution of the asteroid belt has remained relatively stable; no significant increase or decrease in the typical dimensions of the main-belt asteroids has occurred.","[-0.045264773070812225, 0.0077316369861364365, 0.04930475726723671, 0.08091416954994202, 0.0726577416062355, -0.08351441472768784, 0.006912158336490393, 0.09663278609514236, 0.01315945666283369, 0.09618491679430008, -0.016070542857050896, -0.033512189984321594, 0.04719972237944603, -0.03769694268703461, 0.05017313361167908, -0.025750236585736275, -0.005318162031471729, -0.07406452298164368, -0.012492548674345016, 0.08639000356197357, 0.024430153891444206, 0.04952934384346008, -0.07376715540885925, -0.014679701998829842, -0.012789599597454071, 0.021409830078482628, -0.03405609354376793, 0.04584772139787674, -3.1982675864128396e-05, 0.04617806896567345, 0.045714858919382095, -0.00446145748719573, 0.048856284469366074, 0.025790873914957047, 0.09235024452209473, 0.029187055304646492, 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belt,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.
228,"original mass . Since its formation , the size distribution of the asteroid belt has remained relatively stable ; no significant increase or decrease in the typical dimensions of the main-belt asteroids has occurred .The 4:1 orbital resonance with Jupiter, at a radius 2.06 astronomical units (AUs), can be considered the inner boundary of the asteroid belt. Perturbations by Jupiter send bodies straying there into unstable orbits. Most bodies formed within the radius of this gap were swept up by Mars (which has an aphelion at 1.67 AU) or ejected by its gravitational perturbations in the early history of the Solar System. The Hungaria asteroids lie closer to the Sun than the 4:1 resonance, but are protected from disruption by their high inclination. When the asteroid belt was first formed, the temperatures at a distance of 2.7 AU from the Sun formed a ""snow line"" below the freezing point of water. Planetesimals formed beyond this radius were able to accumulate ice. In 2006, a population of comets had been discovered within the asteroid belt beyond the snow line, which may have provided a source of water for Earth's oceans. According to some models, outgassing of water during the Earth's formative period was insufficient to form the oceans, requiring an external source such as a cometary bombardment. The outer asteroid belt includes a few icy objects that may have been implanted there during the last few hundred years. One of these objects is the quasi-Hilda comet 362P/(457175) 2008 GO98, which is thought to be a possible former centaur that was sent to the outer asteroid belt via a close encounter with Jupiter. Characteristics
Contrary to popular imagery, the asteroid belt is mostly empty. The asteroids are spread over such a large volume that reaching an asteroid without aiming carefully would be improbable.","[0.0027098916471004486, 0.0034125654492527246, 0.016288669779896736, 0.018293699249625206, 0.02057354338467121, -0.12326224148273468, -0.08011852204799652, 0.07624158263206482, 0.016692224889993668, 0.03915541246533394, -0.04179805889725685, -0.02673153392970562, 0.022464150562882423, -0.11268710345029831, 0.03582272678613663, -0.016111304983496666, 0.009851248934864998, -0.04696952551603317, -0.050163060426712036, 0.037974629551172256, 0.027200736105442047, 0.04140954837203026, -0.03749776631593704, 0.03778894990682602, -0.05432864651083946, -0.0036479823756963015, 0.03176925703883171, 0.01647232472896576, -0.055162303149700165, 0.004872428253293037, -0.07028664648532867, -0.055913615971803665, 0.028131095692515373, -0.09437181055545807, 0.010958942584693432, 0.009446212090551853, 0.01945849321782589, 0.02063160203397274, -0.025793904438614845, 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229,"Jupiter . Characteristics Contrary to popular imagery , the asteroid belt is mostly empty . The asteroids are spread over such a large volume that reaching an asteroid without aiming carefully would be improbable .Nonetheless, hundreds of thousands of asteroids are currently known, and the total number ranges in the millions or more, depending on the lower size cutoff. Over 200 asteroids are known to be larger than 100 km, and a survey in the infrared wavelengths has shown that the asteroid belt has between 700,000 and 1.7 million asteroids with a diameter of 1 km or more. The number of asteroids in the main belt steadily increases with decreasing size. Although the size distribution generally follows a power law, there are 'bumps' in the curve at about 5 km and 100 km, where more asteroids than expected from such a curve are found. Most asteroids larger than approximately 120 km in diameter are primordial, having survived from the accretion epoch, whereas most smaller asteroids are products of fragmentation of primordial asteroids. The primordial population of the main belt was probably 200 times what it is today. On average the distance between the asteroids is about 965,600 km (600,000 miles), although this varies among asteroid families and smaller undetected asteroids might be even closer. The total mass of the asteroid belt is estimated to be 2.39×1021 kg, which is 3% of the mass of the Moon. The four largest objects, Ceres, Vesta, Pallas, and Hygiea, contain an estimated 62% of the belt's total mass, with 39% accounted for by Ceres alone. Composition
The present day belt consists primarily of three categories of asteroids: C-type carbonaceous asteroids, S-type silicate asteroids, and a hybrid group of X-type asteroids.","[0.09289652854204178, -0.033358462154865265, -0.018795767799019814, -0.015570777468383312, 0.01517580822110176, -0.11065798252820969, -0.09549868851900101, 0.12848858535289764, 0.0023523885756731033, 0.02365882694721222, 0.01650213450193405, -0.029000811278820038, 0.03516204282641411, -0.0636657178401947, 0.05047808215022087, 0.0011437538778409362, 0.10268557071685791, -0.06392182409763336, -0.10198645293712616, 0.05373361334204674, 0.0024133312981575727, 0.045180078595876694, -0.016386782750487328, -0.0072151534259319305, -0.09770095348358154, -0.01731429435312748, 0.01186432782560587, -0.09942742437124252, -0.11351772397756577, -0.02814546786248684, -0.027148069813847542, -0.08441036194562912, 0.07754432410001755, 0.0053369710221886635, 0.014587587676942348, -0.02438857965171337, -0.03765839338302612, 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230,"accounted for by Ceres alone . Composition The present day belt consists primarily of three categories of asteroids : C-type carbonaceous asteroids , S-type silicate asteroids , and a hybrid group of X-type asteroids .The hybrid group have featureless spectra, but they can be divided into three groups based on reflectivity, yielding the M-type metallic, P-type primitive, and E-type enstatite asteroids. Additional types have been found that do not fit within these primary classes. There is a compositional trend of asteroid types by increasing distance from the Sun, in the order of S, C, P, and the spectrally-featureless D-types. Carbonaceous asteroids, as their name suggests, are carbon-rich. They dominate the asteroid belt's outer regions, and are rare in the inner belt. Together they comprise over 75% of the visible asteroids. They are redder in hue than the other asteroids and have a low albedo. Their surface compositions are similar to carbonaceous chondrite meteorites. Chemically, their spectra match the primordial composition of the early Solar System, with hydrogen, helium, and volatiles removed. S-type (silicate-rich) asteroids are more common toward the inner region of the belt, within 2.5 AU of the Sun. The spectra of their surfaces reveal the presence of silicates and some metal, but no significant carbonaceous compounds. This indicates that their materials have been significantly modified from their primordial composition, probably through melting and reformation. They have a relatively high albedo and form about 17% of the total asteroid population. M-type (metal-rich) asteroids are typically found in the middle of the main belt, and they make up much of the remainder of the total population. Their spectra resemble that of iron-nickel. Some are believed to have formed from the metallic cores of differentiated progenitor bodies that were disrupted through collision. 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231,"of iron-nickel . Some are believed to have formed from the metallic cores of differentiated progenitor bodies that were disrupted through collision . However , some silicate compounds also can produce a similar appearance .For example, the large M-type asteroid 22 Kalliope does not appear to be primarily composed of metal. Within the asteroid belt, the number distribution of M-type asteroids peaks at a semimajor axis of about 2.7 AU. Whether all M-types are compositionally similar, or whether it is a label for several varieties which do not fit neatly into the main C and S classes is not yet clear. One mystery is the relative rarity of V-type (Vestoid) or basaltic asteroids in the asteroid belt. Theories of asteroid formation predict that objects the size of Vesta or larger should form crusts and mantles, which would be composed mainly of basaltic rock, resulting in more than half of all asteroids being composed either of basalt or of olivine. However, observations suggest that 99% of the predicted basaltic material is missing. Until 2001, most basaltic bodies discovered in the asteroid belt were believed to originate from the asteroid Vesta (hence their name V-type), but the discovery of the asteroid 1459 Magnya revealed a slightly different chemical composition from the other basaltic asteroids discovered until then, suggesting a different origin. This hypothesis was reinforced by the further discovery in 2007 of two asteroids in the outer belt, 7472 Kumakiri and (10537) 1991 RY16, with a differing basaltic composition that could not have originated from Vesta. These two are the only V-type asteroids discovered in the outer belt to date. The temperature of the asteroid belt varies with the distance from the Sun. For dust particles within the belt, typical temperatures range from 200 K (−73 °C) at 2.2 AU down to 165 K (−108 °C) at 3.2 AU.","[0.022831449285149574, -0.01285560429096222, 0.054395124316215515, 0.023494506254792213, 0.038064390420913696, -0.03757825866341591, 0.00858441460877657, 0.06458484381437302, 0.0027276522014290094, 0.007571694441139698, -0.003324197605252266, -0.09301517903804779, -0.018337726593017578, -0.050531063228845596, 0.058273520320653915, -0.0546073317527771, 0.09893228113651276, -0.006564059294760227, 0.01482842955738306, 0.15164819359779358, 0.020117128267884254, 0.04373955354094505, -0.0403212271630764, 0.00554604222998023, -0.01508662011474371, 0.046961620450019836, -0.006496860180050135, -0.018078874796628952, -0.04159306362271309, -0.0767173022031784, -0.04326191544532776, 0.00810942891985178, 0.0452595017850399, 0.015381812117993832, 0.061870232224464417, -0.0031086329836398363, -0.09834488481283188, 0.048556338995695114, -0.07592504471540451, 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232,"the Sun . For dust particles within the belt , typical temperatures range from 200 K ( −73 °C ) at 2.2 AU down to 165 K ( −108 °C ) at 3.2 AU .However, due to rotation, the surface temperature of an asteroid can vary considerably as the sides are alternately exposed to solar radiation then to the stellar background. Main-belt comets
Several otherwise unremarkable bodies in the outer belt show cometary activity. Because their orbits cannot be explained through the capture of classical comets,  many of the outer asteroids are thought to be icy, with the ice occasionally exposed to sublimation through small impacts. Main-belt comets may have been a major source of the Earth's oceans because the deuterium-hydrogen ratio is too low for classical comets to have been the principal source. Orbits
Most asteroids within the asteroid belt have orbital eccentricities of less than 0.4, and an inclination of less than 30°. The orbital distribution of the asteroids reaches a maximum at an eccentricity around 0.07 and an inclination below 4°. Thus, although a typical asteroid has a relatively circular orbit and lies near the plane of the ecliptic, some asteroid orbits can be highly eccentric or travel well outside the ecliptic plane. Sometimes, the term ""main belt"" is used to refer only to the more compact ""core"" region where the greatest concentration of bodies is found. This lies between the strong 4:1 and 2:1 Kirkwood gaps at 2.06 and 3.27 AU, and at orbital eccentricities less than roughly 0.33, along with orbital inclinations below about 20°. As of 2006, this ""core"" region contained 93% of all discovered and numbered minor planets within the Solar System. The JPL Small-Body Database lists over 1 million known main-belt asteroids.","[0.038101933896541595, -0.00047108446597121656, 0.02114284224808216, -0.01206134632229805, 0.057592906057834625, -0.08409592509269714, -0.03367346152663231, 0.09775246679782867, -0.00806270819157362, 0.06417124718427658, -0.05038078874349594, -0.07857867330312729, 0.048701319843530655, -0.09329338371753693, 0.11587244272232056, -0.03739648312330246, 0.13788284361362457, -0.04510325938463211, -0.029620397835969925, 0.016365202143788338, -0.033733539283275604, 0.054292790591716766, -0.05332979932427406, -0.009906419552862644, -0.044235631823539734, -0.0020363365765661, 0.011216397397220135, -0.012462982907891273, -0.09968217462301254, 0.009803441353142262, -0.04573056101799011, -0.0619053915143013, 0.029553933069109917, -0.028356187045574188, 0.09110837429761887, -0.0056204041466116905, -0.046934161335229874, 0.001756391953676939, -0.003734479658305645, -0.023800170049071312, 0.016011226922273636, 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233,"of 2006 , this `` core '' region contained 93 % of all discovered and numbered minor planets within the Solar System . The JPL Small-Body Database lists over 1 million known main-belt asteroids .Kirkwood gaps
The semimajor axis of an asteroid is used to describe the dimensions of its orbit around the Sun, and its value determines the minor planet's orbital period. In 1866, Daniel Kirkwood announced the discovery of gaps in the distances of these bodies' orbits from the Sun. They were located in positions where their period of revolution about the Sun was an integer fraction of Jupiter's orbital period. Kirkwood proposed that the gravitational perturbations of the planet led to the removal of asteroids from these orbits. When the mean orbital period of an asteroid is an integer fraction of the orbital period of Jupiter, a mean-motion resonance with the gas giant is created that is sufficient to perturb an asteroid to new orbital elements. Primordial asteroids entered these gaps because of the migration of Jupiter's orbit. Subsequently, asteroids primarily migrate into these gap orbits due to the Yarkovsky effect, but may also enter because of perturbations or collisions. After entering, an asteroid is gradually nudged into a different, random orbit with a larger or smaller semimajor axis. Collisions
The high population of the asteroid belt makes for an active environment, where collisions between asteroids occur frequently (on deep time scales). Impact events between main-belt bodies with a mean radius of 10 km are expected to occur about once every 10 million years. A collision may fragment an asteroid into numerous smaller pieces (leading to the formation of a new asteroid family). Conversely, collisions that occur at low relative speeds may also join two asteroids. After more than 4 billion years of such processes, the members of the asteroid belt now bear little resemblance to the original population.","[0.007259149104356766, -0.006456494331359863, 0.028118470683693886, -4.634143624571152e-05, 0.033799637109041214, -0.07115238904953003, -0.05172452703118324, 0.05269152298569679, 0.09783271700143814, 0.020719487220048904, 0.020409315824508667, 0.04586831107735634, 0.011772297322750092, -0.09021452814340591, 0.05250784754753113, -0.0409887358546257, 0.011946904473006725, 0.0012156912125647068, -0.006833246443420649, 0.05414624884724617, -0.007137087173759937, 0.0363268181681633, -0.036437395960092545, 0.009079287759959698, -0.024570483714342117, 0.0016908184625208378, 0.036691002547740936, -0.05622820556163788, -0.07626749575138092, 0.023661667481064796, 0.08401520550251007, 0.03249127045273781, 0.04896828532218933, -0.021894555538892746, 0.028441287577152252, 0.03735243156552315, -0.03606433421373367, 0.014893114566802979, 0.006609608884900808, 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234,"at low relative speeds may also join two asteroids . After more than 4 billion years of such processes , the members of the asteroid belt now bear little resemblance to the original population .Evidence suggests that most main belt asteroids between 200 m and 10 km in diameter are rubble piles formed by collisions. These bodies consist of a multitude of irregular objects that are mostly bound together by self-gravity, resulting in significant amounts of internal porosity. Along with the asteroid bodies, the asteroid belt also contains bands of dust with particle radii of up to a few hundred micrometres. This fine material is produced, at least in part, from collisions between asteroids, and by the impact of micrometeorites upon the asteroids. Due to the Poynting–Robertson effect, the pressure of solar radiation causes this dust to slowly spiral inward toward the Sun. The combination of this fine asteroid dust, as well as ejected cometary material, produces the zodiacal light. This faint auroral glow can be viewed at night extending from the direction of the Sun along the plane of the ecliptic. Asteroid particles that produce visible zodiacal light average about 40 μm in radius. The typical lifetimes of main-belt zodiacal cloud particles are about 700,000 years. Thus, to maintain the bands of dust, new particles must be steadily produced within the asteroid belt. It was once thought that collisions of asteroids form a major component of the zodiacal light. However, computer simulations by Nesvorný and colleagues attributed 85 percent of the zodiacal-light dust to fragmentations of Jupiter-family comets, rather than to comets and collisions between asteroids in the asteroid belt. At most 10 percent of the dust is attributed to the asteroid belt. Meteorites
Some of the debris from collisions can form meteoroids that enter the Earth's atmosphere. Of the 50,000 meteorites found on Earth to date, 99.8 percent are believed to have originated in the asteroid belt.","[0.06710456311702728, 0.0006828077021054924, 0.04557265713810921, 0.022609733045101166, 0.04179145395755768, -0.09602595865726471, 0.0187783632427454, 0.0372297577559948, 0.05839888006448746, 0.006563409231603146, -0.006144412327557802, -0.03546734154224396, 0.027433548122644424, -0.06673803925514221, 0.08050914108753204, 0.019367298111319542, 0.08602669835090637, -0.0278050284832716, -0.024085652083158493, 0.033943504095077515, -0.023307640105485916, 0.008950707502663136, -0.07844024896621704, -0.009051174856722355, -0.07348824292421341, 0.004326675087213516, -0.003627950558438897, -0.08955171704292297, -0.07412562519311905, -0.020536087453365326, 0.03200240060687065, -0.06279700249433517, -0.03991921991109848, 0.040002837777137756, 0.04759761318564415, -0.01495898887515068, 0.014146733097732067, -0.021444201469421387, -0.0021489979699254036, -0.027019813656806946, 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235,"debris from collisions can form meteoroids that enter the Earth 's atmosphere . Of the 50,000 meteorites found on Earth to date , 99.8 percent are believed to have originated in the asteroid belt .Families and groups
In 1918, the Japanese astronomer Kiyotsugu Hirayama noticed that the orbits of some of the asteroids had similar parameters, forming families or groups. Approximately one-third of the asteroids in the asteroid belt are members of an asteroid family. These share similar orbital elements, such as semi-major axis, eccentricity, and orbital inclination as well as similar spectral features, which indicate a common origin in the breakup of a larger body. Graphical displays of these element pairs, for members of the asteroid belt, show concentrations indicating the presence of an asteroid family. There are about 20 to 30 associations that are likely asteroid families. Additional groupings have been found that are less certain. Asteroid families can be confirmed when the members display similar spectral features. Smaller associations of asteroids are called groups or clusters. Some of the most prominent families in the asteroid belt (in order of increasing semi-major axes) are the Flora, Eunomia, Koronis, Eos, and Themis families. The Flora family, one of the largest with more than 800 known members, may have formed from a collision less than 1 billion years ago. The largest asteroid to be a true member of a family is 4 Vesta. (This is in contrast to an interloper, in the case of Ceres with the Gefion family.) The Vesta family is believed to have formed as the result of a crater-forming impact on Vesta. Likewise, the HED meteorites may also have originated from Vesta as a result of this collision. Three prominent bands of dust have been found within the asteroid belt.","[0.002664112253114581, -0.0524907186627388, -0.012419145554304123, 0.02392936870455742, 0.04754098132252693, -0.06168973073363304, 0.02459803782403469, 0.02665465511381626, 0.034231364727020264, -0.006675785407423973, 0.06409980356693268, -0.08781721442937851, 0.038577817380428314, -0.017010297626256943, 0.041593801230192184, 0.013039441779255867, 0.004614054691046476, -0.002172505483031273, -0.08725518733263016, 0.04660584777593613, -0.026419032365083694, -0.006433102767914534, 0.005678766407072544, 0.0051268525421619415, -0.027978617697954178, 0.035840023308992386, 0.03211264684796333, -0.03602122887969017, -0.08104034513235092, -0.029909323900938034, 0.01928534545004368, 0.019752882421016693, 0.08347854763269424, 0.006213496904820204, 0.05304374918341637, 0.04715656116604805, -0.048487208783626556, 0.010424384847283363, -0.023590529337525368, 0.009138265624642372, -0.02265375666320324, 0.06062978878617287, 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236,"impact on Vesta . Likewise , the HED meteorites may also have originated from Vesta as a result of this collision . Three prominent bands of dust have been found within the asteroid belt .These have similar orbital inclinations as the Eos, Koronis, and Themis asteroid families, and so are possibly associated with those groupings. The main belt evolution after the Late Heavy Bombardment was likely affected by the passages of large centaurs and trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs). Centaurs and TNOs that reach the inner Solar System can modify the orbits of main belt asteroids, though only if their mass is of the order of 1×10−9 M☉ (2.0×1021 kg) for single encounters or, one order less in case of multiple close encounters. However, centaurs and TNOs are unlikely to have significantly dispersed young asteroid families in the main belt, although they can have perturbed some old asteroid families. Current main belt asteroids that originated as centaurs or trans-Neptunian objects may lie in the outer belt with short lifetime of less than 4 million years, most likely orbiting between 2.8 and 3.2 AU at larger eccentricities than typical of main belt asteroids. Periphery
Skirting the inner edge of the belt (ranging between 1.78 and 2.0 AU, with a mean semi-major axis of 1.9 AU) is the Hungaria family of minor planets. They are named after the main member, 434 Hungaria; the group contains at least 52 named asteroids. The Hungaria group is separated from the main body by the 4:1 Kirkwood gap and their orbits have a high inclination. Some members belong to the Mars-crossing category of asteroids, and gravitational perturbations by Mars are likely a factor in reducing the total population of this group. Another high-inclination group in the inner part of the asteroid belt is the Phocaea family. These are composed primarily of S-type asteroids, whereas the neighboring Hungaria family includes some E-types.","[-0.014513135887682438, 0.021022316068410873, 0.0504210889339447, -0.03254278004169464, -0.021455589681863785, -0.10473544895648956, -0.05353565514087677, 0.04482674226164818, 0.04730001837015152, 0.038733240216970444, 0.034780144691467285, -0.0856519266963005, 0.029675545170903206, -0.04693816602230072, 0.045006681233644485, -0.022533351555466652, 0.13748402893543243, -0.0022761248983442783, -0.03401905670762062, 0.043839242309331894, -0.024451060220599174, 0.06213260069489479, -0.0703534334897995, 0.017517175525426865, -0.05039454251527786, -0.07245110720396042, -0.02067572996020317, -0.0702413022518158, -0.07161235064268112, -0.042072221636772156, -0.01941206119954586, -0.04677209258079529, -0.02306944876909256, -0.006890839897096157, 0.032664038240909576, 0.01612706668674946, 0.0024430477060377598, 0.006472017616033554, 0.007867611013352871, -0.011964193545281887, 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237,"group . Another high-inclination group in the inner part of the asteroid belt is the Phocaea family . These are composed primarily of S-type asteroids , whereas the neighboring Hungaria family includes some E-types .The Phocaea family orbit between 2.25 and 2.5 AU from the Sun. Skirting the outer edge of the asteroid belt is the Cybele group, orbiting between 3.3 and 3.5 AU. The Hilda family orbit between 3.5 and 4.2 AU with relatively circular orbits and a stable 3:2 orbital resonance with Jupiter. There are few asteroids beyond 4.2 AU, until Jupiter's orbit. At the latter the two families of Trojan asteroids can be found, which, at least for objects larger than 1 km, are approximately as numerous as the asteroids of the asteroid belt. New families
Some asteroid families have formed recently, in astronomical terms. The Karin family apparently formed about 5.7 million years ago from a collision with a progenitor asteroid 33 km in radius. The Veritas family formed about 8.3 million years ago; evidence includes interplanetary dust recovered from ocean sediment. More recently, the Datura cluster appears to have formed about 530,000 years ago from a collision with a main-belt asteroid. The age estimate is based on the probability of the members having their current orbits, rather than from any physical evidence. However, this cluster may have been a source for some zodiacal dust material. Other recent cluster formations, such as the Iannini cluster (c. 1–5 million years ago), may have provided additional sources of this asteroid dust. Exploration
The first spacecraft to traverse the asteroid belt was Pioneer 10, which entered the region on 16 July 1972. At the time, there was some concern that the debris in the belt would pose a hazard to the spacecraft, but it has since been safely traversed by multiple spacecraft without incident.","[-0.008624169044196606, -0.07759477198123932, -0.020456688478589058, -0.03540175408124924, -0.000920780177693814, -0.08766473829746246, -0.0615496002137661, 0.07648638635873795, 0.024547480046749115, 0.01425803080201149, 0.06437545269727707, -0.09544635564088821, 0.016558969393372536, -0.06592245399951935, 0.03784521669149399, -0.010132667608559132, -0.01775863580405712, -0.07024290412664413, 0.01176530309021473, 0.09373403340578079, 0.005059940740466118, 0.021799465641379356, 0.028487496078014374, 0.040957722812891006, -0.04298580810427666, 0.06445670127868652, 0.048901744186878204, -0.023632720112800598, -0.05492895469069481, -0.052165720611810684, 0.006639144383370876, -0.05710432678461075, 0.06992024183273315, 0.02615647204220295, 0.03369642794132233, -0.01579912193119526, -0.06035511568188667, 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238,"At the time , there was some concern that the debris in the belt would pose a hazard to the spacecraft , but it has since been safely traversed by multiple spacecraft without incident .Pioneer 11, Voyagers 1 and 2 and Ulysses passed through the belt without imaging any asteroids. Cassini measured plasma and fine dust grains while traversing the belt in 2000. On its way to Jupiter, Juno traversed the asteroid belt without collecting science data. Due to the low density of materials within the belt, the odds of a probe running into an asteroid are estimated at less than 1 in 1 billion. Most main belt asteroids imaged to date have come from brief flyby opportunities by probes headed for other targets. Only the Dawn mission has studied main belt asteroids for a protracted period in orbit. The Galileo spacecraft imaged 951 Gaspra in 1991 and 243 Ida in 1993, then NEAR imaged 253 Mathilde in 1997 and landed on near–Earth asteroid 433 Eros in February 2001. Cassini imaged 2685 Masursky in 2000, Stardust imaged 5535 Annefrank in 2002, New Horizons imaged 132524 APL in 2006, and Rosetta imaged 2867 Šteins in September 2008 and 21 Lutetia in July 2010. Dawn orbited Vesta between July 2011 and September 2012 and has orbited Ceres since March 2015. The Lucy space probe made a flyby of 152830 Dinkinesh in 2023, on its way to the Jupiter Trojans. ESA's JUICE mission will pass through the asteroid belt twice, with a proposed flyby of the asteroid 223 Rosa in 2029. The Psyche spacecraft is a NASA mission to the large M-type asteroid 16 Psyche. See also
References
External links

Arnett, William A. (February 26, 2006). ""Asteroids"". The Nine Planets. Archived from the original on April 18, 2007. Retrieved April 20, 2007. Asteroids Page at NASA's Solar System Exploration
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belt,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.
239,"Asteroids '' . The Nine Planets . Archived from the original on April 18 , 2007 . Retrieved April 20 , 2007 . Asteroids Page at NASA 's Solar System Exploration Cain , Fraser .""The Asteroid Belt"". Universe Today. Archived from the original on March 7, 2008. Retrieved April 1, 2008. ""Main Asteroid Belt"". Sol Company. Archived from the original on May 15, 2007. Retrieved April 20, 2007. Munsell, Kirk (September 16, 2005). ""Asteroids: Overview"". NASA's Solar System Exploration. Archived from the original on May 24, 2007. Retrieved May 26, 2007. Plots of eccentricity vs. semi-major axis and inclination vs. semi-major axis at Asteroid Dynamic Site
""Asteroids"". NASA. October 31, 2006. Archived from the original on April 11, 2007. Retrieved April 20, 2007. ""Space Topics: Asteroids and Comets"". The Planetary Society. 2007. Archived from the original on April 28, 2007. 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240," Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a mass nearly 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined and slightly less than one-thousandth the mass of the Sun. Its diameter is 11 times that of Earth and a tenth that of the Sun. Jupiter orbits the Sun at a distance of 5.20 AU (778.5 Gm), with an orbital period of 11.86 years. It is the third-brightest natural object in the Earth's night sky, after the Moon and Venus, and has been observed since prehistoric times. Its name derives from that of Jupiter, the chief deity of ancient Roman religion. Jupiter was the first of the Sun's planets to form, and its inward migration during the primordial phase of the Solar System affected much of the formation history of the other planets. Jupiter's atmosphere consists of 76% hydrogen and 24% helium by mass, with a denser interior. It contains traces of the elements carbon, oxygen, sulfur, neon, and compounds such as ammonia, water vapour, phosphine, hydrogen sulfide, and hydrocarbons. Jupiter's helium abundance is 80% of the Sun's, similar to Saturn's composition. The outer atmosphere is divided into a series of latitudinal bands, with turbulence and storms along their interacting boundaries; the most obvious result of this is the Great Red Spot, a giant storm that has been recorded since 1831. Because of its rapid rotation rate, one turn in ten hours, Jupiter is an oblate spheroid; it has a slight but noticeable 6.5% bulge around the equator compared to its poles. Its internal structure is believed to consist of an outer mantle of fluid metallic hydrogen and a diffuse inner core of denser material.","[0.0160102266818285, -0.02121831849217415, -0.00679689459502697, 0.03302261605858803, 0.11178147047758102, -0.06978685408830643, 0.0031129566486924887, 0.020765356719493866, 0.009952372871339321, -0.042093053460121155, -0.06471044570207596, -0.06906354427337646, -0.014773447066545486, -0.06716446578502655, 0.04943375289440155, -0.023362869396805763, 0.01628601737320423, -0.029163489118218422, 0.012763083912432194, -0.015090664848685265, 0.01795000396668911, 0.009145792573690414, 0.03125705569982529, 0.035420410335063934, -0.028749337419867516, 0.05313342809677124, -0.004763247445225716, -0.03237159550189972, -0.034150995314121246, -0.01802743785083294, -0.013654680922627449, 0.03973232954740524, 0.0414731465280056, 0.0016033322317525744, -0.08354908227920532, -0.008894853293895721, 0.002767189173027873, -0.01133822463452816, 0.014696651138365269, 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241,"6.5 % bulge around the equator compared to its poles . Its internal structure is believed to consist of an outer mantle of fluid metallic hydrogen and a diffuse inner core of denser material .The ongoing contraction of Jupiter's interior generates more heat than the planet receives from the Sun. Jupiter's magnetic field is the strongest and second-largest contiguous structure in the Solar System, generated by eddy currents within the fluid, metallic hydrogen core. The solar wind interacts with the magnetosphere, extending it outward and affecting Jupiter's orbit. At least 97 moons orbit the planet; the four largest moons—Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto—orbit within the magnetosphere and are visible with common binoculars. Ganymede, the largest of the four, is larger than the planet Mercury. Jupiter is surrounded by a faint system of planetary rings. The rings of Jupiter consist mainly of dust and have three main segments: an inner torus of particles known as the halo, a relatively bright main ring, and an outer gossamer ring. The rings have a reddish colour in visible and near-infrared light. The age of the ring system is unknown, possibly dating back to Jupiter's formation. Since 1973, Jupiter has been visited by nine robotic probes: seven flybys and two dedicated orbiters (with two more en route). Jupiter-like exoplanets have also been found in other planetary systems. Name and symbol
In both the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations, Jupiter was named after the chief god of the divine pantheon: Zeus to the Greeks and Jupiter to the Romans. The International Astronomical Union formally adopted the name Jupiter for the planet in 1976 and has since named its newly discovered satellites for the god's lovers, favourites, and descendants. The planetary symbol for Jupiter, , descends from a Greek zeta with a horizontal stroke, ⟨Ƶ⟩, as an abbreviation for Zeus.","[0.02253739908337593, -0.0839182659983635, 0.008014733903110027, -0.003966358955949545, 0.09701615571975708, -0.09364992380142212, -0.02999606356024742, 0.057321175932884216, 0.01492195762693882, -0.05235420912504196, -0.09282533079385757, -0.052491478621959686, 0.013404692523181438, -0.09153882414102554, 0.056489817798137665, -0.013438673689961433, 0.03471960872411728, -0.037283774465322495, -0.016637932509183884, -0.004874512553215027, -0.027747241780161858, -0.0058469586074352264, -0.019445018842816353, -0.017607450485229492, -0.08154061436653137, 0.08817115426063538, -0.03722759336233139, -0.054222896695137024, -0.07176361978054047, -0.06607247143983841, 0.021237915381789207, 0.0428670272231102, -0.03349093720316887, 0.0384347178041935, -0.05456150323152542, 0.02964773401618004, -0.030000269412994385, -0.02079164981842041, -0.023602908477187157, 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0.07058452814817429]",Jupiter,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.
242,"the god 's lovers , favourites , and descendants . The planetary symbol for Jupiter , , descends from a Greek zeta with a horizontal stroke , ⟨Ƶ⟩ , as an abbreviation for Zeus .In Latin, Iovis is the genitive case of Iuppiter, i.e. Jupiter. It is associated with the etymology of Zeus ('sky father'). The English equivalent, Jove, is known to have come into use as a poetic name for the planet around the 14th century. Jovian is the adjectival form of Jupiter. The older adjectival form jovial, employed by astrologers in the Middle Ages, has come to mean 'happy' or 'merry', moods ascribed to Jupiter's influence in astrology. The original Greek deity Zeus supplies the root zeno-, which is used to form some Jupiter-related words, such as zenography. Formation and migration
Jupiter is believed to be the oldest planet in the Solar System, having formed just one million years after the Sun and roughly 50 million years before Earth. Current models of Solar System formation suggest that Jupiter formed at or beyond the snow line: a distance from the early Sun where the temperature was sufficiently cold for volatiles such as water to condense into solids. First forming a solid core, the planet then accumulated its gaseous atmosphere. Therefore, the planet must have formed before the solar nebula was fully dispersed. During its formation, Jupiter's mass gradually increased until it had 20 times the mass of the Earth, approximately half of which was made up of silicates, ices and other heavy-element constituents. When the proto-Jupiter grew larger than 50 Earth masses it created a gap in the solar nebula. Thereafter, the growing planet reached its final mass in 3–4 million years.","[-0.06064847856760025, -0.011929924599826336, 0.024382876232266426, 0.06719572097063065, 0.12215307354927063, -0.10897592455148697, 0.03785992041230202, 0.033551350235939026, 0.10256536304950714, -0.024893956258893013, -0.015341412276029587, -0.028125831857323647, 0.03413451835513115, -0.04716125875711441, 0.006803790107369423, -0.01045826356858015, -0.08023780584335327, -0.016222739592194557, 0.025285817682743073, 0.053835149854421616, 0.015805337578058243, 0.01227742899209261, -0.01408214308321476, 0.015057886019349098, 0.01389802061021328, 0.04637731611728668, -0.0049363998696208, -0.006916894111782312, 0.05451459437608719, 0.05233702063560486, 0.01964181661605835, 0.03308141604065895, 0.06978613138198853, -0.01918395236134529, -0.04713236540555954, -0.019675761461257935, 0.04247939959168434, -0.0019597664941102266, -0.05846693366765976, -0.0490284189581871, 0.02703075483441353, -0.05921311676502228, 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243,"heavy-element constituents . When the proto-Jupiter grew larger than 50 Earth masses it created a gap in the solar nebula . Thereafter , the growing planet reached its final mass in 3–4 million years .According to the ""grand tack hypothesis"", Jupiter began to form at a distance of roughly 3.5 AU (520 million km; 330 million mi) from the Sun. As the young planet accreted mass, its interaction with the gas disk orbiting the Sun and the orbital resonances from Saturn caused it to migrate inwards. This upset the orbits of several super-Earths orbiting closer to the Sun, causing them to collide destructively. Saturn would later have begun to migrate inwards at a faster rate than Jupiter until the two planets became captured in a 3:2 mean motion resonance at approximately 1.5 AU (220 million km; 140 million mi) from the Sun. This changed the direction of migration, causing them to migrate away from the Sun and out of the inner system to their current locations. All of this happened over a period of 3–6 million years, with the final migration of Jupiter occurring over several hundred thousand years. Jupiter's migration from the inner Solar System eventually allowed the inner planets—including Earth—to form from the rubble. There are several unresolved issues with the grand tack hypothesis. The resulting formation timescales of terrestrial planets appear to be inconsistent with the measured elemental composition. Jupiter would likely have settled into an orbit much closer to the Sun if it had migrated through the solar nebula. Some competing models of Solar System formation predict the formation of Jupiter with orbital properties that are close to those of the present-day planet. Other models predict Jupiter forming at distances much further out, such as 18 AU (2.7 billion km; 1.7 billion mi).","[-0.010620277374982834, -0.04729647934436798, 0.04563814029097557, 0.02809400111436844, 0.09033100306987762, -0.06089380383491516, -0.05177803337574005, 0.06692837178707123, 0.018902629613876343, 0.020161673426628113, 0.020716629922389984, -0.04970845580101013, 0.002308986848220229, -0.08222153782844543, 0.047807853668928146, -0.01982187107205391, 0.003086525248363614, -0.07566048949956894, -0.034746408462524414, 0.04638170078396797, -0.005993191618472338, 0.00839795172214508, -0.03046332858502865, 0.03831298649311066, -0.038170117884874344, 0.0462196059525013, -0.039532940834760666, -0.06291010975837708, 0.018199218437075615, 0.018773062154650688, -0.004396228585392237, -0.01025752816349268, -0.015448045916855335, -0.011325055733323097, -0.061874210834503174, -0.00447169179096818, -0.012503801845014095, 0.03632216528058052, -0.008312695659697056, -0.11391622573137283, 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244,"that are close to those of the present-day planet . Other models predict Jupiter forming at distances much further out , such as 18 AU ( 2.7 billion km ; 1.7 billion mi ) .According to the Nice model, the infall of proto-Kuiper belt objects over the first 600 million years of Solar System history caused Jupiter and Saturn to migrate from their initial positions into a 1:2 resonance, which caused Saturn to shift into a higher orbit, disrupting the orbits of Uranus and Neptune, depleting the Kuiper belt, and triggering the Late Heavy Bombardment. According to the Jumping-Jupiter scenario, Jupiter's migration through the early Solar System could have led to the ejection of a fifth gas giant. This hypothesis suggests that during its orbital migration, Jupiter's gravitational influence disrupted the orbits of other gas giants, potentially casting one planet out of the Solar System entirely. The dynamics of such an event would have dramatically altered the formation and configuration of the Solar System, leaving behind only the four gas giants humans observe today. Based on Jupiter's composition, researchers have made the case for an initial formation outside the molecular nitrogen (N2) snow line, which is estimated at 20–30 AU (3.0–4.5 billion km; 1.9–2.8 billion mi) from the Sun, and possibly even outside the argon snow line, which may be as far as 40 AU (6.0 billion km; 3.7 billion mi). Having formed at one of these extreme distances, Jupiter would then have, over a roughly 700,000-year period, migrated inwards to its current location, during an epoch approximately 2–3 million years after the planet began to form. In this model, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune would have formed even further out than Jupiter, and Saturn would also have migrated inwards. Physical characteristics
Jupiter is a gas giant, meaning its chemical composition is primarily hydrogen and helium.","[-0.04861660674214363, -0.015372601337730885, 0.06968434900045395, 0.03247355297207832, 0.10447666049003601, -0.03127884864807129, -0.035230252891778946, 0.08662109076976776, 0.045928582549095154, 0.04048537462949753, -0.05770696699619293, -0.041883435100317, -0.035611070692539215, -0.050957921892404556, 0.017564255744218826, -0.03137410059571266, -0.017135268077254295, -0.09044250100851059, -0.034785956144332886, 0.003777426667511463, -0.0020759848412126303, 0.01479653175920248, -0.006224300712347031, 0.053488366305828094, -0.06567734479904175, -0.0038676357362419367, -0.03975273668766022, -0.028766708448529243, -0.00691452668979764, -0.039971139281988144, -0.051717642694711685, 0.020018979907035828, -0.010001273825764656, 0.003523009829223156, -0.03266081586480141, -0.021319175139069557, 0.0061869448982179165, 0.051765672862529755, -0.004199996590614319, -0.053233515471220016, 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245,"would have formed even further out than Jupiter , and Saturn would also have migrated inwards . Physical characteristics Jupiter is a gas giant , meaning its chemical composition is primarily hydrogen and helium .These materials are classified as gasses in planetary geology, a term that does not denote the state of matter. It is the largest planet in the Solar System, with a diameter of 142,984 km (88,846 mi) at its equator, giving it a volume 1,321 times that of the Earth. Its average density, 1.326 g/cm3, is lower than those of the four terrestrial planets. Composition
The atmosphere of Jupiter is approximately 76% hydrogen and 24% helium by mass. By volume, the upper atmosphere is about 90% hydrogen and 10% helium, with the lower proportion owing to the individual helium atoms being more massive than the molecules of hydrogen formed in this part of the atmosphere. The atmosphere contains trace amounts of elemental carbon, oxygen, sulfur, and neon, as well as ammonia, water vapour, phosphine, hydrogen sulfide, and hydrocarbons like methane, ethane and benzene. Its outermost layer contains crystals of frozen ammonia. The planet's interior is denser, with a composition of roughly 71% hydrogen, 24% helium, and 5% other elements by mass. The atmospheric proportions of hydrogen and helium are close to the theoretical composition of the primordial solar nebula. Neon in the upper atmosphere consists of 20 parts per million by mass, which is about a tenth as abundant as in the Sun. Jupiter's helium abundance is about 80% that of the Sun due to the precipitation of these elements as helium-rich droplets, a process that happens deep in the planet's interior.","[0.026873871684074402, -0.03631545603275299, -0.009511163458228111, -0.0064094653353095055, 0.14280204474925995, -0.02358255535364151, 0.024952294304966927, 0.06821838021278381, -0.01988590881228447, -0.0013049555709585547, -0.10953526198863983, -0.0866817831993103, -0.0011280607432126999, -0.05332404747605324, 0.05150723457336426, -0.042849186807870865, 0.058729320764541626, -0.052803199738264084, -0.02247234433889389, 0.025143789127469063, -0.01481635868549347, 0.0819140374660492, 0.039426468312740326, 0.013376052491366863, -0.025805898010730743, 0.03747237101197243, -0.07340548932552338, 0.01243090070784092, 0.005699199624359608, -0.03302698954939842, -0.015695979818701744, 0.02028336375951767, 0.06603524088859558, -0.0074314153753221035, -0.03167806938290596, -0.007296114228665829, 0.025029681622982025, 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246,". Jupiter 's helium abundance is about 80 % that of the Sun due to the precipitation of these elements as helium-rich droplets , a process that happens deep in the planet 's interior .Based on spectroscopy, Saturn is thought to be similar in composition to Jupiter, but the other giant planets Uranus and Neptune have relatively less hydrogen and helium and relatively more of the next most common elements, including oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur. These planets are known as ice giants because during their formation, these elements are thought to have been incorporated into them as ice; however, they probably contain very little ice. Size and mass
Jupiter is about eleven times wider than the Earth (11.209 R🜨); while its mass is 318 times that of Earth which is 2.5 times the mass of all the other planets in the Solar System combined. It is so massive that its barycentre with the Sun lies above the Sun's surface at 1.068 solar radii from the Sun's centre. Jupiter's radius is about one tenth the radius of the Sun (0.10276 R☉), and its mass is one thousandth the mass of the Sun, of which the densities of the two bodies are similar. A ""Jupiter mass"" (MJ or MJup) is used as a unit to describe masses of other objects, particularly extrasolar planets and brown dwarfs. For example, the extrasolar planet HD 209458 b has a mass of 0.69 MJ, while the brown dwarf Gliese 229 b has a mass of 60.4 MJ. Jupiter radiates more heat than it receives through solar radiation, due to the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism within its contracting interior. This process causes Jupiter to shrink by about 1 mm (0.039 in) per year. At the time of its formation, Jupiter was hotter and was about twice its current diameter.","[-0.016332535073161125, -0.041074566543102264, 0.007216381374746561, 0.05367480218410492, 0.10442888736724854, -0.041585806757211685, 0.0022696559317409992, 0.0875280499458313, -0.01904330775141716, -0.02842002734541893, -0.10723430663347244, -0.0990576446056366, 0.0027395100332796574, -0.05066230520606041, 0.06854051351547241, -0.07638709247112274, 0.019023478031158447, -0.07077471166849136, 0.0015197080792859197, 0.016577955335378647, 0.01000619400292635, -0.011232317425310612, 0.004556152503937483, 0.010952680371701717, -0.04574858769774437, 0.030417555943131447, -0.021970491856336594, -0.014937200583517551, -0.017276467755436897, -0.0017003078246489167, -0.02028711885213852, 0.05218042433261871, 0.035520583391189575, -0.030022038146853447, -0.05354408919811249, -0.005000495817512274, 0.013462791219353676, -0.01801486685872078, 0.001770763541571796, -0.06715080142021179, 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247,"This process causes Jupiter to shrink by about 1 mm ( 0.039 in ) per year . At the time of its formation , Jupiter was hotter and was about twice its current diameter .Theoretical models indicate that if Jupiter had over 40% more mass, the interior would be so compressed that its volume would decrease despite the increasing amount of matter. For smaller changes in its mass, the radius would not change appreciably. As a result, Jupiter is thought to have about as large a diameter as a planet of its composition and evolutionary history can achieve. The process of further shrinkage with increasing mass would continue until appreciable stellar ignition was achieved. Although Jupiter would need to be about 75 times more massive to fuse hydrogen and become a star, its diameter is sufficient as the smallest red dwarf may be slightly larger in radius than Saturn. Internal structure
Before the early 21st century, most scientists proposed one of two scenarios for the formation of Jupiter. If the planet accreted first as a solid body, it would consist of a dense core, a surrounding layer of fluid metallic hydrogen (with some helium) extending outward to about 80% of the radius of the planet, and an outer atmosphere consisting primarily of molecular hydrogen. Alternatively, if the planet collapsed directly from the gaseous protoplanetary disk, it was expected to completely lack a core, consisting instead of a denser and denser fluid (predominantly molecular and metallic hydrogen) all the way to the centre. Data from the Juno mission showed that Jupiter has a diffuse core that mixes into its mantle, extending for 30–50% of the planet's radius, and comprising heavy elements with a combined mass 7–25 times the Earth. This mixing process could have arisen during formation, while the planet accreted solids and gases from the surrounding nebula.","[-0.02708452008664608, 0.005877921357750893, -0.0010518701747059822, 0.07277194410562515, 0.10754497349262238, -0.07683587819337845, -0.05869736522436142, 0.06556041538715363, -0.004500258713960648, 0.0030246975366026163, -0.06534694880247116, -0.0172854196280241, 0.019042175263166428, -0.032004550099372864, 0.07075688987970352, -0.06604263931512833, -0.028083842247724533, -0.01166705321520567, -0.030780993402004242, -0.011438453570008278, -0.010008178651332855, 0.0011579490965232253, -0.042689159512519836, 0.045397285372018814, -0.036400195211172104, -0.028731871396303177, -0.025429006665945053, -0.013061934150755405, -0.008762077428400517, -0.04342706501483917, 0.00881981197744608, 0.035001132637262344, 0.06477073580026627, 0.016587717458605766, -0.01556379348039627, -0.010955460369586945, -0.018747510388493538, 0.023929065093398094, -0.023537402972579002, 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248,", and comprising heavy elements with a combined mass 7–25 times the Earth . This mixing process could have arisen during formation , while the planet accreted solids and gases from the surrounding nebula .Alternatively, it could have been caused by an impact from a planet of about ten Earth masses a few million years after Jupiter's formation, which would have disrupted an originally compact Jovian core. Outside the layer of metallic hydrogen lies a transparent interior atmosphere of hydrogen. At this depth, the pressure and temperature are above molecular hydrogen's critical pressure of 1.3 MPa and critical temperature of 33 K (−240.2 °C; −400.3 °F). In this state, there are no distinct liquid and gas phases—hydrogen is said to be in a supercritical fluid state. The hydrogen and helium gas extending downward from the cloud layer gradually transitions to a liquid in deeper layers, possibly resembling something akin to an ocean of liquid hydrogen and other supercritical fluids. Physically, the gas gradually becomes hotter and denser as depth increases. Rain-like droplets of helium and neon precipitate downward through the lower atmosphere, depleting the abundance of these elements in the upper atmosphere. Calculations suggest that helium drops separate from metallic hydrogen at a radius of 60,000 km (37,000 mi) (11,000 km [6,800 mi] below the cloud tops) and merge again at 50,000 km (31,000 mi) (22,000 km [14,000 mi] beneath the clouds). Rainfalls of diamonds have been suggested to occur, as well as on Saturn and the ice giants Uranus and Neptune. The temperature and pressure inside Jupiter increase steadily inward as the heat of planetary formation can only escape by convection. At a surface depth where the atmospheric pressure level is about one standard Earth atmosphere (about 0.10 MPa (1 bar)), the temperature is around 165 K (−108 °C; −163 °F).","[-0.06392985582351685, -0.02233864553272724, 0.020926645025610924, 0.03993641212582588, 0.14940428733825684, -0.021438321098685265, 0.006974261719733477, 0.050031017512083054, 0.0012511663371697068, -0.014086689800024033, -0.06833869218826294, -0.10235122591257095, -0.0005609875661320984, -0.11979841440916061, 0.07281782478094101, -0.07412069290876389, 0.03561600297689438, -0.1679568737745285, -0.028346486389636993, 0.028039541095495224, 0.042830463498830795, 0.029905881732702255, -0.05808928608894348, 0.03984041512012482, -0.019194116815924644, 0.0941753163933754, 0.04249090701341629, 0.026978474110364914, 0.037530314177274704, 0.014449352398514748, 0.02056918852031231, -0.008562108501791954, 0.043959613889455795, 0.05288834124803543, 0.00025401904713362455, 0.03683115541934967, 0.024701649323105812, 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249,"where the atmospheric pressure level is about one standard Earth atmosphere ( about 0.10 MPa ( 1 bar ) ) , the temperature is around 165 K ( −108 °C ; −163 °F ) .The region where supercritical hydrogen changes gradually from a molecular fluid to a metallic fluid spans pressure ranges of 50–400 GPa with temperatures of 5,000–8,400 K (4,730–8,130 °C; 8,540–14,660 °F), respectively. The temperature of Jupiter's diluted core is estimated to be 20,000 K (19,700 °C; 35,500 °F) with a pressure of around 4,000 GPa. Atmosphere
The atmosphere of Jupiter is primarily composed of molecular hydrogen and helium, with a smaller amount of other compounds such as water, methane, hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia. Jupiter's atmosphere extends to a depth of approximately 3,000 kilometres (2,000 mi) below the cloud layers. Cloud layers
Jupiter is perpetually covered with clouds of ammonia crystals, which may contain ammonium hydrosulfide as well. The clouds are located in the tropopause layer of the atmosphere, forming bands at different latitudes, known as tropical regions. These are subdivided into lighter-hued zones and darker belts. The interactions of these conflicting circulation patterns cause storms and turbulence. Wind speeds of 100 metres per second (360 km/h; 220 mph) are common in zonal jet streams. The zones have been observed to vary in width, colour and intensity from year to year, but they have remained stable enough for scientists to name them. The cloud layer is about 50 km (31 mi) deep and consists of at least two decks of ammonia clouds: a thin, clearer region on top and a thicker, lower deck. There may be a thin layer of water clouds underlying the ammonia clouds, as suggested by flashes of lightning detected in the atmosphere of Jupiter. These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times as powerful as lightning on Earth.","[-0.0052473777905106544, -0.022503560408949852, -0.01161186583340168, -0.014468861743807793, 0.11642387509346008, -0.011489938013255596, 0.001176671008579433, 0.04474680498242378, 0.02258109487593174, -0.02227945066988468, -0.09438757598400116, -0.09429796040058136, 0.002358129946514964, -0.09370107203722, 0.03294945880770683, -0.04912810027599335, 0.0619458332657814, -0.1176454946398735, -0.03315173462033272, 0.00026511013857088983, 0.04817628115415573, 0.04972744733095169, -0.026540270075201988, 0.040603429079055786, -0.056576479226350784, 0.03200102224946022, 0.010300428606569767, -0.014525620266795158, 0.002051331102848053, 0.05408554896712303, -0.02145833522081375, 0.006757370661944151, 0.04988612234592438, 0.06019117310643196, -0.015124697238206863, 0.02071273885667324, 0.016895193606615067, 0.003238852834329009, -0.03307006508111954, -0.033534277230501175, -0.03878411650657654, 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250,"underlying the ammonia clouds , as suggested by flashes of lightning detected in the atmosphere of Jupiter . These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times as powerful as lightning on Earth .The water clouds are assumed to generate thunderstorms in the same way as terrestrial thunderstorms, driven by the heat rising from the interior. The Juno mission revealed the presence of ""shallow lightning"" which originates from ammonia-water clouds relatively high in the atmosphere. These discharges carry ""mushballs"" of water-ammonia slushes covered in ice, which fall deep into the atmosphere. Upper-atmospheric lightning has been observed in Jupiter's upper atmosphere, bright flashes of light that last around 1.4 milliseconds. These are known as ""elves"" or ""sprites"" and appear blue or pink due to the hydrogen. The orange and brown colours in the clouds of Jupiter are caused by upwelling compounds that change colour when they are exposed to ultraviolet light from the Sun. The exact makeup remains uncertain, but the substances are thought to be made up of phosphorus, sulfur or possibly hydrocarbons. These colourful compounds, known as chromophores, mix with the warmer clouds of the lower deck. The light-coloured zones are formed when rising convection cells form crystallising ammonia that hides the chromophores from view. Jupiter has a low axial tilt, thus ensuring that the poles always receive less solar radiation than the planet's equatorial region. Convection within the interior of the planet transports energy to the poles, balancing out temperatures at the cloud layer. Great Red Spot and other vortices
A well-known feature of Jupiter is the Great Red Spot, a persistent anticyclonic storm located 22° south of the equator. It was first observed in 1831, and possibly as early as 1665. Images by the Hubble Space Telescope have shown two more ""red spots"" adjacent to the Great Red Spot.","[-0.04517670348286629, -0.08000099658966064, 0.0678706169128418, 0.018456462770700455, 0.1364314705133438, -0.04132538288831711, 0.08134423941373825, -0.04624427109956741, 0.08256375789642334, -0.038585662841796875, -0.051648106426000595, -0.07057022303342819, -0.00803313497453928, -0.06394393742084503, -0.002085990272462368, 0.05032806098461151, -0.00047407016973011196, -0.10244616866111755, -0.023432906717061996, -0.0036282839719206095, 0.028968079015612602, 0.03558555617928505, -0.05091565474867821, 0.0023645267356187105, -0.05180602893233299, 0.08735736459493637, 0.021499261260032654, -0.018553316593170166, -0.01140265166759491, 0.012623615562915802, 0.04128797724843025, 0.012076172977685928, -0.012516871094703674, 0.027887392789125443, -0.036677036434412, -0.011356160044670105, 0.04587136209011078, 0.002382798818871379, -0.013866627588868141, -0.027621766552329063, 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251,"It was first observed in 1831 , and possibly as early as 1665 . Images by the Hubble Space Telescope have shown two more `` red spots '' adjacent to the Great Red Spot .The storm is visible through Earth-based telescopes with an aperture of 12 cm or larger. The storm rotates counterclockwise, with a period of about six days. The maximum altitude of this storm is about 8 kilometres (5 mi) above the surrounding cloud tops. The Spot's composition and the source of its red colour remain uncertain, although photodissociated ammonia reacting with acetylene is a likely explanation. The Great Red Spot is larger than the Earth. Mathematical models suggest that the storm is stable and will be a permanent feature of the planet. However, it has significantly decreased in size since its discovery. Initial observations in the late 1800s showed it to be approximately 41,000 km (25,500 mi) across. As of 2015, the storm was measured at approximately 16,500 by 10,940 kilometres (10,250 by 6,800 mi), and was decreasing in length by about 930 km (580 mi) per year. In October 2021, a Juno flyby mission measured the depth of the Great Red Spot, putting it at around 300–500 kilometres (190–310 mi). Juno missions found several cyclone groups at Jupiter's poles. The northern group contains nine cyclones, with a large one in the centre and eight others around it, while its southern counterpart also consists of a centre vortex but is surrounded by five large storms and a single smaller one for a total of seven storms. In 2000, an atmospheric feature formed in the southern hemisphere that is similar in appearance to the Great Red Spot, but smaller. This was created when smaller, white oval-shaped storms merged to form a single feature—these three smaller white ovals were formed in 1939–1940. The merged feature was named Oval BA.","[0.018721703439950943, -0.01821337640285492, 0.06730864942073822, 0.049128927290439606, 0.029912017285823822, 0.0004351771785877645, -0.004596304148435593, 0.0741729885339737, 0.030295133590698242, -0.028999125584959984, -0.04886767268180847, 0.06722081452608109, 0.059698570519685745, -0.07144416123628616, -0.03909747675061226, 0.02865801565349102, 0.035800423473119736, -0.11756101995706558, -0.02389400452375412, -0.03404967859387398, 0.013596519827842712, 0.04346606507897377, -0.06464904546737671, -0.007916995324194431, 0.0016981047810986638, -0.004277755040675402, -0.07642955332994461, -0.031370196491479874, -0.053257569670677185, -0.009581291116774082, 0.008897352032363415, -0.034988630563020706, 0.03119588829576969, 0.051382679492235184, -0.03464648500084877, -0.005631322041153908, 0.03622380644083023, -0.04822990298271179, 0.028645550832152367, -0.024251559749245644, 0.023018507286906242, -0.02564932592213154, 0.046163350343704224, 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252,"but smaller . This was created when smaller , white oval-shaped storms merged to form a single feature—these three smaller white ovals were formed in 1939–1940 . The merged feature was named Oval BA .It has since increased in intensity and changed from white to red, earning it the nickname ""Little Red Spot"". In April 2017, a ""Great Cold Spot"" was discovered in Jupiter's thermosphere at its north pole. This feature is 24,000 km (15,000 mi) across, 12,000 km (7,500 mi) wide, and 200 °C (360 °F) cooler than surrounding material. While this spot changes form and intensity over the short term, it has maintained its general position in the atmosphere for more than 15 years. It may be a giant vortex similar to the Great Red Spot, and appears to be quasi-stable like the vortices in Earth's thermosphere. This feature may be formed by interactions between charged particles generated from Io and the strong magnetic field of Jupiter, resulting in a redistribution of heat flow. Magnetosphere
Jupiter's magnetic field is the strongest of any planet in the Solar System, with a dipole moment of 4.170 gauss (0.4170 mT) that is tilted at an angle of 10.31° to the pole of rotation. The surface magnetic field strength varies from 2 gauss (0.20 mT) up to 20 gauss (2.0 mT). This field is thought to be generated by eddy currents—swirling movements of conducting materials—within the fluid, metallic hydrogen core. At about 75 Jupiter radii from the planet, the interaction of the magnetosphere with the solar wind generates a bow shock. Surrounding Jupiter's magnetosphere is a magnetopause, located at the inner edge of a magnetosheath—a region between it and the bow shock.","[0.01660951040685177, -0.010339519008994102, -0.006917930673807859, 0.04799383878707886, 0.13110271096229553, -0.0184345580637455, -0.022392183542251587, 0.03233034163713455, 0.045432500541210175, -0.07044681906700134, -0.10161087661981583, 0.0119710061699152, 0.04641740396618843, -0.065767802298069, 0.0762118548154831, -0.006598209496587515, 0.025521541014313698, -0.08812684565782547, -0.01008621510118246, -0.048119064420461655, -0.02318267710506916, 0.02211461216211319, -0.08026126772165298, 0.004972420167177916, -0.07998298108577728, 0.017110085114836693, -0.025694284588098526, 0.0017517862142995, -0.05516218766570091, 0.006165375001728535, -0.012678134255111217, 0.04710202291607857, 0.01581394486129284, 0.023751363158226013, -0.0333903506398201, -0.004208196420222521, -0.0022671569604426622, 0.03513481840491295, -0.02983120270073414, 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253,"the magnetosphere with the solar wind generates a bow shock . Surrounding Jupiter 's magnetosphere is a magnetopause , located at the inner edge of a magnetosheath—a region between it and the bow shock .The solar wind interacts with these regions, elongating the magnetosphere on Jupiter's lee side and extending it outward until it nearly reaches the orbit of Saturn. The four largest moons of Jupiter all orbit within the magnetosphere, which protects them from solar wind. The volcanoes on the moon Io emit large amounts of sulfur dioxide, forming a gas torus along its orbit. The gas is ionized in Jupiter's magnetosphere, producing sulfur and oxygen ions. They, together with hydrogen ions originating from the atmosphere of Jupiter, form a plasma sheet in Jupiter's equatorial plane. The plasma in the sheet co-rotates with the planet, causing deformation of the dipole magnetic field into that of a magnetodisk. Electrons within the plasma sheet generate a strong radio signature, with short, superimposed bursts in the range of 0.6–30 MHz that are detectable from Earth with consumer-grade shortwave radio receivers. As Io moves through this torus, the interaction generates Alfvén waves that carry ionized matter into the polar regions of Jupiter. As a result, radio waves are generated through a cyclotron maser mechanism, and the energy is transmitted out along a cone-shaped surface. When Earth intersects this cone, the radio emissions from Jupiter can exceed the radio output of the Sun. Planetary rings
Jupiter has a faint planetary ring system composed of three main segments: an inner torus of particles known as the halo, a relatively bright main ring, and an outer gossamer ring. 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254,"known as the halo , a relatively bright main ring , and an outer gossamer ring . These rings appear to be made of dust , whereas Saturn 's rings are made of ice .The main ring is most likely made out of material ejected from the satellites Adrastea and Metis, which is drawn into Jupiter because of the planet's strong gravitational influence. New material is added by additional impacts. In a similar way, the moons Thebe and Amalthea are believed to produce the two distinct components of the dusty gossamer ring. There is evidence of a fourth ring that may consist of collisional debris from Amalthea that is strung along the same moon's orbit. Orbit and rotation
Jupiter is the only planet whose barycentre with the Sun lies outside the volume of the Sun, though by 7% of the Sun's radius. The average distance between Jupiter and the Sun is 778 million km (5.20 AU) and it completes an orbit every 11.86 years. This is approximately two-fifths the orbital period of Saturn, forming a near orbital resonance. The orbital plane of Jupiter is inclined 1.30° compared to Earth. Because the eccentricity of its orbit is 0.049, Jupiter is slightly over 75 million km nearer the Sun at perihelion than aphelion, which means that its orbit is nearly circular. This low eccentricity is at odds with exoplanet discoveries, which have revealed Jupiter-sized planets with very high eccentricities. Models suggest this may be due to there being two giant planets in the Solar System, as the presence of a third or more giant planets tends to induce larger eccentricities. The axial tilt of Jupiter is 3.13°, which is relatively small, so its seasons are insignificant compared to those of Earth and Mars.","[0.019073253497481346, -0.0676020011305809, -0.03029678761959076, -0.0024497045669704676, 0.03957056254148483, -0.10548191517591476, 0.06136387214064598, 0.06852466613054276, 0.09515446424484253, -0.03753316029906273, -0.071404829621315, -0.02575633116066456, 0.002801251132041216, -0.08454098552465439, -0.00043656444177031517, -0.02671731449663639, 0.016945932060480118, -0.04572858288884163, -0.03265269100666046, 0.0021263884846121073, 0.06474173069000244, 0.0445207804441452, -0.02118200808763504, 0.008102062158286572, -0.04162294417619705, 0.07029955834150314, -0.018091540783643723, -0.051664602011442184, -0.03935770317912102, -0.039183177053928375, -0.004345461260527372, -0.00020159644191153347, -0.031108558177947998, -0.016591617837548256, -0.04876331239938736, -0.028877325356006622, -0.04181652516126633, 0.02497262693941593, -0.022863032296299934, 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255,"more giant planets tends to induce larger eccentricities . The axial tilt of Jupiter is 3.13° , which is relatively small , so its seasons are insignificant compared to those of Earth and Mars .Jupiter's rotation is the fastest of all the Solar System's planets, completing a rotation on its axis in slightly less than ten hours; this creates an equatorial bulge easily seen through an amateur telescope. Because Jupiter is not a solid body, its upper atmosphere undergoes differential rotation. The rotation of Jupiter's polar atmosphere is about five minutes longer than that of the equatorial atmosphere. The planet is an oblate spheroid, meaning that the diameter across its equator is longer than the diameter measured between its poles. On Jupiter, the equatorial diameter is 9,276 km (5,764 mi) longer than the polar diameter. Three systems are used as frames of reference for tracking planetary rotation, particularly when graphing the motion of atmospheric features. System I applies to latitudes from 7° N to 7° S; its period is the planet's shortest, at 9h 50 m 30.0s. System II applies at latitudes north and south of these; its period is 9h 55 m 40.6s. System III was defined by radio astronomers and corresponds to the rotation of the planet's magnetosphere; its period is Jupiter's official rotation. Observation
Jupiter is usually the fourth-brightest object in the sky (after the Sun, the Moon, and Venus), although at opposition Mars can appear brighter than Jupiter. Depending on Jupiter's position with respect to the Earth, it can vary in visual magnitude from as bright as −2.94 at opposition down to −1.66 during conjunction with the Sun. The mean apparent magnitude is −2.20 with a standard deviation of 0.33. The angular diameter of Jupiter likewise varies from 50.1 to 30.5 arc seconds.","[0.03881317004561424, -0.05257062986493111, -0.03806174546480179, -0.06339753419160843, 0.10360352694988251, -0.08100134134292603, -0.07339005917310715, 0.065546415746212, 0.04538688808679581, -0.03738311678171158, -0.012971334159374237, 0.023664012551307678, 0.03002571314573288, -0.07584810256958008, 0.07032009959220886, -0.06452762335538864, -0.022907555103302002, 0.039018940180540085, -0.015011911280453205, 0.014384625479578972, -0.00972193293273449, 0.04016305133700371, -0.0467752143740654, 0.12404501438140869, -0.06825783848762512, -0.020163387060165405, -0.060443487018346786, -0.03659162297844887, -0.06934329867362976, -0.030133606866002083, -0.04825558885931969, 0.07873468101024628, 0.062183309346437454, -0.02479180134832859, -0.10890458524227142, -0.032253868877887726, 0.042651720345020294, -0.045912642031908035, -0.05413379892706871, -0.02543715573847294, 0.033061135560274124, 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-0.010325281880795956]",Jupiter,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.
256,"to −1.66 during conjunction with the Sun . The mean apparent magnitude is −2.20 with a standard deviation of 0.33 . The angular diameter of Jupiter likewise varies from 50.1 to 30.5 arc seconds .Favourable oppositions occur when Jupiter is passing through the perihelion of its orbit, bringing it closer to Earth. Near opposition, Jupiter will appear to go into retrograde motion for a period of about 121 days, moving backward through an angle of 9.9° before returning to prograde movement. Because the orbit of Jupiter is outside that of Earth, the phase angle of Jupiter as viewed from Earth is always less than 11.5°; thus, Jupiter always appears nearly fully illuminated when viewed through Earth-based telescopes. It was during spacecraft missions to Jupiter that crescent views of the planet were obtained. A small telescope will usually show Jupiter's four Galilean moons and the cloud belts across Jupiter's atmosphere. A larger telescope with an aperture of 4–6 inches (10–15 cm) will show Jupiter's Great Red Spot when it faces Earth. History
Pre-telescopic research
Observations of Jupiter are attested with the Babylonian astronomers during the 7th–8th centuries BC. The ancient Chinese knew Jupiter as the 'sui star' (Suìxīng 歲星) and established their cycle of twelve earthly branches based on the approximate number of years it takes Jupiter to revolve around the Sun; the Chinese language still uses its name (歲; simplified as 岁) when referring to years of age. By the 4th century BC, these observations had developed into the Chinese zodiac, and each year became associated with a Tai Sui star and god controlling the region of the heavens opposite Jupiter's position in the night sky. These beliefs survive in some Taoist and folk religious practices and in the East Asian zodiac's twelve animals.","[-0.015640782192349434, -0.01817425712943077, -0.011950029991567135, 0.02079416997730732, 0.06160185858607292, -0.08951245993375778, -0.06905350834131241, 0.07333715260028839, 0.056019023060798645, -0.026012107729911804, -0.025046711787581444, -0.043562013655900955, 0.019259801134467125, -0.042346298694610596, 0.01144885178655386, -0.08894428610801697, 0.0779786929488182, -0.008463259786367416, -0.0104200579226017, -0.03023812361061573, -0.048863209784030914, -0.026506459340453148, -0.022099748253822327, 0.008021963760256767, -0.009944845922291279, -0.028805572539567947, 0.011869842186570168, -0.09809219837188721, -0.026797905564308167, -0.014640587382018566, -0.061744000762701035, 0.053593382239341736, -0.004448955412954092, 0.016537684947252274, -0.09945675730705261, -0.02116752415895462, 0.04909330978989601, -0.004925912246108055, 0.02438095398247242, 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257,"controlling the region of the heavens opposite Jupiter 's position in the night sky . These beliefs survive in some Taoist and folk religious practices and in the East Asian zodiac 's twelve animals .The Chinese historian Xi Zezong has claimed that Gan De, an ancient Chinese astronomer, reported a small star ""in alliance"" with the planet, which may indicate a sighting of one of Jupiter's moons with the unaided eye. If true, this would predate Galileo's discovery by nearly two millennia. A 2016 paper reports that trapezoidal rule was used by Babylonians before 50 BC for integrating the velocity of Jupiter along the ecliptic. In his 2nd century work the Almagest, the Hellenistic astronomer Claudius Ptolemaeus constructed a geocentric planetary model based on deferents and epicycles to explain Jupiter's motion relative to Earth, giving its orbital period around Earth as 4332.38 days, or 11.86 years. Ground-based telescope research
In 1610, Italian polymath Galileo Galilei discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter (now known as the Galilean moons) using a telescope. This is thought to be the first telescopic observation of moons other than Earth's. Just one day after Galileo, Simon Marius independently discovered moons around Jupiter, though he did not publish his discovery in a book until 1614. It was Marius's names for the major moons, however, that stuck: Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. The discovery was a major point in favour of the heliocentric theory of the motions of the planets by Nicolaus Copernicus; Galileo's outspoken support of the Copernican theory led to him being tried and condemned by the Inquisition. In the autumn of 1639, the Neapolitan optician Francesco Fontana tested a 22-palm telescope of his own making and discovered the characteristic bands of the planet's atmosphere.","[-0.022926991805434227, -0.01713726483285427, 0.006468733306974173, -0.002012016950175166, -0.011401418596506119, -0.14794926345348358, -0.03462377190589905, 0.05382366105914116, 0.00044755585258826613, -0.047173745930194855, 0.0049052913673222065, -0.05500330775976181, 0.0017297290032729506, -0.062205009162425995, -0.03314891830086708, -0.03456313908100128, -0.04083123430609703, 0.006379247643053532, 0.05049898475408554, -0.051753103733062744, -0.08125660568475723, -0.06934056431055069, 0.00316951354034245, 0.045021288096904755, 0.014375473372638226, 0.027803538367152214, 0.01917341910302639, -0.10720080137252808, -0.03336596488952637, 0.03389529511332512, -0.0052980962209403515, 0.0581132136285305, -0.04552937671542168, 0.026268767192959785, -0.12059534341096878, 0.03255382180213928, 0.01779785379767418, 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258,"condemned by the Inquisition . In the autumn of 1639 , the Neapolitan optician Francesco Fontana tested a 22-palm telescope of his own making and discovered the characteristic bands of the planet 's atmosphere .During the 1660s, Giovanni Cassini used a new telescope to discover spots in Jupiter's atmosphere, observe that the planet appeared oblate, and estimate its rotation period. In 1692, Cassini noticed that the atmosphere undergoes a differential rotation. The Great Red Spot may have been observed as early as 1664 by Robert Hooke and in 1665 by Cassini, although this is disputed. The pharmacist Heinrich Schwabe produced the earliest known drawing to show details of the Great Red Spot in 1831. The Red Spot was reportedly lost from sight on several occasions between 1665 and 1708 before becoming quite conspicuous in 1878. It was recorded as fading again in 1883 and at the start of the 20th century. Both Giovanni Borelli and Cassini made careful tables of the motions of Jupiter's moons, which allowed predictions of when the moons would pass before or behind the planet. By the 1670s, Cassini observed that when Jupiter was on the opposite side of the Sun from Earth, these events would occur about 17 minutes later than expected. Ole Rømer deduced that light does not travel instantaneously (a conclusion that Cassini had earlier rejected), and this timing discrepancy was used to estimate the speed of light. In 1892, E. E. Barnard observed a fifth satellite of Jupiter with the 36-inch (910 mm) refractor at Lick Observatory in California. This moon was later named Amalthea. It was the last planetary moon to be discovered directly by a visual observer through a telescope. An additional eight satellites were discovered before the flyby of the Voyager 1 probe in 1979. In 1932, Rupert Wildt identified absorption bands of ammonia and methane in the spectra of Jupiter.","[-0.0044018421322107315, -0.023616885766386986, -0.022250808775424957, 0.07330267876386642, 0.04150639846920967, -0.06305596977472305, 0.022638656198978424, 0.0763183981180191, -0.02348330430686474, -0.044950250536203384, -0.027057787403464317, -0.007330016233026981, 0.017441751435399055, -0.007433471269905567, -0.055814869701862335, -0.0382162369787693, -0.02132166549563408, 0.0026156886015087366, 0.05261643975973129, -0.047572676092386246, -0.03718305379152298, 0.018158670514822006, -0.020599525421857834, -0.02844240888953209, 0.0045092301443219185, 0.0007976440829224885, -0.0330304354429245, -0.07280731201171875, -0.013317637145519257, 0.008551288396120071, -0.05140719562768936, 0.02910470962524414, 0.00978145282715559, -0.004538662265986204, -0.014342011883854866, -0.03510793298482895, 0.0374688096344471, 0.018092572689056396, 0.0070113991387188435, -0.03507465496659279, 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259,"An additional eight satellites were discovered before the flyby of the Voyager 1 probe in 1979 . In 1932 , Rupert Wildt identified absorption bands of ammonia and methane in the spectra of Jupiter .Three long-lived anticyclonic features called ""white ovals"" were observed in 1938. For several decades, they remained as separate features in the atmosphere that approach each other but never merge. Finally, two of the ovals merged in 1998, then absorbed the third in 2000, becoming Oval BA. Radiotelescope research
In 1955, Bernard Burke and Kenneth Franklin discovered that Jupiter emits bursts of radio waves at a frequency of 22.2 MHz. The period of these bursts matched the rotation of the planet, and they used this information to determine a more precise value for Jupiter's rotation rate. Radio bursts from Jupiter were found to come in two forms: long bursts (or L-bursts) lasting up to several seconds, and short bursts (or S-bursts) lasting less than a hundredth of a second. Scientists have discovered three forms of radio signals transmitted from Jupiter:

Decametric radio bursts (with a wavelength of tens of metres) vary with the rotation of Jupiter, and are influenced by the interaction of Io with Jupiter's magnetic field. Decimetric radio emission (with wavelengths measured in centimetres) was first observed by Frank Drake and Hein Hvatum in 1959. The origin of this signal is a torus-shaped belt around Jupiter's equator, which generates cyclotron radiation from electrons that are accelerated in Jupiter's magnetic field. Thermal radiation is produced by heat in the atmosphere of Jupiter. Exploration
Jupiter has been visited by automated spacecraft since 1973, when the space probe Pioneer 10 passed close enough to Jupiter to send back revelations about its properties and phenomena.","[0.03043452277779579, -0.04773455858230591, -0.0501532107591629, 0.040728870779275894, 0.07907046377658844, -0.08993712067604065, -0.016509853303432465, 0.052567750215530396, 0.020379791036248207, -0.05515999719500542, -0.041782818734645844, 0.003689915407449007, 0.05157754197716713, -0.024198085069656372, 0.06897391378879547, -0.030774928629398346, -0.012841101735830307, -0.11546731740236282, 0.023564618080854416, -0.01986357569694519, -0.06185292452573776, 0.010263878852128983, -0.022691380232572556, 0.006975184194743633, 0.03776894882321358, -0.007542528212070465, 0.0263384860008955, -0.09329133480787277, -0.009718825109302998, 0.04123586788773537, 0.04352692887187004, 0.09538427740335464, 0.02766166813671589, 0.03005257435142994, -0.06480450928211212, -0.06631436198949814, 0.06541092693805695, 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260,"of Jupiter . Exploration Jupiter has been visited by automated spacecraft since 1973 , when the space probe Pioneer 10 passed close enough to Jupiter to send back revelations about its properties and phenomena .Missions to Jupiter are accomplished at a cost in energy, which is described by the net change in velocity of the spacecraft, or delta-v. Entering a Hohmann transfer orbit from Earth to Jupiter from low Earth orbit requires a delta-v of 6.3 km/s, which is comparable to the 9.7 km/s delta-v needed to reach low Earth orbit. Gravity assists through planetary flybys can be used to reduce the energy required to reach Jupiter. Flyby missions
Beginning in 1973, several spacecraft performed planetary flyby manoeuvres that brought them within the observation range of Jupiter. The Pioneer missions obtained the first close-up images of Jupiter's atmosphere and several of its moons. They discovered that the radiation fields near the planet were much stronger than expected, but both spacecraft managed to survive in that environment. The trajectories of these spacecraft were used to refine the mass estimates of the Jovian system. Radio occultations by the planet resulted in better measurements of Jupiter's diameter and the amount of polar flattening. Six years later, the Voyager missions vastly improved the understanding of the Galilean moons and discovered Jupiter's rings. They also confirmed that the Great Red Spot was anticyclonic. Comparison of images showed that the Spot had changed hues since the Pioneer missions, turning from orange to dark brown. A torus of ionized atoms was discovered along Io's orbital path, which were found to come from erupting volcanoes on the moon's surface. As the spacecraft passed behind the planet, it observed flashes of lightning in the night side atmosphere. The next mission to encounter Jupiter was the Ulysses solar probe. In February 1992, it performed a flyby manoeuvre to attain a polar orbit around the Sun.","[-0.005451449193060398, -0.009503444656729698, -0.02969457022845745, 0.018637018278241158, 0.08596005290746689, -0.09474454075098038, 0.011632837355136871, 0.041298557072877884, -0.05180296301841736, 0.036339160054922104, -0.020852569490671158, -0.029669469222426414, -0.01248935516923666, -0.07820145040750504, 0.011584586463868618, 0.004905241075903177, 0.04348659887909889, -0.028372913599014282, 0.0006028020870871842, -0.03838098794221878, -0.051083195954561234, 0.021658021956682205, -0.0110047971829772, 0.0076753608882427216, 0.008807827718555927, -0.008251369930803776, -0.04021822288632393, -0.05625667795538902, 0.004445582628250122, 0.004818974528461695, -0.01852075383067131, 0.05232781171798706, -0.0691293329000473, -0.02667888253927231, -0.09133224934339523, 0.06717876344919205, 0.013928775675594807, -0.0444323755800724, -0.053480397909879684, -0.04343211650848389, -0.010849702171981335, 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261,"the night side atmosphere . The next mission to encounter Jupiter was the Ulysses solar probe . In February 1992 , it performed a flyby manoeuvre to attain a polar orbit around the Sun .During this pass, the spacecraft studied Jupiter's magnetosphere, although it had no cameras to photograph the planet. The spacecraft passed by Jupiter six years later, this time at a much greater distance. In 2000, the Cassini probe flew by Jupiter on its way to Saturn, and provided higher-resolution images. The New Horizons probe flew by Jupiter in 2007 for a gravity assist en route to Pluto. The probe's cameras measured plasma output from volcanoes on Io and studied all four Galilean moons in detail. Galileo mission
The first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter was the Galileo mission, which reached the planet on December 7, 1995. It remained in orbit for over seven years, conducting multiple flybys of all the Galilean moons and Amalthea. The spacecraft also witnessed the impact of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 when it collided with Jupiter in 1994. Some of the goals for the mission were thwarted due to a malfunction in Galileos high-gain antenna. A 340-kilogram titanium atmospheric probe was released from the spacecraft in July 1995, entering Jupiter's atmosphere on December 7. It parachuted through 150 km (93 mi) of the atmosphere at a speed of about 2,575 km/h (1,600 mph) and collected data for 57.6 minutes until the spacecraft was destroyed. The Galileo orbiter itself experienced a more rapid version of the same fate when it was deliberately steered into the planet on September 21, 2003. NASA destroyed the spacecraft to avoid any possibility of the spacecraft crashing into and possibly contaminating the moon Europa, which may harbour life. Data from this mission revealed that hydrogen composes up to 90% of Jupiter's atmosphere.","[-0.028210191056132317, -0.08001765608787537, 0.0013857466401532292, 0.04070599749684334, 0.11055941134691238, -0.1139407604932785, -0.0048033506609499454, 0.015908002853393555, -0.034308403730392456, -0.012976481579244137, -0.0230606310069561, -0.015265746042132378, -0.022782685235142708, -0.006638074293732643, -0.07454231381416321, -0.021920843049883842, 0.049000561237335205, -0.08225478231906891, 0.03927938640117645, -0.022222012281417847, -0.05295853689312935, -0.010266737081110477, 0.01577010191977024, 0.007716423366218805, -0.013798885978758335, -0.0015089784283190966, -0.004750813357532024, -0.11356643587350845, -0.0792359858751297, 0.01749487780034542, -0.0321132093667984, 0.011856665834784508, -0.1072092205286026, 0.016194894909858704, -0.005951192229986191, 0.05652577057480812, 0.062147147953510284, -0.037220317870378494, -0.03012196160852909, -0.07587695866823196, 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262,"possibility of the spacecraft crashing into and possibly contaminating the moon Europa , which may harbour life . Data from this mission revealed that hydrogen composes up to 90 % of Jupiter 's atmosphere .The recorded temperature was more than 300 °C (572 °F), and the wind speed measured more than 644 km/h (>400 mph) before the probes vaporized. Juno mission
NASA's Juno mission arrived at Jupiter on July 4, 2016, with the goal of studying the planet in detail from a polar orbit. The spacecraft was originally intended to orbit Jupiter thirty-seven times over a period of twenty months. During the mission, the spacecraft will be exposed to high levels of radiation from Jupiter's magnetosphere, which may cause the failure of certain instruments. On August 27, 2016, the spacecraft completed its first flyby of Jupiter and sent back the first-ever images of Jupiter's north pole. Juno completed 12 orbits before the end of its budgeted mission plan, ending in July 2018. In June of that year, NASA extended the mission operations plan to July 2021, and in January of that year the mission was extended to September 2025 with four lunar flybys: one of Ganymede, one of Europa, and two of Io. When Juno reaches the end of the mission, it will perform a controlled deorbit and disintegrate into Jupiter's atmosphere to avoid the risk of colliding and contaminating Jupiter's moons. Cancelled missions and future plans
There is an interest in missions to study Jupiter's larger icy moons, which may have subsurface liquid oceans. Funding difficulties have delayed progress, causing NASA's JIMO (Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter) to be cancelled in 2005. A subsequent proposal was developed for a joint NASA/ESA mission called EJSM/Laplace, with a provisional launch date around 2020.","[-0.0021910173818469048, -0.10090992599725723, 0.03364642336964607, -0.003369982587173581, 0.0704299733042717, -0.10762929171323776, -0.055847663432359695, -0.027465809136629105, -0.02213652990758419, -0.025923339650034904, 0.012656382285058498, -0.028202833607792854, 0.01839304156601429, -0.059753384441137314, 0.01409972459077835, 0.0055695935152471066, 0.024540776386857033, -0.08363056927919388, -0.03307782858610153, -0.041729073971509933, -0.05244337394833565, 0.0016441625775769353, -0.03086364082992077, 0.029246438294649124, -0.0272381529211998, 0.04461856558918953, -0.02412516064941883, -0.12218644469976425, -0.04086104407906532, 0.04514526203274727, 0.022496391087770462, 0.072350412607193, -0.0563751645386219, 0.05388931185007095, -0.08528587967157364, 0.02334311045706272, 0.003143796930089593, -0.12670738995075226, -0.006079606246203184, 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263,"'s JIMO ( Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter ) to be cancelled in 2005 . A subsequent proposal was developed for a joint NASA/ESA mission called EJSM/Laplace , with a provisional launch date around 2020 .EJSM/Laplace would have consisted of the NASA-led Jupiter Europa Orbiter and the ESA-led Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter. However, the ESA formally ended the partnership in April 2011, citing budget issues at NASA and the consequences on the mission timetable. Instead, ESA planned to go ahead with a European-only mission to compete in its L1 Cosmic Vision selection. These plans have been realized as the European Space Agency's Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer (JUICE), launched on April 14, 2023, followed by NASA's Europa Clipper mission, launched on October 14, 2024. Other proposed missions include the Chinese National Space Administration's Tianwen-4 mission which aims to launch an orbiter to the Jovian system and possibly Callisto around 2035, and CNSA's Interstellar Express and NASA's Interstellar Probe, which would both use Jupiter's gravity to help them reach the edges of the heliosphere. Moons
Jupiter has 97 known natural satellites, and it is likely that this number will go up due to increasing telescopic observations. Of these, only 16 are larger than 10 km in diameter. The four largest moons, known as the Galilean moons, are Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa (in order of decreasing size), and are visible from Earth with binoculars on a clear night. Galilean moons
The moons discovered by Galileo—Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto—are among the largest in the Solar System. The orbits of Io, Europa, and Ganymede form a pattern known as a Laplace resonance; for every four orbits that Io makes around Jupiter, Europa makes exactly two orbits and Ganymede makes exactly one.","[-0.09637630730867386, -0.0871838852763176, 0.026366770267486572, 0.0037245771382004023, 0.04612019658088684, -0.06158226355910301, -0.05650017037987709, 0.040122248232364655, -0.005717233754694462, 0.012325132265686989, -0.0011094525689259171, -0.032053835690021515, -0.010155628435313702, 0.009150027297437191, 0.010365577414631844, 0.025116270408034325, 0.004063713829964399, -0.0380498506128788, -0.02030324749648571, -0.05815670266747475, -0.0024707072880119085, -0.03996456414461136, -0.03240109980106354, -0.03665797412395477, -0.06043756380677223, 0.038345374166965485, 0.024264127016067505, -0.058770086616277695, -0.05347995460033417, 0.02466977760195732, 0.004968860186636448, -0.020551029592752457, -0.05221867188811302, 0.023866083472967148, -0.02467440254986286, 0.02093484252691269, 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264,", Europa , and Ganymede form a pattern known as a Laplace resonance ; for every four orbits that Io makes around Jupiter , Europa makes exactly two orbits and Ganymede makes exactly one .This resonance causes the gravitational effects of the three large moons to distort their orbits into elliptical shapes, because each moon receives an extra tug from its neighbours at the same point in every orbit it makes. The tidal force from Jupiter, on the other hand, works to circularize their orbits. The eccentricity of their orbits causes regular flexing of the three moons' shapes, with Jupiter's gravity stretching them out as they approach it and allowing them to spring back to more spherical shapes as they swing away. The friction created by this tidal flexing generates heat in the interior of the moons. This is seen most dramatically in the volcanic activity of Io (which is subject to the strongest tidal forces), and to a lesser degree in the geological youth of Europa's surface, which indicates recent resurfacing of the moon's exterior. Classification
Jupiter's moons were classified into four groups of four, based on their similar orbital elements. This picture has been complicated by the discovery of numerous small outer moons since 1999. Jupiter's moons are divided into several different groups, although there are two known moons which are not part of any group (Themisto and Valetudo). The eight innermost regular moons, which have nearly circular orbits near the plane of Jupiter's equator, are thought to have formed alongside Jupiter, while the remainder are irregular moons and are thought to be captured asteroids or fragments of captured asteroids. The irregular moons within each group may have a common origin, perhaps as a larger moon or captured body that broke up.","[0.010557124391198158, -0.07459753751754761, 0.056456562131643295, 0.03424384444952011, 0.04209937900304794, -0.06260684877634048, -0.06812355667352676, -0.0066529978066682816, 0.05258043110370636, -0.05383798107504845, -0.07021717727184296, -0.09827985614538193, 0.008586877956986427, -0.10798324644565582, 0.026232212781906128, -0.017435643821954727, -0.028258217498660088, 0.03513699769973755, -0.02700411155819893, -0.007648970000445843, -0.0069841681979596615, -0.08655551075935364, -0.019891129806637764, 0.005019691772758961, -0.08827801048755646, 0.04754584655165672, -0.0032058630604296923, -0.0455189123749733, 0.008062560111284256, -0.06122070550918579, 0.020323941484093666, 0.04326871782541275, -0.0845797061920166, 0.004006014671176672, -0.0381745919585228, -0.03118940442800522, -0.062327008694410324, 0.003982523921877146, -0.05097397044301033, 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0.015284876339137554]",Jupiter,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.
265,"thought to be captured asteroids or fragments of captured asteroids . The irregular moons within each group may have a common origin , perhaps as a larger moon or captured body that broke up .Interaction with the Solar System
As the most massive of the eight planets, the gravitational influence of Jupiter has helped shape the Solar System. With the exception of Mercury, the orbits of the system's planets lie closer to Jupiter's orbital plane than the Sun's equatorial plane. The Kirkwood gaps in the asteroid belt are mostly caused by Jupiter, and the planet may have been responsible for the Late Heavy Bombardment in the inner Solar System's history. In addition to its moons, Jupiter's gravitational field controls numerous asteroids that have settled around the Lagrangian points that precede and follow the planet in its orbit around the Sun. These are known as the Trojan asteroids, and are divided into Greek and Trojan ""camps"" to honour the Iliad. The first of these, 588 Achilles, was discovered by Max Wolf in 1906; since then more than two thousand have been discovered. The largest is 624 Hektor. The Jupiter family is defined as comets that have a semi-major axis smaller than Jupiter's; most short-period comets belong to this group. Members of the Jupiter family are thought to form in the Kuiper belt outside the orbit of Neptune. During close encounters with Jupiter, they are perturbed into orbits with a smaller period, which then becomes circularized by regular gravitational interactions with the Sun and Jupiter. Impacts
Jupiter has been called the Solar System's vacuum cleaner because of its immense gravity well and location near the inner Solar System. There are more impacts on Jupiter, such as comets, than on any other planet in the Solar System. For example, Jupiter experiences about 200 times more asteroid and comet impacts than Earth.","[0.0011571388458833098, -0.03775705769658089, -0.013292958959937096, 0.0005557473632507026, 0.06301379948854446, -0.08521959185600281, -0.022906001657247543, 0.06226907670497894, 0.0016321089351549745, 0.05449960380792618, -0.004333392716944218, 0.043142206966876984, 0.029901904985308647, -0.08150803297758102, -0.010911744087934494, -0.04334466531872749, -0.040995970368385315, -0.038880687206983566, -0.014686571434140205, 0.029787082225084305, -0.04917294904589653, -0.030540019273757935, -0.08771959692239761, 0.034138794988393784, -0.07827748358249664, 0.05770878121256828, -0.003490365343168378, -0.039150167256593704, -0.07492604851722717, -0.03895953297615051, -0.009249950759112835, -0.016078637912869453, 0.01949387416243553, 0.01181747019290924, -0.033892109990119934, 0.04539978504180908, -0.010649904608726501, -0.034225281327962875, -0.04366900026798248, -0.004280499182641506, 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266,"more impacts on Jupiter , such as comets , than on any other planet in the Solar System . For example , Jupiter experiences about 200 times more asteroid and comet impacts than Earth .Scientists used to believe that Jupiter partially shielded the inner system from cometary bombardment. However, computer simulations in 2008 suggest that Jupiter does not cause a net decrease in the number of comets that pass through the inner Solar System, as its gravity perturbs their orbits inward roughly as often as it accretes or ejects them. This topic remains controversial among scientists, as some think it draws comets towards Earth from the Kuiper belt, while others believe that Jupiter protects Earth from the Oort cloud. In July 1994, the Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 comet collided with Jupiter. The impacts were closely observed by observatories around the world, including the Hubble Space Telescope and Galileo spacecraft. The event was widely covered by the media. Surveys of early astronomical records and drawings produced eight examples of potential impact observations between 1664 and 1839. However, a 1997 review determined that these observations had little or no possibility of being the results of impacts. Further investigation by this team revealed a dark surface feature discovered by astronomer Giovanni Cassini in 1690 may have been an impact scar. In culture
The existence of the planet Jupiter has been known since ancient times. It is visible to the naked eye in the night sky and can be seen in the daytime when the Sun is low. To the Babylonians, this planet represented their god Marduk, chief of their pantheon from the Hammurabi period. They used Jupiter's roughly 12-year orbit along the ecliptic to define the constellations of their zodiac. The mythical Greek name for this planet is Zeus (Ζεύς), also referred to as Dias (Δίας), the planetary name of which is retained in modern Greek.","[-0.04727119952440262, -0.04051883891224861, 0.0872376337647438, 0.057870324701070786, 0.08892537653446198, -0.07904414087533951, 0.006842007860541344, 0.13909830152988434, -0.016421914100646973, -0.005659041926264763, -0.01565084233880043, -0.02418711967766285, -0.003305152291432023, -0.018181590363383293, -0.04854767769575119, -0.06156996637582779, 0.046972814947366714, -0.05055079981684685, -0.002258467022329569, 0.03179421275854111, -0.0714152380824089, 0.01905314065515995, -0.0643349215388298, -0.002989338245242834, 0.02713167853653431, 0.013408390805125237, 0.006281968671828508, -0.04167289286851883, -0.035487350076436996, -0.06186995282769203, -0.0215450432151556, 0.017916757613420486, -0.07594017684459686, -0.006343965884298086, 0.045611411333084106, -0.02100091427564621, 0.029061589390039444, 0.008679917082190514, 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267,"zodiac . The mythical Greek name for this planet is Zeus ( Ζεύς ) , also referred to as Dias ( Δίας ) , the planetary name of which is retained in modern Greek .The ancient Greeks knew the planet as Phaethon (Φαέθων), meaning ""shining one"" or ""blazing star"". The Greek myths of Zeus from the Homeric period showed particular similarities to certain Near-Eastern gods, including the Semitic El and Baal, the Sumerian Enlil, and the Babylonian god Marduk. The association between the planet and the Greek deity Zeus was drawn from Near Eastern influences and was fully established by the fourth century BC, as documented in the Epinomis of Plato and his contemporaries. The god Jupiter is the Roman counterpart of Zeus, and he is the principal god of Roman mythology. The Romans originally called Jupiter the ""star of Jupiter"" (Iuppiter Stella), as they believed it to be sacred to its namesake god. This name comes from the Proto-Indo-European vocative compound *Dyēu-pəter (nominative: *Dyēus-pətēr, meaning ""Father Sky-God"", or ""Father Day-God""). As the supreme god of the Roman pantheon, Jupiter was the god of thunder, lightning, and storms, and was called the god of light and sky. In Vedic astrology, Hindu astrologers named the planet after Brihaspati, the religious teacher of the gods, and called it ""Guru"", which means the ""Teacher"". In Central Asian Turkic myths, Jupiter is called Erendiz or Erentüz, from eren (of uncertain meaning) and yultuz (""star""). The Turks calculated the period of the orbit of Jupiter as 11 years and 300 days. They believed that some social and natural events connected to Erentüz's movements in the sky.","[-0.032136473804712296, 0.036563050001859665, 0.016473740339279175, 0.02012883871793747, 0.03256033733487129, -0.09633120149374008, 0.08733389526605606, 0.022711779922246933, 0.0781247541308403, -0.029134206473827362, -0.0633045956492424, -0.01669280417263508, -0.003676092717796564, -0.024910852313041687, -0.016240818426012993, -0.05479634925723076, -0.06872372329235077, 0.01882314123213291, 0.06349404156208038, 0.002090450143441558, 0.07320141047239304, -0.04246509075164795, -0.03498152643442154, 0.03272930532693863, 0.00460850028321147, 0.01655842363834381, 0.05671170353889465, -0.034946564584970474, -0.006294741295278072, 0.02080892212688923, 0.03471427783370018, -0.025564197450876236, 0.022482354193925858, -0.005980116780847311, -0.07776235789060593, -0.02097211964428425, 0.020189516246318817, 0.008804337121546268, -0.06964179128408432, -0.04242916777729988, 0.052821192890405655, 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268,". The Turks calculated the period of the orbit of Jupiter as 11 years and 300 days . They believed that some social and natural events connected to Erentüz 's movements in the sky .The Chinese, Vietnamese, Koreans, and Japanese called it the ""wood star"" (Chinese: 木星; pinyin: mùxīng), based on the Chinese Five Elements. In China, it became known as the ""year star"" （Chinese: 歲星; pinyin: suìxīng）, as Chinese astronomers noted that it jumped one zodiac constellation each year (with corrections). In some ancient Chinese writings, the years were, in principle, named in correlation with the Jovian zodiac signs. See also
Notes
References
Further reading
Bagenal, Fran; Dowling, Timothy E.; McKinnon, William B. (2006). Jupiter: The Planet, Satellites and Magnetosphere. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-52-103545-3 – via Google Books. Lohninger, Hans; et al. (November 2, 2005). ""Jupiter, As Seen By Voyager 1"". A Trip into Space. Virtual Institute of Applied Science. External links

Jupiter overview by NASA's Science Mission Directorate
How NASA's Juno probe changed everything we know about Jupiter. Scientific American, August 19, 2025
Simulation of the 62 moons of Jupiter from Tony Dunn's Gravity Simulator website. Photographs of Jupiter circa 1920s from the Lick Observatory Records Digital Archive, at the University of California, Santa Cruz Library's Digital Collections. Interactive 3D gravity simulation of the Jovian system. Video on YouTube of the 2010 Jupiter impact event by an amateur astronomer. ""Jupiter"" – In Our Time, BBC Radio 4
Animation on YouTube of the Juno spacecraft's flyby of Ganymede and Jupiter by NASA.","[-0.04740092530846596, 0.023531366139650345, 0.06557536870241165, 0.10212350636720657, -0.0014914273051545024, -0.05101218819618225, -0.01393421646207571, -0.03847332298755646, 0.03138090297579765, -0.0632956475019455, -0.0029931210447102785, -0.005749201402068138, 0.008670821785926819, -0.08204912394285202, 0.009434614330530167, -0.019884467124938965, -0.08307455480098724, -0.0060195536352694035, 0.07758014649152756, -0.02714594081044197, -0.0031800668220967054, -0.04863210394978523, -0.005641736555844545, 0.0218953974545002, 0.026350228115916252, -0.017530839890241623, 0.005906759761273861, -0.061416611075401306, 0.01209366787225008, 0.0344715416431427, 0.033153001219034195, 0.13023453950881958, -0.020331600680947304, 0.06553953140974045, -0.10033199191093445, 0.00011967293539782986, 0.01264430396258831, -0.07571639865636826, -0.04142563417553902, -0.0230079498142004, 0.042832065373659134, 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269," Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second largest in the Solar System, after Jupiter. It is a gas giant, with an average radius of about 9 times that of Earth. It has an eighth of the average density of Earth, but is over 95 times more massive. Even though Saturn is almost as big as Jupiter, Saturn has less than a third of its mass. Saturn orbits the Sun at a distance of 9.59 AU (1,434 million km), with an orbital period of 29.45 years. Saturn's interior is thought to be composed of a rocky core, surrounded by a deep layer of metallic hydrogen, an intermediate layer of liquid hydrogen and liquid helium, and an outer layer of gas. Saturn has a pale yellow hue, due to ammonia crystals in its upper atmosphere. An electrical current in the metallic hydrogen layer is thought to give rise to Saturn's planetary magnetic field, which is weaker than Earth's, but has a magnetic moment 580 times that of Earth because of Saturn's greater size. Saturn's magnetic field strength is about a twentieth that of Jupiter. The outer atmosphere is generally bland and lacking in contrast, although long-lived features can appear. Wind speeds on Saturn can reach 1,800 kilometres per hour (1,100 miles per hour). The planet has a bright and extensive system of rings, composed mainly of ice particles, with a smaller amount of rocky debris and dust. At least 274 moons orbit the planet, of which 63 are officially named; these do not include the hundreds of moonlets in the rings. Titan, Saturn's largest moon and the second largest in the Solar System, is larger (but less massive) than the planet Mercury and is the only moon in the Solar System that has a substantial atmosphere.","[0.025857212021946907, -0.01727873459458351, 0.010575995780527592, -0.008726431988179684, 0.10153254866600037, 0.03878447413444519, 0.05101028084754944, 0.0716065838932991, 0.004271172918379307, -0.012935356236994267, -0.12439874559640884, -0.041957251727581024, -0.026201093569397926, -0.01888974942266941, 0.02875465899705887, -0.04582695662975311, 0.07028695940971375, -0.06045398488640785, -0.017346706241369247, 0.02138379029929638, -0.004258001688867807, 0.03576873615384102, 0.027071760967373848, 0.004239710047841072, -0.013764665462076664, 0.059768132865428925, -0.04461289942264557, -0.014004108496010303, -0.05301233008503914, 0.021355587989091873, 0.014333214610815048, -0.018729666247963905, -0.005143317393958569, 0.03446885198354721, -0.06547456234693527, 0.004106360021978617, 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270,"and the second largest in the Solar System , is larger ( but less massive ) than the planet Mercury and is the only moon in the Solar System that has a substantial atmosphere .Name and symbol
Saturn is named after the Roman god of wealth and agriculture, who was the father of the god Jupiter. Its astronomical symbol () has been traced back to the Greek Oxyrhynchus Papyri, where it can be seen to be a Greek kappa-rho ligature with a horizontal stroke, as an abbreviation for Κρονος (Cronus), the Greek name for the planet (). It later came to look like a lower-case Greek eta, with the cross added at the top in the 16th century to Christianize this pagan symbol. The Romans named the seventh day of the week Saturday, Sāturni diēs, ""Saturn's Day"", for the planet Saturn. Physical characteristics
Saturn is a gas giant, composed predominantly of hydrogen and helium. It lacks a definite surface, though it is likely to have a solid core. The planet's rotation makes it an oblate spheroid—a ball flattened at the poles and bulging at the equator. Its equatorial radius is more than 10% larger than the polar radius: 60,268 km versus 54,364 km (37,449 mi versus 33,780 mi). Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune, the other giant planets in the Solar System, are less oblate. The combination of the bulge and the rotation rate means that the effective surface gravity along the equator, 8.96 m/s2, is 74% of what it is at the poles and is lower than the surface gravity of Earth. However, the equatorial escape velocity, nearly 36 km/s, is much higher than that of Earth. Saturn is the only planet of the Solar System that is less dense than water—about 30% less.","[-0.024650167673826218, 0.003692099591717124, 0.02829139679670334, 0.006950798910111189, 0.04531693831086159, -0.03699639439582825, 0.05933282524347305, 0.061396319419145584, 0.06850801408290863, -0.04915899783372879, -0.043344952166080475, -0.013442164286971092, -0.035926345735788345, -0.0025896031875163317, -0.020841699093580246, -0.07566365599632263, -0.05770288407802582, 0.01587212271988392, 0.024296531453728676, 0.01699698530137539, 0.015116414055228233, 0.030544152483344078, -0.017971184104681015, 0.06279455125331879, -0.004175463691353798, 0.10640407353639603, -0.014571379870176315, 0.011730317957699299, 0.016156068071722984, 0.05058128014206886, -0.016110286116600037, -0.024091044440865517, -0.017352228984236717, 0.009819774888455868, -0.05004679411649704, 0.014941253699362278, 0.032004546374082565, -0.024452438578009605, 0.007756914012134075, -0.0282758679240942, 0.035632770508527756, 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271,"equatorial escape velocity , nearly 36 km/s , is much higher than that of Earth . Saturn is the only planet of the Solar System that is less dense than water—about 30 % less .Although Saturn's core is considerably denser than water, the average specific density of the planet is 0.69 g/cm3, because of the atmosphere. Jupiter has 318 times Earth's mass, and Saturn is 95 times Earth's mass. Together, Jupiter and Saturn hold 92% of the total planetary mass in the Solar System. Internal structure
Despite consisting mostly of hydrogen and helium, most of Saturn's mass is not in the gas phase, because hydrogen becomes a non-ideal liquid when the density is above 0.01 g/cm3, which is reached at a radius containing 99.9% of Saturn's mass. The temperature, pressure, and density inside Saturn all rise steadily toward the core, which causes hydrogen to be a metal in the deeper layers. Standard planetary models suggest that the interior of Saturn is similar to that of Jupiter, having a small rocky core surrounded by hydrogen and helium, with trace amounts of various volatiles. Analysis of the distortion shows that Saturn is substantially more centrally condensed than Jupiter and therefore contains much more material denser than hydrogen near its center. Saturn's central regions are about 50% hydrogen by mass, and Jupiter's are about 67% hydrogen. This core is similar in composition to Earth, but is more dense. The examination of Saturn's gravitational moment, in combination with physical models of the interior, has allowed constraints to be placed on the mass of Saturn's core. In 2004, scientists estimated that the core must be 9–22 times the mass of Earth, which corresponds to a diameter of about 25,000 km (16,000 mi).","[0.02530800923705101, -0.04474388062953949, -0.013544900342822075, 0.013349898159503937, 0.12625297904014587, -0.009755047038197517, 0.059490349143743515, 0.084400475025177, 0.01706278882920742, 0.00549656106159091, -0.11860619485378265, -0.09101531654596329, 0.004293459001928568, -0.012674792669713497, 0.05953124538064003, -0.14332936704158783, 0.08649379760026932, -0.005299454554915428, -0.010185843333601952, 0.0300308745354414, -0.02345997467637062, 0.05505918338894844, 0.02765093557536602, 0.033613868057727814, 0.00116380222607404, 0.05370594561100006, -0.03524674475193024, 0.014395157806575298, -0.008597038686275482, -0.005736866965889931, -0.00304754008539021, -0.030316149815917015, 0.008801915682852268, 0.00547080859541893, -0.025096477940678596, -0.018307505175471306, -0.027413776144385338, -0.021819425746798515, 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0.10566852241754532]",Saturn,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.
272,"Saturn 's core . In 2004 , scientists estimated that the core must be 9–22 times the mass of Earth , which corresponds to a diameter of about 25,000 km ( 16,000 mi ) .Measurements of Saturn's rings suggest a much more diffuse core, with a mass equal to about 17 Earths and a radius equal to about 60% of Saturn's entire radius. This is surrounded by a thicker, liquid metallic hydrogen layer, followed by a liquid layer of helium-saturated molecular hydrogen, which gradually transitions to a gas as altitude increases. The outermost layer spans about 1,000 km (620 mi) and consists of gas. Saturn has a hot interior, reaching 11,700 °C (21,100 °F) at its core, and radiates 2.5 times more energy into space than it receives from the Sun. Jupiter's thermal energy is generated by the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism of slow gravitational compression; but such a process alone may not be sufficient to explain heat production for Saturn, because it is less massive. An alternative or additional mechanism may be the generation of heat through the ""raining out"" of droplets of helium deep in Saturn's interior. As the droplets descend through the lower-density hydrogen, the process releases heat by friction and leaves Saturn's outer layers depleted of helium. These descending droplets may have accumulated into a helium shell surrounding the core. Rainfalls of diamonds have been suggested to occur within Saturn, as well as in Jupiter and ice giants Uranus and Neptune. Atmosphere
The outer atmosphere of Saturn contains 96.3% molecular hydrogen and 3.25% helium by volume. The proportion of helium is significantly deficient compared to the abundance of this element in the Sun. The quantity of elements heavier than helium (metallicity) is not known precisely, but the proportions are assumed to match the primordial abundances from the formation of the Solar System.","[0.010344774462282658, -0.028081588447093964, -0.014205219224095345, 0.026121551170945168, 0.09947871416807175, -0.011839119717478752, 0.034122008830308914, 0.09132429957389832, -0.00027569473604671657, 0.017913667485117912, -0.10457035899162292, -0.09389399737119675, 0.004602487199008465, -0.027931641787290573, 0.025204533711075783, -0.06668540090322495, 0.08237600326538086, 0.019620772451162338, -0.03840334340929985, -0.06521571427583694, 0.03439394757151604, 0.02176058664917946, 0.023694587871432304, 0.02103036269545555, 0.035352546721696854, 0.04999559372663498, -0.03406662121415138, 0.018619220703840256, -0.02143043465912342, 0.09086468070745468, 0.024593563750386238, -0.06182439252734184, 0.007980797439813614, 0.04626152664422989, 0.0029284870252013206, 0.025150904431939125, 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0.11963313817977905]",Saturn,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.
273,"Sun . The quantity of elements heavier than helium ( metallicity ) is not known precisely , but the proportions are assumed to match the primordial abundances from the formation of the Solar System .The total mass of these heavier elements is estimated to be 19–31 times the mass of Earth, with a significant fraction located in Saturn's core region. Trace amounts of ammonia, acetylene, ethane, propane, phosphine, and methane have been detected in Saturn's atmosphere. The upper clouds are composed of ammonia crystals, while the lower level clouds appear to consist of either ammonium hydrosulfide (NH4SH) or water. Ultraviolet radiation from the Sun causes methane photolysis in the upper atmosphere, leading to a series of hydrocarbon chemical reactions with the resulting products being carried downward by eddies and diffusion. This photochemical cycle is modulated by Saturn's annual seasonal cycle. Cassini observed a series of cloud features found in northern latitudes, nicknamed the ""String of Pearls"". These features are cloud clearings that reside in deeper cloud layers. Cloud layers
Saturn's atmosphere exhibits a banded pattern similar to Jupiter's, but Saturn's bands are much fainter and are much wider near the equator. The nomenclature used to describe these bands is the same as on Jupiter. Saturn's finer cloud patterns were not observed until the flybys of the Voyager spacecraft during the 1980s. Since then, Earth-based telescopy has improved to the point where regular observations can be made. The composition of the clouds varies with depth and increasing pressure. In the upper cloud layers, with temperatures in the range of 100–160 K and pressures extending between 0.5–2 bar, the clouds consist of ammonia ice.","[-0.005429775919765234, -0.031558942049741745, 0.07630348950624466, 0.05595916137099266, 0.10819625109434128, -0.0030956710688769817, 0.10310373455286026, 0.03311537206172943, 0.04812878742814064, 0.0008653877885080874, -0.07842379808425903, -0.09723503887653351, -0.03143554925918579, -0.014809241518378258, -0.02772260643541813, -0.035624343901872635, 0.05822524055838585, -0.045749932527542114, -0.005326364189386368, 0.01143584307283163, 0.02587888389825821, 0.02437444217503071, -0.020958632230758667, 0.015105254016816616, 0.004908328410238028, 0.08413134515285492, -0.10058987140655518, -0.005834487266838551, -0.011312407441437244, -0.0065206605941057205, 0.038214150816202164, -0.014534026384353638, 0.045485127717256546, 0.00818766187876463, 9.830238559516147e-05, -0.01693984679877758, 0.006228355690836906, -0.0188828743994236, 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0.05411117896437645]",Saturn,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.
274,"varies with depth and increasing pressure . In the upper cloud layers , with temperatures in the range of 100–160 K and pressures extending between 0.5–2 bar , the clouds consist of ammonia ice .Water ice clouds begin at a level where the pressure is about 2.5 bar and extend down to 9.5 bar, where temperatures range from 185 to 270 K. Intermixed in this layer is a band of ammonium hydrosulfide ice, lying in the pressure range 3–6 bar with temperatures of 190–235 K. The lower layers, where pressures are between 10 and 20 bar and temperatures are 270–330 K, contains a region of water droplets with ammonia in aqueous solution. Saturn's usually bland atmosphere occasionally exhibits long-lived ovals and other features common on Jupiter. In 1990, the Hubble Space Telescope imaged an enormous white cloud near Saturn's equator that was not present during the Voyager encounters, and in 1994 another smaller storm was observed. The 1990 storm was an example of a Great White Spot, a short-lived phenomenon that occurs once every Saturnian year, roughly every 30 Earth years, around the time of the northern hemisphere's summer solstice. Previous Great White Spots were observed in 1876, 1903, 1933, and 1960, with the 1933 storm being the best observed. The latest giant storm was observed in 2010. In 2015, researchers used Very Large Array telescope to study Saturnian atmosphere, and reported that they found ""long-lasting signatures of all mid-latitude giant storms, a mixture of equatorial storms up to hundreds of years old, and potentially an unreported older storm at 70°N"". The winds on Saturn are the second fastest among the Solar System's planets, after Neptune's. Voyager data indicate peak easterly winds of 500 m/s (1,800 km/h). In images from the Cassini spacecraft during 2007, Saturn's northern hemisphere displayed a bright blue hue, similar to Uranus.","[-0.03655587136745453, 0.002132606692612171, 0.12895873188972473, 0.004853895399719477, 0.10124745219945908, -0.010105172172188759, 0.025616910308599472, 0.08583211898803711, 0.048408448696136475, -0.03532664477825165, -0.136464923620224, -0.04297145828604698, 0.044474322348833084, 0.015650777146220207, -0.0412481352686882, -0.0270246472209692, 0.02979264408349991, -0.09027833491563797, -0.04194061458110809, -0.015420345589518547, 0.0564141571521759, 0.054737579077482224, -0.0877654105424881, -0.016109524294734, -0.015952877700328827, 0.05516413226723671, -0.012093047611415386, -0.009516793303191662, 0.0423094816505909, 0.11352380365133286, -0.016636481508612633, -0.056970447301864624, -0.0004672034119721502, 0.03893274813890457, 0.007249895948916674, -0.06705914437770844, 0.03248828649520874, -0.04307571426033974, -0.04059118032455444, 0.002974997740238905, 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275,"indicate peak easterly winds of 500 m/s ( 1,800 km/h ) . In images from the Cassini spacecraft during 2007 , Saturn 's northern hemisphere displayed a bright blue hue , similar to Uranus .The color was most likely caused by Rayleigh scattering. Thermography has shown that Saturn's south pole has a warm polar vortex, the only known example of such a phenomenon in the Solar System. Whereas temperatures on Saturn are normally −185 °C, temperatures on the vortex often reach as high as −122 °C, suspected to be the warmest spot on Saturn. Hexagonal cloud patterns
A persisting hexagonal wave pattern around the north polar vortex in the atmosphere at about 78°N was first noted in the Voyager images. The sides of the hexagon are each about 14,500 km (9,000 mi) long, which is longer than the diameter of the Earth. The entire structure rotates with a period of 10h 39m 24s (the same period as that of the planet's radio emissions) which is assumed to be equal to the period of rotation of Saturn's interior. The hexagonal feature does not shift in longitude like the other clouds in the visible atmosphere. The pattern's origin is a matter of much speculation. Most scientists think it is a standing wave pattern in the atmosphere. Polygonal shapes have been replicated in the laboratory through differential rotation of fluids. HST imaging of the south polar region indicates the presence of a jet stream, but no strong polar vortex nor any hexagonal standing wave. NASA reported in November 2006 that Cassini had observed a ""hurricane-like"" storm locked to the south pole that had a clearly defined eyewall. Eyewall clouds had not previously been seen on any planet other than Earth. For example, images from the Galileo spacecraft did not show an eyewall in the Great Red Spot of Jupiter. The south pole storm may have been present for billions of years.","[0.008520170114934444, -0.0014560349518433213, 0.037418536841869354, -0.03451582416892052, 0.024056080728769302, 0.02025182545185089, 0.026395438238978386, 0.017099399119615555, 0.07491078227758408, 0.0158262737095356, -0.06327305734157562, 0.04045920819044113, -0.0043741390109062195, -0.04598069190979004, 0.030693355947732925, -0.04593278095126152, -0.009336479008197784, -0.049372632056474686, -0.004881537985056639, -0.03782028704881668, 0.008352087810635567, 0.0322260707616806, -0.09621992707252502, 0.017065485939383507, 0.007592995185405016, 0.1017148420214653, 0.0013569805305451155, -0.025798816233873367, 0.0019707963801920414, 0.050474900752305984, 0.003026537597179413, 0.05955599248409271, -0.03666260838508606, -0.015532105229794979, -0.024407867342233658, -0.04625934734940529, 0.037304382771253586, -0.022721223533153534, -0.04393522068858147, -0.003420933848246932, 0.0355689711868763, 0.03125573694705963, 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0.03671049699187279]",Saturn,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.
276,". For example , images from the Galileo spacecraft did not show an eyewall in the Great Red Spot of Jupiter . The south pole storm may have been present for billions of years .This vortex is comparable to the size of Earth, and it has winds of 550 km/h. Magnetosphere
Saturn has an intrinsic magnetic field that has a simple, symmetric shape—a magnetic dipole. Its strength at the equator—0.2 gauss (20 μT)—is approximately one twentieth of that of the field around Jupiter and slightly weaker than Earth's magnetic field. As a result, Saturn's magnetosphere is much smaller than Jupiter's. When Voyager 2 entered the magnetosphere, the solar wind pressure was high and the magnetosphere extended only 19 Saturn radii, or 1.1 million km (684,000 mi), although it enlarged within several hours, and remained so for about three days. Most probably, the magnetic field is generated similarly to that of Jupiter—by currents in the liquid metallic-hydrogen layer called a metallic-hydrogen dynamo. This magnetosphere is efficient at deflecting the solar wind particles from the Sun. The moon Titan orbits within the outer part of Saturn's magnetosphere and contributes plasma from the ionized particles in Titan's outer atmosphere. Saturn's magnetosphere, like Earth's, produces aurorae. Orbit and rotation
The average distance between Saturn and the Sun is over 1.4 billion kilometers (9 AU). With an average orbital speed of 9.68 km/s, it takes Saturn 10,759 Earth days (or about 29+1⁄2 years) to finish one revolution around the Sun. As a consequence, it forms a near 5:2 mean-motion resonance with Jupiter. The elliptical orbit of Saturn is inclined 2.48° relative to the orbital plane of the Earth. The perihelion and aphelion distances are, respectively, 9.195 and 9.957 AU, on average.","[0.014596781693398952, -0.020843688398599625, 0.048112913966178894, -0.021019546315073967, 0.13638253509998322, -0.008344706147909164, -0.019876960664987564, 0.03525638207793236, -0.004097067750990391, -0.03569107875227928, -0.08161018043756485, 0.013325325213372707, 0.049635518342256546, -0.08261159807443619, 0.04298405349254608, -0.010384581983089447, 0.06543631106615067, -0.07797731459140778, 0.004555420484393835, -0.0007175642531365156, -0.023768240585923195, 0.010727343149483204, -0.022732652723789215, -0.002094223629683256, -0.03310343623161316, 0.04584265127778053, -0.08625848591327667, -0.09716493636369705, -0.054376937448978424, 0.011057987809181213, 0.006192506290972233, 0.02771558053791523, -0.09562937915325165, 0.004553687758743763, -0.09858248382806778, 0.002913478761911392, 0.05624925717711449, 0.030215635895729065, 0.005075216293334961, -0.005437547340989113, -0.024859445169568062, 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277,". The elliptical orbit of Saturn is inclined 2.48° relative to the orbital plane of the Earth . The perihelion and aphelion distances are , respectively , 9.195 and 9.957 AU , on average .The visible features on Saturn rotate at different rates depending on latitude, and multiple rotation periods have been assigned to various regions (as in Jupiter's case). Astronomers use three different systems for specifying the rotation rate of Saturn. System I has a period of 10h 14m 00s (844.3°/d) and encompasses the Equatorial Zone, the South Equatorial Belt, and the North Equatorial Belt. The polar regions are considered to have rotation rates similar to System I. All other Saturnian latitudes, excluding the north and south polar regions, are indicated as System II and have been assigned a rotation period of 10h 38m 25.4s (810.76°/d). System III refers to Saturn's internal rotation rate. Based on radio emissions from the planet detected by Voyager 1 and Voyager 2, System III has a rotation period of 10h 39m 22.4s (810.8°/d). System III has largely superseded System II. A precise value for the rotation period of the interior remains elusive. While approaching Saturn in 2004, Cassini found that the radio rotation period of Saturn had increased appreciably, to approximately 10h 45m 45s ±  36s. An estimate of Saturn's rotation (as an indicated rotation rate for Saturn as a whole) based on a compilation of various measurements from the Cassini, Voyager, and Pioneer probes is 10h 32m 35s. Studies of the planet's C Ring yield a rotation period of 10h 33m 38s + 1m 52s− 1m 19s . In March 2007, it was found that the variation in radio emissions from the planet did not match Saturn's rotation rate. This variance may be caused by geyser activity on Saturn's moon Enceladus.","[0.012081504799425602, -0.08211854100227356, -0.03359651565551758, -0.11946776509284973, 0.04560118168592453, -0.030291344970464706, -0.024922054260969162, 0.07467979192733765, 0.1283511519432068, -0.018350405618548393, 0.018751800060272217, 0.040814511477947235, 0.04157071188092232, -0.019900880753993988, 0.03551502525806427, -0.06271664798259735, -0.004682221449911594, 0.02638670802116394, 0.008397732861340046, -0.003301073797047138, 0.01798275299370289, 0.04557475447654724, 0.0011387959821149707, 0.03639448434114456, -0.014420269057154655, 0.032066505402326584, -0.06514762341976166, -0.033922452479600906, -0.049588147550821304, 0.027568409219384193, 0.0009844586020335555, 0.009848236106336117, 0.015695562586188316, -0.03334277495741844, -0.09141719341278076, -0.08735094964504242, 0.03867188096046448, -0.07922564446926117, -0.01838519424200058, 0.021294841542840004, 0.03352326527237892, 0.10868604481220245, 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278,", it was found that the variation in radio emissions from the planet did not match Saturn 's rotation rate . This variance may be caused by geyser activity on Saturn 's moon Enceladus .The water vapor emitted into Saturn's orbit by this activity becomes charged and creates a drag upon Saturn's magnetic field, slowing its rotation slightly relative to the rotation of the planet. Saturn only has one known trojan asteroid, designated 2019 UO14, whose trojan configuration was announced in September 2024, orbiting the Sun at the stable L4 Lagrange point 60° ahead of the planet along its orbit. This discovery leaves only Mercury without any known trojans at all. Orbital resonance mechanisms, including secular resonance, are believed to be the cause of the low number of known Saturnian trojans. Natural satellites
Saturn has 274 known moons, 63 of which have formal names. There is evidence of dozens to hundreds of moonlets with diameters of 40–500 meters in Saturn's rings, which are not considered to be true moons. Titan, the largest moon, comprises more than 90% of the mass in orbit around Saturn, including the rings. Saturn's second-largest moon, Rhea, may have a tenuous ring system of its own, along with a tenuous atmosphere. Many of the other moons are small: 131 are less than 50 km in diameter. Traditionally, most of Saturn's moons have been named after Titans of Greek mythology. Titan is the only satellite in the Solar System with a major atmosphere, in which a complex organic chemistry occurs. It is the only satellite with hydrocarbon lakes. On 6 June 2013, scientists at the IAA-CSIC reported the detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the upper atmosphere of Titan, a possible precursor for life.","[0.02961237169802189, -0.03163694590330124, 0.005243645049631596, -0.03578786924481392, 0.03362972289323807, -0.07403890788555145, 0.03283173218369484, 0.05686624348163605, 0.03939713537693024, 0.0024800701066851616, -0.042795974761247635, 0.03540487214922905, 0.04459688067436218, 0.0046372320502996445, -0.06399156153202057, -0.020740823820233345, 0.004047987051308155, -0.0026542716659605503, -0.008463772013783455, 0.005492761731147766, -0.03589840978384018, -0.020432576537132263, -0.06228145584464073, 0.012452879920601845, -0.07418719679117203, 0.08038059622049332, 0.014768281951546669, -0.01201957743614912, -0.04949244111776352, 0.006611866410821676, 0.024464497342705727, -0.015385306440293789, -0.043607305735349655, -0.059391193091869354, -0.06098627671599388, -0.0400804840028286, -0.09142663329839706, 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279,"only satellite with hydrocarbon lakes . On 6 June 2013 , scientists at the IAA-CSIC reported the detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the upper atmosphere of Titan , a possible precursor for life .On 23 June 2014, NASA claimed to have strong evidence that nitrogen in the atmosphere of Titan came from materials in the Oort cloud, associated with comets, and not from the materials that formed Saturn in earlier times. Saturn's moon Enceladus, which seems similar in chemical makeup to comets, has often been regarded as a potential habitat for microbial life. Evidence of this possibility includes the satellite's salt-rich particles having an ""ocean-like"" composition that indicates most of Enceladus's expelled ice comes from the evaporation of liquid salt water. A 2015 flyby by Cassini through a plume on Enceladus found most of the ingredients to sustain life forms that live by methanogenesis. In April 2014, NASA scientists reported the possible beginning of a new moon within the A Ring, which was imaged by Cassini on 15 April 2013. Planetary rings
Saturn is probably best known for the system of planetary rings that makes it visually unique. The rings extend from 6,630 to 120,700 kilometres (4,120 to 75,000 mi) outward from Saturn's equator and average approximately 20 metres (66 ft) in thickness. They are composed predominantly of water ice, with trace amounts of tholin impurities and a peppered coating of approximately 7% amorphous carbon. The particles that make up the rings range in size from specks of dust up to 10 m. While the other gas giants also have ring systems, Saturn's is the largest and most visible. There is a debate on the age of the rings.","[-0.10137355327606201, -0.048228710889816284, 0.004692288115620613, -0.041217319667339325, 0.1284485012292862, -0.02939499169588089, 0.06916429102420807, 0.057547811418771744, 0.08646085858345032, 0.011139719747006893, -0.07149703055620193, -0.06237572059035301, -0.009329842403531075, -0.023863933980464935, -0.04907019063830376, 0.006488952320069075, 0.019191967323422432, -0.03483669087290764, -0.030551599338650703, -0.0053622224368155, 0.034562043845653534, 0.053090766072273254, -0.026132753118872643, -0.002189178252592683, 0.007735030259937048, 0.08633264899253845, 0.0013865872751921415, 0.015111691318452358, -0.04995542764663696, -0.010021387599408627, 0.03196799010038376, 0.04892965406179428, -0.05237885192036629, -0.03967505320906639, 0.02705845981836319, 0.06198258697986603, 0.0009551785187795758, -0.0016417666338384151, 0.048283666372299194, -0.033580437302589417, 0.0017286436632275581, 0.006097273901104927, 0.03872955963015556, 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280,"dust up to 10 m. While the other gas giants also have ring systems , Saturn 's is the largest and most visible . There is a debate on the age of the rings .One side supports that they are ancient, and were created simultaneously with Saturn from the original nebular material (around 4.6 billion years ago), or shortly after the LHB (around 4.1 to 3.8 billion years ago). The other side supports that they are much younger, created around 100 million years ago. An MIT research team, supporting the latter theory, proposed that the rings are remnant of a destroyed moon of Saturn, named ″Chrysalis″. Beyond the main rings, at a distance of 12 million km (7.5 million mi) from the planet is the sparse Phoebe ring. It is tilted at an angle of 27° to the other rings and, like Phoebe, orbits in retrograde fashion. Some of the moons of Saturn, including Pandora and Prometheus, act as shepherd moons to confine the rings and prevent them from spreading out. Pan and Atlas cause weak, linear density waves in Saturn's rings that have yielded more reliable calculations of their masses. History of observation and exploration
The observation and exploration of Saturn can be divided into three phases: (1) pre-modern observations with the naked eye, (2) telescopic observations from Earth beginning in the 17th century, and (3) visitation by space probes, in orbit or on flyby. In the 21st century, telescopic observations continue from Earth (including Earth-orbiting observatories like the Hubble Space Telescope) and, until its 2017 retirement, from the Cassini orbiter around Saturn. Pre-telescopic observation
Saturn has been known since prehistoric times, and in early recorded history it was a major character in various mythologies. Babylonian astronomers systematically observed and recorded the movements of Saturn.","[-0.03717022389173508, -0.006381737068295479, 0.01644330658018589, -0.011591333895921707, 0.02313348278403282, -0.03299308195710182, 0.009658331982791424, 0.0950128361582756, 0.03686453029513359, -0.04363542050123215, -0.06711658090353012, 0.0027833664789795876, -0.013477199710905552, -0.05013185366988182, -0.0561235174536705, -0.04709836095571518, 0.02994650974869728, -0.03771323338150978, -0.04746965691447258, 0.0012776550138369203, -0.016248904168605804, -0.0022850206587463617, -0.05230989679694176, 0.05002898722887039, 0.020889537408947945, 0.07641022652387619, -0.018801193684339523, -0.04694227874279022, 0.009764168411493301, 0.018939455971121788, -0.0012665685499086976, 0.03941279277205467, -0.014398574829101562, 0.03719211369752884, -0.0385570302605629, 0.04640717804431915, -0.0413130521774292, -0.010556655935943127, -0.013934730552136898, -0.06126181036233902, 0.003504271386191249, 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281,"Pre-telescopic observation Saturn has been known since prehistoric times , and in early recorded history it was a major character in various mythologies . Babylonian astronomers systematically observed and recorded the movements of Saturn .In ancient Greek, the planet was known as Φαίνων Phainon, and in Roman times it was known as the ""star of Saturn"" or the ""star of the Sun (i.e. Helios)"". In ancient Roman mythology, the planet Phainon was sacred to this agricultural god, from which the planet takes its modern name. The Romans considered the god Saturnus the equivalent of the Greek god Cronus. In modern Greek, the planet retains the name Cronus—Κρόνος: Kronos. The Greek scientist Ptolemy based his calculations of Saturn's orbit on observations he made while it was in opposition. In Hindu astrology, there are nine astrological objects, known as Navagrahas. Saturn is known as ""Shani"" and judges everyone based on the good and bad deeds performed in life. Ancient Chinese and Japanese culture designated the planet Saturn as the ""earth star"" or ""soil star"" (土星). This was based on Five Elements which were traditionally used to classify natural elements. In Hebrew, Saturn is called Shabbathai. Its angel is Cassiel. Its intelligence or beneficial spirit is 'Agȋȇl (Hebrew: אגיאל, romanized: ʿAgyal), and its darker spirit (demon) is Zȃzȇl (Hebrew: זאזל, romanized: Zazl). Zazel has been described as a great angel, invoked in Solomonic magic, who is ""effective in love conjurations"". In Ottoman Turkish, Urdu, and Malay, the name of Zazel is 'Zuhal', derived from the Arabic language (Arabic: زحل, romanized: Zuhal).","[-0.03547793626785278, 0.031279511749744415, 0.026346266269683838, -0.006953238509595394, 0.014165538363158703, -0.03586622327566147, 0.10413260757923126, 0.021856112405657768, 0.04891759902238846, 0.049022916704416275, -0.04294120892882347, -0.024699952453374863, 0.013610300607979298, -0.0010989239672198892, -0.09157630056142807, -0.10395057499408722, -0.06958193331956863, -0.01121748611330986, 0.01675238274037838, -0.026016784831881523, 0.008027452975511551, 0.0279474388808012, -0.02706916630268097, 0.011608928442001343, 0.00946104433387518, 0.010670765303075314, -0.009894163347780704, -0.025418102741241455, 0.01863604225218296, 0.056199654936790466, 0.030085107311606407, 0.025776006281375885, -0.023174479603767395, 0.013632932677865028, -0.10392151772975922, 0.0423511303961277, -0.002740059280768037, -0.03507717326283455, -0.06549935042858124, 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282,"conjurations '' . In Ottoman Turkish , Urdu , and Malay , the name of Zazel is 'Zuhal ' , derived from the Arabic language ( Arabic : زحل , romanized : Zuhal ) .Telescopic pre-spaceflight observations
Saturn's rings require at least a 15-mm-diameter telescope to resolve and were not known to exist until Christiaan Huygens saw them in 1655 and published his observations in 1659. Galileo, with his primitive telescope in 1610, incorrectly thought of Saturn's appearing not quite round as two moons on Saturn's sides. When Huygens used greater telescopic magnification this notion was refuted, and the rings were truly seen for the first time. Huygens discovered Saturn's moon Titan. Giovanni Domenico Cassini later discovered four other moons: Iapetus, Rhea, Tethys, and Dione. In 1675, Cassini discovered the gap now known as the Cassini Division. No further discoveries of significance were made until 1789 when William Herschel discovered two further moons, Mimas and Enceladus. The irregularly shaped satellite Hyperion, which has a resonance with Titan, was discovered in 1848 by a British team. In 1899, William Henry Pickering discovered Phoebe, a highly irregular satellite that does not rotate synchronously with Saturn as the larger moons do. Phoebe was the first such satellite found and it took more than a year to orbit Saturn in a retrograde orbit. During the early 20th century, research on Titan led to the confirmation in 1944 that it had a thick atmosphere—a feature unique among the Solar System's moons. Spaceflight missions
Pioneer 11 flyby
Pioneer 11 made the first flyby of Saturn in September 1979, when it passed within 20,000 km (12,000 mi) of the planet's cloud tops. Images were taken of the planet and a few of its moons, although their resolution was too low to discern surface detail.","[-0.08823233097791672, 0.009279996156692505, -0.06232375279068947, 0.03864438831806183, -0.0426219217479229, -0.13492318987846375, 0.12367229163646698, 0.053568579256534576, -0.0020492258481681347, -0.008623767644166946, -0.013769727200269699, -0.01513128075748682, 0.04162456467747688, -0.029458336532115936, -0.06493424624204636, -0.019045842811465263, -0.016724461689591408, -0.004845351446419954, 0.00871573481708765, -0.05673481151461601, -0.023464364930987358, 0.010413629934191704, 0.026226846501231194, -0.04767235741019249, 0.03607489541172981, 0.06503841280937195, -0.05577149614691734, -0.00045382100506685674, -0.008520480245351791, 0.06330660730600357, -0.015620511025190353, 0.0629756823182106, -0.06431225687265396, -0.02800709940493107, 9.93632129393518e-05, -0.03623928129673004, -0.020293766632676125, 0.008079779334366322, -0.03747473657131195, 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283,"( 12,000 mi ) of the planet 's cloud tops . Images were taken of the planet and a few of its moons , although their resolution was too low to discern surface detail .The spacecraft also studied Saturn's rings, revealing the thin F-ring and the fact that dark gaps in the rings are bright when viewed at a high phase angle (towards the Sun), meaning that they contain fine light-scattering material. In addition, Pioneer 11 measured the temperature of Titan. Voyager flybys
In November 1980, the Voyager 1 probe visited the Saturn system. It sent back the first high-resolution images of the planet, its rings and satellites. Surface features of various moons were seen for the first time. Voyager 1 performed a close flyby of Titan, increasing knowledge of the atmosphere of the moon. It proved that Titan's atmosphere is impenetrable at visible wavelengths; therefore no surface details were seen. The flyby changed the spacecraft's trajectory out of the plane of the Solar System. Almost a year later, in August 1981, Voyager 2 continued the study of the Saturn system. More close-up images of Saturn's moons were acquired, as well as evidence of changes in the atmosphere and the rings. During the flyby, the probe's turnable camera platform stuck for a couple of days and some planned imaging was lost. Saturn's gravity was used to direct the spacecraft's trajectory towards Uranus. The probes discovered and confirmed several new satellites orbiting near or within the planet's rings, as well as the small Maxwell Gap (a gap within the C Ring) and Keeler gap (a 42 km-wide gap in the A Ring). Cassini–Huygens spacecraft
The Cassini–Huygens space probe entered orbit around Saturn on 1 July 2004. In June 2004, it conducted a close flyby of Phoebe, sending back high-resolution images and data.","[-0.02571830339729786, -0.006163820158690214, 0.06729396432638168, 0.003617651294916868, 0.09037260711193085, -0.05235901474952698, 0.024061501026153564, 0.08491729199886322, -0.0034448252990841866, 0.06103689968585968, -0.0703016072511673, 0.04532221332192421, 0.010931149125099182, -0.021439818665385246, -0.0249294713139534, -0.04395405948162079, 0.05016273632645607, -0.04241793602705002, 0.016037922352552414, -0.07251788675785065, -0.01781514845788479, 0.050654537975788116, -0.0014780794735997915, -0.05459653586149216, 0.025483785197138786, 0.021841730922460556, -0.024094335734844208, -0.05948827788233757, -0.007512934971600771, 0.026303762570023537, -0.037100277841091156, 0.051632579416036606, -0.09995833039283752, -0.0021550990641117096, -0.0627060979604721, 0.021377775818109512, 0.07395480573177338, -0.026727044954895973, -0.023847607895731926, -0.041069429367780685, 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284,". Cassini–Huygens spacecraft The Cassini–Huygens space probe entered orbit around Saturn on 1 July 2004 . In June 2004 , it conducted a close flyby of Phoebe , sending back high-resolution images and data .Cassini's flyby of Saturn's largest moon, Titan, captured radar images of large lakes and their coastlines with numerous islands and mountains. The orbiter completed two Titan flybys before releasing the Huygens probe on 25 December 2004. Huygens descended onto the surface of Titan on 14 January 2005. Starting in early 2005, scientists used Cassini to track lightning on Saturn. The power of the lightning is approximately 1,000 times that of lightning on Earth. In 2006, NASA reported that Cassini had found evidence of liquid water reservoirs no more than tens of meters below the surface that erupt in geysers on Saturn's moon Enceladus. These jets of icy particles are emitted into orbit around Saturn from vents in the moon's south polar region. Over 100 geysers have been identified on Enceladus. In May 2011, NASA scientists reported that Enceladus ""is emerging as the most habitable spot beyond Earth in the Solar System for life as we know it"". Cassini photographs have revealed a previously undiscovered planetary ring, outside the brighter main rings of Saturn and inside the G and E rings. The source of this ring is hypothesized to be the crashing of a meteoroid off Janus and Epimetheus. In July 2006, images were returned of hydrocarbon lakes near Titan's north pole, the presence of which were confirmed in January 2007. In March 2007, hydrocarbon seas were found near the North pole, the largest of which is almost the size of the Caspian Sea. In October 2006, the probe detected an 8,000 km (5,000 mi) diameter cyclone-like storm with an eyewall at Saturn's south pole. From 2004 to 2 November 2009, the probe discovered and confirmed eight new satellites.","[-0.03394423425197601, -0.05604251101613045, 0.039242375642061234, -0.00267383037135005, 0.12159319221973419, -0.022586112841963768, 0.12073269486427307, 0.04529991373419762, -0.041549134999513626, 0.033354252576828, -0.06664150208234787, -0.002430862281471491, -0.0031342769507318735, 0.0037571676075458527, -0.029903024435043335, 0.029888126999139786, -0.010382301174104214, -0.081776462495327, 0.020696137100458145, -0.03323076665401459, 0.053859028965234756, 0.03305279091000557, -0.017140952870249748, -0.01991923898458481, 0.012189656496047974, 0.046644531190395355, -0.05146472528576851, -0.021701622754335403, -0.06532905995845795, 0.01283910870552063, 0.00868254341185093, -0.0171061959117651, -0.09001439064741135, -0.03237732872366905, 0.007664421573281288, -0.0020964101422578096, 0.015284514985978603, -0.026555489748716354, 0.055848754942417145, -0.04882563278079033, 0.0335487499833107, 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285,"an 8,000 km ( 5,000 mi ) diameter cyclone-like storm with an eyewall at Saturn 's south pole . From 2004 to 2 November 2009 , the probe discovered and confirmed eight new satellites .In April 2013, Cassini sent back images of a hurricane at the planet's north pole 20 times larger than those found on Earth, with winds faster than 530 km/h (330 mph). On 15 September 2017, the Cassini–Huygens spacecraft performed the ""Grand Finale"" of its mission: a number of passes through gaps between Saturn and Saturn's inner rings. The atmospheric entry of Cassini ended the mission. Possible future missions
The continued exploration of Saturn is still considered to be a viable option for NASA as part of their ongoing New Frontiers program of missions. NASA previously requested for plans to be put forward for a mission to Saturn that included the Saturn Atmospheric Entry Probe, and possible investigations into the habitability and possible discovery of life on Saturn's moons Titan and Enceladus by Dragonfly. Observation
Saturn is the most distant of the five planets easily visible to the naked eye from Earth, the other four being Mercury, Venus, Mars, and Jupiter. (Uranus, and occasionally 4 Vesta, are visible to the naked eye in dark skies.) Saturn appears to the naked eye in the night sky as a bright, yellowish point of light. The mean apparent magnitude of Saturn is 0.46 with a standard deviation of 0.34. Most of the magnitude variation is due to the inclination of the ring system relative to the Sun and Earth. The brightest magnitude, −0.55, occurs near the time when the plane of the rings is inclined most highly, and the faintest magnitude, 1.17, occurs around the time when they are least inclined.","[-0.008423889987170696, -0.07600130140781403, 0.04549294337630272, 0.0045466236770153046, 0.10855813324451447, -0.04386806860566139, 0.06866758316755295, 0.02688356302678585, 0.00991749670356512, 0.02953442931175232, -0.06462010741233826, 0.015045955777168274, -0.0256141759455204, -0.03681276738643646, -0.057250261306762695, -0.01259361021220684, 0.02611924707889557, -0.06216121464967728, -0.019208982586860657, -0.03997698426246643, -0.016241982579231262, 0.030414531007409096, -0.03999122604727745, 0.021575473248958588, -0.017206957563757896, 0.07200360298156738, -0.07448188960552216, -0.03494907543063164, -0.05701163411140442, 0.028139851987361908, -0.03152979910373688, 0.0019284343579784036, -0.09036394208669662, -0.0466480478644371, -0.00027478771517053246, 0.052573200315237045, 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286,", −0.55 , occurs near the time when the plane of the rings is inclined most highly , and the faintest magnitude , 1.17 , occurs around the time when they are least inclined .It takes approximately 29.4 years for the planet to complete an entire circuit of the ecliptic against the background constellations of the zodiac. Most people will require an optical aid (very large binoculars or a small telescope) that magnifies at least 30 times to achieve an image of Saturn's rings in which a clear resolution is present. When Earth passes through the ring plane, which occurs twice every Saturnian year (roughly every 15 Earth years), the rings briefly disappear from view because they are so thin. Such a ""disappearance"" most recently occurred in 2025, but Saturn was too close to the Sun for observations. Saturn and its rings are best seen when the planet is at, or near, opposition, the configuration of a planet when it is at an elongation of 180°, and thus appears opposite the Sun in the sky. A Saturnian opposition occurs every year—approximately every 378 days—and results in the planet appearing at its brightest. Both the Earth and Saturn orbit the Sun on eccentric orbits, which means their distances from the Sun vary over time, and therefore so do their distances from each other, hence varying the brightness of Saturn from one opposition to the next. Saturn also appears brighter when the rings are angled such that they are more visible. For example, during the opposition of 17 December 2002, Saturn appeared at its brightest due to the favorable orientation of its rings relative to the Earth, even though Saturn was closer to the Earth and Sun in late 2003. From time to time, Saturn is occulted by the Moon (that is, the Moon covers up Saturn in the sky).","[0.024053307250142097, -0.02218809723854065, 0.02732544019818306, 0.0142115019261837, 0.035560451447963715, -0.05733233317732811, -0.05089398846030235, 0.05992725118994713, 0.10568343847990036, -0.027055971324443817, -0.03678471967577934, 0.026620276272296906, -0.01751098595559597, -0.056152667850255966, -0.005910694599151611, -0.04743914678692818, -0.04033574089407921, -0.05694486200809479, 0.02392958290874958, -0.021952785551548004, -0.011559814214706421, -0.028355484828352928, -0.05564708635210991, 0.05222715437412262, -0.054103784263134, 0.04294576868414879, 0.020908832550048828, -0.022225257009267807, -0.051090091466903687, 0.013061217032372952, -0.027271300554275513, 0.03414208069443703, -0.04086897894740105, 0.048337068408727646, -0.07043148577213287, -0.013364139012992382, -0.03232481703162193, 0.0007952424930408597, 0.002160208998247981, -0.05337589979171753, 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287,"closer to the Earth and Sun in late 2003 . From time to time , Saturn is occulted by the Moon ( that is , the Moon covers up Saturn in the sky ) .As with all the planets in the Solar System, occultations of Saturn occur in ""seasons"". Saturnian occultations will take place monthly for about a 12-month period, followed by about a five-year period in which no such activity is registered. The Moon's orbit is inclined by several degrees relative to Saturn's, so occultations will only occur when Saturn is near one of the points in the sky where the two planes intersect (both the length of Saturn's year and the 18.6-Earth-year nodal precession period of the Moon's orbit influence the periodicity). In fiction
Saturn has frequently appeared in fiction since at least 1752, when Voltaire published his novel Micromégas. Early works generally depicted it as solid, whereas Saturn is later correctly described as a gaseous planet. Saturn's moons are also featured in fiction, especially Titan. See also
Moons of Saturn
Statistics of planets in the Solar System
Outline of Saturn

Notes
References
Further reading
Alexander, Arthur Francis O'Donel (1980) [1962]. The Planet Saturn – A History of Observation, Theory and Discovery. Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-23927-9. Gore, Rick (July 1981). ""Voyager 1 at Saturn: Riddles of the Rings"". National Geographic. Vol. 160, no. 1. pp. 3–31. ISSN 0027-9358. OCLC 643483454. Lovett, L.; et al. (2006). Saturn: A New View. Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 978-0-8109-3090-2. Karttunen, H.; et al. (2007). Fundamental Astronomy (5th ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-34143-7. Seidelmann, P. Kenneth; et al. 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288,"Karttunen , H. ; et al . ( 2007 ) . Fundamental Astronomy ( 5th ed. ) . Springer . ISBN 978-3-540-34143-7 . Seidelmann , P. Kenneth ; et al . ( 2007 ) .""Report of the IAU/IAG Working Group on cartographic coordinates and rotational elements: 2006"". Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy. 98 (3): 155–180. Bibcode:2007CeMDA..98..155S. doi:10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y. de Pater, Imke; Lissauer, Jack J. (2015). Planetary Sciences (2nd updated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 250. ISBN 978-0-521-85371-2. External links

Saturn overview by NASA's Science Mission Directorate
Saturn fact sheet Archived 29 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine at the NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive
Saturnian System terminology by the IAU Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature
Cassini-Huygens legacy website by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Interactive 3D gravity simulation of the Cronian system Archived 17 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine","[-0.027652181684970856, -0.07030916213989258, 0.027188412845134735, -0.04017156362533569, -0.013319559395313263, -0.07289062440395355, -0.02893180027604103, 0.05432803928852081, 0.016595976427197456, -0.014616589993238449, -0.005055572837591171, 0.002623822772875428, -0.017162099480628967, -0.033730484545230865, -0.061139512807130814, -0.058343034237623215, -0.08691617101430893, 0.061170388013124466, -0.0034917478915303946, 0.050362713634967804, 0.015155307948589325, 0.03861583396792412, -0.005262380000203848, 0.09706833958625793, 0.004525807220488787, 0.08021145313978195, -0.0413396991789341, -0.0013485183008015156, 0.015065306797623634, -0.010374615900218487, -0.038957349956035614, 0.03837726265192032, -0.06787297129631042, -0.05101022869348526, -0.06189702823758125, -0.0550665482878685, 0.01627374440431595, -0.07256723195314407, -0.031633876264095306, -0.03136031702160835, 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289," Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun. It is a gaseous cyan-coloured ice giant. Most of the planet is made of water, ammonia, and methane in a supercritical phase of matter, which astronomy calls ""ice"" or volatiles. The planet's atmosphere has a complex layered cloud structure and has the lowest minimum temperature (49 K (−224 °C; −371 °F)) of all the Solar System's planets. It has a marked axial tilt of 82.23°  with a retrograde rotation period of 17 hours and 14 minutes. This means that in an 84-Earth-year orbital period around the Sun, its poles get around 42 years of continuous sunlight, followed by 42 years of continuous darkness. Uranus has the third-largest diameter and fourth-largest mass among the Solar System's planets. Based on current models, inside its volatile mantle layer is a rocky core, and a thick hydrogen and helium atmosphere surrounds it. Trace amounts of hydrocarbons (thought to be produced via hydrolysis) and carbon monoxide along with carbon dioxide (thought to have originated from comets) have been detected in the upper atmosphere. There are many unexplained climate phenomena in Uranus's atmosphere, such as its peak wind speed of 900 km/h (560 mph), variations in its polar cap, and its erratic cloud formation. The planet also has very low internal heat compared to other giant planets, the cause of which remains unclear. Like the other giant planets, Uranus has a ring system, a magnetosphere, and many natural satellites. The extremely dark ring system reflects only about 2% of the incoming light. Uranus's 29 natural satellites include 19 known regular moons, of which 14 are small inner moons. Further out are the larger five major moons of the planet: Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon.","[0.009475287050008774, -0.03423839434981346, 0.08885592222213745, 0.01162219699472189, 0.06424972414970398, 3.803243089350872e-05, 0.006895742379128933, 0.043087124824523926, 0.012610023841261864, 0.0485781766474247, -0.12642860412597656, -0.019145671278238297, 0.03353045508265495, -0.0592331625521183, 0.03441854566335678, -0.019305333495140076, -0.01168548408895731, -0.03956805169582367, 0.03390401229262352, 0.0007115135085768998, 0.08138997852802277, 0.048982445150613785, -0.04102684557437897, -0.014118065126240253, -0.05505741387605667, 0.01657317578792572, -0.03098881058394909, 0.010242119431495667, 0.009796210564672947, 0.006927413400262594, -0.024889254942536354, -0.01700284518301487, -0.001329019432887435, -0.01547796931117773, -0.004604377318173647, 0.034161120653152466, 0.04330921918153763, -0.05285780504345894, -0.053895171731710434, -0.004997496958822012, 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290,"known regular moons , of which 14 are small inner moons . Further out are the larger five major moons of the planet : Miranda , Ariel , Umbriel , Titania , and Oberon .Orbiting at a much greater distance from Uranus are the ten known irregular moons. The planet's magnetosphere is highly asymmetric and has many charged particles, which may be the cause of the darkening of its rings and moons. Uranus is visible to the naked eye, but it is very dim and was not classified as a planet until 1781, when it was first observed by William Herschel. About seven decades after its discovery, consensus was reached that the planet be named after the Greek god Uranus (Ouranos), one of the Greek primordial deities. As of 2025, it has been visited only once when in 1986 the Voyager 2 probe flew by the planet. Though nowadays it can be resolved and observed by telescopes, there is much desire to revisit the planet, as shown by Planetary Science Decadal Survey's decision to make the proposed Uranus Orbiter and Probe mission a top priority in the 2023–2032 survey, and the CNSA's proposal to fly by the planet with a subprobe of Tianwen-4. History
Like the classical planets, Uranus is visible to the naked eye, but it was never recognised as a planet by ancient observers because of its dimness and slow orbit. William Herschel first observed Uranus on 13 March 1781, leading to its discovery as a planet, expanding the known boundaries of the Solar System for the first time in history and making Uranus the first planet classified as such with the aid of a telescope. The discovery of Uranus also effectively doubled the size of the known Solar System because Uranus is around twice as far from the Sun as the planet Saturn.","[0.006211081985384226, -0.048723023384809494, 0.05014144256711006, 0.014127148315310478, 0.011615529656410217, -0.061436235904693604, -0.020609449595212936, 0.004142759833484888, 0.011744596995413303, 0.057124413549900055, -0.03758477792143822, 0.026134014129638672, -0.018213998526334763, -0.03165467455983162, -0.04125649854540825, 0.012783498503267765, -0.034932494163513184, -0.06264402717351913, 0.04351034760475159, 0.0023594123777002096, 0.03821796551346779, 0.020771430805325508, -0.004180517978966236, -0.03507920727133751, -0.05665544047951698, 0.002053577918559313, 0.02517898939549923, -0.035026274621486664, -0.005543301813304424, -0.042449917644262314, -0.02328314818441868, 0.028738943859934807, -0.06118503957986832, -0.05218856409192085, -0.014630463905632496, 0.028289861977100372, 0.003285458777099848, 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-0.017349472269415855]",Uranus,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.
291,"the aid of a telescope . The discovery of Uranus also effectively doubled the size of the known Solar System because Uranus is around twice as far from the Sun as the planet Saturn .Discovery
Before its recognition as a planet, Uranus had been observed many times, but was generally misidentified as a star. It was apparently observed by Hipparchus, who measured the positions of stars in 128 BC for his catalog that was later incorporated into Ptolemy's Almagest. The catalog gives the positions of four stars forming a quadrilateral in Virgo. One of the four stars does not exist, but Uranus was at that position in April of 128 BC. The earliest definite sighting was in 1690, when John Flamsteed observed it at least six times, cataloguing it as 34 Tauri. James Bradley observed it 3 times, in 1748, 1750, and 1753. Tobias Mayer, observed it once in 1756. The French astronomer Pierre Charles Le Monnier observed Uranus at least twelve times between 1750 and 1769, including on four consecutive nights. William Herschel observed Uranus on 13 March 1781 from the garden of his house at 19 New King Street in Bath, Somerset, England (now the Herschel Museum of Astronomy), and initially reported it (on 26 April 1781) as a comet. With a homemade 6.2-inch reflecting telescope, Herschel ""engaged in a series of observations on the parallax of the fixed stars."" Herschel recorded in his journal: ""In the quartile near ζ Tauri ... either [a] Nebulous star or perhaps a comet."" On 17 March he noted: ""I looked for the Comet or Nebulous Star and found that it is a Comet, for it has changed its place.""","[0.018902549520134926, -0.007830176502466202, 0.036590080708265305, -0.0092798862606287, -0.049892157316207886, -0.03763112798333168, -0.022053062915802002, 0.026794617995619774, -0.022708790376782417, 0.015349674969911575, -0.06478653103113174, 0.046267714351415634, 0.07955748587846756, -0.023880790919065475, -0.05294978991150856, -0.01726028136909008, -0.016673993319272995, 0.005484241060912609, 0.0903383120894432, 0.018020177260041237, 0.030024804174900055, -0.05045865476131439, 0.029587145894765854, -0.06156560033559799, 0.030265484005212784, -0.019870121031999588, -0.0017811564030125737, -0.06084185466170311, 0.007330677006393671, -0.0002896099758800119, 0.050333913415670395, -0.03654087707400322, -0.04983171448111534, -0.03854849934577942, -0.024363543838262558, -0.02746574766933918, 0.044060077518224716, -0.0042093731462955475, 0.047624386847019196, 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292,"a comet . '' On 17 March he noted : `` I looked for the Comet or Nebulous Star and found that it is a Comet , for it has changed its place . ''When he presented his discovery to the Royal Society, he continued to assert that he had found a comet, but also implicitly compared it to a planet:

The power I had on when I first saw the comet was 227. From experience I know that the diameters of the fixed stars are not proportionally magnified with higher powers, as planets are; therefore I now put the powers at 460 and 932, and found that the diameter of the comet increased in proportion to the power, as it ought to be, on the supposition of its not being a fixed star, while the diameters of the stars to which I compared it were not increased in the same ratio. Moreover, the comet being magnified much beyond what its light would admit of, appeared hazy and ill-defined with these great powers, while the stars preserved that lustre and distinctness which from many thousand observations I knew they would retain. The sequel has shown that my surmises were well-founded, this proving to be the Comet we have lately observed. Herschel notified the Astronomer Royal Nevil Maskelyne of his discovery and received this flummoxed reply from him on 23 April 1781: ""I don't know what to call it. It is as likely to be a regular planet moving in an orbit nearly circular to the sun as a Comet moving in a very eccentric ellipsis. I have not yet seen any coma or tail to it."" Although Herschel continued to describe his new object as a comet, other astronomers had already begun to suspect otherwise. Finnish-Swedish astronomer Anders Johan Lexell, working in Russia, was the first to compute the orbit of the new object.","[-0.06125926598906517, 0.02852802537381649, 0.025121549144387245, 0.0628916472196579, 0.026614513248205185, -0.06697085499763489, -0.011131498962640762, 0.08339241147041321, -0.037263646721839905, 0.053368210792541504, -0.04541769251227379, 0.026714658364653587, 0.052373774349689484, -0.07159926742315292, -9.491411037743092e-05, -0.0036118924617767334, 0.04440569132566452, -0.06544089317321777, -0.02637135237455368, -0.006442828103899956, -0.0464772954583168, 0.0244379211217165, -0.028805682435631752, 0.03560033440589905, 0.08709248155355453, 0.0966184213757515, -0.0356757715344429, -0.025360021740198135, -0.02021365985274315, -0.0265936478972435, 0.0026406908873468637, 0.039339300245046616, -0.03474358096718788, -0.03349483013153076, 0.0344119518995285, -0.010746609419584274, 0.06288038939237595, -0.04515983536839485, 0.06900129467248917, -0.049219079315662384, 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293,"as a comet , other astronomers had already begun to suspect otherwise . Finnish-Swedish astronomer Anders Johan Lexell , working in Russia , was the first to compute the orbit of the new object .Its nearly circular orbit suggested that it was a planet rather than a comet. Berlin astronomer Johann Elert Bode described Herschel's discovery as ""a moving star that can be deemed a hitherto unknown planet-like object circulating beyond the orbit of Saturn"". Bode concluded that its near-circular orbit was more like a planet's than a comet's. The object was soon accepted as a new planet. By 1783, Herschel acknowledged this to Royal Society president Joseph Banks: ""By the observation of the most eminent Astronomers in Europe it appears that the new star, which I had the honour of pointing out to them in March 1781, is a Primary Planet of our Solar System."" In recognition of his achievement, King George III gave Herschel an annual stipend of £200 (equivalent to £30,000 in 2023) on condition that he moved to Windsor so that the Royal Family could look through his telescopes. Name
The name Uranus references the ancient Greek deity of the sky Uranus (Ancient Greek: Οὐρανός), known as Caelus in Roman mythology, the father of Cronus (Saturn), grandfather of Zeus (Jupiter) and the great-grandfather of Ares (Mars), which was rendered as Uranus in Latin (IPA: [ˈuːranʊs]). It is the only one of the eight planets whose English name derives from a figure of Greek mythology. The pronunciation of the name Uranus preferred among astronomers is  YOOR-ə-nəs, with the long ""u"" of English and stress on the first syllable as in Latin Uranus, in contrast to  yoo-RAY-nəs, with stress on the second syllable and a long a, though both are considered acceptable.","[-0.03566015139222145, -0.018434910103678703, -0.023379625752568245, -0.02685397118330002, 0.002249728189781308, -0.10557446628808975, 0.039814483374357224, 0.057986028492450714, 0.01558163482695818, 0.048864271491765976, -0.09692465513944626, 0.02380775287747383, 0.046755947172641754, -0.04771855100989342, -0.022633850574493408, 0.00439769122749567, 0.00310279568657279, -0.005226513836532831, 0.049215152859687805, 0.021820755675435066, 0.0025455853901803493, 0.0015622746432200074, -0.01398557610809803, -0.03066757321357727, 0.09811293333768845, 0.010567955672740936, 0.020233331248164177, -0.06413225829601288, -0.011215376667678356, 0.05009650066494942, -0.00020952867635060102, -0.06882653385400772, 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294,"of English and stress on the first syllable as in Latin Uranus , in contrast to yoo-RAY-nəs , with stress on the second syllable and a long a , though both are considered acceptable .Consensus on the name was not reached until almost 70 years after the planet's discovery. During the original discussions following discovery, Maskelyne asked Herschel to ""do the astronomical world the faver [sic] to give a name to your planet, which is entirely your own, [and] which we are so much obliged to you for the discovery of"". In response to Maskelyne's request, Herschel decided to name the object Georgium Sidus (George's Star), or the ""Georgian Planet"", in honour of his new patron, King George III. He explained this decision in a letter to Joseph Banks:

In the fabulous ages of ancient times the appellations of Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn were given to the Planets, as being the names of their principal heroes and divinities. In the present more philosophical era it would hardly be allowable to have recourse to the same method and call it Juno, Pallas, Apollo or Minerva, for a name to our new heavenly body. The first consideration of any particular event, or remarkable incident, seems to be its chronology: if in any future age it should be asked, when this last-found Planet was discovered? It would be a very satisfactory answer to say, 'In the reign of King George the Third'. Herschel's proposed name was not popular outside Britain and Hanover, and alternatives were soon proposed. Astronomer Jérôme Lalande proposed that it be named Herschel in honour of its discoverer. Swedish astronomer Erik Prosperin proposed the names Astraea, Cybele (now the names of asteroids), and Neptune, which later became the name of the next planet to be discovered.","[-0.037127431482076645, -0.04697176814079285, 0.03464074805378914, 0.010872293263673782, -0.07642067223787308, -0.08904219418764114, 0.0741010531783104, -0.02362727001309395, 0.02384931780397892, 0.0026298239827156067, -0.07265642285346985, -0.04440716654062271, 0.04334479942917824, -0.07748497277498245, -0.03490268439054489, 0.013829340226948261, -0.054149772971868515, 0.011243829503655434, -0.043042901903390884, 0.016796674579381943, 0.039578672498464584, 0.05164552107453346, -0.03600379452109337, 0.03779164329171181, 0.08310942351818085, -0.024403849616646767, -0.02787945047020912, -0.037091463804244995, 0.05974207818508148, 0.012207061052322388, 0.061164382845163345, -0.010884503833949566, 0.06211062893271446, 0.028880011290311813, -0.08150255680084229, 0.007798955775797367, -0.005070165265351534, 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295,". Swedish astronomer Erik Prosperin proposed the names Astraea , Cybele ( now the names of asteroids ) , and Neptune , which later became the name of the next planet to be discovered .Georg Lichtenberg from Göttingen also supported Astraea (as Austräa), but she is traditionally associated with Virgo instead of Taurus. Neptune was supported by other astronomers who liked the idea of commemorating the victories of the British Royal Naval fleet in the course of the American Revolutionary War by calling the new planet either Neptune George III or Neptune Great Britain, a compromise Lexell suggested as well. Daniel Bernoulli suggested Hypercronius and Transaturnis. Minerva was also proposed. In a March 1782 treatise, Johann Elert Bode proposed Uranus, the Latinised version of the Greek god of the sky, Ouranos. Bode argued that the name should follow the mythology so as not to stand out as different from the other planets, and that Uranus was an appropriate name as the father of the first generation of the Titans. He also noted the elegance of the name in that just as Saturn was the father of Jupiter, the new planet should be named after the father of Saturn. However, he was apparently unaware that Uranus was only the Latinised form of the deity's name, and the Roman equivalent was Caelus. In 1789, Bode's Royal Academy colleague Martin Klaproth named his newly discovered element uranium in support of Bode's choice. Ultimately, Bode's suggestion became the most widely used, and became universal in 1850 when HM Nautical Almanac Office, the final holdout, switched from using Georgium Sidus to Uranus. Uranus has two astronomical symbols. The first to be proposed, ⛢, was proposed by Johann Gottfried Köhler at Bode's request in 1782. Köhler suggested that the new planet be given the symbol for platinum, which had been described scientifically only 30 years before.","[-0.030224405229091644, -0.05409703776240349, 0.018341487273573875, -0.027086637914180756, -0.020730603486299515, -0.06901661306619644, 0.05031336843967438, 0.043812718242406845, -0.007833922281861305, 0.0039117587730288506, -0.07136114686727524, 0.015060024335980415, 0.020083775743842125, -0.0677742287516594, -0.09405115991830826, 0.04551316052675247, -0.05544515326619148, -0.011106233112514019, 0.058499254286289215, 0.056210003793239594, 0.04348880425095558, 0.008298942819237709, 0.009221884422004223, 0.015174590051174164, 0.07779081910848618, -0.005759316962212324, 0.0077496739104390144, -0.024050788953900337, 0.022391529753804207, 0.0536438412964344, -0.018102947622537613, -0.03864995390176773, -0.02593693882226944, -0.008198894560337067, -0.06768472492694855, 0.008833021856844425, 0.032631732523441315, 0.038173530250787735, -0.05814018473029137, 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296,"proposed by Johann Gottfried Köhler at Bode 's request in 1782 . Köhler suggested that the new planet be given the symbol for platinum , which had been described scientifically only 30 years before .As there was no alchemical symbol for platinum, he suggested ⛢ or ⛢, a combination of the planetary-metal symbols ☉ (gold) and ♂ (iron), as platinum (or 'white gold') is found mixed with iron. Bode thought that an upright orientation, ⛢, fit better with the symbols for the other planets while remaining distinct. This symbol predominates in modern astronomical use in the rare cases that symbols are used at all. The second symbol, ♅, was suggested by Lalande in 1784. In a letter to Herschel, Lalande described it as ""un globe surmonté par la première lettre de votre nom"" (""a globe surmounted by the first letter of your surname""). The second symbol is nearly universal in astrology. In English-language popular culture, humour is often derived from the common pronunciation of Uranus's name, which resembles that of the phrase ""your anus"". Uranus is called by a variety of names in other languages. Uranus's name is literally translated as the ""Heavenly King star"" in Chinese (天王星; Tiānwángxīng), Japanese (天王星 Tennōsei), Korean (천왕성 Cheonwangseong), and Vietnamese (sao Thiên Vương). In Thai, its official name is Dao Yurenat (ดาวยูเรนัส), as in English. Its other name in Thai is Dao Maruettayu (ดาวมฤตยู, Star of Mṛtyu), after the Sanskrit word for 'death', Mrtyu (मृत्यु). In Mongolian, its name is Tengeriin Van (Тэнгэрийн ван), translated as 'King of the Sky', reflecting its namesake god's role as the ruler of the heavens.","[-0.04878097027540207, -0.07961051166057587, 0.03878899663686752, 0.045340701937675476, -0.010173187591135502, -0.04435739666223526, 0.08877906948328018, 0.04057760909199715, 0.08177554607391357, -0.03955260291695595, -0.012288127094507217, 0.017148181796073914, 0.04020657390356064, -0.017192507162690163, -0.01174958422780037, -0.007915348745882511, -0.012269148603081703, -0.018236851319670677, 0.05391257628798485, 0.027338920161128044, 0.11372717469930649, -0.0046301051042973995, -0.005987206473946571, 0.005588038358837366, -0.005914655979722738, 0.030978186056017876, -0.012966390699148178, 0.01301383413374424, 0.027369724586606026, 0.04788836091756821, 0.001841043122112751, 0.006008612923324108, -0.042124517261981964, -0.03591504693031311, -0.07549621164798737, -0.014157801866531372, -0.01586044952273369, 0.011383336037397385, 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297,". In Mongolian , its name is Tengeriin Van ( Тэнгэрийн ван ) , translated as 'King of the Sky ' , reflecting its namesake god 's role as the ruler of the heavens .In Hawaiian, its name is Heleʻekala, the Hawaiian rendering of the name 'Herschel'. Formation
It is argued that the differences between the ice giants and the gas giants arise from their formation history. The Solar System is hypothesised to have formed from a rotating disk of gas and dust known as the presolar nebula. Much of the nebula's gas, primarily hydrogen and helium, formed the Sun, and the dust grains collected together to form the first protoplanets. As the planets grew, some of them eventually accreted enough matter for their gravity to hold on to the nebula's leftover gas. The more gas they held onto, the larger they became; the larger they became, the more gas they held onto until a critical point was reached, and their size began to increase exponentially. The ice giants, with only a few Earth masses of nebular gas, never reached that critical point. Recent simulations of planetary migration have suggested that both ice giants formed closer to the Sun than their present positions, and moved outwards after formation (the Nice model). Orbit and rotation
Uranus orbits the Sun once every 84 years. As viewed against the background of stars, since being discovered in 1781, the planet has returned to the point of its discovery northeast of the binary star Zeta Tauri twice—in March 1865 and March 1949—and will return to this location again in April 2033. Because the period is very close to 84 years, its apparent position in the stars is very close to what it was exactly 84 years earlier (see graph).","[-0.06027507036924362, 0.056246791034936905, 0.009852403774857521, 0.060679271817207336, 0.022242732346057892, -0.06223190948367119, 0.009894768707454205, 0.05316450446844101, 0.008132060058414936, 0.024221356958150864, -0.03231510519981384, -0.07046028226613998, -0.015964942052960396, -0.0594945065677166, 0.03110295906662941, -0.046091970056295395, -0.03508972376585007, -0.08732406049966812, -0.025121303275227547, -0.008309701457619667, 0.013442961499094963, 0.010517643764615059, -0.043932147324085236, 0.03642307221889496, 0.06367594748735428, -0.009253551252186298, -0.02289736084640026, 0.010047437623143196, 0.03686319291591644, 0.002719690091907978, -0.022672438994050026, -0.023246629163622856, 0.030026204884052277, 0.07646015286445618, 0.036410123109817505, 0.041827492415905, 0.0029838401824235916, 0.0023870361037552357, 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0.033924590796232224]",Uranus,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.
298,"April 2033 . Because the period is very close to 84 years , its apparent position in the stars is very close to what it was exactly 84 years earlier ( see graph ) .The retrograde motion of Uranus brings it back each year to approximately the most easterly position it had the previous year. Its average distance from the Sun is roughly 20 AU (3 billion km; 2 billion mi). The difference between its minimum and maximum distance from the Sun is 1.8 AU, larger than that of any other planet, though not as large as that of dwarf planet Pluto. The intensity of sunlight varies inversely with the square of the distance—on Uranus (at about 20 times the distance from the Sun compared to Earth), it is about 1/400 the intensity of light on Earth. The orbital elements of Uranus were first calculated in 1783 by Pierre-Simon Laplace. With time, discrepancies began to appear between predicted and observed orbits, and in 1841, John Couch Adams first proposed that the differences might be due to the gravitational tug of an unseen planet. In 1845, Urbain Le Verrier began his own independent research into Uranus's orbit. On 23 September 1846, Johann Gottfried Galle located a new planet, later named Neptune, at nearly the position predicted by Le Verrier. The rotational period of the interior of Uranus is 17 hours, 14 minutes, and 52 seconds which was determined by tracking the rotational motion of Uranus's aurorae. As on all giant planets, its upper atmosphere experiences strong winds in the direction of rotation. At some latitudes, such as about 60 degrees south, visible features of the atmosphere move much faster, making a full rotation in as little as 14 hours.","[0.005470664240419865, -0.02840106189250946, 0.05673012137413025, 0.015060167759656906, 0.009601910598576069, -0.05976840481162071, -0.026726366952061653, 0.06579084694385529, -0.006873948033899069, 0.0670085921883583, -0.04429929330945015, 0.0748794674873352, 0.033754799515008926, -0.033958662301301956, -0.008929867297410965, 0.000787076773121953, -0.02227497659623623, -0.03666594251990318, 0.05328921973705292, 0.031199026852846146, 0.0651661828160286, -0.037473149597644806, -0.015633180737495422, -0.056560490280389786, 0.03905383497476578, -0.05362187325954437, 0.01354947965592146, -0.056014932692050934, -0.028818277642130852, 0.011202465742826462, 0.016297871246933937, -0.05230475962162018, 0.03576423227787018, -0.053790751844644547, -0.06486009061336517, -0.004094243980944157, 0.05469604954123497, -0.02722129039466381, 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299,"direction of rotation . At some latitudes , such as about 60 degrees south , visible features of the atmosphere move much faster , making a full rotation in as little as 14 hours .Axial tilt
The Uranian axis of rotation is approximately parallel to the plane of the Solar System, with an axial tilt that can be described either as 82.23° or as 97.77°, depending on which pole is considered north. The former follows the International Astronomical Union definition that the north pole is the pole which lies on Earth's North's side of the invariable plane of the Solar System. Uranus has retrograde rotation when defined this way. Alternatively, the convention in which a body's north and south poles are defined according to the right-hand rule in relation to the direction of rotation, Uranus's axial tilt may be given instead as 97.77°, which reverses which pole is considered north and which is considered south and giving the planet prograde rotation. This gives it seasonal changes completely unlike those of the other planets. Pluto and asteroid 2 Pallas also have extreme axial tilts. Near the solstice, one pole faces the Sun continuously and the other faces away, with only a narrow strip around the equator experiencing a rapid day–night cycle, with the Sun low over the horizon. On the other side of Uranus's orbit, the orientation of the poles towards the Sun is reversed. Each pole gets around 42 years of continuous sunlight, followed by 42 years of darkness. Near the time of the equinoxes, the Sun faces the equator of Uranus, giving a period of day–night cycles similar to those seen on most of the other planets. One result of this axis orientation is that, averaged over the Uranian year, the near-polar regions of Uranus receive a greater energy input from the Sun than its equatorial regions.","[0.0233698021620512, -0.05426701158285141, 0.06771840900182724, -0.042321618646383286, 0.0017984774895012379, -0.030091766268014908, -0.06748876720666885, 0.00041886186227202415, 0.05953674763441086, 0.05253824591636658, -0.0038644832093268633, 0.0623532198369503, 0.01293252781033516, -0.06564711034297943, 0.027523793280124664, -0.07282952964305878, -0.06046133115887642, 0.033781666308641434, 0.08599355816841125, 0.08306799083948135, 0.020244712010025978, -0.0008576246909797192, -0.08083117753267288, 0.03161105886101723, -0.0496520921587944, -0.016902493312954903, -0.028408672660589218, 0.009270908311009407, 0.0007427148520946503, -0.037581585347652435, -0.06454960256814957, 0.06289278715848923, -0.10588513314723969, -0.02879955992102623, -0.09946881234645844, -0.0026715139392763376, 0.05092259496450424, 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300,"planets . One result of this axis orientation is that , averaged over the Uranian year , the near-polar regions of Uranus receive a greater energy input from the Sun than its equatorial regions .Nevertheless, Uranus is hotter at its equator than at its poles. The underlying mechanism that causes this is unknown. The cause of Uranus's unusual axial tilt is also not known with certainty, but the usual speculation is that during the formation of the Solar System, an Earth-sized protoplanet collided with Uranus, causing the skewed orientation. Research by Jacob Kegerreis of Durham University suggests that the tilt resulted from a protoplanet larger than Earth crashing into the planet 3 to 4 billion years ago. Uranus's south pole was pointed almost directly at the Sun at the time of Voyager 2's flyby in 1986. Uranus's unusual axis of rotation had been surmised by astronomers since Herschel's discovery of Titania and Oberon, with Laplace calculating the inclination of the moons' orbits to the planet's equatorial plane in 1805. Visibility from Earth
The mean apparent magnitude of Uranus is 5.68 with a standard deviation of 0.17, while the extremes are 5.38 and 6.03. This range of brightness is near the limit of naked eye visibility. Much of the variability is dependent upon the planetary latitudes being illuminated from the Sun and viewed from the Earth. Its angular diameter is between 3.4 and 3.7 arcseconds, compared with 16 to 20 arcseconds for Saturn and 32 to 45 arcseconds for Jupiter. At opposition, Uranus is visible to the naked eye in dark skies, and becomes an easy target even in urban conditions with binoculars. On larger amateur telescopes with an objective diameter of between 15 and 23 cm, Uranus appears as a pale cyan disk with distinct limb darkening.","[-0.01461177971214056, -0.016056867316365242, 0.09373753517866135, -0.016727197915315628, 0.020601464435458183, -0.009214900434017181, -0.0579180009663105, 0.07420828938484192, 0.00023722316836938262, 0.08234623074531555, -0.06117803975939751, 0.0656483843922615, 0.024027127772569656, -0.058896083384752274, 0.011924989521503448, -0.049015581607818604, -0.08120559900999069, 0.00502293836325407, 0.05971001833677292, 0.034399621188640594, 0.03684615343809128, 0.019649291411042213, -0.047254785895347595, 0.006480466108769178, -0.039427757263183594, -0.03871682286262512, 0.016071444377303123, 0.002363093663007021, 0.00258377636782825, -0.009691748768091202, -0.03523123636841774, 0.04525450989603996, -0.13715331256389618, -0.060419488698244095, -0.08056429773569107, -0.020749831572175026, 0.06580889225006104, -0.043125465512275696, 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301,"target even in urban conditions with binoculars . On larger amateur telescopes with an objective diameter of between 15 and 23 cm , Uranus appears as a pale cyan disk with distinct limb darkening .With a large telescope of 25 cm or wider, cloud patterns, as well as some of the larger satellites, such as Titania and Oberon, may be visible. Internal structure
Uranus's mass is roughly 14.5 times that of Earth, making it the least massive of the giant planets. Its diameter is slightly larger than Neptune's at roughly four times that of Earth. A resulting density of 1.27 g/cm3 makes Uranus the second least dense planet, after Saturn. This value indicates that it is made primarily of various ices, such as water, ammonia, and methane. The total mass of ice in Uranus's interior is not precisely known, because different figures emerge depending on the model chosen; it must be between 9.3 and 13.5 Earth masses. Hydrogen and helium constitute only a small part of the total, with between 0.5 and 1.5 Earth masses. The remainder of the non-ice mass (0.5 to 3.7 Earth masses) is accounted for by rocky material. The standard model of Uranus's structure is that it consists of three layers: a rocky (silicate/iron–nickel) core in the centre, an icy mantle in the middle, and an outer gaseous hydrogen/helium envelope. The core is relatively small, with a mass of only 0.55 Earth masses and a radius less than 20% of the planet; the mantle comprises its bulk, with around 13.4 Earth masses, and the upper atmosphere is relatively insubstantial, weighing about 0.5 Earth masses and extending for the last 20% of Uranus's radius.","[0.03089323081076145, -0.05828344076871872, 0.07332107424736023, -0.009697592817246914, 0.04532428830862045, -0.04716033488512039, 0.025349901989102364, 0.10096841305494308, -0.027726303786039352, 0.06163163110613823, -0.12925951182842255, -0.045898452401161194, 0.0630582794547081, -0.016021687537431717, -0.012997565791010857, -0.06876971572637558, 0.013871419243514538, -0.03076804056763649, 0.015198716893792152, -0.004187939688563347, 0.0793566182255745, 0.022079428657889366, 0.004261018708348274, -0.048348359763622284, -0.04459627717733383, -0.04022858291864395, -0.007553829345852137, 0.020260579884052277, 0.01576932705938816, -0.028405621647834778, -0.030336638912558556, 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302,"comprises its bulk , with around 13.4 Earth masses , and the upper atmosphere is relatively insubstantial , weighing about 0.5 Earth masses and extending for the last 20 % of Uranus 's radius .Uranus's core density is around 9 g/cm3, with a pressure in the centre of 8 million bars (800 GPa) and a temperature of about 5000 K. The ice mantle is not in fact composed of ice in the conventional sense, but of a hot and dense fluid consisting of water, ammonia and other volatiles. This fluid, which has a high electrical conductivity, is sometimes called a water–ammonia ocean. The extreme pressure and temperature deep within Uranus may break up the methane molecules, with the carbon atoms condensing into crystals of diamond that rain down through the mantle like hailstones. This phenomenon is similar to diamond rains that are theorised by scientists to exist on Jupiter, Saturn, and Neptune. Very-high-pressure experiments at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory suggest that an ocean of metallic liquid carbon, perhaps with floating solid 'diamond-bergs', may comprise the base of the mantle. The bulk compositions of Uranus and Neptune are different from those of Jupiter and Saturn, with ice dominating over gases, hence justifying their separate classification as ice giants. There may be a layer of ionic water where the water molecules break down into a soup of hydrogen and oxygen ions, and deeper down superionic water in which the oxygen crystallises but the hydrogen ions move freely within the oxygen lattice. Although the model considered above is reasonably standard, it is not unique; other models also satisfy observations. For instance, if substantial amounts of hydrogen and rocky material are mixed in the ice mantle, the total mass of ices in the interior will be lower, and, correspondingly, the total mass of rocks and hydrogen will be higher.","[-0.0587175190448761, -0.023846520110964775, 0.05138672515749931, -0.016303809359669685, 0.03407352790236473, 0.027519119903445244, -0.004650783725082874, 0.038767892867326736, -0.03819078579545021, 0.03017936646938324, -0.1746121644973755, -0.08474604040384293, 0.040360912680625916, -0.02257162518799305, 0.014921048656105995, -0.016107646748423576, 0.014073054306209087, -0.050578951835632324, -0.0006156059680506587, 0.05753793567419052, 0.0960494801402092, 0.04065981134772301, -0.05442608892917633, -0.05770900845527649, -0.05871336907148361, 0.05798853561282158, -0.0045913876965641975, 0.0067534963600337505, -0.002771711675450206, -0.006576617248356342, -0.03641247749328613, -0.05378266051411629, -0.008328964002430439, 0.0063478159718215466, 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303,"material are mixed in the ice mantle , the total mass of ices in the interior will be lower , and , correspondingly , the total mass of rocks and hydrogen will be higher .Presently available data does not allow a scientific determination of which model is correct. The fluid interior structure of Uranus means that it has no solid surface. The gaseous atmosphere gradually transitions into the internal liquid layers. For the sake of convenience, a revolving oblate spheroid set at the point at which atmospheric pressure equals 1 bar (100 kPa) is conditionally designated as a ""surface"". It has equatorial and polar radii of 25,559 ± 4 km (15,881.6 ± 2.5 mi) and 24,973 ± 20 km (15,518 ± 12 mi), respectively. This surface is used throughout this article as a zero point for altitudes. Internal heat
Uranus's internal heat appears markedly lower than that of the other giant planets; in astronomical terms, it has a low thermal flux. Why Uranus's internal temperature is so low is still not understood. Neptune, which is Uranus's near twin in size and composition, radiates 2.61 times as much energy into space as it receives from the Sun, but Uranus radiates hardly any excess heat at all. The total power radiated by Uranus in the far infrared (i.e. heat) part of the spectrum is 1.06±0.08 times the solar energy absorbed in its atmosphere. Uranus's heat flux is only 0.042±0.047 W/m2, which is lower than the internal heat flux of Earth of about 0.075 W/m2. The lowest temperature recorded in Uranus's tropopause is 49 K (−224.2 °C; −371.5 °F), making Uranus the coldest planet in the Solar System.","[-0.006757951807230711, -0.037174027413129807, 0.08131086826324463, -0.008870957419276237, 0.042931340634822845, -0.04796338081359863, 0.004643238615244627, 0.08067651093006134, 0.0032902501989156008, 0.05271104350686073, -0.15661343932151794, -0.04543282091617584, 0.07864294946193695, -0.0418098159134388, 0.040806327015161514, -0.0755222886800766, 0.002011676784604788, -0.04438580200076103, 0.028933463618159294, 0.019558221101760864, 0.08309190720319748, 0.04544656351208687, -0.030325520783662796, -0.07383698970079422, -0.051707636564970016, -0.015397556126117706, -0.010781324468553066, 0.021374590694904327, 0.061033573001623154, 0.01685868203639984, -0.04797196760773659, -0.01826881431043148, -0.008707433938980103, -0.03263585641980171, -2.8062452201993437e-06, -0.00154927559196949, 0.010790251195430756, -0.0024602203629910946, 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304,"Earth of about 0.075 W/m2 . The lowest temperature recorded in Uranus 's tropopause is 49 K ( −224.2 °C ; −371.5 °F ) , making Uranus the coldest planet in the Solar System .One of the hypotheses for this discrepancy suggests the Earth-sized impactor theorised to be behind Uranus's axial tilt left the planet with a depleted core temperature, as the impact caused Uranus to expel most of its primordial heat. Another hypothesis is that some form of barrier exists in Uranus's upper layers that prevents the core's heat from reaching the surface. For example, convection may take place in a set of compositionally different layers, which may inhibit upward heat transport; perhaps double diffusive convection is a limiting factor. In a 2021 study, the ice giants' interior conditions were mimicked by compressing water that contained minerals such as olivine and ferropericlase, thus showing that large amounts of magnesium could be dissolved in the liquid interiors of Uranus and Neptune. If Uranus has more of this magnesium than Neptune, it could form a thermal insulation layer, thus potentially explaining the planet's low temperature. Atmosphere
Although there is no well-defined solid surface within Uranus's interior, the outermost part of Uranus's gaseous envelope that is accessible to remote sensing is called its atmosphere. Remote-sensing capability extends down to roughly 300 km below the 1 bar (100 kPa) level, with a corresponding pressure around 100 bar (10 MPa) and temperature of 320 K (47 °C; 116 °F). The tenuous thermosphere extends over two planetary radii from the nominal surface, which is defined to lie at a pressure of 1 bar.","[-0.023541519418358803, -0.02218259498476982, 0.12259113043546677, 0.03630371391773224, 0.06699000298976898, -0.023027708753943443, 0.013089101761579514, 0.06250371038913727, -0.0537903793156147, 0.061780672520399094, -0.16188648343086243, 0.004985961597412825, 0.13146273791790009, -0.04109829664230347, 0.0601818673312664, -0.09364362061023712, -0.02672058530151844, -0.013866579160094261, 0.013530365191400051, 0.008961747400462627, 0.06354397535324097, 0.021343259140849113, -0.0852520614862442, -0.01842133328318596, -0.03997479006648064, -0.019095851108431816, -0.00840473547577858, 0.022925809025764465, 0.002323036314919591, 0.042817123234272, -0.06092959642410278, -0.02587982267141342, -0.01787848211824894, -0.027282191440463066, -0.008812744170427322, 0.0770939439535141, -0.019450848922133446, 0.010998222976922989, -0.07676327228546143, 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0.03867654874920845]",Uranus,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.
305,"320 K ( 47 °C ; 116 °F ) . The tenuous thermosphere extends over two planetary radii from the nominal surface , which is defined to lie at a pressure of 1 bar .The Uranian atmosphere can be divided into three layers: the troposphere, between altitudes of −300 and 50 km (−186 and 31 mi) and pressures from 100 to 0.1 bar (10 MPa to 10 kPa); the stratosphere, spanning altitudes between 50 and 4,000 km (31 and 2,485 mi) and pressures of between 0.1 and 10−10 bar (10 kPa to 10 μPa); and the thermosphere extending from 4,000 km to as high as 50,000 km from the surface. There is no mesosphere. Composition
The composition of Uranus's atmosphere is different from its bulk, consisting mainly of molecular hydrogen and helium. The helium molar fraction, i.e. the number of helium atoms per molecule of gas, is 0.15±0.03 in the upper troposphere, which corresponds to a mass fraction 0.26±0.05. This value is close to the protosolar helium mass fraction of 0.275±0.01, indicating that helium has not settled in its centre as it has in the gas giants. The third-most-abundant component of Uranus's atmosphere is methane (CH4). Methane has prominent absorption bands in the visible and near-infrared (IR), making Uranus aquamarine or cyan in colour. Methane molecules account for 2.3% of the atmosphere by molar fraction below the methane cloud deck at the pressure level of 1.3 bar (130 kPa); this represents about 20 to 30 times the carbon abundance found in the Sun. The mixing ratio is much lower in the upper atmosphere due to its extremely low temperature, which lowers the saturation level and causes excess methane to freeze out. The abundances of less volatile compounds such as ammonia, water, and hydrogen sulfide in the deep atmosphere are poorly known.","[0.0016718398546800017, -0.021946817636489868, 0.04006079584360123, -0.044056013226509094, 0.05853578448295593, -0.009325709193944931, 0.004149892833083868, 0.05686473101377487, -0.027535244822502136, 0.030815912410616875, -0.10538818687200546, -0.09533798694610596, 0.030200542882084846, -0.043613553047180176, 0.04706653952598572, -0.013111265376210213, 0.028657464310526848, -0.05474608391523361, 0.027692291885614395, 0.02834986336529255, 0.06515367329120636, 0.09056406468153, -0.0294779222458601, -0.04143262282013893, -0.04169967770576477, -0.0590977743268013, -0.05469846725463867, 0.028553366661071777, 0.04059147462248802, 0.009310899302363396, -0.03375815600156784, -0.027163691818714142, 0.0340740941464901, -0.013826697133481503, 0.010605709627270699, 0.023449312895536423, -0.0012319894740357995, -0.036831531673669815, -0.020094439387321472, 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306,"lowers the saturation level and causes excess methane to freeze out . The abundances of less volatile compounds such as ammonia , water , and hydrogen sulfide in the deep atmosphere are poorly known .They are probably also higher than solar values. Along with methane, trace amounts of various hydrocarbons are found in the stratosphere of Uranus, which are thought to be produced from methane by photolysis induced by the solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation. They include ethane (C2H6), acetylene (C2H2), methylacetylene (CH3C2H), and diacetylene (C2HC2H). Spectroscopy has also uncovered traces of water vapour, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide in the upper atmosphere, which can only originate from an external source such as infalling dust and comets. Troposphere
The troposphere is the lowest and densest part of the atmosphere and is characterised by a decrease in temperature with altitude. The temperature falls from about 320 K (47 °C; 116 °F) at the base of the nominal troposphere at −300 km to 53 K (−220 °C; −364 °F) at 50 km. The temperatures in the coldest upper region of the troposphere (the tropopause) actually vary in the range between 49 and 57 K (−224 and −216 °C; −371 and −357 °F) depending on planetary latitude. The tropopause region is responsible for the vast majority of Uranus's thermal far infrared emissions, thus determining its effective temperature of 59.1 ± 0.3 K (−214.1 ± 0.3 °C; −353.3 ± 0.5 °F).","[0.02646423690021038, 0.01151583157479763, 0.04200485721230507, 0.002790129976347089, 0.0858393982052803, -0.005173932295292616, 0.006643426604568958, 0.07143264263868332, 0.02688523568212986, 0.03685791790485382, -0.08689670264720917, -0.06885066628456116, 0.008245882578194141, -0.07766647636890411, 0.06489890813827515, 0.023748790845274925, 0.040107887238264084, -0.09203637391328812, 0.026236191391944885, -0.05382999777793884, 0.02366901934146881, 0.04744332283735275, -0.05133070796728134, -0.03856752812862396, -0.04662303254008293, -0.027477536350488663, -0.07942210137844086, 0.00033657188760116696, -0.01869446411728859, 0.008825797587633133, -0.03671107813715935, 0.0049944608472287655, -0.008244090713560581, 0.01412049587816, 0.04378596693277359, 0.06381373852491379, 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0.0077934120781719685]",Uranus,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.
307,"responsible for the vast majority of Uranus 's thermal far infrared emissions , thus determining its effective temperature of 59.1 ± 0.3 K ( −214.1 ± 0.3 °C ; −353.3 ± 0.5 °F ) .The troposphere is thought to have a highly complex cloud structure; water clouds are hypothesised to lie in the pressure range of 50 to 100 bar (5 to 10 MPa), ammonium hydrosulfide clouds in the range of 20 to 40 bar (2 to 4 MPa), ammonia or hydrogen sulfide clouds at between 3 and 10 bar (0.3 and 1 MPa) and finally directly detected thin methane clouds at 1 to 2 bar (0.1 to 0.2 MPa). The troposphere is a dynamic part of the atmosphere, exhibiting strong winds, bright clouds, and seasonal changes. Upper atmosphere
The middle layer of the Uranian atmosphere is the stratosphere, where temperature generally increases with altitude from 53 K (−220 °C; −364 °F) in the tropopause to between 800 and 850 K (527 and 577 °C; 980 and 1,070 °F) at the base of the thermosphere. The heating of the stratosphere is caused by absorption of solar UV and IR radiation by methane and other hydrocarbons, which form in this part of the atmosphere as a result of methane photolysis. Heat is also conducted from the hot thermosphere. The hydrocarbons occupy a relatively narrow layer at altitudes of between 100 and 300 km corresponding to a pressure range of 1,000 to 10 Pa and temperatures of between 75 and 170 K (−198 and −103 °C; −325 and −154 °F). The most abundant hydrocarbons are methane, acetylene, and ethane with mixing ratios of around 10−7 relative to hydrogen. The mixing ratio of carbon monoxide is similar at these altitudes. Heavier hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide have mixing ratios three orders of magnitude lower. The abundance ratio of water is around 7×10−9.","[0.03745277598500252, -0.02780967205762863, 0.03097735159099102, -0.011533957906067371, 0.05687611177563667, -0.023511512205004692, 0.016298361122608185, 0.009500902146100998, 0.013674814254045486, 0.03968941047787666, -0.09437774121761322, -0.051895398646593094, 0.003475725883617997, -0.06932193040847778, 0.017512362450361252, 0.01638365164399147, 0.011919757351279259, -0.0925014391541481, 0.0242144912481308, 0.0023929341696202755, 0.03729955479502678, 0.05877666920423508, -0.03360798582434654, -0.008542104624211788, -0.0634804219007492, -0.054630134254693985, -0.09068010747432709, 0.01804579421877861, -0.020989973098039627, 0.013114234432578087, -0.0223471000790596, -0.0326031856238842, 0.01797589659690857, 0.034528061747550964, 0.017323916777968407, 0.035593435168266296, 0.009764636866748333, -0.06946104019880295, -0.017380783334374428, 0.056321434676647186, 0.012924366630613804, -0.04442679136991501, -0.052428923547267914, 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0.012853305786848068]",Uranus,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.
308,"The mixing ratio of carbon monoxide is similar at these altitudes . Heavier hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide have mixing ratios three orders of magnitude lower . The abundance ratio of water is around 7×10−9 .Ethane and acetylene tend to condense in the colder lower part of the stratosphere and tropopause (below 10 mBar level) forming haze layers, which may be partly responsible for the bland appearance of Uranus. The concentration of hydrocarbons in the Uranian stratosphere above the haze is significantly lower than in the stratospheres of the other giant planets. The outermost layer of the Uranian atmosphere is the thermosphere and corona, which has a uniform temperature of around 800 K (527 °C) to 850 K (577 °C). The heat sources necessary to sustain such a high level are not understood, as neither the solar UV nor the auroral activity can provide the necessary energy to maintain these temperatures. The weak cooling efficiency due to the lack of hydrocarbons in the stratosphere above 0.1 mBar pressure levels may contribute too. In addition to molecular hydrogen, the thermosphere-corona contains many free hydrogen atoms. Their small mass and high temperatures explain why the corona extends as far as 50,000 km (31,000 mi), or two Uranian radii, from its surface. This extended corona is a unique feature of Uranus. Its effects include a drag on small particles orbiting Uranus, causing a general depletion of dust in the Uranian rings. The Uranian thermosphere, together with the upper part of the stratosphere, corresponds to the ionosphere of Uranus. Observations show that the ionosphere occupies altitudes from 2,000 to 10,000 km (1,200 to 6,200 mi). The Uranian ionosphere is denser than that of either Saturn or Neptune, which may arise from the low concentration of hydrocarbons in the stratosphere. The ionosphere is mainly sustained by solar UV radiation and its density depends on the solar activity.","[0.005692277103662491, 0.006118945777416229, 0.0680764690041542, 0.03884129598736763, 0.06402955949306488, -0.03180854022502899, 0.0043319836258888245, 0.05184943974018097, 0.02012994885444641, -0.021960999816656113, -0.08048079162836075, -0.08507104963064194, -0.009691056795418262, -0.04854351654648781, 0.08854507654905319, 0.00783863477408886, 0.017097769305109978, -0.06133876368403435, 0.017139071598649025, 0.01239115372300148, 0.04816243052482605, 0.029685217887163162, -0.0630534216761589, 0.009120944887399673, -0.02470422349870205, 0.010344484820961952, -0.06699507683515549, 0.007206180598586798, 0.021199185401201248, -0.00897323526442051, 0.02482978068292141, 0.0020440169610083103, -0.013480964116752148, 0.03230806067585945, -0.011403472162783146, 0.005961353424936533, -0.0018723119283095002, -0.030295785516500473, -0.010788001120090485, 0.07347457110881805, 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309,"Saturn or Neptune , which may arise from the low concentration of hydrocarbons in the stratosphere . The ionosphere is mainly sustained by solar UV radiation and its density depends on the solar activity .Auroral activity is insignificant as compared to Jupiter and Saturn. Climate
At ultraviolet and visible wavelengths, Uranus's atmosphere is bland in comparison to the other giant planets, even to Neptune, which it otherwise closely resembles. When Voyager 2 flew by Uranus in 1986, it observed a total of 10 cloud features across the entire planet. One proposed explanation for this dearth of features is that Uranus's internal heat is markedly lower than that of the other giant planets, being the coldest planet in the Solar System. Banded structure, winds and clouds
In 1986, Voyager 2 found that the visible southern hemisphere of Uranus can be subdivided into two regions: a bright polar cap and dark equatorial bands. Their boundary is located at about −45° of latitude. A narrow band straddling the latitudinal range from −45 to −50° is the brightest large feature on its visible surface. It is called a southern ""collar"". The cap and collar are thought to be a dense region of methane clouds located within the pressure range of 1.3 to 2 bar. Besides the large-scale banded structure, Voyager 2 observed ten small bright clouds, most lying several degrees to the north from the collar. In all other respects, Uranus looked like a dynamically dead planet in 1986. Voyager 2 arrived during the height of Uranus's southern summer and could not observe the northern hemisphere. At the beginning of the 21st century, when the northern polar region came into view, the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) and Keck telescope initially observed neither a collar nor a polar cap in the northern hemisphere.","[0.02971484512090683, -0.014824450947344303, 0.08741644024848938, -0.001272559049539268, 0.06439108401536942, 0.0008194402907975018, 0.00030752073507755995, 0.05078043416142464, 0.0104445181787014, 0.026660818606615067, -0.0925595685839653, -0.028486868366599083, 0.0878274217247963, -0.038030389696359634, 0.059853460639715195, -0.03631279990077019, 0.017366724088788033, -0.08727888017892838, 0.04650702700018883, -0.03425818309187889, 0.046853434294462204, 0.06735119223594666, -0.017328500747680664, -0.05704399198293686, -0.05256683751940727, -0.034358661621809006, -0.0653650239109993, -0.0362081341445446, 0.00802753958851099, 0.0004140959063079208, 0.011885561980307102, -0.01078006997704506, -0.10687129944562912, -0.007420098874717951, -0.024930736050009727, 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310,"century , when the northern polar region came into view , the Hubble Space Telescope ( HST ) and Keck telescope initially observed neither a collar nor a polar cap in the northern hemisphere .So Uranus appeared to be asymmetric: bright near the south pole and uniformly dark in the region north of the southern collar. In 2007, when Uranus passed its equinox, the southern collar almost disappeared, and a faint northern collar emerged near 45° of latitude. In 2023, a team employing the Very Large Array observed a dark collar at 80° latitude, and a bright spot at the north pole, indicating the presence of a polar vortex. In the 1990s, the number of the observed bright cloud features grew considerably, partly because new high-resolution imaging techniques became available. Most were found in the northern hemisphere as it started to become visible. An early explanation—that bright clouds are easier to identify in its dark part, whereas in the southern hemisphere the bright collar masks them—was shown to be incorrect. Nevertheless, there are differences between the clouds of each hemisphere. The northern clouds are smaller, sharper and brighter. They appear to lie at a higher altitude. The lifetime of clouds spans several orders of magnitude. Some small clouds live for hours; at least one southern cloud may have persisted since the Voyager 2 flyby. Recent observation also discovered that cloud features on Uranus have a lot in common with those on Neptune. For example, the dark spots common on Neptune had never been observed on Uranus before 2006, when the first such feature dubbed Uranus Dark Spot was imaged. The speculation is that Uranus is becoming more Neptune-like during its equinoctial season. The tracking of numerous cloud features allowed determination of zonal winds blowing in the upper troposphere of Uranus.","[0.02425852045416832, -0.027579985558986664, 0.09449129551649094, -0.00017894903430715203, 0.0741102546453476, -0.02332625910639763, -0.08713085949420929, -0.015599554404616356, 0.044801317155361176, 0.022208094596862793, -0.06327524036169052, 0.07020118087530136, 0.04900330305099487, -0.043473366647958755, 0.012545747682452202, -0.02344728261232376, 0.0037974577862769365, -0.10158666968345642, 0.05275774002075195, -0.03872470557689667, -0.0348818264901638, 0.055485714226961136, -0.07434181869029999, 0.012211604043841362, -0.02134408801794052, -0.0028090185951441526, -0.038251545280218124, -0.060421936213970184, -0.04802098870277405, 0.027456015348434448, 0.008849546313285828, -0.007148433476686478, -0.10004804283380508, 0.019689833745360374, -0.049463484436273575, -0.005153444595634937, 0.06090649589896202, -0.05915124714374542, 0.0334060862660408, 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311,"imaged . The speculation is that Uranus is becoming more Neptune-like during its equinoctial season . The tracking of numerous cloud features allowed determination of zonal winds blowing in the upper troposphere of Uranus .At the equator winds are retrograde, which means that they blow in the reverse direction to the planetary rotation. Their speeds are from −360 to −180 km/h (−220 to −110 mph). Wind speeds increase with the distance from the equator, reaching zero values near ±20° latitude, where the troposphere's temperature minimum is located. Closer to the poles, the winds shift to a prograde direction, flowing with Uranus's rotation. Wind speeds continue to increase reaching maxima at ±60° latitude before falling to zero at the poles. Wind speeds at −40° latitude range from 540 to 720 km/h (340 to 450 mph). Because the collar obscures all clouds below that parallel, speeds between it and the southern pole are impossible to measure. In contrast, in the northern hemisphere maximum speeds as high as 860 km/h (540 mph) are observed near +50° latitude. In 1986, the Voyager 2 Planetary Radio Astronomy (PRA) experiment observed 140 lightning flashes, or Uranian electrostatic discharges with a frequency of 0.9-40 MHz. The UEDs were detected from 600,000 km of Uranus over 24 hours, most of which were not visible . However, microphysical modelling suggests that Uranian lightning occurs in convective storms occurring in deep troposphere water clouds. If this is the case, lightning will not be visible due to the thick cloud layers above the troposphere. Uranian lightning has a power of around 108 W, emits 1×10^7 J - 2×10^7 J of energy, and lasts an average of 120 ms.","[0.0299540888518095, -0.006669751834124327, 0.09030202776193619, -0.03959214687347412, 0.03216196969151497, -0.0215547326952219, -0.06895700097084045, -0.0057213688269257545, 0.007874779403209686, 0.03133188560605049, -0.03253980726003647, 0.03392061963677406, 0.05097309872508049, -0.07537514716386795, 0.01761283352971077, 0.0019353942479938269, 0.027200447395443916, -0.03218088299036026, -0.008999764919281006, -0.02145194262266159, 0.00476448517292738, 0.07380636036396027, -0.004343550186604261, 0.01057841069996357, -0.04769166558980942, -0.07208448648452759, -0.04770473390817642, -0.049726251512765884, -0.0066459630616009235, 0.010948069393634796, -0.03994658216834068, 0.010528367944061756, -0.0986548587679863, 0.0025145672261714935, -0.11098572611808777, -0.0186435729265213, 0.06650155037641525, -0.013707521371543407, 0.0003915651759598404, 0.04906085506081581, 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312,"the thick cloud layers above the troposphere . Uranian lightning has a power of around 108 W , emits 1×10^7 J - 2×10^7 J of energy , and lasts an average of 120 ms .There is a possibility that the power of Uranian lightning varies greatly with the seasons caused by changes in convection rates in the clouds Uranian lightning is much more powerful than lightning on Earth and comparable to Jovian lightning. During the Ice Giant flybys, ""Voyager 2"" detected lightning more clearly on Uranus than on Neptune due to the planet's lower gravity and possible warmer deep atmosphere. Seasonal variation
For a short period from March to May 2004, large clouds appeared in the Uranian atmosphere, giving it a Neptune-like appearance. Observations included record-breaking wind speeds of 820 km/h (510 mph) and a persistent thunderstorm referred to as ""Fourth of July fireworks"". On 23 August 2006, researchers at the Space Science Institute (Boulder, Colorado) and the University of Wisconsin observed a dark spot on Uranus's surface, giving scientists more insight into Uranus atmospheric activity. Why this sudden upsurge in activity occurred is not fully known, but it appears that Uranus's extreme axial tilt results in extreme seasonal variations in its weather. Determining the nature of this seasonal variation is difficult because good data on Uranus's atmosphere has existed for less than 84 years, or one full Uranian year. Photometry over the course of half a Uranian year (beginning in the 1950s) has shown regular variation in the brightness in two spectral bands, with maxima occurring at the solstices and minima occurring at the equinoxes. A similar periodic variation, with maxima at the solstices, has been noted in microwave measurements of the deep troposphere begun in the 1960s. Stratospheric temperature measurements beginning in the 1970s also showed maximum values near the 1986 solstice.","[0.0007816361030563712, -0.04628036171197891, 0.13388727605342865, 0.03595154732465744, 0.06506270915269852, -0.07190466672182083, 0.00760801974684, -0.006003504153341055, 0.015571052208542824, 0.024612663313746452, -0.08403315395116806, 0.013031036593019962, 0.00394038949161768, -0.02618511952459812, -0.003777231788262725, 0.04923486337065697, -0.0033425118308514357, -0.05742448568344116, -0.006426512263715267, 0.022867469117045403, 0.04901668801903725, 0.012809640727937222, -0.05447263643145561, -0.014826900325715542, 0.026438899338245392, -0.01904778927564621, -0.02049190364778042, 0.014723486267030239, -0.0050414507277309895, 0.003900370094925165, 0.00971285905689001, -0.021352494135499, -0.09508679807186127, 0.01572546176612377, -0.008472760207951069, -0.004764879122376442, 0.024168550968170166, 0.004106944892555475, 0.02621382847428322, 0.019345005974173546, 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313,"at the solstices , has been noted in microwave measurements of the deep troposphere begun in the 1960s . Stratospheric temperature measurements beginning in the 1970s also showed maximum values near the 1986 solstice .The majority of this variability is thought to occur owing to changes in viewing geometry. There are some indications that physical seasonal changes are happening in Uranus. Although Uranus is known to have a bright south polar region, the north pole is fairly dim, which is incompatible with the model of the seasonal change outlined above. During its previous northern solstice in 1944, Uranus displayed elevated levels of brightness, which suggests that the north pole was not always so dim. This information implies that the visible pole brightens some time before the solstice and darkens after the equinox. Detailed analysis of the visible and microwave data revealed that the periodical changes in brightness are not completely symmetrical around the solstices, which also indicates a change in the meridional albedo patterns. In the 1990s, as Uranus moved away from its solstice, Hubble and ground-based telescopes revealed that the south polar cap darkened noticeably (except the southern collar, which remained bright), whereas the northern hemisphere demonstrated increasing activity, such as cloud formations and stronger winds, bolstering expectations that it should brighten soon. This indeed happened in 2007 when it passed an equinox: a faint northern polar collar arose, and the southern collar became nearly invisible, although the zonal wind profile remained slightly asymmetric, with northern winds being somewhat slower than southern. The mechanism of these physical changes is still not clear. Near the summer and winter solstices, Uranus's hemispheres lie alternately either in full glare of the Sun's rays or facing deep space. The brightening of the sunlit hemisphere is thought to result from the local thickening of the methane clouds and haze layers located in the troposphere.","[0.049328066408634186, -0.02226055972278118, 0.11476877331733704, 0.03896739333868027, 0.08900634944438934, -0.012507012113928795, -0.059552181512117386, 0.04422054439783096, -0.03031078167259693, 0.055003345012664795, -0.07740149646997452, 0.038010478019714355, 0.05695157125592232, 0.014610991813242435, 0.09046924114227295, -0.045925866812467575, 0.007244909647852182, -0.04623828083276749, 0.03912268951535225, -0.012511814944446087, 0.02479783445596695, -0.009893656708300114, -0.10160213708877563, -0.05778192728757858, -0.012290519662201405, -0.03500746935606003, -0.08055583387613297, -0.017445072531700134, -0.03022889979183674, 0.04416331276297569, -0.04086906835436821, 0.0320802703499794, -0.02531127631664276, 0.011337047442793846, -0.02038196288049221, 0.005176810547709465, 0.0968698039650917, -0.04042111709713936, 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314,"the Sun 's rays or facing deep space . The brightening of the sunlit hemisphere is thought to result from the local thickening of the methane clouds and haze layers located in the troposphere .The bright collar at −45° latitude is also connected with methane clouds. Other changes in the southern polar region can be explained by changes in the lower cloud layers. The variation of the microwave emission from Uranus is probably caused by changes in the deep tropospheric circulation, because thick polar clouds and haze may inhibit convection. Now that the spring and autumn equinoxes are arriving on Uranus, the dynamics are changing and convection can occur again. Magnetosphere
Before the arrival of Voyager 2, no measurements of the Uranian magnetosphere had been taken, so its nature remained a mystery. Before 1986, scientists had expected the magnetic field of Uranus to be in line with the solar wind, because it would then align with Uranus's poles that lie in the ecliptic. Voyager's observations revealed that Uranus's magnetic field is peculiar, both because it does not originate from its geometric centre, and because it is tilted at 59° from the axis of rotation. In fact, the magnetic dipole is shifted from Uranus's centre towards the south rotational pole by as much as one-third of the planetary radius. This unusual geometry results in a highly asymmetric magnetosphere, where the magnetic field strength on the surface in the southern hemisphere can be as low as 0.1 gauss (10 μT), whereas in the northern hemisphere it can be as high as 1.1 gauss (110 μT). The average field at the surface is 0.23 gauss (23 μT). Studies of Voyager 2 data in 2017 suggest that this asymmetry causes Uranus's magnetosphere to connect with the solar wind once a Uranian day, opening the planet to the Sun's particles.","[-0.0036987042985856533, -0.02428111620247364, 0.15670070052146912, 0.006658229045569897, 0.059983957558870316, -0.03244226053357124, -0.055157195776700974, -0.022786371409893036, -0.022317517548799515, -0.0037523123901337385, -0.10024289786815643, 0.06819221377372742, 0.06287409365177155, -0.055710431188344955, 0.06527147442102432, -0.009090502746403217, -0.04257826507091522, -0.06997410953044891, 0.033696625381708145, 0.00014530878979712725, 0.0164786409586668, 0.03641187772154808, -0.05587632209062576, -0.06250596791505814, -0.030757082626223564, -0.04115230590105057, 0.019400183111429214, -0.050190284848213196, -0.03712775558233261, -0.02730213664472103, 0.01735335774719715, 0.03178371489048004, -0.11993027478456497, -0.009211895056068897, -0.06387139856815338, 0.007909580133855343, 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315,"Studies of Voyager 2 data in 2017 suggest that this asymmetry causes Uranus 's magnetosphere to connect with the solar wind once a Uranian day , opening the planet to the Sun 's particles .In comparison, the magnetic field of Earth is roughly as strong at either pole, and its ""magnetic equator"" is roughly parallel with its geographical equator. The dipole moment of Uranus is 50 times that of Earth. Neptune has a similarly displaced and tilted magnetic field, suggesting that this may be a common feature of ice giants. One hypothesis is that, unlike the magnetic fields of the terrestrial and gas giants, which are generated within their cores, the ice giants' magnetic fields are generated by motion at relatively shallow depths, for instance, in the water–ammonia ocean. Another possible explanation for the magnetosphere's alignment is that there are oceans of liquid diamond in Uranus's interior that would deter the magnetic field. It is, however, unclear whether the observed asymmetry of Uranus's magnetic field represents the typical state of the magnetosphere, or a coincidence of observing it during unusual space weather conditions. A post-analysis of Voyager data from 2024 suggests that the strongly asymmetric shape of the magnetosphere observed during the fly-by represents an anomalous state, as the measured values of solar wind density at the time were unusually high, which could have compressed Uranus's magnetosphere. The interaction with the solar wind event could also explain the apparent paradox of presence of strong electron radiation belts despite the otherwise low magnetospheric plasma density measured. Such conditions are estimated to occur less than 5% of the time. Despite its curious alignment, in other respects the Uranian magnetosphere is like those of other planets: it has a bow shock at about 23 Uranian radii ahead of it, a magnetopause at 18 Uranian radii, a fully developed magnetotail, and radiation belts.","[-0.009038097225129604, -0.023363588377833366, 0.11540184170007706, -0.012265130877494812, 0.04601098224520683, -5.752469405706506e-06, -0.05029894411563873, 0.01810009405016899, -0.06261938810348511, -0.022547131404280663, -0.1730102151632309, 0.01937899924814701, 0.06879393011331558, -0.07529643923044205, 0.051563870161771774, -0.02728194184601307, -0.04208896681666374, -0.09143301099538803, 0.04785338416695595, 0.035453252494335175, 0.03691998869180679, -0.0036437325179576874, -0.005121076479554176, -0.019962230697274208, -0.06756608933210373, -0.020644953474402428, 0.037268608808517456, -0.03728329762816429, -0.04324454069137573, -0.02224116586148739, -0.0073016490787267685, 0.054179418832063675, -0.08066105097532272, 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316,"those of other planets : it has a bow shock at about 23 Uranian radii ahead of it , a magnetopause at 18 Uranian radii , a fully developed magnetotail , and radiation belts .Overall, the structure of Uranus's magnetosphere is different from Jupiter's and more similar to Saturn's. Uranus's magnetotail trails behind it into space for millions of kilometres and is twisted by its sideways rotation into a long corkscrew.Uranus's magnetosphere contains charged particles: mainly protons and electrons, with a small amount of H2+ ions. Many of these particles probably derive from the thermosphere. The ion and electron energies can be as high as 4 and 1.2 megaelectronvolts, respectively. The density of low-energy (below 1 kiloelectronvolt) ions in the inner magnetosphere is about 2 cm−3. The particle population is strongly affected by the Uranian moons, which sweep through the magnetosphere, leaving noticeable gaps. The particle flux is high enough to cause darkening or space weathering of their surfaces on an astronomically rapid timescale of 100,000 years. This may be the cause of the uniformly dark colouration of the Uranian satellites and rings. Uranus has relatively well developed aurorae, which are seen as bright arcs around both magnetic poles. Unlike Jupiter's, Uranus's aurorae seem to be insignificant for the energy balance of the planetary thermosphere. They, or rather their trihydrogen cations' infrared spectral emissions, have been studied in-depth as of late 2023. In March 2020, NASA astronomers reported the detection of a large atmospheric magnetic bubble, also known as a plasmoid, released into outer space from the planet Uranus, after reevaluating old data recorded by the Voyager 2 space probe during a flyby of the planet in 1986. Moons
Uranus has 29 known natural satellites. The names of these satellites are chosen from characters in the works of William Shakespeare and Alexander Pope.","[0.04294586181640625, -0.06228106841444969, 0.08050137758255005, -0.0030219333712011576, 0.07647328078746796, -0.043593890964984894, -0.0023001916706562042, 0.015199098736047745, -0.014103898778557777, -0.0041395751759409904, -0.11353789269924164, -0.013230309821665287, 0.07618527114391327, -0.05381818115711212, -0.005472374614328146, -0.03948719799518585, 0.0033912821672856808, -0.03359419107437134, -0.003941535484045744, 0.023602893576025963, 0.02417544089257717, 0.042771872133016586, -0.00512758968397975, -0.0679168850183487, -0.06819812953472137, -0.03600819781422615, 0.004831693600863218, -0.04276818409562111, -0.03860047832131386, -0.025553882122039795, 0.04078703373670578, -0.04745662957429886, -0.06714639812707901, -0.0013492133002728224, -0.025548681616783142, 0.07388494908809662, -0.02716250531375408, 0.003190662246197462, 0.005474444013088942, 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317,"a flyby of the planet in 1986 . Moons Uranus has 29 known natural satellites . The names of these satellites are chosen from characters in the works of William Shakespeare and Alexander Pope .The five main satellites are Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon. The Uranian satellite system is the least massive among those of the giant planets; the combined mass of the five major satellites would be less than half that of Triton (largest moon of Neptune) alone. The largest of Uranus's satellites, Titania, has a radius of only 788.9 km (490.2 mi), or less than half that of the Moon, but slightly more than Rhea, the second-largest satellite of Saturn, making Titania the eighth-largest moon in the Solar System. Uranus's satellites have relatively low albedos; ranging from 0.20 for Umbriel to 0.35 for Ariel (in green light). They are ice–rock conglomerates composed of roughly 50% ice and 50% rock. The ice may include ammonia and carbon dioxide. Among the Uranian satellites, Ariel appears to have the youngest surface, with the fewest impact craters, and Umbriel the oldest. Miranda has fault canyons 20 km (12 mi) deep, terraced layers, and a chaotic variation in surface ages and features. Miranda's past geologic activity is thought to have been driven by tidal heating at a time when its orbit was more eccentric than currently, probably as a result of a former 3:1 orbital resonance with Umbriel. Extensional processes associated with upwelling diapirs are the likely origin of Miranda's 'racetrack'-like coronae. Ariel is thought to have once been held in a 4:1 resonance with Titania. Uranus has at least one horseshoe orbiter occupying the Sun–Uranus L3 Lagrangian point—a gravitationally unstable region at 180° in its orbit, 83982 Crantor. Crantor moves inside Uranus's co-orbital region on a complex, temporary horseshoe orbit.","[0.04712511971592903, -0.039407338947057724, 0.056645799428224564, -0.046320591121912, -0.015768615528941154, -0.061606619507074356, 0.020435750484466553, 0.07436107099056244, -0.003488678950816393, 0.0775078758597374, -0.08609350770711899, -0.011906448751688004, 0.046292562037706375, -0.03299136832356453, -0.008499903604388237, 0.0054369037970900536, 0.013027630746364594, -0.022832002490758896, -0.040188662707805634, -0.011052524670958519, 0.055559463798999786, -0.025739656761288643, -0.02777802385389805, -0.03526134416460991, -0.04076853394508362, 0.04480695351958275, -0.028274940326809883, 0.02088754065334797, 0.005043067969381809, -0.046445056796073914, -0.07944953441619873, 0.003946809098124504, 0.010590399615466595, -0.03458641469478607, 0.026574211195111275, 0.03834440931677818, -0.029621591791510582, -0.08946508914232254, -0.032901257276535034, -0.026263097301125526, 0.06587690114974976, 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-0.018226459622383118]",Uranus,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.
318,"horseshoe orbiter occupying the Sun–Uranus L3 Lagrangian point—a gravitationally unstable region at 180° in its orbit , 83982 Crantor . Crantor moves inside Uranus 's co-orbital region on a complex , temporary horseshoe orbit .2010 EU65 is also a promising Uranus horseshoe librator candidate. Rings
The Uranian rings are composed of extremely dark particles, which vary in size from micrometres to a fraction of a metre. Thirteen distinct rings are presently known, the brightest being the ε ring. All except the two rings of Uranus are extremely narrow—they are usually a few kilometres wide. The rings are probably quite young; the dynamics considerations indicate that they did not form with Uranus. The matter in the rings may once have been part of a moon (or moons) that was shattered by high-speed impacts. From numerous pieces of debris that formed as a result of those impacts, only a few particles survived, in stable zones corresponding to the locations of the present rings. William Herschel described a possible ring around Uranus in 1789. This sighting is generally considered doubtful, because the rings are quite faint, and in the two following centuries none were noted by other observers. Still, Herschel made an accurate description of the epsilon ring's size, its angle relative to Earth, its red colour, and its apparent changes as Uranus travelled around the Sun. The ring system was definitively discovered on 10 March 1977 by James L. Elliot, Edward W. Dunham, and Jessica Mink using the Kuiper Airborne Observatory. The discovery was serendipitous; they planned to use the occultation of the star SAO 158687 (also known as HD 128598) by Uranus to study its atmosphere. When their observations were analysed, they found that the star had disappeared briefly from view five times both before and after it disappeared behind Uranus. They concluded that there must be a ring system around Uranus.","[-0.004915409255772829, -0.08182694762945175, -0.013697548769414425, -0.033952854573726654, -0.03862045332789421, -0.0970904603600502, -0.007515565492212772, 0.056320950388908386, 0.027861297130584717, -0.03856557607650757, -0.07439705729484558, 0.07850728183984756, 0.03539297729730606, -0.08308735489845276, -0.06508324295282364, 0.03913078084588051, -0.06663139164447784, 0.02648126147687435, -0.009872866794466972, 0.016392745077610016, 0.014022213406860828, -0.0030781577806919813, -0.03812744468450546, 0.01948249153792858, -0.04544932022690773, 0.01502025406807661, 0.06597770005464554, 0.015053345821797848, -0.046444009989500046, -0.04138307273387909, -0.009183728136122227, -0.04585174471139908, -0.09426964074373245, -0.047376297414302826, -0.03964001685380936, 0.003313106019049883, -0.07401414215564728, -0.012990258634090424, 0.0019888579845428467, -0.022112760692834854, 0.05027847737073898, -0.013763467781245708, 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319,"analysed , they found that the star had disappeared briefly from view five times both before and after it disappeared behind Uranus . They concluded that there must be a ring system around Uranus .Later, they detected four additional rings. The rings were directly imaged when Voyager 2 passed Uranus in 1986. Voyager 2 also discovered two additional faint rings, bringing the total number to eleven. In December 2005, the Hubble Space Telescope detected a pair of previously unknown rings. The largest is located twice as far from Uranus as the previously known rings. These new rings are so far from Uranus that they are called the ""outer"" ring system. Hubble also spotted two small satellites, one of which, Mab, shares its orbit with the outermost newly discovered ring. The new rings bring the total number of Uranian rings to 13. In April 2006, images of the new rings from the Keck Observatory yielded the colours of the outer rings: the outermost is blue and the other one red. One hypothesis concerning the outer ring's blue colour is that it is composed of minute particles of water ice from the surface of Mab that are small enough to scatter blue light. In contrast, Uranus's inner rings appear grey. Although the Uranian rings are very difficult to directly observe from Earth, advances in digital imaging have allowed several amateur astronomers to successfully photograph the rings with red or infrared filters; telescopes with apertures as small as 36 cm (14 inches) may be able to detect the rings with proper imaging equipment. Exploration
Launched in 1977, Voyager 2 made its closest approach to Uranus on 24 January 1986, coming within 81,500 km (50,600 mi) of the cloudtops, before continuing its journey to Neptune.","[0.01838606223464012, -0.0907331183552742, 0.005372758023440838, -0.0031927714589983225, 0.03561132401227951, -0.09293778240680695, 0.0036731045693159103, 0.053412262350320816, 0.05633564293384552, -0.012806141749024391, -0.06686324626207352, 0.08008380234241486, 0.058104779571294785, -0.0704168900847435, -0.0158940851688385, -0.006525915116071701, 0.002718301024287939, -0.085696741938591, -0.015989555045962334, -0.08008429408073425, 0.040136490017175674, 0.045407067984342575, -0.06990589946508408, -0.05200076475739479, -0.0421285517513752, 0.03037276491522789, 0.023241091519594193, -0.04414623603224754, -0.02269643358886242, -0.019249137490987778, -0.02244887687265873, -0.007955504581332207, -0.061955101788043976, -0.05176425352692604, 0.002086848486214876, -0.03598039597272873, -0.012559721246361732, 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320,"in 1977 , Voyager 2 made its closest approach to Uranus on 24 January 1986 , coming within 81,500 km ( 50,600 mi ) of the cloudtops , before continuing its journey to Neptune .The spacecraft studied the structure and chemical composition of Uranus's atmosphere, including its unique weather, caused by its extreme axial tilt. It made the first detailed investigations of its five largest moons and discovered 10 new ones. Voyager 2 examined all nine of the system's known rings and discovered two more. It also studied the magnetic field, its irregular structure, its tilt and its unique corkscrew magnetotail caused by Uranus's sideways orientation. No other spacecraft has flown by Uranus since then, though there have been many proposed missions to revisit the Uranus system. The possibility of sending the Cassini spacecraft from Saturn to Uranus was evaluated during a mission extension planning phase in 2009, but was ultimately rejected in favour of destroying it in the Saturnian atmosphere, as it would have taken about twenty years to get to the Uranian system after departing Saturn. A Uranus entry probe could use Pioneer Venus Multiprobe heritage and descend to 1–5 atmospheres. The Uranus Orbiter and Probe was recommended by the 2013–2022 Planetary Science Decadal Survey published in 2011; the proposal envisaged launch during 2020–2023 and a 13-year cruise to Uranus. The committee's opinion was reaffirmed in 2022, when a Uranus probe/orbiter mission was placed at the highest priority, due to the lack of knowledge about ice giants. Most recently, the CNSA's Tianwen-4 Jupiter orbiter, launching in 2029, is planned to have a subprobe that will detach and get a gravity assist instead of entering orbit, flying by Uranus in March 2045 before heading to interstellar space. China also has plans for a potential Tianwen-5 that may orbit either Uranus or Neptune that have yet to come to fruition.","[-0.025249963626265526, -0.06840746849775314, 0.08282484859228134, -0.02488391287624836, -0.005667652003467083, -0.046129949390888214, -0.03150947019457817, 0.05648135393857956, -0.0558287650346756, 0.058742765337228775, -0.09553475677967072, 0.0628342404961586, 0.03658559173345566, -0.020761840045452118, -0.04939788952469826, -0.005973558872938156, -0.006180640775710344, -0.031186122447252274, 0.07194992899894714, -0.022381935268640518, 0.035601213574409485, 0.016853664070367813, 0.03019457682967186, -0.045002181082963943, -0.048466186970472336, 0.015486004762351513, -0.03106752038002014, -0.034803520888090134, -0.0038826235104352236, -0.037745121866464615, 0.018806900829076767, 0.008002269081771374, -0.12595540285110474, -0.06924924999475479, -0.050526201725006104, 0.02623979188501835, 0.023988384753465652, -0.010667073540389538, -0.017890898510813713, 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321,"flying by Uranus in March 2045 before heading to interstellar space . China also has plans for a potential Tianwen-5 that may orbit either Uranus or Neptune that have yet to come to fruition .In culture
As well as being a popular subject in fiction, Uranus has inspired artistic works including Lydia Sigourney's 1827 poem  The Georgian Planet and a movement in Gustav Holst's orchestral suite The Planets, written between 1914 and 1916. Herschel's discovery of the planet is also referenced in the lines ""Then felt I like some watcher of the skies/When a new planet swims into his ken"", from John Keats's poem ""On First Looking into Chapman's Homer"". The planet's discovery also inspired the naming of the chemical element uranium, itself discovered in 1789 by the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth. In modern astrology, the planet Uranus (symbol ) is the ruling planet of Aquarius; prior to the discovery of Uranus, the ruling planet of Aquarius was Saturn. Because Uranus is cyan and Uranus is associated with electricity, the colour electric blue, which is close to cyan, is associated with the sign Aquarius. See also
Notes
References
Further reading
Pultarova, Tereza (1 October 2021). ""Stinky 'mushball' hailstones on Uranus may explain an atmospheric anomaly there (and on Neptune, too)"". Space.com. Miner, Ellis D. (1998). Uranus: The Planet, Rings and Satellites. New York: John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-97398-0. Gore, Rick (August 1986). ""Uranus: Voyager Visits a Dark Planet"". National Geographic. Vol. 170, no. 2. pp. 178–194. ISSN 0027-9358. OCLC 643483454. Alexander, Arthur Francis O'Donel (1965). The Planet Uranus: A History of Observation, Theory and Discovery. New York: American Elsevier Publ. 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322,". OCLC 643483454 . Alexander , Arthur Francis O'Donel ( 1965 ) . The Planet Uranus : A History of Observation , Theory and Discovery . New York : American Elsevier Publ . Comp .Bode, Johann Elert (1784). Von Dem Neu Entdeckten Planeten [From the Newly Discovered Planet] (in German). Berlin: Bey dem Verfasser. Bibcode:1784vdne.book.....B. doi:10.3931/e-rara-1454. External links

Uranus at European Space Agency
Uranus at NASA's Solar System Exploration site
Uranus at Jet Propulsion Laboratory's planetary photojournal (photos)
Voyager at Uranus Archived 4 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine (photos)
Uranian system montage (photo)
Gray, Meghan; Merrifield, Michael (2010). ""Uranus"". Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham. Interactive 3D gravity simulation of the Uranian system Archived 11 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine
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323," Neptune is the eighth and farthest known planet orbiting the Sun. It is the fourth-largest planet in the Solar System by diameter, the third-most-massive planet, and the densest giant planet. It is 17 times the mass of Earth. Compared to Uranus, its neighbouring ice giant, Neptune is slightly smaller, but more massive and denser. Being composed primarily of gases and liquids, it has no well-defined solid surface. Neptune orbits the Sun once every 164.8 years at an orbital distance of 30.1 astronomical units (4.5 billion kilometres; 2.8 billion miles). It is named after the Roman god of the sea and has the astronomical symbol , representing Neptune's trident. Neptune is not visible to the unaided eye and is the only planet in the Solar System that was not initially observed by direct empirical observation. Rather, unexpected changes in the orbit of Uranus led Alexis Bouvard to hypothesise that its orbit was subject to gravitational perturbation by an unknown planet. After Bouvard's death, the position of Neptune was mathematically predicted from his observations, independently, by John Couch Adams and Urbain Le Verrier. Neptune was subsequently directly observed with a telescope on 23 September 1846 by Johann Gottfried Galle within a degree of the position predicted by Le Verrier. Its largest moon, Triton, was discovered shortly thereafter, though none of the planet's remaining moons were located telescopically until the 20th century. The planet's distance from Earth gives it a small apparent size, and its distance from the Sun renders it very dim, making it challenging to study with Earth-based telescopes. Only the advent of the Hubble Space Telescope and of large ground-based telescopes with adaptive optics allowed for detailed observations. Voyager 2, which flew by Neptune on 25 August 1989, remains the only spacecraft to ever visit the planet.","[0.04714144766330719, -0.03796567767858505, -0.022498900070786476, -0.019287502393126488, 0.06031942367553711, -0.043525733053684235, 0.004001614637672901, 0.09097034484148026, 0.023176293820142746, 0.017650863155722618, -0.06502441316843033, -0.005920735187828541, 0.07622221857309341, -0.054137542843818665, -0.036089781671762466, -0.04798481613397598, 0.012215242721140385, -0.04781591519713402, 0.06992530822753906, 0.0011424287222325802, 0.0410270094871521, -0.010054957121610641, 0.030957484617829323, -0.0009086657664738595, -0.027258096262812614, -0.02215973474085331, -0.005154070444405079, -0.059309713542461395, -0.03339497372508049, 0.05046685412526131, -0.0413663424551487, -0.042252711951732635, -0.00886611919850111, -0.022500257939100266, -0.010701320134103298, 0.047023337334394455, -0.012127287685871124, -0.02692519873380661, -0.04890338331460953, -0.03986472636461258, 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324,"and of large ground-based telescopes with adaptive optics allowed for detailed observations . Voyager 2 , which flew by Neptune on 25 August 1989 , remains the only spacecraft to ever visit the planet .Like the gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn), Neptune's atmosphere is composed primarily of hydrogen and helium, along with traces of hydrocarbons and possibly nitrogen, but contains a higher proportion of ices such as water, ammonia and methane. Similar to Uranus, its interior is primarily composed of ices and rock; both planets are normally considered ""ice giants"" to distinguish them. Along with Rayleigh scattering, traces of methane in the outermost regions make Neptune appear faintly blue. In contrast to the strongly seasonal atmosphere of Uranus, which can be featureless for long periods of time, Neptune's atmosphere has active and consistently visible weather patterns. At the time of the Voyager 2 flyby in 1989, the planet's southern hemisphere had a Great Dark Spot comparable to the Great Red Spot on Jupiter. In 2018, a newer main dark spot and smaller dark spot were identified and studied. These weather patterns are driven by the strongest sustained winds of any planet in the Solar System, as high as 2,100 km/h (580 m/s; 1,300 mph). Because of its great distance from the Sun, Neptune's outer atmosphere is one of the coldest places in the Solar System, with temperatures at its cloud tops approaching 55 K (−218 °C; −361 °F). Temperatures at the planet's centre are approximately 5,400 K (5,100 °C; 9,300 °F). Neptune has a faint and fragmented ring system (labelled ""arcs""), discovered in 1984 and confirmed by Voyager 2.","[0.005278883036226034, -0.027850748971104622, 0.11884190142154694, 0.03548574820160866, 0.13237310945987701, -0.02483205869793892, 0.005799395963549614, 0.06480565667152405, 0.012816756032407284, 0.040605735033750534, -0.14168119430541992, -0.043810728937387466, 0.033279433846473694, -0.06208993121981621, 0.05197599157691002, -0.02234034053981304, 0.030610037967562675, -0.10761523991823196, 0.06736557185649872, -0.051816873252391815, -0.0017995863454416394, 0.04906892776489258, -0.014099244959652424, -0.030378814786672592, -0.050786491483449936, -0.014907990582287312, -0.007315109018236399, -0.036607302725315094, 0.022794319316744804, 0.02738473378121853, -0.048336975276470184, 0.03564250096678734, -0.05629289522767067, -0.007415478117763996, -0.03697437047958374, -0.014501086436212063, 0.0640614852309227, -0.010265250690281391, -0.06034105271100998, 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0.038650717586278915]",Neptune,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.
325,"approximately 5,400 K ( 5,100 °C ; 9,300 °F ) . Neptune has a faint and fragmented ring system ( labelled `` arcs '' ) , discovered in 1984 and confirmed by Voyager 2 .History
Discovery
Some of the earliest known telescopic observations ever, Galileo's drawings on 28 December 1612 and 27 January 1613 (New Style) contain plotted points that match what is now known to have been the positions of Neptune on those dates. Both times, Galileo seems to have mistaken Neptune for a fixed star when it appeared close—in conjunction—to Jupiter in the night sky. Hence, he is not credited with Neptune's discovery. At his first observation in December 1612, Neptune was almost stationary in the sky because it had just turned retrograde that day. This apparent backward motion is created when Earth's orbit takes it past an outer planet. Because Neptune was only beginning its yearly retrograde cycle, the motion of the planet was far too slight to be detected with Galileo's small telescope. In 2009, a study suggested that Galileo was at least aware that the ""star"" he had observed had moved relative to fixed stars. In 1821, Alexis Bouvard published astronomical tables of the orbit of Uranus. Subsequent observations revealed substantial deviations from the tables, leading Bouvard to hypothesize that an unknown body was perturbing the orbit through gravitational interaction. In 1843, John Couch Adams began work on the orbit of Uranus using the data he had. He requested extra data from Sir George Airy, the Astronomer Royal, who supplied it in February 1844. Adams continued to work in 1845–1846 and produced several different estimates for the position of an undiscovered planet beyond Uranus. Independently from Adams, Urbain Le Verrier developed his own calculations in 1845–1846 that pointed to an undiscovered planet, but aroused no enthusiasm among his compatriots.","[-0.051903631538152695, -0.07527893036603928, 0.015951333567500114, 0.024352040141820908, 0.007406403310596943, -0.08535439521074295, 0.00242869951762259, 0.03294198960065842, -0.002062293002381921, 0.04009856656193733, -0.04239639267325401, 0.060304783284664154, 0.08138395100831985, -0.0562552846968174, -0.10161000490188599, -0.034232523292303085, -0.02912069670855999, -0.02979075349867344, 0.12688329815864563, 0.027253489941358566, -0.04141644760966301, 0.04044889286160469, 0.007144105155020952, 0.017393730580806732, -0.002992207882925868, 0.01803143508732319, -0.020921897143125534, -0.0717816948890686, -0.0037849813234061003, 0.02874872460961342, -0.06327784061431885, 0.03647325187921524, -0.0850808173418045, -0.02740851230919361, -0.08483205735683441, 0.0044478061608970165, 0.0301558505743742, 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326,"of an undiscovered planet beyond Uranus . Independently from Adams , Urbain Le Verrier developed his own calculations in 1845–1846 that pointed to an undiscovered planet , but aroused no enthusiasm among his compatriots .In June 1846, upon seeing Le Verrier's first published estimate of a suspected undiscovered planet's longitude and its similarity to Adams's estimate, Airy persuaded James Challis to search for it. Challis vainly scoured the sky throughout August and September. Challis had, in fact, observed Neptune a year before the planet's subsequent discoverer, Johann Gottfried Galle, and on two occasions, 4 and 12 August 1845. However, his out-of-date star maps and poor observing techniques meant that he failed to recognize the observations as such until he carried out later analysis. Challis was full of remorse but blamed his neglect on his maps and the fact that he was distracted by his concurrent work on comet observations. Meanwhile, Le Verrier sent a letter and urged Berlin Observatory astronomer Galle to search with the observatory's refractor. Heinrich d'Arrest, a student at the observatory, suggested to Galle that they could compare a recently drawn chart of the sky in the region of Le Verrier's predicted location with the current sky to seek the displacement characteristic of a planet, as opposed to a fixed star. On the evening of 23 September 1846, the day Galle received the letter, he discovered Neptune just northeast of Iota Aquarii, 1° from the ""five degrees east of Delta Capricorn"" position Le Verrier had predicted it to be, about 12° from Adams's prediction, and on the border of Aquarius and Capricornus according to the modern IAU constellation boundaries. In the wake of the discovery, there was a nationalistic rivalry between the French and the British over who deserved credit for the discovery. Eventually, an international consensus emerged that Le Verrier and Adams deserved joint credit.","[-0.036448922008275986, -0.04165547341108322, -0.00840943492949009, 0.07516303658485413, 0.08700893074274063, -0.09026141464710236, 0.01225005742162466, 0.09672357141971588, -0.008564057759940624, 0.009650049731135368, -0.0012299411464482546, 0.01757802441716194, 0.0489114485681057, -0.022970138117671013, -0.07710640132427216, -0.0010463055223226547, -0.059969235211610794, -0.021350881084799767, 0.038472119718790054, -0.021656762808561325, -0.07024648040533066, 0.008193115703761578, -0.005692393984645605, 0.009593953378498554, 0.08624818176031113, -0.04494369029998779, 0.0050533972680568695, -0.05102866142988205, -0.03067420981824398, 0.028472986072301865, 0.05652977153658867, -0.014348953031003475, 0.0099067697301507, 0.06279746443033218, 0.0017380390781909227, -0.014043416827917099, 0.047663670033216476, 0.0424685962498188, -0.03696834295988083, -0.003925829194486141, 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327,", there was a nationalistic rivalry between the French and the British over who deserved credit for the discovery . Eventually , an international consensus emerged that Le Verrier and Adams deserved joint credit .Since 1966, Dennis Rawlins has questioned the credibility of Adams's claim to co-discovery, and the issue was re-evaluated by historians with the return in 1998 of the ""Neptune papers"" (historical documents) to the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. Naming
Shortly after its discovery, Neptune was referred to simply as ""the planet exterior to Uranus"" or as ""Le Verrier's planet"". The first suggestion for a name came from Galle, who proposed the name Janus. In England, Challis put forward the name Oceanus. Claiming the right to name his discovery, Le Verrier quickly proposed the name Neptune for this new planet, though falsely stating that this had been officially approved by the French Bureau des Longitudes. In October, he sought to name the planet Le Verrier, after himself, and he had loyal support in this from the observatory director, François Arago. This suggestion met with stiff resistance outside France. French almanacs quickly reintroduced the name Herschel for Uranus, after that planet's discoverer Sir William Herschel, and Leverrier for the new planet. Struve came out in favour of the name Neptune on 29 December 1846, to the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences, after the colour of the planet as viewed through a telescope. Soon, Neptune became the internationally accepted name. In Roman mythology, Neptune was the god of the sea, identified with the Greek Poseidon. The demand for a mythological name seemed to be in keeping with the nomenclature of the other planets, all of which were named for deities in Greek and Roman mythology. Most languages today use some variant of the name ""Neptune"" for the planet.","[-0.08121047914028168, 0.0003339368267916143, 0.011941527016460896, -0.009610837325453758, 0.08229739964008331, -0.07620207965373993, 0.0027579672168940306, 0.04310185834765434, 0.03007856383919716, 0.0214405320584774, -0.05442126467823982, 0.0212685689330101, 0.05476795881986618, 0.007755189668387175, -0.07841633260250092, -0.009688823483884335, -0.020917510613799095, 0.013346722349524498, 0.015691053122282028, 0.011815212666988373, -0.005076040048152208, 0.06679826974868774, 0.0461893267929554, -0.032703910022974014, 0.003035028465092182, -0.05479111149907112, -0.005499640945345163, 0.04831511154770851, 0.006545712240040302, 0.04627180099487305, 0.04916493222117424, -0.02210388146340847, -0.026415154337882996, 0.002114915056154132, -0.03576793521642685, -0.023895462974905968, 0.004911165684461594, 0.028586480766534805, -0.07254994660615921, -0.025969719514250755, 0.013075013644993305, 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328,"nomenclature of the other planets , all of which were named for deities in Greek and Roman mythology . Most languages today use some variant of the name `` Neptune '' for the planet .In Chinese, Vietnamese, Japanese, and Korean, the planet's name was translated as ""sea king star"" (海王星). In Mongolian, Neptune is called Dalain van (Далайн ван), reflecting its namesake god's role as the ruler of the sea. In modern Greek, the planet is called Poseidon (Ποσειδώνας, Poseidonas), the Greek counterpart of Neptune. In Hebrew, Rahab (רהב), from a Biblical sea monster mentioned in the Book of Psalms, was selected in a vote managed by the Academy of the Hebrew Language in 2009 as the official name for the planet, even though the existing Latin term Neptun (נפטון) is commonly used. In Māori, the planet is called Tangaroa, named after the Māori god of the sea. In Nahuatl, the planet is called Tlāloccītlalli, named after the rain god Tlāloc. In Thai, Neptune is referred to by the Westernised name Dao Nepchun/Nepjun (ดาวเนปจูน) but is also called Dao Ket (ดาวเกตุ, lit. 'star of Ketu'), after Ketu (केतु), the descending lunar node, who plays a role in Hindu astrology. In Malay, the name Waruna, after the Hindu god of seas, is attested as far back as the 1970s, but was eventually superseded by the Latinate equivalents Neptun (in Malaysian) or Neptunus (in Indonesian). The usual adjectival form is Neptunian. The nonce form Poseidean (), from Poseidon, has also been used, though the usual adjectival form of Poseidon is Poseidonian (). Status
From its discovery in 1846 until the discovery of Pluto in 1930, Neptune was the farthest known planet.","[-0.066688671708107, 0.02698802389204502, 0.0020747364033013582, 0.011646842584013939, -0.01794108748435974, -0.0840987116098404, 0.05063071846961975, 0.006599486339837313, 0.0790330097079277, 0.0022042507771402597, -0.060778167098760605, -0.0704648494720459, 0.04036997631192207, -0.0016117190243676305, -0.04387851059436798, 0.006159196142107248, -0.037313587963581085, 0.026710540056228638, 0.061432115733623505, -0.021347995847463608, 0.009878642857074738, 0.07045092433691025, 0.008941189385950565, -0.0036230264231562614, -0.029512591660022736, -0.058683838695287704, -0.005278567783534527, 0.017130035907030106, 0.021299617365002632, 0.0252519641071558, -0.047402530908584595, 0.004760919604450464, -0.021949104964733124, 0.04126618057489395, -0.0770987719297409, 0.09925097972154617, -0.09052520245313644, 0.03919549286365509, -0.11875340342521667, -0.004081884864717722, 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329,"used , though the usual adjectival form of Poseidon is Poseidonian ( ) . Status From its discovery in 1846 until the discovery of Pluto in 1930 , Neptune was the farthest known planet .When Pluto was discovered, it was considered a planet, and Neptune thus became the second-farthest known planet, except for a 20-year period between 1979 and 1999 when Pluto's elliptical orbit brought it closer than Neptune to the Sun, making Neptune the ninth planet from the Sun during this period. The increasingly accurate estimations of Pluto's mass from ten times that of Earth's to far less than that of the Moon and the discovery of the Kuiper belt in 1992 led many astronomers to debate whether Pluto should be considered a planet or as part of the Kuiper belt. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union defined the word ""planet"" for the first time, reclassifying Pluto as a ""dwarf planet"" and making Neptune once again the outermost-known planet in the Solar System. Physical characteristics
Neptune's mass of 1.024×1026 kg is intermediate between Earth and the larger gas giants: it is 17.15 times that of Earth but just 1/19th that of Jupiter. Its gravity at 1 bar is 11.27 m/s2, 1.15 times the surface gravity of Earth, and surpassed only by Jupiter. Neptune's equatorial radius of 24,764 km is nearly four times that of Earth. Neptune, like Uranus, is an ice giant, a subclass of giant planet, because they are smaller and have higher concentrations of volatiles than Jupiter and Saturn. In the search for exoplanets, Neptune has been used as a metonym: discovered bodies of similar mass are often referred to as ""Neptunes"", just as scientists refer to various extrasolar bodies as ""Jupiters"". Internal structure
Neptune's internal structure resembles that of Uranus.","[0.005925764795392752, -0.006099262740463018, 0.010270778089761734, -0.046011533588171005, 0.04942217096686363, -0.04623548313975334, -0.028148692101240158, 0.054644398391246796, 0.005419726949185133, 0.03904186189174652, -0.007228570990264416, -0.0243453960865736, 0.03695125877857208, -0.026945611461997032, 0.005495752673596144, -0.054316747933626175, 0.02394263818860054, -0.022742917761206627, 0.08834699541330338, 0.029071098193526268, -0.0010092343436554074, 0.07081414014101028, 0.04924595355987549, 0.013319878838956356, -0.047895222902297974, -0.03856700286269188, -0.052965037524700165, -0.060554053634405136, -0.034030307084321976, 0.023344408720731735, -0.07805993407964706, 0.02588896080851555, 0.05474958196282387, -0.03165952488780022, 0.015992943197488785, 0.05241284891963005, 0.019866999238729477, 0.032683227211236954, -0.07110799849033356, -0.047106318175792694, -0.010704596526920795, -0.04428528994321823, 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330,"similar mass are often referred to as `` Neptunes '' , just as scientists refer to various extrasolar bodies as `` Jupiters '' . Internal structure Neptune 's internal structure resembles that of Uranus .Its atmosphere forms about 5 to 10% of its mass and extends perhaps 10 to 20% of the way towards the core. Pressure in the atmosphere reaches about 10 GPa, or about 105 atmospheres. Increasing concentrations of methane, ammonia and water are found in the lower regions of the atmosphere. The mantle is equivalent to 10 to 15 Earth masses and is rich in water, ammonia and methane. As is customary in planetary science, this mixture is called icy even though it is a hot, dense supercritical fluid. This fluid, which has a high electrical conductivity, is sometimes called a water–ammonia ocean. The mantle may consist of a layer of ionic water in which the water molecules break down into a soup of hydrogen and oxygen ions, and deeper down superionic water in which the oxygen crystallizes but the hydrogen ions float around freely within the oxygen lattice. At a depth of 7,000 km, the conditions may be such that methane decomposes into diamond crystals that rain downwards like hailstones. Scientists believe that this kind of diamond rain occurs on Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus. Very-high-pressure experiments at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory suggest that the top of the mantle may be an ocean of liquid carbon with floating solid 'diamonds'. The core of Neptune is likely composed of iron, nickel and silicates, with an interior model giving a mass about 1.2x that of Earth. The pressure at the centre is 7 Mbar (700 GPa), about twice as high as that at the centre of Earth, and the temperature may be 5,400 K (5,100 °C; 9,300 °F).","[-0.03597767651081085, -0.02443239837884903, 0.02447928860783577, -0.010110322386026382, 0.07258050888776779, -0.03002024069428444, 0.0005373175954446197, 0.05082836002111435, -0.006187943276017904, 0.04385353997349739, -0.12618955969810486, -0.09940013289451599, 0.016059137880802155, -0.019709043204784393, 0.018869366496801376, -0.042251866310834885, 0.01841091364622116, -0.07145557552576065, -0.02875901386141777, 0.042718756943941116, 0.05205918848514557, 0.05377592891454697, -0.03059283271431923, -0.02605774626135826, -0.07275713235139847, 0.044225964695215225, -0.003266136860474944, 0.02380216307938099, 0.015170152299106121, 0.005978620145469904, -0.03243444487452507, -0.032317958772182465, 0.03143826499581337, 0.013807826675474644, -0.010907365940511227, 0.07409868389368057, -0.011658773757517338, 0.024236289784312248, 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331,"is 7 Mbar ( 700 GPa ) , about twice as high as that at the centre of Earth , and the temperature may be 5,400 K ( 5,100 °C ; 9,300 °F ) .Atmosphere
At high altitudes, Neptune's atmosphere is 80% hydrogen and 19% helium. A trace amount of methane is present. Prominent absorption bands of methane exist at wavelengths above 600 nm, in the red and infrared portion of the spectrum. As with Uranus, this absorption of red light by atmospheric methane is part of what gives Neptune its faint blue hue, which is more pronounced for Neptune's due to concentrated haze in Uranus's atmosphere. Neptune's atmosphere is subdivided into two main regions: the lower troposphere, where temperature decreases with altitude, and the stratosphere, where temperature increases with altitude. The boundary between the two, the tropopause, lies at a pressure of 0.1 bars (10 kPa). The stratosphere then gives way to the thermosphere at a pressure lower than 10−5 to 10−4 bars (1 to 10 Pa). The thermosphere gradually transitions to the exosphere. Models suggest that Neptune's troposphere is banded by clouds of varying compositions depending on altitude. The upper-level clouds lie at pressures below one bar, where the temperature is suitable for methane to condense. For pressures between one and five bars (100 and 500 kPa), clouds of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide are thought to form. Above a pressure of five bars, the clouds may consist of ammonia, ammonium sulfide, hydrogen sulfide and water. Deeper clouds of water ice should be found at pressures of about 50 bars (5.0 MPa), where the temperature reaches 273 K (0 °C; 32 °F). Underneath, clouds of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide may be found. High-altitude clouds on Neptune have been observed casting shadows on the opaque cloud deck below.","[0.03645883873105049, -0.026348616927862167, 0.00144159235060215, -0.004039168823510408, 0.06786524504423141, -0.027611523866653442, 0.028244804590940475, 0.046633295714855194, 0.023825308308005333, 0.03261534869670868, -0.09523603320121765, -0.04107017442584038, 0.06098320335149765, -0.08881191164255142, 0.05270502716302872, 0.0296478271484375, 0.03647809103131294, -0.1087087094783783, 0.013268698938190937, -0.04894251748919487, 0.016445599496364594, 0.027095962315797806, 0.016703369095921516, -0.03067478910088539, -0.09617599099874496, -0.08156388252973557, -0.03070065751671791, -0.0027973062824457884, -0.006746427156031132, 0.018794994801282883, -0.04836336523294449, 0.004642840009182692, -0.00995232816785574, 0.043089672923088074, -0.009099744260311127, 0.03840893507003784, 0.01578981988132, 0.03585437312722206, -0.07647749036550522, 0.037620123475790024, -0.0063949162140488625, 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332,"0 °C ; 32 °F ) . Underneath , clouds of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide may be found . High-altitude clouds on Neptune have been observed casting shadows on the opaque cloud deck below .There are high-altitude cloud bands that wrap around the planet at constant latitudes. These circumferential bands have widths of 50–150 km and lie about 50–110 km above the cloud deck. These altitudes are in the layer where weather occurs, the troposphere. Weather does not occur in the higher stratosphere or thermosphere. In August 2023, the high-altitude clouds of Neptune vanished, prompting a study spanning thirty years of observations by the Hubble Space Telescope and ground-based telescopes. The study found that Neptune's high-altitude cloud activity is bound to Solar cycles, and not to the planet's seasons. Neptune's spectra suggest that its lower stratosphere is hazy due to condensation of products of ultraviolet photolysis of methane, such as ethane and ethyne. The stratosphere is home to trace amounts of carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide. The stratosphere of Neptune is warmer than that of Uranus due to the elevated concentration of hydrocarbons. For reasons that remain obscure, the planet's thermosphere is at an anomalously high temperature of about 750 K (477 °C; 890 °F). The planet is too far from the Sun for this heat to be generated by ultraviolet radiation. One candidate for a heating mechanism is atmospheric interaction with ions in the planet's magnetic field. Other candidates are gravity waves from the interior that dissipate in the atmosphere. The thermosphere contains traces of carbon dioxide and water, which may have been deposited from external sources such as meteorites and dust. Colour
Neptune's atmosphere is faintly blue in the optical spectrum, only slightly more saturated than the blue of Uranus's atmosphere.","[0.015592427924275398, 0.012835744768381119, 0.07933934032917023, 0.007395841181278229, 0.09053746610879898, 0.00783814862370491, 0.010294213891029358, 0.019964179024100304, 0.018525591120123863, 0.01963704079389572, -0.041567061096429825, -0.03682078793644905, 0.0801553726196289, -0.09759524464607239, 0.0711892619729042, 0.006191065534949303, 0.05011098459362984, -0.0709260106086731, 0.00964980199933052, -0.05218130722641945, 0.015569694340229034, 0.048352811485528946, -0.0477588064968586, 0.018237266689538956, -0.03469047322869301, -0.014632671140134335, -0.09467484056949615, -0.03732782602310181, -0.03021388314664364, 0.057410452514886856, -0.042910315096378326, 0.01904970221221447, -0.053858913481235504, 0.013738066889345646, 0.036496687680482864, 0.02917170338332653, -0.030141428112983704, -0.020054902881383896, -0.06233258545398712, 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333,"been deposited from external sources such as meteorites and dust . Colour Neptune 's atmosphere is faintly blue in the optical spectrum , only slightly more saturated than the blue of Uranus 's atmosphere .Early renderings of the two planets greatly exaggerated Neptune's colour contrast ""to better reveal the clouds, bands and winds"", making it seem deep blue compared to Uranus's off-white. The two planets had been imaged with different systems, making it hard to directly compare the resulting composite images. This was revisited with the colour normalised over time, most comprehensively in late 2023. Magnetosphere
Neptune's magnetosphere consists of a magnetic field that is strongly tilted relative to its rotational axis at 47° and offset of at least 0.55 radius (~13,500 km) from the planet's physical centre—resembling Uranus's magnetosphere. Before the arrival of Voyager 2 to Neptune, it was hypothesised that Uranus's sideways rotation caused its tilted magnetosphere. In comparing the magnetic fields of the two planets, scientists now think the extreme orientation may be characteristic of flows in the planets' interiors. This field may be generated by convective fluid motions in a thin spherical shell of electrically conducting liquids (probably a combination of ammonia, methane and water), resulting in a dynamo action. The dipole component of the magnetic field at the magnetic equator of Neptune is about 14 microteslas (0.14 G). The dipole magnetic moment of Neptune is about 2.2 × 1017 T·m3 (14 μT·RN3, where RN is the radius of Neptune). Neptune's magnetic field has a complex geometry that includes relatively large contributions from non-dipolar components, including a strong quadrupole moment that may exceed the dipole moment in strength. By contrast, Earth, Jupiter and Saturn have only relatively small quadrupole moments, and their fields are less tilted from the polar axis.","[0.009131676517426968, -0.0110505735501647, 0.08522889763116837, -0.05375447869300842, 0.09780354797840118, 0.01013073418289423, -0.012221151031553745, -0.014012864790856838, 0.020917382091283798, 0.03167914226651192, -0.12789970636367798, 0.050957564264535904, 0.1414606124162674, -0.05808098614215851, 0.018897848203778267, 0.017184192314743996, 0.02696305140852928, -0.08257947862148285, 0.02400916814804077, 0.019359739497303963, 0.00876330491155386, 0.015952330082654953, -0.015799617394804955, -0.033433910459280014, -0.11130634695291519, -0.009328790940344334, 0.013317537494003773, -0.02052631601691246, -0.03098386712372303, 0.027366895228624344, -0.020543448626995087, 0.013403637334704399, -0.09164667129516602, -0.010766951367259026, -0.09180533140897751, 0.004318961873650551, 0.03331812471151352, 0.026115257292985916, -0.050990525633096695, 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334,"that may exceed the dipole moment in strength . By contrast , Earth , Jupiter and Saturn have only relatively small quadrupole moments , and their fields are less tilted from the polar axis .The large quadrupole moment of Neptune may be the result of an offset from the planet's centre and geometrical constraints of the field's dynamo generator. Neptune's bow shock, where the magnetosphere begins to slow the solar wind, occurs at a distance of 34.9 times the radius of the planet. The magnetopause, where the pressure of the magnetosphere counterbalances the solar wind, lies at a distance of 23–26.5 times the radius of Neptune. The tail of the magnetosphere extends out to at least 72 times the radius of Neptune, and likely much farther. Measurements by Voyager 2 in extreme-ultraviolet and radio frequencies revealed that Neptune has faint and weak but complex and unique aurorae; however, these observations were limited in time and did not contain infrared. Subsequent astronomers using the Hubble Space Telescope have not glimpsed the aurorae, in contrast to the more well-defined aurorae of Uranus. In March 2025, aurorae on Neptune were pictured for the first time by combining visible light images from the Hubble Space Telescope with near-infrared (NIR) images from the James Webb Space Telescope. The relevant data were taken in June 2023. The James Webb Space Telescope attempted to learn the spectrography of Neptune's atmosphere and it was able to find trihydrogen cations (H+3) which is generated during an aurora and is considered as a clear indicator of auroral activity on both gas giants and ice giants. The nature of Neptune's aurorae is greatly influenced by the peculiar nature of its magnetic field.","[0.018486490473151207, 0.005800224840641022, 0.033334653824567795, -0.027079278603196144, 0.10847615450620651, -0.04090433940291405, -0.02693873830139637, 0.04849616065621376, 0.02767855115234852, -0.02760421484708786, -0.05799075588583946, 0.02311520464718342, 0.10207244008779526, -0.07244366407394409, 0.0024205083027482033, -0.029900958761572838, 0.03282640129327774, -0.08495336771011353, -0.0048188562504947186, 0.050262451171875, 0.008017834275960922, -0.005384871270507574, 0.01605105958878994, -0.004583404865115881, -0.024826062843203545, -0.08160993456840515, -0.04163913056254387, -0.013003245927393436, -0.02976127155125141, -0.0009836744284257293, 0.010466206818819046, -0.011867455206811428, -0.11395931243896484, 0.027459105476737022, -0.06484895944595337, 0.04557644575834274, 0.05747711658477783, 0.045372750610113144, -0.029437877237796783, 0.03227325528860092, 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0.10906724631786346]",Neptune,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.
335,"is considered as a clear indicator of auroral activity on both gas giants and ice giants . The nature of Neptune 's aurorae is greatly influenced by the peculiar nature of its magnetic field .Unlike the Earth, Jupiter or Saturn, Neptune's magnetic poles are not aligned with the planet's rotational poles which is why Neptune's aurorae mostly occur around its mid-latitude areas instead of its poles like on Earth or Jupiter. Climate
Neptune's weather is characterized by extremely dynamic storm systems, with winds reaching speeds of almost 600 m/s (2,200 km/h; 1,300 mph)—exceeding supersonic flow. More typically, by tracking the motion of persistent clouds, wind speeds have been shown to vary from 20 m/s in the easterly direction to 325 m/s westward. At the cloud tops, the prevailing winds range in speed from 400 m/s along the equator to 250 m/s at the poles. Most of the winds on Neptune move in a direction opposite the planet's rotation. The general pattern of winds showed prograde rotation at high latitudes vs. retrograde rotation at lower latitudes. The difference in flow direction is thought to be a ""skin effect"" and not due to any deeper atmospheric processes. At 70°S latitude, a high-speed jet travels at a speed of 300 m/s. Due to seasonal changes, the cloud bands in the southern hemisphere of Neptune have been observed to increase in size and albedo. This trend was first seen in 1980. The long orbital period of Neptune results in seasons lasting 40 Earth years. Neptune differs from Uranus in its typical level of meteorological activity. Voyager 2 observed weather phenomena on Neptune during its 1989 flyby, but no comparable phenomena on Uranus during its 1986 flyby. The abundance of methane, ethane and acetylene at Neptune's equator is 10–100 times greater than at the poles.","[0.01762741431593895, 0.00855645164847374, 0.07829467207193375, -0.010711640119552612, 0.11009842157363892, -0.014791036024689674, -0.010192658752202988, -0.024163709953427315, 0.06589453667402267, 0.012659840285778046, -0.10000218451023102, -0.010907566174864769, 0.05188138037919998, -0.11225061118602753, -0.01428842544555664, -0.0408158041536808, 0.016501104459166527, -0.04850521311163902, 0.006654852535575628, 0.019301770254969597, -0.028934525325894356, 0.01759405806660652, -0.05948028713464737, 0.06840253621339798, -0.05017068609595299, -0.019639767706394196, -0.056902796030044556, -0.03221911936998367, -0.03347095474600792, 0.025264056399464607, -0.006546794902533293, 0.03377116844058037, -0.0788816288113594, 0.05058703199028969, -0.09350726753473282, -0.013873185962438583, 0.056163616478443146, 0.02850334346294403, -0.08145557343959808, -0.009219608269631863, 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336,"1989 flyby , but no comparable phenomena on Uranus during its 1986 flyby . The abundance of methane , ethane and acetylene at Neptune 's equator is 10–100 times greater than at the poles .This is interpreted as evidence for upwelling at the equator and subsidence near the poles, as photochemistry cannot account for the distribution without meridional circulation. In 2007, it was discovered that the upper troposphere of Neptune's south pole was about 10 K warmer than the rest of its atmosphere, which averages about 73 K (−200 °C). The temperature differential is enough to let methane, which elsewhere is frozen in the troposphere, escape into the stratosphere near the pole. The relative ""hot spot"" is due to Neptune's axial tilt, which has exposed the south pole to the Sun for the last quarter of Neptune's year, or roughly 40 Earth years. As Neptune slowly moves towards the opposite side of the Sun, the south pole will be darkened and the north pole illuminated, causing the methane release to shift to the north pole. Storms
In 1989, the Great Dark Spot, an anticyclonic storm system spanning 13,000 km × 6,600 km (8,100 mi × 4,100 mi), was discovered by NASA's Voyager 2 spacecraft. The storm resembled the Great Red Spot of Jupiter. Some five years later, on 2 November 1994, the Hubble Space Telescope did not see the Great Dark Spot on the planet. Instead, a new storm similar to the Great Dark Spot was found in Neptune's northern hemisphere. The Scooter is another storm, a white cloud group farther south than the Great Dark Spot.","[-0.04282894730567932, 0.009690419770777225, 0.04633810743689537, 0.008774638175964355, 0.1385115683078766, -0.023312171921133995, -0.012209612876176834, 0.08542001247406006, 0.013888495974242687, 0.04523742198944092, -0.02774757891893387, -0.040047720074653625, 0.0306781567633152, -0.09459761530160904, 0.026393547654151917, 0.013204537332057953, -0.047960732132196426, -0.10072274506092072, 0.04106759652495384, -0.02957882545888424, -0.017961207777261734, 0.04806550219655037, -0.041035234928131104, -0.010151760652661324, -0.07606779783964157, -0.05016927421092987, -0.08720456808805466, -0.017382586374878883, -0.04266294091939926, 0.04973059147596359, -0.03575409948825836, 0.03266005963087082, -0.1155504584312439, 0.06631473451852798, -0.056498751044273376, 0.03864822909235954, 0.010847860015928745, -0.02532326616346836, -0.04309054836630821, 0.04038257151842117, 0.0012324625859037042, 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337,"a new storm similar to the Great Dark Spot was found in Neptune 's northern hemisphere . The Scooter is another storm , a white cloud group farther south than the Great Dark Spot .This nickname first arose during the months leading up to the Voyager 2 encounter in 1989, when they were observed moving at speeds faster than the Great Dark Spot (and images acquired later would subsequently reveal the presence of clouds moving even faster than those that had initially been detected by Voyager 2). The Small Dark Spot is a southern cyclonic storm, the second-most-intense storm observed during the 1989 encounter. It was initially completely dark, but as Voyager 2 approached the planet, a bright core developed, which can be seen in most of the highest-resolution images. In 2018, a newer main dark spot and smaller dark spot were identified and studied. In 2023, the first ground-based observation of a dark spot on Neptune was announced. Neptune's dark spots are thought to occur in the troposphere at lower altitudes than the brighter cloud features, so they appear as holes in the upper cloud decks. As they are stable features that can persist for several months, they are thought to be vortex structures. Often associated with dark spots are brighter, persistent methane clouds that form around the tropopause layer. The persistence of companion clouds shows that some former dark spots may continue to exist as cyclones even though they are no longer visible as a dark feature. Dark spots may dissipate when they migrate too close to the equator or possibly through some other, unknown mechanism. In 1989, Voyager 2's Planetary Radio Astronomy (PRA) experiment observed around 60 lightning flashes, or Neptunian electrostatic discharges emitting energies over 7×108 J. A plasma wave system (PWS) detected 16 electromagnetic wave events with a frequency range of 50–12 kHz at magnetic latitudes 7–33˚.","[-0.015136290341615677, -0.04053524136543274, 0.09805776923894882, 0.05082588270306587, 0.10995505005121231, -0.018624747171998024, -0.03146757930517197, 0.06554213911294937, 0.09707694500684738, -0.01122325100004673, -0.031002597883343697, -0.014558929949998856, 0.06950212270021439, -0.06996888667345047, -0.0087560610845685, -0.007025470025837421, 0.04854460805654526, -0.11066010594367981, 0.0522913858294487, -0.02536187134683132, 0.007410942576825619, 0.060286346822977066, -0.05309271812438965, 0.020495839416980743, -0.04261457547545433, 0.004392037633806467, -0.0515177920460701, -0.03550160303711891, -0.01281537301838398, 0.03419964388012886, -0.02212660387158394, 0.05064399167895317, -0.08881878107786179, 0.08824142813682556, 0.02342631109058857, -0.03569237142801285, 0.00780155835673213, 0.04809568077325821, 0.012544902972877026, 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0.06707680970430374]",Neptune,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.
338,", or Neptunian electrostatic discharges emitting energies over 7×108 J . A plasma wave system ( PWS ) detected 16 electromagnetic wave events with a frequency range of 50–12 kHz at magnetic latitudes 7–33˚ .These plasma wave detections were possibly triggered by lightning over 20 minutes in the ammonia clouds of the magnetosphere. During Voyager 2's closest approach to Neptune, the PWS instrument provided Neptune's first plasma wave detections at a sample rate of 28,800 samples per second. The measured plasma densities range from 10−3 – 10−1 cm3. Neptunian lightning may occur in three cloud layers, with microphysical modelling suggesting that most of these occurrences happen in the water clouds of the troposphere or the shallow ammonia clouds of the magnetosphere. Neptune is predicted to have 1/19 the lightning flash rate of Jupiter and to display most of its lightning activity at high latitudes. However, lightning on Neptune seems to resemble lightning on Earth rather than Jovian lightning. Internal heating
Neptune's more varied weather when compared to Uranus is due in part to its higher internal heating. The upper regions of Neptune's troposphere reach a low temperature of 51.8 K (−221.3 °C). At a depth where the atmospheric pressure equals 1 bar (100 kPa), the temperature is 72.00 K (−201.15 °C). Deeper inside the layers of gas, the temperature rises steadily. As with Uranus, the source of this heating is unknown, but the discrepancy is larger: Uranus only radiates 1.1 times as much energy as it receives from the Sun; whereas Neptune radiates about 2.61 times as much energy as it receives from the Sun. Neptune is over 50% farther from the Sun than Uranus and receives only ~40% of Uranus's amount of sunlight; however, its internal energy is still enough for the fastest planetary winds in the Solar System.","[-0.030824298039078712, -0.0279989056289196, 0.018404332920908928, -0.011140995658934116, 0.05417374148964882, -0.04811147600412369, 0.008866081945598125, -0.006015254184603691, 0.046563684940338135, -0.004073852673172951, -0.05039307475090027, -0.07108840346336365, 0.032132089138031006, -0.003318767063319683, 0.0006589180557057261, -0.06164019927382469, 0.03867686167359352, -0.13019287586212158, 0.01937047392129898, -0.0158939678221941, 0.01370793953537941, 0.026187250390648842, -0.004373545292764902, -0.0880434587597847, -0.020941531285643578, -0.050218891352415085, -0.020817479118704796, -0.04629729688167572, -0.02712986059486866, 0.06387601792812347, 0.018617738038301468, -0.01899806410074234, -0.08146542310714722, 0.04563652724027634, -0.0018321628449484706, 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0.12517765164375305]",Neptune,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.
339,"from the Sun than Uranus and receives only ~40 % of Uranus 's amount of sunlight ; however , its internal energy is still enough for the fastest planetary winds in the Solar System .Depending on the thermal properties of its interior, the heat left over from Neptune's formation may be sufficient to explain its current heat flow, though it is harder to explain Uranus's lack of internal heat while preserving the apparent similarity between the two planets. Orbit and rotation
The average distance between Neptune and the Sun is 4.5 billion km (about 30.1 astronomical units (AU), the mean distance from the Earth to the Sun), and it completes an orbit on average every 164.79 years, subject to a variability of around ±0.1 years. The perihelion distance is 29.81 AU, and the aphelion distance is 30.33 AU. Neptune's orbital eccentricity is only 0.008678, making it the planet in the Solar System with the second most circular orbit after Venus. The orbit of Neptune is inclined 1.77° compared to that of Earth. On 11 July 2011, Neptune completed its first full barycentric orbit since its discovery in 1846; it did not appear at its exact discovery position in the sky because Earth was in a different location in its 365.26-day orbit. Because of the motion of the Sun in relation to the barycentre of the Solar System, on 11 July, Neptune was not at its exact discovery position in relation to the Sun—if the more common heliocentric coordinate system is used, the discovery longitude was reached on 12 July 2011. The axial tilt of Neptune is 28.32°, which is similar to the tilts of Earth (23°) and Mars (25°). As a result, Neptune experiences seasonal changes similar to those on Earth. The long orbital period of Neptune means that the seasons last for forty Earth years.","[0.05389639735221863, -0.03290455788373947, 0.03514208272099495, -0.037158116698265076, -0.017448989674448967, -0.04662628471851349, -0.05563311278820038, 0.03088495321571827, 0.03842369094491005, 0.07664696872234344, -0.05012095347046852, -0.030091527849435806, 0.0688687413930893, -0.03834518790245056, 0.010226660408079624, -0.02131262794137001, 0.022747354581952095, -0.05276649817824364, 0.028689667582511902, 0.03046637959778309, 0.03158963844180107, -0.013578242622315884, 0.037386611104011536, -0.015211794525384903, -0.04553762823343277, -0.05228780210018158, -0.0020891688764095306, -0.0007690653437748551, -0.06708130985498428, 0.02838446944952011, -0.044612232595682144, -0.05851638317108154, -0.035049885511398315, -0.03973301500082016, -0.03245082125067711, 0.040357138961553574, -0.006524817552417517, 0.004789055325090885, -0.10111746191978455, -0.047585971653461456, 0.03339225426316261, 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340,"Mars ( 25° ) . As a result , Neptune experiences seasonal changes similar to those on Earth . The long orbital period of Neptune means that the seasons last for forty Earth years .Its sidereal rotation period (day) is roughly 16.11 hours. Because its axial tilt is comparable to Earth's, the variation in the length of its day over the course of its long year is not any more extreme. Because Neptune is not a solid body, its atmosphere undergoes differential rotation. The wide equatorial zone rotates with a period of about 18 hours, which is slower than the 16.1-hour rotation of the planet's magnetic field. By contrast, the reverse is true for the polar regions where the rotation period is 12 hours. This differential rotation is the most pronounced of any planet in the Solar System, and it results in strong latitudinal wind shear. Formation and resonances
Formation
The formation of the ice giants, Neptune and Uranus, has been difficult to model precisely. Current models suggest that the matter density in the outer regions of the Solar System was too low to account for the formation of such large bodies from the traditionally accepted method of core accretion, and various hypotheses have been advanced to explain their formation. One is that the ice giants were not formed by core accretion but from instabilities within the original protoplanetary disc and later had their atmospheres blasted away by radiation from a nearby massive OB star. An alternative concept is that they formed closer to the Sun, where the matter density was higher, and then subsequently migrated to their current orbits after the removal of the gaseous protoplanetary disc. This hypothesis of migration after formation is favoured due to its ability to better explain the occupancy of the populations of small objects observed in the trans-Neptunian region.","[-0.017980702221393585, -0.013473570346832275, 0.10042622685432434, -0.005798020400106907, 0.043021854013204575, -0.052186883985996246, -0.0841173380613327, 0.010814471170306206, 0.0339629091322422, 0.03971231356263161, -0.05353700369596481, -0.00027551973471418023, 0.044916607439517975, -0.09793426841497421, 0.039871759712696075, -0.0579177625477314, -0.09805389493703842, -0.03546655550599098, 0.03417503833770752, 0.04693242534995079, -0.0032267391216009855, -0.015796717256307602, -0.06505389511585236, 0.053550101816654205, -0.07356046140193939, 0.010678991675376892, -0.05490666255354881, -0.002672647824510932, 0.010283066891133785, 0.03093906119465828, -0.046056777238845825, 0.08402732759714127, 0.02949519082903862, -0.008852159604430199, -0.08554549515247345, 0.02780410647392273, 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341,"of the gaseous protoplanetary disc . This hypothesis of migration after formation is favoured due to its ability to better explain the occupancy of the populations of small objects observed in the trans-Neptunian region .The current most widely accepted explanation of the details of this hypothesis is known as the Nice model, which is a dynamical evolution scenario that explores the potential effect of a migrating Neptune and the other giant planets on the structure of the Kuiper belt. Orbital resonances
Neptune's orbit has a profound impact on the region directly beyond it, known as the Kuiper belt. The Kuiper belt is a ring of small icy worlds, similar to the asteroid belt but far larger, extending from Neptune's orbit at 30 AU out to about 55 AU from the Sun. Much in the same way that Jupiter's gravity dominates the asteroid belt, Neptune's gravity dominates the Kuiper belt. Over the age of the Solar System, certain regions of the Kuiper belt became destabilised by Neptune's gravity, creating gaps in its structure. The region between 40 and 42 AU is an example. There do exist orbits within these empty regions where objects can survive for the age of the Solar System. These resonances occur when Neptune's orbital period is a precise fraction of that of the object, such as 1:2, or 3:4. If, say, an object orbits the Sun once for every two Neptune orbits, it will only complete half an orbit by the time Neptune returns to its original position. The most heavily populated resonance in the Kuiper belt, with over 200 known objects, is the 2:3 resonance. Objects in this resonance complete 2 orbits for every 3 of Neptune, and are known as plutinos because the largest of the known Kuiper belt objects, Pluto, is among them.","[0.011621099896728992, 0.0071604591794312, 0.007045662961900234, -0.016665279865264893, 0.02909097820520401, -0.0912933498620987, -0.05763339623808861, 0.07622086256742477, 0.09537171572446823, -0.01015341468155384, -0.0034190865699201822, -0.0443594716489315, 0.018223881721496582, -0.03258870542049408, 0.014269660227000713, -0.024320296943187714, 0.052897825837135315, -0.04991988092660904, -0.062484364956617355, -0.018127992749214172, -0.03271247446537018, 0.045935675501823425, 0.0018627122044563293, 0.025710878893733025, -0.1356930285692215, -0.018523480743169785, -0.041650235652923584, -0.009211461059749126, 0.0163970235735178, -0.006837405264377594, -0.04281548783183098, -0.016320275142788887, -0.018726587295532227, 0.031620148569345474, 0.02857774682343006, 0.03168940544128418, -0.0371549129486084, 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342,". Objects in this resonance complete 2 orbits for every 3 of Neptune , and are known as plutinos because the largest of the known Kuiper belt objects , Pluto , is among them .Although Pluto crosses Neptune's orbit regularly, the 2:3 resonance makes it so that they can never collide. The 3:4, 3:5, 4:7 and 2:5 resonances are less populated. Neptune has a number of known trojan objects occupying both the Sun–Neptune L4 and L5 Lagrangian points—gravitationally stable regions leading and trailing Neptune in its orbit, respectively. Neptune trojans can be viewed as being in a 1:1 resonance with Neptune. Some Neptune trojans are remarkably stable in their orbits, and are likely to have formed alongside Neptune rather than being captured. The first object identified as associated with Neptune's trailing L5 Lagrangian point was 2008 LC18. Neptune has a temporary quasi-satellite, (309239) 2007 RW10. The object has been a quasi-satellite of Neptune for about 12,500 years and it will remain in that dynamical state for another 12,500 years. Moons
Neptune has 16 known moons. Triton is the largest Neptunian moon, accounting for more than 99.5% of the mass in orbit around Neptune, and is the only one massive enough to be spheroidal. Triton was discovered by William Lassell just 17 days after the discovery of Neptune itself. Unlike all other large planetary moons in the Solar System, Triton has a retrograde orbit, indicating that it was captured rather than forming in place; it was probably once a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt. It is close enough to Neptune to be locked into a synchronous rotation, and it is slowly spiralling inward because of tidal acceleration. 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343,"a synchronous rotation , and it is slowly spiralling inward because of tidal acceleration . It will eventually be torn apart , in about 3.6 billion years , when it reaches the Roche limit .In 1989, Triton was the coldest object that had yet been measured in the Solar System, with estimated temperatures of 38 K (−235 °C). This very low temperature is due to Triton's very high albedo which causes it to reflect a lot of sunlight instead of absorbing it. Neptune's second-known satellite (by order of discovery), the irregular moon Nereid, has one of the most eccentric orbits of any satellite in the Solar System. The eccentricity of 0.7512 gives it an apoapsis that is seven times its periapsis distance from Neptune. From July to September 1989, Voyager 2 discovered six moons of Neptune. Of these, the irregularly shaped Proteus is notable for being as large as a body of its density can be without being pulled into a spherical shape by its own gravity. Although the second-most-massive Neptunian moon, it is only 0.25% the mass of Triton. Neptune's innermost four moons—Naiad, Thalassa, Despina and Galatea—orbit close enough to be within Neptune's rings. The next-farthest out, Larissa, was originally discovered in 1981 when it had occulted a star. This occultation had been attributed to ring arcs, but when Voyager 2 observed Neptune in 1989, Larissa was found to have caused it. Five new irregular moons discovered between 2002 and 2003 were announced in 2004. A new moon and the smallest yet, Hippocamp, was found in 2013 by combining multiple Hubble images. Because Neptune was the Roman god of the sea, Neptune's moons have been named after lesser sea gods. Planetary rings
Neptune has a planetary ring system, though one much less substantial than that of Saturn and Uranus.","[-0.03517432138323784, -0.036568157374858856, 0.019659876823425293, -0.02728566713631153, -0.003481666324660182, -0.05967703089118004, -0.018191948533058167, 0.06936194002628326, 0.012857764028012753, 0.0719665139913559, 0.028922609984874725, -0.06983139365911484, 0.0008727089152671397, -0.043527062982320786, 0.003492058487609029, -0.06404419988393784, 0.027389297261834145, -0.04127563536167145, 0.011212185956537724, -0.03474396839737892, -0.032442498952150345, 0.012664513662457466, -0.038760747760534286, -0.0035949149169027805, -0.07842600345611572, -0.04991962015628815, -0.016246885061264038, -0.019572578370571136, -0.03246999531984329, 0.02495611645281315, -0.05671635642647743, 0.01827119290828705, -0.10334231704473495, 0.009955395013093948, 0.03658624365925789, -0.0038082562386989594, -0.032774657011032104, -0.03512072190642357, -0.0370696485042572, -0.03434954211115837, 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344,"the sea , Neptune 's moons have been named after lesser sea gods . Planetary rings Neptune has a planetary ring system , though one much less substantial than that of Saturn and Uranus .The rings may consist of ice particles coated with silicates or carbon-based material, which most likely gives them a reddish hue. The three main rings are the narrow Adams Ring, 63,000 km from the centre of Neptune, the Le Verrier Ring, at 53,000 km, and the broader, fainter Galle Ring, at 42,000 km. A faint outward extension to the Le Verrier Ring has been named Lassell; it is bounded at its outer edge by the Arago Ring at 57,000 km. The first of these planetary rings was detected in 1968 by a team led by Edward Guinan. In the early 1980s, analysis of this data along with newer observations led to the hypothesis that this ring might be incomplete. Evidence that the rings might have gaps first arose during a stellar occultation in 1984 when the rings obscured a star on immersion but not on emersion. Images from Voyager 2 in 1989 settled the issue by showing several faint rings. The outermost ring, Adams, contains five prominent arcs now named Courage, Liberté, Egalité 1, Egalité 2 and Fraternité (Courage, Liberty, Equality and Fraternity). The existence of arcs was difficult to explain because the laws of motion would predict that arcs would spread out into a uniform ring over short timescales. Astronomers now estimate that the arcs are corralled into their current form by the gravitational effects of Galatea, a moon just inward from the ring. Earth-based observations announced in 2005 appeared to show that Neptune's rings were much more unstable than previously thought. Images taken from the W. M. Keck Observatory in 2002 and 2003 show considerable decay in the rings when compared to images by Voyager 2.","[-0.030198372900485992, -0.027968816459178925, -0.03528425097465515, -0.02332581952214241, 0.07035531848669052, -0.10541731864213943, 0.008559984154999256, 0.08812364935874939, 0.08034170418977737, -0.06753544509410858, -0.0719422996044159, 0.006290201097726822, 0.010205288417637348, -0.10855051875114441, -0.05318240076303482, 0.01976972445845604, -0.01178432535380125, -0.01838684268295765, 0.0026790397241711617, -0.008306670002639294, 0.02186187542974949, 0.04411372169852257, -0.018568066880106926, 0.02157221920788288, -0.05285210162401199, 0.04609313979744911, 0.03476274013519287, 0.051691871136426926, -0.04229942336678505, 0.03096987120807171, -0.044931866228580475, -0.013177533634006977, 0.018599944189190865, 0.010595956817269325, -0.02205571159720421, -0.011235027574002743, -0.04942388832569122, 0.07935556769371033, -0.08292457461357117, -0.034178249537944794, 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0.08858305960893631]",Neptune,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.
345,"rings were much more unstable than previously thought . Images taken from the W. M. Keck Observatory in 2002 and 2003 show considerable decay in the rings when compared to images by Voyager 2 .In particular, it seems that the Liberté arc might disappear in as little as one century. Observation
Neptune brightened about 10% between 1980 and 2000 mostly due to the changing of the seasons. Neptune may continue to brighten as it approaches perihelion in 2042. The apparent magnitude currently ranges from 7.67 to 7.89 with a mean of 7.78 and a standard deviation of 0.06. Prior to 1980, the planet was as faint as magnitude 8.0. Neptune is too faint to be visible to the naked eye. It can be outshone by Jupiter's Galilean moons, the dwarf planet Ceres and the asteroids 4 Vesta, 2 Pallas, 7 Iris, 3 Juno, and 6 Hebe. A telescope or strong binoculars will resolve Neptune as a small blue disk, similar in appearance to Uranus. Because of the distance of Neptune from Earth, its angular diameter only ranges from 2.2 to 2.4 arcseconds, the smallest of the Solar System planets. Its small apparent size makes it challenging to study visually. Most telescopic data was fairly limited until the advent of the Hubble Space Telescope and large ground-based telescopes with adaptive optics (AO). The first scientifically useful observation of Neptune from ground-based telescopes using adaptive optics was commenced in 1997 from Hawaii. Neptune is currently approaching perihelion (closest approach to the Sun) and has been shown to be heating up, with increased atmospheric activity and brightness as a consequence. Combined with technological advancements, ground-based telescopes with adaptive optics are recording increasingly more detailed images of it.","[0.04043573886156082, -0.04789420962333679, 0.0286612156778574, -0.0029342558700591326, 0.09122917801141739, -0.0787867084145546, -0.047166608273983, 0.09610114246606827, 0.0742180198431015, 0.027053000405430794, -0.059185273945331573, -0.027606384828686714, 0.06988846510648727, -0.063888318836689, -0.01157948188483715, -0.02339629828929901, 0.054932255297899246, -0.05963218957185745, -0.0022153800819069147, 0.016901448369026184, 0.005421784706413746, 0.06673693656921387, -0.025588050484657288, 0.020734751597046852, -0.0715283751487732, -0.04333896189928055, 0.014612498693168163, -0.061194662004709244, -0.03276743367314339, -0.012614595703780651, -0.049462661147117615, 0.030188940465450287, -0.06901291012763977, -0.02026483230292797, -0.014253370463848114, 0.01671198569238186, 0.009439322166144848, 0.02605079673230648, -0.07393892109394073, 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346,"shown to be heating up , with increased atmospheric activity and brightness as a consequence . Combined with technological advancements , ground-based telescopes with adaptive optics are recording increasingly more detailed images of it .Both Hubble and the adaptive-optics telescopes on Earth have made many new discoveries within the Solar System since the mid-1990s, with a large increase in the number of known satellites and moons around the outer planet, among others. In 2004 and 2005, five new small satellites of Neptune with diameters between 38 and 61 kilometres were discovered. From Earth, Neptune goes through apparent retrograde motion every 367 days, resulting in a looping motion against the background stars during each opposition. These loops carried it close to the 1846 discovery coordinates in April and July 2010 and again in October and November 2011. Neptune's 164-year orbital period means that the planet takes an average of 13 years to move through each constellation of the zodiac. In 2011, it completed its first full orbit of the Sun since being discovered and returned to where it was first spotted northeast of Iota Aquarii. Observation of Neptune in the radio-frequency band shows that it is a source of both continuous emission and irregular bursts. Both sources are thought to originate from its rotating magnetic field. In the infrared part of the spectrum, Neptune's storms appear bright against the cooler background, allowing the size and shape of these features to be readily tracked. Exploration
Voyager 2 is the only spacecraft that has visited Neptune. The spacecraft's closest approach to the planet occurred on 25 August 1989. Because this was the last major planet the spacecraft could visit, it was decided to make a close flyby of the moon Triton, regardless of the consequences to the trajectory, similarly to what was done for Voyager 1's encounter with Saturn and its moon Titan.","[-0.005109695717692375, -0.048961687833070755, 0.028624428436160088, -0.012508370913565159, 0.07635735720396042, -0.07257629930973053, -0.00968701858073473, 0.02370932325720787, 0.05116186663508415, 0.05616343393921852, -0.004839785862714052, 0.03940102830529213, 0.06279969960451126, -0.07800357043743134, -0.02422492206096649, -0.04973233863711357, -0.0246958676725626, -0.08759251981973648, 0.05046527087688446, -0.009026464074850082, -0.07520315796136856, -0.02269701287150383, -0.021089034155011177, -0.0036614108830690384, -0.036689724773168564, -0.015963517129421234, -0.015327086672186852, -0.07251592725515366, -0.0022824762854725122, 0.054520487785339355, -0.03239765390753746, 0.06091843545436859, -0.0652795284986496, 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347,"to make a close flyby of the moon Triton , regardless of the consequences to the trajectory , similarly to what was done for Voyager 1 's encounter with Saturn and its moon Titan .The images relayed back to Earth from Voyager 2 became the basis of a 1989 PBS all-night program, Neptune All Night. During the encounter, signals from the spacecraft required 246 minutes to reach Earth. Hence, for the most part, Voyager 2's mission relied on preloaded commands for the Neptune encounter. The spacecraft performed a near-encounter with the moon Nereid before it came within 4,400 km of Neptune's atmosphere on 25 August, then passed close to the planet's largest moon Triton later the same day. The spacecraft verified the existence of a magnetic field surrounding the planet and discovered that the field was offset from the centre and tilted in a manner similar to the field around Uranus. Neptune's rotation period was determined using measurements of radio emissions and Voyager 2 showed that Neptune had a surprisingly active weather system. Six new moons were discovered, and the planet was shown to have more than one ring. The flyby provided the first accurate measurement of Neptune's mass which was found to be 0.5 per cent less than previously calculated. The new figure disproved the hypothesis that an undiscovered Planet X acted upon the orbits of Neptune and Uranus. Since 2018, the China National Space Administration has been studying a concept for a pair of Voyager-like interstellar probes tentatively known as Shensuo. Both probes would be launched in the 2020s and take differing paths to explore opposing ends of the heliosphere; the second probe, IHP-2, would fly by Neptune in January 2038, passing only 1,000 km above the cloud tops, and potentially carry an atmospheric impactor to be released during its approach.","[-0.0810941532254219, 0.004830806981772184, 0.040579333901405334, 0.0019290964119136333, 0.04434375464916229, -0.06817098706960678, -0.0256506260484457, 0.03699737414717674, -0.027977338060736656, 0.04138324782252312, -0.0071571036241948605, -0.07251337170600891, 0.001575077185407281, -0.06829392164945602, -0.01049874909222126, -0.008385490626096725, 0.027319587767124176, -0.06583873927593231, 0.038006871938705444, -0.05258960276842117, -0.05360041931271553, 0.04954169690608978, -0.0032364320941269398, -0.01684281788766384, -0.06779783219099045, -0.01327656488865614, -0.025760183110833168, -0.060467928647994995, 0.01705460622906685, -0.016773462295532227, -0.014143029227852821, 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348,"second probe , IHP-2 , would fly by Neptune in January 2038 , passing only 1,000 km above the cloud tops , and potentially carry an atmospheric impactor to be released during its approach .Afterward, it will continue its mission throughout the Kuiper belt toward the heliosphere tail, which is so far unexplored. After Voyager 2 and IHP-2's flybys, the next step in scientific exploration of the Neptunian system is considered to be an orbital mission; most proposals have been by NASA, most often for a Flagship orbiter. In 2003, there was a proposal in NASA's ""Vision Missions Studies"" for a ""Neptune Orbiter with Probes"" mission that does Cassini-level science. A subsequent proposal, that was not selected, was for Argo, a flyby spacecraft to be launched in 2019, that would visit Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, and a Kuiper belt object. The focus would have been on Neptune and its largest moon Triton to be investigated around 2029. The proposed New Horizons 2 mission might have done a close flyby of the Neptunian system, but it was later scrapped. Currently a pending proposal for the Discovery Program, the Trident spacecraft would conduct a flyby of Neptune and Triton; however, the mission was not selected for Discovery 15 or 16. Neptune Odyssey is another concept for a Neptune orbiter and atmospheric probe that was studied as a possible large strategic science mission by NASA; it would have launched between 2031 and 2033, and arrive at Neptune by 2049. However, for logistical reasons the Uranus Orbiter and Probe mission was selected as the ice giant orbiter mission recommendation, with top priority ahead of the Enceladus Orbilander.","[-0.09383199363946915, -0.06143026798963547, -0.00434467289596796, -0.03335779160261154, 0.026843396946787834, -0.11205940693616867, -0.021276244893670082, 0.04352736845612526, 0.019651854410767555, 0.042887572199106216, 0.009509492665529251, -0.055397238582372665, -0.03790680691599846, -0.012882482260465622, -0.06359397619962692, -0.00742375897243619, 0.053298477083444595, -0.07909177988767624, 0.08075190335512161, -0.03476668521761894, -0.043229781091213226, 0.056392818689346313, 0.01895243674516678, -0.023701954632997513, -0.06697358191013336, -0.007727053947746754, -0.02368258498609066, -0.07082636654376984, -0.026867002248764038, -0.006921744905412197, -0.0006477565038949251, 0.020754365250468254, -0.06924250721931458, 0.024177804589271545, 0.02392667904496193, 0.027252549305558205, 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349,"at Neptune by 2049 . However , for logistical reasons the Uranus Orbiter and Probe mission was selected as the ice giant orbiter mission recommendation , with top priority ahead of the Enceladus Orbilander .Two notable proposals for a Triton-focused Neptune orbiter mission that would be costed right between the Trident and Odyssey missions (under the New Frontiers program) are Triton Ocean World Surveyor and Nautilus, with cruise stages taking place in the 2031–47 and 2041–56 time periods, respectively. Neptune is a potential target for China's Tianwen-5, which could arrive in 2058. See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
Burgess, Eric (1991). Far Encounter: The Neptune System. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-07412-4. Moore, Patrick (2000). The Data Book of Astronomy. Baton Rouge: Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-0-7503-0620-1. Further reading
Miner, Ellis D.; Wessen, Randii R. (2002). Neptune: The Planet, Rings, and Satellites. Springer-Praxis books in astronomy and space sciences. London; New York: Springer. ISBN 978-1-85233-216-7. Standage, Tom (2000). The Neptune File: A Story of Astronomical Rivalry and the Pioneers of Planet Hunting. New York: Walker. ISBN 978-0-8027-1363-6. External links

NASA's Neptune fact sheet Archived 1 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine
Neptune from Bill Arnett's nineplanets.org
Neptune Astronomy Cast episode No. 63, includes full transcript. Neptune Profile (archived 15 November 2002) at NASA's Solar System Exploration site
Interactive 3D gravity simulation of Neptune and its inner moons Archived 22 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine","[-0.07768463343381882, -0.03193764388561249, 0.03618806228041649, -0.029040291905403137, 0.024257700890302658, -0.032170433551073074, -0.05617043003439903, 0.047682374715805054, -0.038693882524967194, 0.04488113522529602, -0.047642942517995834, -0.03114413656294346, 0.0729856789112091, -0.03945714607834816, -0.007853067480027676, -0.015783824026584625, -0.01980588771402836, -0.05121129751205444, 0.07320796698331833, -0.09306509047746658, 0.012845294550061226, -0.0020204156171530485, 0.03748299926519394, 0.0035761487670242786, -0.11922028660774231, -0.08134579658508301, 0.03423010930418968, -0.08373532444238663, -0.011708836071193218, 0.03903425484895706, -0.06159545108675957, 0.04605172947049141, -0.10913418978452682, 0.01850859448313713, 0.00031374627724289894, 0.1174328401684761, 0.0051827155984938145, -0.0508602075278759, -0.07847847044467926, 0.003604588098824024, 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350," The Moon is the only natural satellite orbiting Earth. It orbits around Earth at an average distance of 384,399 kilometres (238,854 mi), a distance roughly 30 times the width of Earth, and completes an orbit (lunar month) in relation to Earth and the Sun (synodically) every 29.5 days. The Moon and Earth gravitationally pull on each other. The resulting tidal forces are the main drivers of Earth's tides, and have forced the Moon to face Earth with always the same near side, effectively synchronizing the Moon's rotation period (lunar day) to its orbital period (lunar month). This makes the Moon tidally locked to Earth. In geophysical terms, the Moon is a planetary-mass object or satellite planet. Its mass is 1.2% that of the Earth, and its diameter is 3,474 km (2,159 mi), roughly one-quarter of Earth's (about as wide as the contiguous United States). Within the Solar System, it is larger and more massive than any known dwarf planet, and the fifth-largest and fifth-most massive moon, as well as the largest and most massive in relation to its parent planet. Its surface gravity is about one-sixth of Earth's, about half that of Mars, and the second-highest among all moons in the Solar System after Jupiter's moon Io. The body of the Moon is differentiated and terrestrial, with only a minuscule hydrosphere, atmosphere, and magnetic field. The lunar surface is covered in regolith dust, which mainly consists of the fine material ejected from the lunar crust by impact events. The lunar crust is marked by impact craters, with some younger ones featuring bright ray-like streaks.","[0.09130274504423141, -0.03465931490063667, 0.05684862285852432, -0.026198016479611397, -0.041942644864320755, -0.03486160561442375, -0.00547444773837924, -0.026528382673859596, -0.0012175642186775804, 0.0465838760137558, -0.027112673968076706, -0.044105805456638336, -0.03394098952412605, -0.07860102504491806, 0.05226920545101166, -0.037365008145570755, 0.015110701322555542, -0.0029687078204005957, -0.015540005639195442, 0.023464275524020195, -0.0216666292399168, 0.0020112022757530212, -0.0010470221750438213, 0.01952335052192211, -0.0709000900387764, 0.04615373909473419, -0.0014890050515532494, -0.021115165203809738, -0.08045853674411774, -0.02356845512986183, -0.09053593873977661, -0.0012631778372451663, 0.011062949895858765, -0.006848386023193598, -0.09657014906406403, 0.05932692810893059, -0.05562705546617508, -0.05682047829031944, 0.0247651319950819, -0.06369120627641678, 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351,", which mainly consists of the fine material ejected from the lunar crust by impact events . The lunar crust is marked by impact craters , with some younger ones featuring bright ray-like streaks .The Moon was volcanically active until 1.2 billion years ago, surfacing lava mostly on the thinner near side of the Moon, filling ancient craters, which through cooling formed the today prominently visible dark plains of basalt called maria ('seas'). The Moon formed  out of material from Earth, ejected by a giant impact into Earth of a hypothesized Mars-sized body named Theia 4.51 billion years ago, not long after Earth's formation. From a distance, the day and night phases of the lunar day are visible as the lunar phases, and when the Moon passes through Earth's shadow a lunar eclipse is observable. The Moon's apparent size in Earth's sky is about the same as that of the Sun, which causes it to cover the Sun completely during a total solar eclipse. The Moon is the brightest celestial object in Earth's night sky because of its large apparent size, while the reflectance (albedo) of its surface is comparable to that of asphalt. About 59% of the surface of the Moon is visible from Earth owing to the different angles at which the Moon can appear in Earth's sky (libration), making parts of the far side of the Moon visible. The Moon has been an important source of inspiration and knowledge in human history, having been crucial to cosmography, mythology, religion, art, time keeping, natural science and spaceflight. The first human-made objects to fly to an extraterrestrial body were sent to the Moon, starting in 1959 with the flyby of the Soviet Union's Luna 1 probe and the intentional impact of Luna 2.","[0.05802806839346886, 0.022754792124032974, 0.14316639304161072, 0.06946062296628952, 0.03675287216901779, -0.06250620633363724, 0.008797719143331051, -0.030310267582535744, 0.00946719478815794, 0.005047494079917669, -0.0009434351813979447, -0.055119920521974564, -0.034393224865198135, -0.04138064384460449, -0.0028620269149541855, 0.0029316467698663473, 0.05088789761066437, -0.017712954431772232, 0.007385924458503723, 0.04406846687197685, 0.0208425335586071, 0.02641351707279682, -0.07673303037881851, -0.008852687664330006, 0.020906101912260056, 0.10959863662719727, -0.02449004538357258, 0.058059193193912506, 0.0021655356977134943, -0.033763885498046875, -0.05516103655099869, 0.004216649569571018, 0.019179048016667366, 0.003776244819164276, -0.04858078062534332, 0.01649579033255577, 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352,"objects to fly to an extraterrestrial body were sent to the Moon , starting in 1959 with the flyby of the Soviet Union 's Luna 1 probe and the intentional impact of Luna 2 .In 1966, the first soft landing (by Luna 9) and orbital insertion (by Luna 10) followed. Humans arrived for the first time at the Moon, or any extraterrestrial body, in orbit on December 24, 1968, with Apollo 8 of the United States, and on the surface at Mare Tranquillitatis on July 20, 1969, with the lander Eagle of Apollo 11. By 1972, six Apollo missions had landed twelve humans on the Moon and stayed up to three days. Renewed robotic exploration of the Moon, in particular to confirm the presence of water on the Moon, has fueled plans to return humans to the Moon, starting with the Artemis program in the late 2020s. Names and etymology
The English proper name for Earth's natural satellite is typically written as Moon, with a capital M. The noun moon is derived from Old English mōna, which stems from Proto-Germanic *mēnōn, which in turn comes from Proto-Indo-European *mēnsis ('month') – from earlier *mēnōt (genitive *mēneses), which may be related to a verb meaning 'to measure [time]'. The Latin name for the Moon is lūna. The English adjective lunar was ultimately borrowed from Latin, likely through French. In scientific writing and science fiction, the Moon is sometimes referred to as Luna  to distinguish it from other moons. In poetry, Luna may also refer to the personification of the Moon as a woman. The Ancient Greek word selḗnē referred to the Moon as a celestial body, and also to the moon goddess Selene .","[0.0024834328796714544, -0.08317019045352936, 0.0313987173140049, 0.0397137850522995, 0.002719487762078643, -0.1260291039943695, 0.056063804775476456, -0.004214870277792215, -0.04363858699798584, 0.038218334317207336, 0.012613742612302303, 0.0007178272353485227, -0.013955784030258656, -0.026193173602223396, 0.001135696773417294, -0.005540480837225914, -0.02141680382192135, -0.0072807190008461475, 0.019218210130929947, 0.012274552136659622, -0.05581995099782944, -0.005872683133929968, 0.04513806477189064, -0.0027144947089254856, 0.012583937495946884, 0.02307712659239769, 0.0011794950114563107, -0.03763417527079582, -0.011692595668137074, 0.01921790838241577, -0.024295257404446602, 0.035076722502708435, -0.01744411513209343, 0.028075644746422768, -0.016212446615099907, 0.03601066768169403, -0.027489073574543, -0.07577802240848541, 0.00947016291320324, -0.08767738193273544, 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353,"may also refer to the personification of the Moon as a woman . The Ancient Greek word selḗnē referred to the Moon as a celestial body , and also to the moon goddess Selene .The rare English adjective selenian  is used to describe the Moon as a world, as opposed to a celestial object. Its cognate selenic, originally a rare synonym, now almost always refers to the chemical element selenium. The corresponding prefix seleno- appears in terms including selenography (the study of the lunar surface). Artemis, the Greek goddess of the wilderness and the hunt, also came to be identified with Selene, and was sometimes called Cynthia after her birthplace on Mount Cynthus. Her Roman equivalent is Diana. The astronomical symbols for the Moon are the crescent  and decrescent , for example in M☾ 'lunar mass'. Natural history
Formation
Isotope dating of lunar samples suggests the Moon formed around 50 million years after the origin of the Solar System. Historically, several formation mechanisms have been proposed, but none satisfactorily explains the features of the Earth–Moon system. A fission of the Moon from Earth's crust through centrifugal force would require too great an initial rotation rate of Earth. Gravitational capture of a pre-formed Moon depends on an unfeasibly extended atmosphere of Earth to dissipate the energy of the passing Moon. A co-formation of Earth and the Moon together in the primordial accretion disk does not explain the depletion of metals in the Moon. None of these hypotheses can account for the high angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system. The prevailing theory is that the Earth–Moon system formed after a giant impact of a Mars-sized body (named Theia) with the proto-Earth. The oblique impact blasted material into orbit about the Earth and the material accreted and formed the Moon just beyond the Earth's Roche limit of ~2.56 R🜨. Giant impacts are thought to have been common in the early Solar System.","[0.010398819111287594, -0.018301235511898994, 0.06940504908561707, 0.04945758730173111, -0.04135211929678917, -0.14248400926589966, 0.053093355149030685, -0.015452248975634575, 0.02825120836496353, -0.0489860475063324, 0.008856340311467648, -0.09459374845027924, -0.00025795336114242673, -0.11383562535047531, -0.01931062527000904, 0.030615413561463356, 0.013130960054695606, 0.061028894037008286, -0.005474960431456566, 0.012926870957016945, -0.026202475652098656, -0.035093165934085846, 0.037439391016960144, 0.06804849207401276, 0.014526349492371082, 0.024742456153035164, -0.05190880224108696, 0.042624831199645996, -0.0034119205083698034, 0.00882558710873127, -0.03237294405698776, 0.0012011643266305327, 0.038382891565561295, 0.04624557122588158, -0.01587778888642788, 0.07770989090204239, -0.03789640590548515, -0.011918089352548122, -0.01554827205836773, -0.05726773664355278, -0.05159182846546173, 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354,"the Earth and the material accreted and formed the Moon just beyond the Earth 's Roche limit of ~2.56 R🜨 . Giant impacts are thought to have been common in the early Solar System .Computer simulations of giant impacts have produced results that are consistent with the mass of the lunar core and the angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system. These simulations show that most of the Moon derived from the impactor, rather than the proto-Earth. However, models from 2007 and later suggest a larger fraction of the Moon derived from the proto-Earth. Other bodies of the inner Solar System such as Mars and Vesta have, according to meteorites from them, very different oxygen and tungsten isotopic compositions compared to Earth. However, Earth and the Moon have nearly identical isotopic compositions. The isotopic equalization of the Earth–Moon system might be explained by the post-impact mixing of the vaporized material that formed the two, although this is debated. The impact would have released enough energy to liquefy both the ejecta and the Earth's crust, forming a magma ocean. The liquefied ejecta could have then re-accreted into the Earth–Moon system. The newly formed Moon would have had its own magma ocean; its depth is estimated from about 500 km (300 miles) to 1,737 km (1,079 miles). While the giant-impact theory explains many lines of evidence, some questions are still unresolved, most of which involve the Moon's composition. Models that have the Moon acquiring a significant amount of the proto-Earth are more difficult to reconcile with geochemical data for the isotopes of zirconium, oxygen, silicon, and other elements. A study published in 2022, using high-resolution simulations (up to 108 particles), found that giant impacts can immediately place a satellite with similar mass and iron content to the Moon into orbit far outside Earth's Roche limit.","[-0.012126421555876732, 0.025570200756192207, 0.1340000331401825, 0.007291318848729134, 0.0310349278151989, -0.0712815374135971, -0.0065977503545582294, 0.06922450661659241, 0.015322853811085224, 0.016884371638298035, -0.00041232979856431484, -0.07577835768461227, -0.026127811521291733, -0.0736142098903656, 0.02380145713686943, -0.05172930657863617, 0.023123227059841156, 0.011877032928168774, -0.024846158921718597, 0.06702930480241776, -0.0031201031524688005, 0.02830982580780983, -0.050041452050209045, 0.058413103222846985, 0.014009843580424786, 0.06525283306837082, -0.08337010443210602, 0.09209922701120377, 0.012925060465931892, -0.06074509397149086, -0.011263986118137836, -0.06554991006851196, -0.015826040878891945, -0.05730993673205376, 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355,"simulations ( up to 108 particles ) , found that giant impacts can immediately place a satellite with similar mass and iron content to the Moon into orbit far outside Earth 's Roche limit .Even satellites that initially pass within the Roche limit can reliably and predictably survive, by being partially stripped and then torqued onto wider, stable orbits. On November 1, 2023, scientists reported that, according to computer simulations, remnants of Theia could still be present inside the Earth. Natural development
The newly formed Moon settled into a much closer Earth orbit than it has today. Each body therefore appeared much larger in the sky of the other, eclipses were more frequent, and tidal effects were stronger. Due to tidal acceleration, the Moon's orbit around Earth has become significantly larger, with a longer period. Following formation, the Moon has cooled and most of its atmosphere has been stripped. The lunar surface has since been shaped by large impact events and many small ones, forming a landscape featuring craters of all ages. The Moon was volcanically active until 1.2 billion years ago, which laid down the prominent lunar maria. Most of the mare basalts erupted during the Imbrian period, 3.3–3.7 billion years ago, though some are as young as 1.2 billion years and some as old as 4.2 billion years. The distribution of the mare basalts is uneven, with the basalts predominantly appearing on the Moon's near-side hemisphere. The reasons for this are not yet known, although the relative thinness of the crust on the near side of the Moon is hypothesized to be a factor. Causes of the distribution of the lunar highlands on the far side are also not well understood. Topological measurements show the near side crust is thinner than the far side.","[0.009421947412192822, -0.002605768386274576, 0.1336347609758377, 0.009756234474480152, 0.05675611272454262, -0.1064968854188919, -0.13409653306007385, 0.019272424280643463, 0.0014658323489129543, 0.032009776681661606, -0.009442102164030075, 0.008710118941962719, -0.003529372625052929, -0.05194954201579094, 0.010957450605928898, 3.417250627535395e-05, -0.021480653434991837, -0.028208935633301735, -0.01631464995443821, 0.04928836226463318, -0.05563835799694061, 0.005889649502933025, -0.07856081426143646, 0.05365932360291481, -0.0014539790572598577, 0.07531210035085678, -0.05088723450899124, 0.055017005652189255, -0.04073447734117508, -0.04081717133522034, -0.04570721462368965, 0.011912212707102299, 0.0037184886168688536, -0.07668942958116531, -0.05683206394314766, 0.03638400137424469, -0.01904347725212574, -0.03739084675908089, 0.06302355974912643, -0.09018944948911667, -0.053634725511074066, 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356,"a factor . Causes of the distribution of the lunar highlands on the far side are also not well understood . Topological measurements show the near side crust is thinner than the far side .One possible scenario then is that large impacts on the near side may have made it easier for lava to flow onto the surface. Lunar geologic timescale
The lunar geological periods are named after their characteristic features, from most impact craters outside the dark mare, to the mare and later craters, and finally the young, still bright and therefore readily visible craters with ray systems like Copernicus or Tycho. Future
In 5 billion years the Moon will have wandered 40% further away from Earth than it is now. However at a similar time the Sun will have become a red giant. Assuming the Sun envelopes the Earth-Moon system, the consequent drag from the Sun's atmosphere may cause the orbital distance between the Earth and the Moon to decay to the point where the Moon comes within the Earth's Roche limit, leading it to disintegrate. Physical characteristics
The Moon is a very slightly scalene ellipsoid due to tidal stretching, with its long axis displaced 30° from facing the Earth, due to gravitational anomalies from impact basins. Its shape is more elongated than current tidal forces can account for. This 'fossil bulge' indicates that the Moon solidified when it orbited at half its current distance to the Earth, and that it is now too cold for its shape to restore hydrostatic equilibrium at its current orbital distance. Today tidal crust deformation is limited to lobate thrust fault scarps formation. Size and mass
The Moon is by size and mass the fifth largest natural satellite of the Solar System, categorizable as one of its planetary-mass moons, making it a satellite planet under the geophysical definitions of the term.","[0.014997982420027256, -0.0008820877410471439, 0.13861767947673798, 0.0015723322285339236, 0.051417868584394455, -0.09200041741132736, -0.10378681123256683, -0.01550978235900402, 0.021745389327406883, -0.01349711325019598, 0.0020457319915294647, -0.08387120068073273, -0.021512458100914955, -0.06062246486544609, 0.04788600280880928, -0.058102935552597046, -0.01544184423983097, -0.06966540217399597, 0.0033627068623900414, 0.034814611077308655, -0.042677007615566254, 0.013057329691946507, -0.05159752070903778, 0.06019068881869316, -0.04924827814102173, 0.03133242577314377, 0.00017435305926483124, -0.019079310819506645, -0.052501413971185684, -0.04382719099521637, -0.009071729145944118, 0.0014785736566409469, -0.09814243018627167, -0.016964014619588852, -0.0779758021235466, 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357,"by size and mass the fifth largest natural satellite of the Solar System , categorizable as one of its planetary-mass moons , making it a satellite planet under the geophysical definitions of the term .It is smaller than Mercury but considerably larger than the largest dwarf planet of the Solar System, Pluto. The Moon is the largest natural satellite in the Solar System relative to its primary planet. The Moon's diameter is about 3,500 km, more than one-quarter of Earth's, with the face of the Moon comparable to the width of either mainland Australia, Europe or the contiguous United States. The whole surface area of the Moon is about 38 million square kilometers, comparable to that of the Americas. The Moon's mass is 1⁄81 of Earth's, being the second densest among the planetary moons, and having the second highest surface gravity, after Io, at 0.1654 g and an escape velocity of 2.38 km/s (8600 km/h; 5300 mph). Structure
The Moon is a differentiated body that was initially in hydrostatic equilibrium but has since departed from this condition. It has a geochemically distinct crust, mantle, and core. The Moon has a solid iron-rich inner core with a radius possibly as small as 240 kilometres (150 mi) and a fluid outer core primarily made of liquid iron with a radius of roughly 300 kilometres (190 mi). Around the core is a partially molten boundary layer with a radius of about 500 kilometres (310 mi). This structure is thought to have developed through the fractional crystallization of a global magma ocean shortly after the Moon's formation 4.5 billion years ago.","[0.06569620221853256, -0.04763967543840408, 0.02493044175207615, -0.019192218780517578, 0.012311494909226894, -0.06502381712198257, -0.009485623799264431, 0.08011803776025772, -0.011947333812713623, 0.03460158780217171, -0.05471157282590866, -0.035373397171497345, -0.00796694215387106, -0.06656923145055771, 0.013587035238742828, -0.02814660593867302, 0.07248792797327042, 0.02455625683069229, -0.021707309409976006, 0.06523242592811584, -0.006455047056078911, 0.0010126758133992553, -0.020884837955236435, 0.02713463455438614, -0.03855406865477562, 0.037576597183942795, -0.04852592945098877, 0.0055003054440021515, -0.03601169213652611, -0.02339343912899494, -0.060052622109651566, -0.0005568644846789539, 0.05270910635590553, -0.014812538400292397, 0.0009934157133102417, 0.045077335089445114, -0.03286810219287872, 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358,"about 500 kilometres ( 310 mi ) . This structure is thought to have developed through the fractional crystallization of a global magma ocean shortly after the Moon 's formation 4.5 billion years ago .Crystallization of this magma ocean would have created a mafic mantle from the precipitation and sinking of the minerals olivine, clinopyroxene, and orthopyroxene; after about three-quarters of the magma ocean had crystallized, lower-density plagioclase minerals could form and float into a crust atop. The final liquids to crystallize would have been initially sandwiched between the crust and mantle, with a high abundance of incompatible and heat-producing elements. Consistent with this perspective, geochemical mapping made from orbit suggests a crust of mostly anorthosite. The Moon rock samples of the flood lavas that erupted onto the surface from partial melting in the mantle confirm the mafic mantle composition, which is more iron-rich than that of Earth. The crust is on average about 50 kilometres (31 mi) thick. The Moon is the second-densest satellite in the Solar System, after Io. However, the inner core of the Moon is small, with a radius of about 350 kilometres (220 mi) or less, around 20% of the radius of the Moon. Its composition is not well understood but is probably metallic iron alloyed with a small amount of sulfur and nickel. Analyses of the Moon's time-variable rotation suggest that it is at least partly molten. The pressure at the lunar core is estimated to be 5 GPa (49,000 atm). Gravitational field
On average the Moon's surface gravity is 1.62 m/s2 (0.1654 g; 5.318 ft/s2), about half of the surface gravity of Mars and about a sixth of Earth's. The Moon's gravitational field is not uniform. The details of the gravitational field have been measured through tracking the Doppler shift of radio signals emitted by orbiting spacecraft.","[-0.04631341993808746, -0.06142047047615051, 0.060519710183143616, -0.011941107921302319, 0.04328187182545662, -0.05145474895834923, -0.014375971630215645, 0.027631640434265137, -0.011206386610865593, -0.011185241863131523, -0.05592401325702667, -0.08772759139537811, 0.03387562558054924, -0.030328428372740746, -0.027838991954922676, 0.0024663142394274473, 0.030691590160131454, -0.04393409937620163, 0.005158907268196344, 0.06452170014381409, 0.09033139050006866, -0.006563528906553984, -0.014982873573899269, 0.0005597166018560529, 0.03474024683237076, 0.08372590690851212, -0.042614277452230453, 0.014962739311158657, -0.08045237511396408, 0.007380433846265078, -0.03273788094520569, -0.008897720836102962, 0.009136377833783627, -0.045118991285562515, 0.011482583358883858, 0.06895917654037476, 0.0006062431493774056, -0.02543734200298786, 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359,"of Earth 's . The Moon 's gravitational field is not uniform . The details of the gravitational field have been measured through tracking the Doppler shift of radio signals emitted by orbiting spacecraft .The main lunar gravity features are mascons, large positive gravitational anomalies associated with some of the giant impact basins, partly caused by the dense mare basaltic lava flows that fill those basins. The anomalies greatly influence the orbit of spacecraft about the Moon. There are some puzzles: lava flows by themselves cannot explain all of the gravitational signature, and some mascons exist that are not linked to mare volcanism. The sphere of influence, of the Moon's gravity field, in which it dominates over Earth's has a Hill radius of 60,000 km (i.e., extending less than one-sixth the distance of the 378,000 km between the Moon and the Earth), extending to the Earth-Moon lagrange points. This space is called cislunar space. Magnetic field
The Moon has an external magnetic field of less than 0.2 nanoteslas, or less than one hundred thousandth that of Earth. The Moon does not have a global dipolar magnetic field and only has crustal magnetization likely acquired early in its history when a dynamo was still operating. Early in its history, 4 billion years ago, its magnetic field strength was likely close to that of Earth today. This early dynamo field apparently expired by about one billion years ago, after the lunar core had crystallized. Theoretically, some of the remnant magnetization may originate from transient magnetic fields generated during large impacts through the expansion of plasma clouds. These clouds are generated during large impacts in an ambient magnetic field. This is supported by the location of the largest crustal magnetizations situated near the antipodes of the giant impact basins.","[-0.0014997024554759264, -0.04025762900710106, 0.021216509863734245, -0.020872950553894043, 0.023743584752082825, -0.03906406834721565, -0.03519200533628464, 0.013019729405641556, 0.04616875201463699, -0.06316723674535751, 0.014034945517778397, -0.0572112612426281, -0.0006420622230507433, -0.07744412124156952, -0.03213496506214142, -0.03493180498480797, 0.07687924057245255, 0.007288286928087473, -0.030219389125704765, 0.03504928946495056, -0.0212703850120306, -0.029647892341017723, -0.013236651197075844, 0.013964966870844364, -0.06967230141162872, 0.028547845780849457, -0.05067415535449982, 0.01743451878428459, -0.11360514909029007, -0.042022012174129486, -0.005124795250594616, 0.03517988696694374, -0.02987840212881565, -0.019019870087504387, -0.05022457614541054, 0.044177331030368805, 0.03073115274310112, -0.02469157613813877, 0.01848745159804821, 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360,". These clouds are generated during large impacts in an ambient magnetic field . This is supported by the location of the largest crustal magnetizations situated near the antipodes of the giant impact basins .Additionally the Moon moves ~27% of the time, or 5–6 days per lunar month in Earth's magnetotail, replacing solar wind with Earth wind. Atmosphere
The Moon has an atmosphere consisting of only an exosphere, which is so tenuous as to be nearly vacuum, with a total mass of less than 10 tonnes (9.8 long tons; 11 short tons). The surface pressure of this small mass is around 3 × 10−15 atm (0.3 nPa); it varies with the lunar day. Its sources include outgassing and sputtering, a product of the bombardment of lunar soil by solar wind ions. Elements that have been detected include sodium and potassium, produced by sputtering (also found in the atmospheres of Mercury and Io); helium-4 and neon from the solar wind; and argon-40, radon-222, and polonium-210, outgassed after their creation by radioactive decay within the crust and mantle. The absence of such neutral species (atoms or molecules) as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen and magnesium, which are present in the regolith, is not understood. Water vapor has been detected by Chandrayaan-1 and found to vary with latitude, with a maximum at ~60–70 degrees; it is possibly generated from the sublimation of water ice in the regolith. These gases either return into the regolith because of the Moon's gravity or are lost to space, either through solar radiation pressure or, if they are ionized, by being swept away by the solar wind's magnetic field. A permanent Moon dust cloud exists around the Moon, generated by small particles from comets.","[0.0021060591097921133, 0.016228189691901207, 0.1089942678809166, 0.02028716914355755, 0.1200026422739029, -0.030359910801053047, 0.0936814695596695, -0.0461263544857502, -0.010136678814888, -0.0075524537824094296, 0.015768826007843018, -0.08076154440641403, 0.006535633932799101, -0.12364650517702103, -0.0026569797191768885, 0.05476052686572075, 0.06824649125337601, -0.03331739082932472, -0.05272497609257698, 0.0750037208199501, -0.008022448979318142, 0.04050803929567337, -0.04957721754908562, 0.025781169533729553, -0.013627005741000175, 0.07190403342247009, -0.07177973538637161, -0.05462358891963959, -0.030648745596408844, -0.011599240824580193, -0.02812224254012108, 0.016698557883501053, -0.01086638867855072, -0.010008490644395351, -0.024757200852036476, 0.027240335941314697, -0.011275802738964558, -0.0026034805923700333, 0.016022583469748497, -0.04179426655173302, -0.0875006690621376, 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361,", if they are ionized , by being swept away by the solar wind 's magnetic field . A permanent Moon dust cloud exists around the Moon , generated by small particles from comets .5 tons of comet particles are estimated to strike the Moon's surface every 24 hours, resulting in the ejection of dust particles. The dust stays above the Moon for approximately 10 minutes, taking 5 minutes to rise, and 5 minutes to fall. On average, 120 kilograms of dust are present above the Moon, rising up to 100 kilometers above the surface. Dust counts made by LADEE's Lunar Dust EXperiment (LDEX) found particle counts peaked during the Geminid, Quadrantid, Northern Taurid, and Omicron Centaurid meteor showers, when the Earth, and Moon pass through comet debris. The lunar dust cloud is asymmetric, being denser near the boundary between the Moon's dayside and nightside. Studies of Moon magma samples retrieved by the Apollo missions demonstrate that the Moon had once possessed a relatively thick atmosphere for a period of 70 million years between 3 and 4 billion years ago. This atmosphere, sourced from gases ejected from lunar volcanic eruptions, was twice the thickness of that of present-day Mars. The ancient lunar atmosphere was eventually stripped away by solar winds and dissipated into space. Surface conditions
Ionizing radiation from cosmic rays, their resulting neutron radiation, and the Sun results in an average radiation level of 1.369 millisieverts per day during lunar daytime, which is about 2.6 times more than the level on the International Space Station, 5–10 times more than the level during a trans-Atlantic flight, and 200 times more than the level on Earth's surface.","[0.0029545568395406008, -0.025751207023859024, 0.1299430876970291, 0.032459598034620285, 0.054423537105321884, -0.048096612095832825, 0.045336537063121796, -0.0010573811596259475, -0.035904012620449066, 0.028405586257576942, -0.005897503346204758, -0.04475206881761551, 0.017727402970194817, -0.056355081498622894, 0.02728930115699768, 0.03854446858167648, 0.08164819329977036, -0.03855787590146065, -0.04109002277255058, 0.023387841880321503, 0.010883485898375511, 0.04376458749175072, -0.024337096139788628, 0.009661510586738586, 0.07801503688097, 0.0367380753159523, -0.027761142700910568, -0.06623455137014389, 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362,"2.6 times more than the level on the International Space Station , 5–10 times more than the level during a trans-Atlantic flight , and 200 times more than the level on Earth 's surface .For further comparison, radiation levels average about 1.84 millisieverts per day on a flight to Mars and about 0.64 millisieverts per day on Mars itself, with some locations on Mars possibly having levels as low as 0.342 millisieverts per day. Solar radiation also electrically charges the highly abrasive lunar dust and makes it levitate. This effect contributes to the easy spread of the sticky, lung- and gear-damaging lunar dust. The Moon's axial tilt with respect to the ecliptic is only 1.5427°, much less than the 23.44° of Earth. This small axial tilt means that the Moon's solar illumination varies much less with season than Earth's, and it also allows for the existence of some peaks of eternal light at the Moon's north pole, at the rim of the crater Peary. The lunar surface is exposed to temperature differences ranging from 120 °C to −171 °C depending on the solar irradiance. Because of the lack of atmosphere, temperatures of different areas vary particularly upon whether they are in sunlight or shadow, making topographical details play a decisive role on local surface temperatures. Parts of many craters, particularly the bottoms of many polar craters, are permanently shadowed. These craters of eternal darkness have extremely low temperatures. The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter measured the lowest summer temperatures in craters at the southern pole at 35 K (−238 °C; −397 °F) and just 26 K (−247 °C; −413 °F) close to the winter solstice in the north polar crater Hermite. This is the coldest temperature in the Solar System ever measured by a spacecraft, colder even than the surface of Pluto.","[0.04568452015519142, -0.009229137562215328, 0.12233465164899826, 0.04193216934800148, 0.06529933959245682, -0.08445093035697937, 0.036395363509655, 0.026268603280186653, 0.009510916657745838, 0.022572871297597885, 0.04487118870019913, -0.09874001145362854, 0.034829650074243546, -0.019379472360014915, 0.069565050303936, 0.01136043481528759, 0.05639268457889557, 0.03504614159464836, -0.03697991743683815, 0.05443558096885681, -0.010873183608055115, -0.025972481817007065, 0.012461092323064804, 0.049621932208538055, -0.026733582839369774, 0.059061359614133835, -0.051733680069446564, 0.051455479115247726, -0.031121764332056046, -0.02487211488187313, -0.09032204002141953, 0.06633208692073822, -0.004897646605968475, -0.018893951550126076, -0.00886138342320919, -0.003764650085940957, 0.007454016711562872, -0.06731730699539185, -0.03013874590396881, -0.017492013052105904, 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363,"close to the winter solstice in the north polar crater Hermite . This is the coldest temperature in the Solar System ever measured by a spacecraft , colder even than the surface of Pluto .Blanketed on top of the Moon's crust is a highly comminuted (broken into ever smaller particles) and impact gardened mostly gray surface layer called regolith, formed by impact processes. The finer regolith, the lunar soil of silicon dioxide glass, has a texture resembling snow and a scent resembling spent gunpowder. The regolith of older surfaces is generally thicker than for younger surfaces: it varies in thickness from 10–15 m (33–49 ft) in the highlands and 4–5 m (13–16 ft) in the maria. Beneath the finely comminuted regolith layer is the megaregolith, a layer of highly fractured bedrock many kilometers thick. These extreme conditions are considered to make it unlikely for spacecraft to harbor bacterial spores at the Moon for longer than just one lunar orbit. Surface features
The topography of the Moon has been measured with laser altimetry and stereo image analysis. Its most extensive topographic feature is the giant far-side South Pole–Aitken basin, some 2,240 km (1,390 mi) in diameter, the largest crater on the Moon and the second-largest confirmed impact crater in the Solar System. At 13 km (8.1 mi) deep, its floor is the lowest point on the surface of the Moon, reaching −9.178 kilometres (−5.703 mi) at 70.368°S 172.413°W / -70.368; -172.413 in a crater within Antoniadi crater. The highest elevations of the Moon's surface, with the so-called Selenean summit at 10.629 kilometres (6.605 mi) , are located directly to the northeast (5.441°N 158.656°W / 5.441; -158.656), which might have been thickened by the oblique formation impact of the South Pole–Aitken basin.","[-0.0091124651953578, -0.012467194348573685, 0.14167186617851257, 0.028992515057325363, 0.09614072740077972, -0.06938240677118301, -0.012252617627382278, 0.09357231110334396, -0.005378711502999067, -0.017543915659189224, -0.06537727266550064, -0.08199736475944519, -0.040815211832523346, 0.052309300750494, 0.03390979766845703, -0.04810492321848869, 0.009138517081737518, -0.015742531046271324, 0.005405772477388382, 0.02585556171834469, 0.08155879378318787, 0.028185389935970306, -0.09239303320646286, -0.01166841946542263, -0.012371527031064034, 0.06904629617929459, -0.10133015364408493, 0.0662577897310257, -0.021981146186590195, 0.0468616746366024, -0.04648813605308533, 0.04362783953547478, 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364,"6.605 mi ) , are located directly to the northeast ( 5.441°N 158.656°W / 5.441 ; -158.656 ) , which might have been thickened by the oblique formation impact of the South Pole–Aitken basin .Other large impact basins such as Imbrium, Serenitatis, Crisium, Smythii, and Orientale possess regionally low elevations and elevated rims. The far side of the lunar surface is on average about 1.9 km (1.2 mi) higher than that of the near side. The discovery of fault scarp cliffs suggest that the Moon has shrunk by about 90 metres (300 ft) within the past billion years. Similar shrinkage features exist on Mercury. Mare Frigoris, a basin near the north pole long assumed to be geologically dead, has cracked and shifted. Since the Moon does not have tectonic plates, its tectonic activity is slow, and cracks develop as it loses heat. Scientists have confirmed the presence of a cave on the Moon near the Sea of Tranquillity, not far from the 1969 Apollo 11 landing site. The cave, identified as an entry point to a collapsed lava tube, is roughly 45 meters wide and up to 80 m long. This discovery marks the first confirmed entry point to a lunar cave. The analysis was based on photos taken in 2010 by NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. The cave's stable temperature of around 17 °C could provide a hospitable environment for future astronauts, protecting them from extreme temperatures, solar radiation, and micrometeorites. However, challenges include accessibility and risks of avalanches and cave-ins. This discovery offers potential for future lunar bases or emergency shelters. Volcanic features
The main features visible from Earth by the naked eye are dark and relatively featureless lunar plains called maria (sing. mare; from Latin meaning 'seas', as they were once believed to be filled with water) which are vast solidified pools of ancient basaltic lava.","[-0.006229290273040533, 0.03707854077219963, 0.13395173847675323, -0.009445776231586933, 0.05256853625178337, -0.045885615050792694, -0.08822990953922272, 0.13415256142616272, -0.004933892749249935, -0.0010630664182826877, -0.06339814513921738, -0.08015758544206619, -0.042026080191135406, -0.023903656750917435, 0.019988182932138443, -0.01774068921804428, -0.05123552307486534, 0.03953823074698448, 0.053315166383981705, 0.0389852412045002, -0.031557369977235794, -0.013730778358876705, 0.020875943824648857, 0.029231244698166847, -0.04896654561161995, 0.022823289036750793, -0.056531596928834915, 0.061186205595731735, -0.035461895167827606, -0.001176500809378922, -0.07734625786542892, 0.018374694511294365, -0.0796222984790802, 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365,"plains called maria ( sing . mare ; from Latin meaning 'seas ' , as they were once believed to be filled with water ) which are vast solidified pools of ancient basaltic lava .Although similar to terrestrial basalts, lunar basalts have more iron and no minerals altered by water. The majority of these lava deposits erupted or flowed into the depressions associated with impact basins, though the Moon's largest expanse of basalt flooding, Oceanus Procellarum, does not correspond to an obvious impact basin. Different episodes of lava flow in maria can often be recognized by variations in surface albedo and distinct flow margins. As the maria formed, cooling and contraction of the basaltic lava created wrinkle ridges in some areas. These low, sinuous ridges can extend for hundreds of kilometers and often outline buried structures within the mare. Another result of maria formation is the creation of concentric depressions along the edges, known as arcuate rilles. These features occur as the mare basalts sink inward under their own weight, causing the edges to fracture and separate. In addition to the visible maria, the Moon has mare deposits covered by ejecta from impacts. Called cryptomares, these hidden mares are likely older than the exposed ones. Conversely, mare lava has obscured many impact melt sheets and pools. Impact melts are formed when intense shock pressures from collisions vaporize and melt zones around the impact site. Where still exposed, impact melt can be distinguished from mare lava by its distribution, albedo, and texture. Sinuous rilles, found in and around maria, are likely extinct lava channels or collapsed lava tubes. They typically originate from volcanic vents, meandering and sometimes branching as they progress.","[-0.0024803446140140295, 0.011728142388164997, 0.1600290983915329, 0.06286398321390152, 0.023378591984510422, -0.018353765830397606, -0.0590788796544075, 0.0431351363658905, 0.07147639989852905, -0.07616527378559113, -0.040349170565605164, -0.07702982425689697, -0.010784734040498734, -0.02981504797935486, -0.006890511605888605, -0.0208585187792778, -0.09856124967336655, 0.06548485159873962, 0.02921850048005581, 0.06396283954381943, 0.08971177786588669, -0.015526450239121914, -0.11734283715486526, 0.026627536863088608, 0.039976563304662704, 0.062008656561374664, 0.0003686023992486298, 0.06155163794755936, -0.011216922663152218, -0.04296117275953293, -0.014560588635504246, 0.0460813045501709, 0.019082533195614815, -0.027305513620376587, -0.007520001847296953, 0.07247583568096161, -0.05384869500994682, 0.04055451601743698, -0.03484901413321495, -0.005812599789351225, -0.04273286089301109, 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366,". Sinuous rilles , found in and around maria , are likely extinct lava channels or collapsed lava tubes . They typically originate from volcanic vents , meandering and sometimes branching as they progress .The largest examples, such as Schroter's Valley and Rima Hadley, are significantly longer, wider, and deeper than terrestrial lava channels, sometimes featuring bends and sharp turns that again, are uncommon on Earth. Mare volcanism has altered impact craters in various ways, including filling them to varying degrees, and raising and fracturing their floors from uplift of mare material beneath their interiors. Examples of such craters include Taruntius and Gassendi. Some craters, such as Hyginus, are of wholly volcanic origin, forming as calderas or collapse pits. Such craters are relatively rare and tend to be smaller (typically a few kilometers wide), shallower, and more irregularly shaped than impact craters. They also lack the upturned rims characteristic of impact craters. Several geologic provinces containing shield volcanoes and volcanic domes are found within the near side maria. There are also some regions of pyroclastic deposits, scoria cones and non-basaltic domes made of particularly high viscosity lava. Almost all maria are on the near side of the Moon, and cover 31% of the surface of the near side compared with 2% of the far side. This is likely due to a concentration of heat-producing elements under the crust on the near side, which would have caused the underlying mantle to heat up, partially melt, rise to the surface and erupt. Most of the Moon's mare basalts erupted during the Imbrian period, 3.3–3.7 billion years ago, though some are as young as 1.2 billion years and as old as 4.2 billion years.","[0.05448944494128227, 0.002705299062654376, 0.12151631712913513, 0.019276538863778114, 0.03974287956953049, 0.0125681571662426, -0.09392932802438736, 0.07297619432210922, 0.05097200348973274, -0.07516884803771973, 0.005982416681945324, -0.08156874775886536, 0.005802508909255266, 0.020768916234374046, 0.02937522903084755, -0.0663142278790474, -0.07010424137115479, 0.042515579611063004, 0.06391619890928268, 0.04303627088665962, 0.06605976074934006, 0.03555695340037346, -0.1080227792263031, 0.04103902354836464, 0.03752940148115158, 0.03095787577331066, -0.04895111173391342, 0.07183290272951126, 0.0016917547909542918, -0.05455167219042778, -0.04318441078066826, 0.050698526203632355, -0.05295630544424057, -0.05582847073674202, 0.10259626805782318, 0.047318439930677414, -0.04179393872618675, 0.07075877487659454, 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367,"Most of the Moon 's mare basalts erupted during the Imbrian period , 3.3–3.7 billion years ago , though some are as young as 1.2 billion years and as old as 4.2 billion years .In 2006, a study of Ina, a tiny depression in Lacus Felicitatis, found jagged, relatively dust-free features that, because of the lack of erosion by infalling debris, appeared to be only 2 million years old. Moonquakes and releases of gas indicate continued lunar activity. Evidence of recent lunar volcanism has been identified at 70 irregular mare patches, some less than 50 million years old. This raises the possibility of a much warmer lunar mantle than previously believed, at least on the near side where the deep crust is substantially warmer because of the greater concentration of radioactive elements. Evidence has been found for 2–10 million years old basaltic volcanism within the crater Lowell, inside the Orientale basin. Some combination of an initially hotter mantle and local enrichment of heat-producing elements in the mantle could be responsible for prolonged activities on the far side in the Orientale basin. The lighter-colored regions of the Moon are called terrae, or more commonly highlands, because they are higher than most maria. They have been radiometrically dated to having formed 4.4 billion years ago and may represent plagioclase cumulates of the lunar magma ocean. In contrast to Earth, no major lunar mountains are believed to have formed as a result of tectonic events. The concentration of maria on the near side likely reflects the substantially thicker crust of the highlands of the Far Side, which may have formed in a slow-velocity impact of a second moon of Earth a few tens of millions of years after the Moon's formation. Alternatively, it may be a consequence of asymmetrical tidal heating when the Moon was much closer to the Earth.","[-0.0027795725036412477, 0.017746973782777786, 0.1588519960641861, 0.028219861909747124, 0.002980567514896393, -0.06576944887638092, -0.054436590522527695, 0.035169344395399094, 0.021101273596286774, 0.0011924535501748323, 0.0018822896527126431, -0.10911119729280472, -0.025990257039666176, 0.018154669553041458, 0.034070830792188644, 0.0019831040408462286, -0.036223869770765305, -0.008350396528840065, 0.04034453257918358, 0.04593547061085701, -0.054024603217840195, 0.03973070904612541, -0.08203121274709702, 0.019935043528676033, 0.04437324404716492, 0.030997272580862045, -0.009564160369336605, -0.009676097892224789, -0.028744878247380257, 0.011915379203855991, -0.017705708742141724, -0.022669220343232155, 0.047540418803691864, 0.004437778145074844, -0.011512788012623787, 0.04777504503726959, -0.021180013194680214, 0.0007262631552293897, 0.00452875392511487, 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368,"Earth a few tens of millions of years after the Moon 's formation . Alternatively , it may be a consequence of asymmetrical tidal heating when the Moon was much closer to the Earth .Impact craters
A major geologic process that has affected the Moon's surface is impact cratering, with craters formed when asteroids and comets collide with the lunar surface. There are estimated to be roughly 300,000 craters wider than 1 km (0.6 mi) on the Moon's near side. Lunar craters exhibit a variety of forms, depending on their size. In order of increasing diameter, the basic types are simple craters with smooth bowl shaped interiors and upturned rims, complex craters with flat floors, terraced walls and central peaks, peak ring basins, and multi-ring basins with two or more concentric rings of peaks. The vast majority of impact craters are circular, but some, like Cantor and Janssen, have more polygonal outlines, possibly guided by underlying faults and joints. Others, such as the Messier pair, Schiller, and Daniell, are elongated. Such elongation can result from highly oblique impacts, binary asteroid impacts, fragmentation of impactors before surface strike, or closely spaced secondary impacts. The lunar geologic timescale is based on the most prominent impact events, such as multi-ring formations like Nectaris, Imbrium, and Orientale that are between hundreds and thousands of kilometers in diameter and associated with a broad apron of ejecta deposits that form a regional stratigraphic horizon. The lack of an atmosphere, weather, and recent geological processes mean that many of these craters are well-preserved. Although only a few multi-ring basins have been definitively dated, they are useful for assigning relative ages. Because impact craters accumulate at a nearly constant rate, counting the number of craters per unit area can be used to estimate the age of the surface.","[0.05239427089691162, -0.04931410029530525, 0.12011613696813583, 0.01634405553340912, -0.008092080242931843, -0.05277467891573906, -0.08658510446548462, 0.04702884703874588, 0.06815929710865021, -0.04566854238510132, -0.03590380400419235, -0.06523466110229492, -0.03445899114012718, -0.03797189146280289, 0.02170540951192379, -0.030100863426923752, -0.05903823673725128, 0.012014904990792274, -0.009197218343615532, 0.04700507968664169, 0.002524126321077347, 0.05340277776122093, -0.08504211157560349, 0.05700603127479553, -0.008965977467596531, 0.06668193638324738, 0.01802797056734562, 0.03034893050789833, -0.00042220865725539625, -0.05907966196537018, -0.008445625193417072, 0.057224396616220474, 0.004600210580974817, -0.005859049502760172, 0.03701195493340492, 0.0032922530081123114, -0.05033029988408089, 0.11543557792901993, 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369,"useful for assigning relative ages . Because impact craters accumulate at a nearly constant rate , counting the number of craters per unit area can be used to estimate the age of the surface .However care needs to be exercised with the crater counting technique due to the potential presence of secondary craters. Ejecta from impacts can create secondary craters that often appear in clusters or chains but can also occur as isolated formations at a considerable distance from the impact. These can resemble primary craters, and may even dominate small crater populations, so their unidentified presence can distort age estimates. The radiometric ages of impact-melted rocks collected during the Apollo missions cluster between 3.8 and 4.1 billion years old: this has been used to propose a Late Heavy Bombardment period of increased impacts. High-resolution images from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter in the 2010s show a contemporary crater-production rate significantly higher than was previously estimated. A secondary cratering process caused by distal ejecta is thought to churn the top two centimeters of regolith on a timescale of 81,000 years. This rate is 100 times faster than the rate computed from models based solely on direct micrometeorite impacts. Lunar swirls
Lunar swirls are enigmatic features found across the Moon's surface. They are characterized by a high albedo, appear optically immature (i.e. have the optical characteristics of a relatively young regolith), and often have a sinuous shape. Their shape is often accentuated by low albedo regions that wind between the bright swirls. They are located in places with enhanced surface magnetic fields and many are located at the antipodal point of major impacts. Well known swirls include the Reiner Gamma feature and Mare Ingenii. They are hypothesized to be areas that have been partially shielded from the solar wind, resulting in slower space weathering. Presence of water
Liquid water cannot persist on the lunar surface.","[0.04456717148423195, -0.005613555666059256, 0.11173134297132492, 0.048990506678819656, 0.008260903880000114, -0.07958216965198517, -0.06348319351673126, 0.062184445559978485, -0.014225218445062637, 0.03158598020672798, 0.04418092593550682, -0.0846521332859993, -0.0034745116718113422, 0.06350569427013397, -0.03722452372312546, -0.003831334412097931, -0.04455674812197685, -0.03213932365179062, 0.01751120202243328, -0.002910188166424632, 0.0004932915326207876, 0.019449489191174507, -0.0164728295058012, 0.023739749565720558, 0.07570349425077438, 0.039117999374866486, -0.08604571968317032, -0.007008541841059923, 0.013985943049192429, -0.010845961980521679, 0.0027557576540857553, 0.07037673145532608, 0.030017796903848648, -0.051664695143699646, 0.008602717891335487, -0.004350997507572174, -0.030010264366865158, 0.042639054358005524, 0.008297125808894634, -0.032251987606287, -0.07791592925786972, -0.042080581188201904, 0.036607079207897186, 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370,"They are hypothesized to be areas that have been partially shielded from the solar wind , resulting in slower space weathering . Presence of water Liquid water can not persist on the lunar surface .When exposed to solar radiation, water quickly decomposes through a process known as photodissociation and is lost to space. However, since the 1960s, scientists have hypothesized that water ice may be deposited by impacting comets or possibly produced by the reaction of oxygen-rich lunar rocks, and hydrogen from solar wind, leaving traces of water which could possibly persist in cold, permanently shadowed craters at either pole on the Moon. Computer simulations suggest that up to 14,000 km2 (5,400 sq mi) of the surface may be in permanent shadow. The presence of usable quantities of water on the Moon is an important factor in rendering lunar habitation as a cost-effective plan; the alternative of transporting water from Earth would be prohibitively expensive. In years since, signatures of water have been found to exist on the lunar surface. In 1994, the bistatic radar experiment located on the Clementine spacecraft, indicated the existence of small, frozen pockets of water close to the surface. However, later radar observations by Arecibo, suggest these findings may rather be rocks ejected from young impact craters. In 1998, the neutron spectrometer on the Lunar Prospector spacecraft showed that high concentrations of hydrogen are present in the first meter of depth in the regolith near the polar regions. Volcanic lava beads, brought back to Earth aboard Apollo 15, showed small amounts of water in their interior. The 2008 Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft has since confirmed the existence of surface water ice, using the on-board Moon Mineralogy Mapper. The spectrometer observed absorption lines common to hydroxyl, in reflected sunlight, providing evidence of large quantities of water ice, on the lunar surface.","[-0.043982069939374924, 0.0462372787296772, 0.05843932554125786, 0.07709349691867828, 0.10772441327571869, -0.0771883949637413, 0.045676589012145996, 0.06010425090789795, -0.01165104191750288, 0.009488561190664768, -0.028028009459376335, -0.07656946033239365, 0.03750638663768768, -0.06218395009636879, 0.031078031286597252, 0.010708296671509743, 0.0013285867171362042, -0.013124381192028522, -0.03156144171953201, 0.013192063197493553, -0.034094974398612976, -0.028160683810710907, -0.052416905760765076, -0.04932873696088791, 0.0025065813679248095, 0.09872134774923325, 0.011384989134967327, -0.014396893791854382, -0.031270839273929596, 0.06360511481761932, 0.0024501080624759197, 0.04609851911664009, -0.008763104677200317, -0.09138356149196625, 0.10073380917310715, 0.022279687225818634, 0.0194880161434412, -0.04967901110649109, 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371,", using the on-board Moon Mineralogy Mapper . The spectrometer observed absorption lines common to hydroxyl , in reflected sunlight , providing evidence of large quantities of water ice , on the lunar surface .The spacecraft showed that concentrations may possibly be as high as 1,000 ppm. Using the mapper's reflectance spectra, indirect lighting of areas in shadow confirmed water ice within 20° latitude of both poles in 2018. In 2009, LCROSS sent a 2,300 kg (5,100 lb) impactor into a permanently shadowed polar crater, and detected at least 100 kg (220 lb) of water in a plume of ejected material. Another examination of the LCROSS data showed the amount of detected water to be closer to 155 ± 12 kg (342 ± 26 lb). In May 2011, 615–1410 ppm water in melt inclusions in lunar sample 74220 was reported, the famous high-titanium ""orange glass soil"" of volcanic origin collected during the Apollo 17 mission in 1972. The inclusions were formed during explosive eruptions on the Moon approximately 3.7 billion years ago. This concentration is comparable with that of magma in Earth's upper mantle. Although of considerable selenological interest, this insight does not mean that water is easily available since the sample originated many kilometers below the surface, and the inclusions are so difficult to access that it took 39 years to find them with a state-of-the-art ion microprobe instrument. Analysis of the findings of the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) revealed in August 2018 for the first time ""definitive evidence"" for water-ice on the lunar surface. The data revealed the distinct reflective signatures of water-ice, as opposed to dust and other reflective substances.","[-0.03212535381317139, -0.010086817666888237, 0.0998552143573761, 0.028432104736566544, 0.08714831620454788, -0.101027712225914, 0.06019701808691025, 0.03247761353850365, -0.051344238221645355, 0.021737469360232353, -0.0405331626534462, -0.05058913677930832, 0.01712649315595627, 0.03721901401877403, -0.027564356103539467, 0.033834200352430344, 0.004909981042146683, -0.012709522619843483, -0.00036218008608557284, -0.01476531196385622, 0.03604740649461746, -0.05821467936038971, -0.07043515145778656, -0.014174898155033588, 0.04048643633723259, 0.0867241621017456, -0.035433199256658554, 0.026680754497647285, -0.020536189898848534, 0.05798069387674332, 0.00042914930963888764, -0.0005780968931503594, -0.0010292601073160768, -0.08943898230791092, 0.008690992370247841, -0.03921375051140785, -0.014884991571307182, -0.08286289125680923, -0.005923453252762556, 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372,"2018 for the first time `` definitive evidence '' for water-ice on the lunar surface . The data revealed the distinct reflective signatures of water-ice , as opposed to dust and other reflective substances .The ice deposits were found on the North and South poles, although it is more abundant in the South, where water is trapped in permanently shadowed craters and crevices, allowing it to persist as ice on the surface since they are shielded from the sun. In October 2020, astronomers reported detecting molecular water on the sunlit surface of the Moon by several independent spacecraft, including the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA). Earth–Moon system
Orbit
The Earth and the Moon form the Earth–Moon satellite system with a shared center of mass, or barycenter. This barycenter is 1,700 km (1,100 mi) (about a quarter of Earth's radius) beneath the Earth's surface. The Moon's orbit is slightly elliptical, with an orbital eccentricity of 0.055. The semi-major axis of the geocentric lunar orbit, called the lunar distance, is approximately 400,000 km (250,000 miles or 1.28 light-seconds), comparable to going around Earth 9.5 times. The Moon makes a complete orbit around Earth with respect to the fixed stars, its sidereal period, about once every 27.3 days. However, because the Earth–Moon system moves at the same time in its orbit around the Sun, it takes slightly longer, 29.5 days, to return to the same lunar phase, completing a full cycle, as seen from Earth. This synodic period or synodic month is commonly known as the lunar month and is equal to the length of the solar day on the Moon. Due to tidal locking, the Moon has a 1:1 spin–orbit resonance. This rotation–orbit ratio makes the Moon's orbital periods around Earth equal to its corresponding rotation periods.","[0.00428135646507144, -0.05889057740569115, 0.0543317012488842, -0.0302707701921463, 0.04052231088280678, -0.06586509943008423, -0.022513749077916145, 0.04288573935627937, 0.04344572871923447, -0.002417329465970397, -0.0464455783367157, -0.05530702695250511, -0.0035963435657322407, -0.01782223954796791, -0.01718616485595703, -0.005500062368810177, -0.02834443747997284, -0.045542147010564804, -0.030725430697202682, -0.02909817546606064, -0.049217380583286285, -0.05070029944181442, -0.0416802279651165, 0.012666990049183369, -0.03425293788313866, 0.10070788860321045, 0.0267021581530571, -0.03489050269126892, -0.0888640508055687, 0.05419112741947174, -0.004583565052598715, -0.010662836022675037, 0.011722653172910213, -0.08037679642438889, -0.006089020054787397, -0.0075974431820213795, 0.015097650699317455, -0.10572823882102966, 0.03319818526506424, -0.0507606565952301, 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373,"on the Moon . Due to tidal locking , the Moon has a 1:1 spin–orbit resonance . This rotation–orbit ratio makes the Moon 's orbital periods around Earth equal to its corresponding rotation periods .This is the reason for only one side of the Moon, its so-called near side, being visible from Earth. That said, while the movement of the Moon is in resonance, it still is not without nuances such as libration, resulting in slightly changing perspectives, making over time and location on Earth about 59% of the Moon's surface visible from Earth. Unlike most satellites of other planets, the Moon's orbital plane is closer to the ecliptic plane than to the planet's equatorial plane. The Moon's orbit is subtly perturbed by the Sun and Earth in many small, complex and interacting ways. For example, the plane of the Moon's orbit gradually rotates once every 18.61 years, which affects other aspects of lunar motion. These follow-on effects are mathematically described by Cassini's laws. Tidal effects
The gravitational attraction that Earth and the Moon (as well as the Sun) exert on each other manifests in a slightly greater attraction on the sides closest to each other, resulting in tidal forces. Ocean tides are the most widely experienced result of this, but tidal forces also considerably affect other mechanics of Earth, as well as the Moon and their system. The lunar solid crust experiences tides of around 10 cm (4 in) amplitude over 27 days, with three components: a fixed one due to Earth, because they are in synchronous rotation, a variable tide due to orbital eccentricity and inclination, and a small varying component from the Sun.","[0.05618167296051979, -0.06207848712801933, 0.06275594234466553, -0.032108910381793976, 0.03918652981519699, -0.03243178501725197, -0.02875015325844288, -0.01463314052671194, 0.1158505529165268, 0.013325167819857597, -0.01642320118844509, 0.010253178887069225, 0.0024487727787345648, -0.1264212727546692, 0.04486525058746338, -0.04000859335064888, 0.03330262750387192, 0.016112642362713814, -0.058471985161304474, -0.015045275911688805, -0.05198926106095314, -0.07052332907915115, -0.03904768079519272, 0.03828264772891998, -0.08493882417678833, 0.017392834648489952, 0.009720253758132458, 0.033661849796772, -0.022035423666238785, -0.06272751837968826, -0.03918567672371864, 0.04660815745592117, 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374,"components : a fixed one due to Earth , because they are in synchronous rotation , a variable tide due to orbital eccentricity and inclination , and a small varying component from the Sun .The Earth-induced variable component arises from changing distance and libration, a result of the Moon's orbital eccentricity and inclination (if the Moon's orbit were perfectly circular and un-inclined, there would only be solar tides). According to recent research, scientists suggest that the Moon's influence on the Earth may contribute to maintaining Earth's magnetic field. The cumulative effects of stress built up by these tidal forces produces moonquakes. Moonquakes are much less common and weaker than are earthquakes, although moonquakes can last for up to an hour – significantly longer than terrestrial quakes – because of scattering of the seismic vibrations in the dry fragmented upper crust. The existence of moonquakes was an unexpected discovery from seismometers placed on the Moon by Apollo astronauts from 1969 through 1972. The most commonly known effect of tidal forces is elevated sea levels called ocean tides. While the Moon exerts most of the tidal forces, the Sun also exerts tidal forces and therefore contributes to the tides as much as 40% of the Moon's tidal force; producing in interplay the spring and neap tides. The tides are two bulges in the Earth's oceans, one on the side facing the Moon and the other on the side opposite. As the Earth rotates on its axis, one of the ocean bulges (high tide) is held in place ""under"" the Moon, while another such tide is opposite. The tide under the Moon is explained by the Moon's gravity being stronger on the water close to it.","[0.009435934945940971, -0.008847550489008427, 0.13272742927074432, 0.02422410249710083, 0.02772798016667366, -0.03349713608622551, -0.09929685294628143, 0.014533568173646927, 0.0009912021923810244, -0.0308355912566185, -0.008153628557920456, -0.03405463695526123, 0.03462757542729378, -0.03678223118185997, 0.051804278045892715, 0.051316916942596436, -0.020592868328094482, 0.02936207689344883, -0.04039619490504265, 0.04353290796279907, -0.10240679979324341, -0.02729867771267891, -0.058553241193294525, 0.062210336327552795, -0.06094347685575485, 0.05327397584915161, -0.04636898636817932, -0.004338765516877174, -0.07262276858091354, 0.027627352625131607, -0.02535399980843067, 0.02659761719405651, 0.00432332418859005, -0.060997284948825836, -0.06189212575554848, 0.024975497275590897, 0.015345953404903412, -0.024012014269828796, -0.030636804178357124, -0.05353876203298569, 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375,"place `` under '' the Moon , while another such tide is opposite . The tide under the Moon is explained by the Moon 's gravity being stronger on the water close to it .The tide on the opposite side can be explained either by the centrifugal force as the Earth orbits the barycenter or by the water's inertia as the Moon's gravity is stronger on the solid Earth close to it and it is pulled away from the farther water. Thus, there are two high tides, and two low tides in about 24 hours. Since the Moon is orbiting the Earth in the same direction of the Earth's rotation, the high tides occur about every 12 hours and 25 minutes; the 25 minutes is due to the Moon's time to orbit the Earth. If the Earth were a water world (one with no continents) it would produce a tide of only one meter, and that tide would be very predictable, but the ocean tides are greatly modified by other effects:

the frictional coupling of water to Earth's rotation through the ocean floors
the inertia of water's movement
ocean basins that grow shallower near land
the sloshing of water between different ocean basins
As a result, the timing of the tides at most points on the Earth is a product of observations that are explained, incidentally, by theory. System evolution
Delays in the tidal peaks of both ocean and solid-body tides cause torque in opposition to the Earth's rotation. This ""drains"" angular momentum and rotational kinetic energy from Earth's rotation, slowing the Earth's rotation. That angular momentum, lost from the Earth, is transferred to the Moon in a process known as tidal acceleration, which lifts the Moon into a higher orbit while lowering orbital speed around the Earth.","[0.031157342717051506, -0.00990698765963316, 0.08557292819023132, -0.07252152264118195, -0.04342534393072128, -0.06931325793266296, -0.0798078253865242, -0.0165729783475399, 0.033479973673820496, -0.05314617231488228, -0.011956389993429184, -0.06630826741456985, 0.02899928390979767, -0.040786195546388626, 0.0534258596599102, -0.00524382758885622, 0.003123230068013072, -0.0016292780637741089, -0.07151879370212555, -0.047451771795749664, 0.05230746045708656, -0.006521335802972317, -0.031898945569992065, -0.005230179522186518, -0.0945286899805069, -0.012295293621718884, -0.019829005002975464, -0.03916464000940323, -0.06441644579172134, 0.007115442771464586, -0.051821883767843246, 0.03294694796204567, 0.014658412896096706, -0.008706989698112011, -0.12044791877269745, 0.0669703409075737, 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376,", lost from the Earth , is transferred to the Moon in a process known as tidal acceleration , which lifts the Moon into a higher orbit while lowering orbital speed around the Earth .This has resulted in the length of a anomalistic month having increased from 20 days to today's 27.55 days over the course of 3.2 billion years. Thus the distance between Earth and Moon is increasing, and the Earth's rotation is slowing in reaction. Measurements from laser reflectors left during the Apollo missions (lunar ranging experiments) have found that the Moon's distance increases by 38 mm (1.5 in) per year (roughly the rate at which human fingernails grow). Atomic clocks show that Earth's Day lengthens by about 17 microseconds every year, slowly increasing the rate at which UTC is adjusted by leap seconds. This tidal drag makes the rotation of the Earth, and the orbital period of the Moon very slowly match. This matching first results in tidally locking the lighter body of the orbital system, as is already the case with the Moon. Theoretically, in 50 billion years, the Earth's rotation will have slowed to the point of matching the Moon's orbital period, causing the Earth to always present the same side to the Moon. However, the Sun will become a red giant, most likely engulfing the Earth–Moon system long before then. If the Earth–Moon system is not engulfed by the enlarged Sun, the drag from the solar atmosphere can cause the orbit of the Moon to decay. Once the orbit of the Moon closes to a distance of 18,470 km (11,480 mi), it will cross Earth's Roche limit, meaning that tidal interaction with Earth would break apart the Moon, turning it into a ring system. Most of the orbiting rings will begin to decay, and the debris will impact Earth.","[-0.03238993510603905, 0.02044805698096752, 0.11656005680561066, 0.003205282846465707, -0.013055033050477505, -0.05458638444542885, -0.039324939250946045, -0.03207772597670555, -0.017809320241212845, -0.03289621323347092, 0.0795796737074852, 0.0054300264455378056, -0.01349435281008482, -0.03143958002328873, 0.010783669538795948, -0.007048424798995256, -0.029699044302105904, 0.06328501552343369, -0.04661644622683525, 0.05516618490219116, -0.02009085938334465, -0.06719453632831573, 0.0037601615767925978, 0.07456962764263153, -0.07493779063224792, 0.025200093165040016, -0.05198405310511589, -0.04846027493476868, -0.0824112519621849, 0.009431774728000164, -0.020099369809031487, 0.052621543407440186, -0.005889043211936951, -0.040970705449581146, -0.06968162208795547, -0.023001838475465775, 0.010616907849907875, -0.02629508450627327, 0.02514810487627983, -0.09895750135183334, -0.017626212909817696, 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377,"that tidal interaction with Earth would break apart the Moon , turning it into a ring system . Most of the orbiting rings will begin to decay , and the debris will impact Earth .Hence, even if the Sun does not swallow up Earth, the planet may be left moonless. Orientation and appearance
The Moon appears in Earth's sky differently depending on the position of observation on Earth and the time of lunar year, lunar month and day on Earth. During a year the Moon culminates during a day at different altitudes. The Moon appears highest in the sky unlike the Sun during winter and lowest during summer, which is true for the seasons of each of Earth's northern and southern hemispheres. At the North and South Poles the Moon is 24 hours above the horizon for two weeks every tropical month (about 27.3 days), comparable to the polar day of the tropical year. Zooplankton in the Arctic use moonlight when the Sun is below the horizon for months on end. The apparent orientation of the Moon depends on its position in the sky and the hemisphere of the Earth from which it is being viewed. In the Northern Hemisphere it appears upside down compared to the view from the Southern Hemisphere. Sometimes the ""horns"" of a crescent moon appear to be pointing more upwards than sideways. This phenomenon is called a wet moon and occurs more frequently in the tropics. The distance between the Moon and Earth varies from around 356,400 km (221,500 mi) (perigee) to 406,700 km (252,700 mi) (apogee), making the Moon's distance and apparent size fluctuate up to 14%. On average the Moon's angular diameter is about 0.52°, roughly the same apparent size as the Sun (see § Eclipses).","[0.041857365518808365, 0.006783341523259878, 0.06062246114015579, -0.026186354458332062, 0.029100531712174416, -0.07793869078159332, -0.04658675566315651, -0.04338182136416435, 0.0589289665222168, -0.004600299522280693, -0.041044946759939194, 0.00778613006696105, -0.03622644022107124, -0.03538486361503601, 0.05628762021660805, -0.00847654789686203, 0.0004283206071704626, 0.009842127561569214, 0.026141108945012093, 0.03930090740323067, -0.01984148845076561, -0.06681480258703232, -0.05572383850812912, 0.030169876292347908, -0.08008404076099396, 0.06387294828891754, -0.07115408033132553, -0.0021592488046735525, -0.07937735319137573, 0.01055632159113884, -0.07827986776828766, 0.07170222699642181, -0.034036193042993546, 0.024088509380817413, -0.07302170246839523, 0.012216980569064617, 0.0021691275760531425, -0.0789867416024208, 0.0007974139880388975, -0.041498132050037384, 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378,"distance and apparent size fluctuate up to 14 % . On average the Moon 's angular diameter is about 0.52° , roughly the same apparent size as the Sun ( see § Eclipses ) .In addition, a purely psychological effect, known as the Moon illusion, makes the Moon appear larger when close to the horizon. Rotation
The tidally locked synchronous rotation of the Moon as it orbits the Earth results in it always keeping nearly the same face turned towards the planet. The side of the Moon that faces Earth is called the near side, and the opposite the far side. The far side is often inaccurately called the ""dark side"", but it is in fact illuminated as often as the near side: once every 29.5 Earth days. During dark moon to new moon, the near side is dark. The Moon originally rotated at a faster rate, but early in its history its rotation slowed and became tidally locked in this orientation as a result of frictional effects associated with tidal deformations caused by Earth. With time, the energy of rotation of the Moon on its axis was dissipated as heat, until there was no rotation of the Moon relative to Earth. In 2016, planetary scientists using data collected on the 1998–99 NASA Lunar Prospector mission found two hydrogen-rich areas (most likely former water ice) on opposite sides of the Moon. It is speculated that these patches were the poles of the Moon billions of years ago before it was tidally locked to Earth. Illumination and phases
The Moon rotates, as it orbits Earth, changing orientation toward the Sun, experiencing a lunar day. A lunar day is equal to one lunar month (one synodic orbit around Earth) due to it being tidally locked to Earth. Since the Moon is not tidally locked to the Sun, lunar daylight and night times both occur around the Moon.","[0.04139295220375061, 0.016398081555962563, 0.06471908092498779, 0.04444802552461624, 0.01874547265470028, -0.08098365366458893, -0.08501959592103958, 0.011919445358216763, 0.08741433918476105, -0.01747904345393181, 0.034134697169065475, 0.002352070063352585, -0.018619732931256294, -0.05214420706033707, 0.020319631323218346, -0.05822741240262985, 0.06871563196182251, 0.04102826490998268, -0.05421994626522064, 0.022773364558815956, -0.06578019261360168, -0.037736743688583374, -0.05378545820713043, 0.03495808318257332, -0.06530237942934036, 0.02387223020195961, 0.007645840756595135, -0.005446176510304213, -0.05631626769900322, -0.023587815463542938, -0.07247577607631683, 0.06660164147615433, -0.07796242088079453, 0.012388224713504314, -0.09741534292697906, -0.031206613406538963, -0.02889670431613922, 0.043597251176834106, -0.02286604978144169, -0.09198913723230362, 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379,"orbit around Earth ) due to it being tidally locked to Earth . Since the Moon is not tidally locked to the Sun , lunar daylight and night times both occur around the Moon .The changing position of the illumination of the Moon by the Sun during a lunar day is observable from Earth as the changing lunar phases, waxing crescent being the sunrise and the waning crescent the sunset phase of a day observed from afar. Lunar night is the darkest on the far side and during lunar eclipses on the near side (and darker than a moonless night on Earth). During its night, the near side is illuminated by Earthlight to the extent that lunar surface features may be observable from Earth. Earthshine makes the night on the near side about 43 times brighter, and sometimes even 55 times brighter than a night on Earth illuminated by the light of the full moon. In Earth's sky brightness and apparent size of the Moon changes also due to its elliptic orbit around Earth. At perigee (closest), since the Moon is up to 14% closer to Earth than at apogee (most distant), it subtends a solid angle which is up to 30% larger. Consequently, given the same phase, the Moon's brightness also varies by up to 30% between apogee and perigee. A full (or new) moon at such a position is called a supermoon. Each of the four intermediate phases of the Moon lasts, on average, about seven days (approximately 7.38 days), but this duration can vary by about ±11% due to the change in the distance between the Moon and Earth between apogee (farthest point) and perigee (closest point). The number of days since the most recent new moon is called the Moon's age. A complete cycle of lunar phases is known as a lunation.","[0.04531432315707207, -0.003520433558151126, 0.09706850349903107, 0.01849033497273922, 0.018559960648417473, -0.07768282294273376, -0.006499758921563625, 0.017181674018502235, 0.09853741526603699, -0.02338368631899357, -0.006105051841586828, -0.045790895819664, -0.027701711282134056, -0.0583699606359005, 0.05758903920650482, -0.03563743829727173, 0.11720014363527298, 0.005996806547045708, -0.026571152731776237, -0.023142239078879356, -0.01851983368396759, -0.07100623100996017, -0.027861380949616432, 0.010349675081670284, -0.05327286198735237, 0.03588353097438812, -0.001374982763081789, 0.011039734818041325, -0.024597065523266792, -0.056352321058511734, -0.047731008380651474, 0.03154371678829193, -0.06320462375879288, 0.019037717953324318, -0.05711805447936058, -0.014834832400083542, 0.03449816256761551, -0.020922314375638962, 0.047668591141700745, -0.05650632083415985, 0.0019264366710558534, -0.03737460821866989, 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-0.016086746007204056]",Moon,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.
380,"perigee ( closest point ) . The number of days since the most recent new moon is called the Moon 's age . A complete cycle of lunar phases is known as a lunation .The approximate age and phase of the Moon for any date can be calculated by determining the number of days since a known new moon (e.g., January 1, 1900, or August 11, 1999) and dividing that value by the average length of a synodic month (29.53059 days). The remainder of the division represents the Moon's age. This method assumes a perfectly circular orbit and does not consider the exact time of the new moon, so results may be off by a few hours. Accuracy decreases as the date moves away from the reference date. This simplified calculation is suitable for general or decorative purposes, such as moon phase clocks. More precise applications that take into account the Moon's apogee and perigee require more complex methods. Due to lunar libration, it is sometimes possible to see slightly more than the full moon (up to about 101%) or a small part of its far side (up to 5%). As it orbits, the Moon moves an average of 13° eastward on the celestial sphere every day. This means that from new moon onward, the moon will become increasingly distant from the Sun, becoming more prominent until full moon, when it appears to be on the opposite side of the Sun. Thereafter, the Moon appears to move closer to the Sun until a new moon occurs. The position and time at which the Moon rises on the eastern horizon vary continually, primarily due to the inclination of the lunar orbit , which is more than 5° relative to the Earth's equator, which in turn is inclined more than 23° to the ecliptic.","[0.04938240721821785, -0.015411222353577614, 0.05263892561197281, -0.00012488476932048798, -0.03310336172580719, -0.05969645455479622, -0.0887480154633522, -0.012222260236740112, 0.032759591937065125, -0.017582369968295097, 0.025174198672175407, -0.05325022712349892, -0.026778625324368477, -0.04979817569255829, -0.0008226841455325484, -0.03020496293902397, -0.014902959577739239, 0.038275137543678284, 0.007727906573563814, 0.006597949657589197, -0.019428737461566925, -0.12184291332960129, -0.06433627754449844, 0.0011017561191692948, 0.00765923922881484, 0.03561919182538986, -0.04182829707860947, -0.04475126415491104, 0.011977019719779491, -0.02392127737402916, -0.03169899433851242, 0.083917997777462, -0.010304984636604786, 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381,", primarily due to the inclination of the lunar orbit , which is more than 5° relative to the Earth 's equator , which in turn is inclined more than 23° to the ecliptic .Observational phenomena
There has been historical controversy over whether observed features on the Moon's surface change over time. Today, many of these claims are thought to be illusory, resulting from observation under different lighting conditions, poor astronomical seeing, or inadequate drawings. However, outgassing does occasionally occur and could be responsible for a minor percentage of the reported lunar transient phenomena. Recently, it has been suggested that a roughly 3 km (1.9 mi) diameter region of the lunar surface was modified by a gas release event about a million years ago. Albedo and true color of the surface
The Moon's appearance is shaped by its reflective properties and surface composition. Its albedo is about 0.12, comparable to worn asphalt, making it relatively dark despite its brightness in the night sky. This low albedo represents the reflectance of the lunar regolith, a layer of fine rock fragments created by meteorite impacts. Light scattering by the regolith causes the Moon to appear much brighter at full moon than at quarter phases. The Moon's true color, without atmospheric effects, is a muted brownish-gray. This results from silicate minerals in the regolith, with darker basaltic plains (maria) and lighter feldspar-rich highlands. The maria, formed by ancient volcanic flows, contain more iron and titanium, giving them a darker tone. From Earth, the Moon's color can be altered by the atmosphere, appearing red during lunar eclipses or occasionally blue due to volcanic particles. The Moon also exhibits retro-reflection, scattering light back toward its source and creating a uniform brightness across its disc without significant limb darkening.","[0.017991404980421066, 0.05034567788243294, 0.1548321694135666, 0.0564974844455719, 0.11049408465623856, -0.07470991462469101, -0.02017827518284321, 0.034393083304166794, 0.028134003281593323, -0.006368725094944239, -0.0254196859896183, -0.04459841549396515, -0.03899562731385231, -0.039704497903585434, 0.030664673075079918, -0.01129587460309267, 0.12674221396446228, 0.008423952385783195, -0.04455047473311424, 0.008388219401240349, 0.012203197926282883, -0.009357708506286144, -0.03653522580862045, 0.02846560627222061, -0.014122705906629562, 0.057897817343473434, -0.011694199405610561, 0.027011152356863022, -0.027180403470993042, -0.007694890722632408, -0.07848714292049408, 0.032206106930971146, -0.0757567510008812, -0.013267550617456436, 0.003602308453992009, -0.02506069839000702, -0.017807453870773315, 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382,"lunar eclipses or occasionally blue due to volcanic particles . The Moon also exhibits retro-reflection , scattering light back toward its source and creating a uniform brightness across its disc without significant limb darkening .Its apparent size and brightness vary due to its elliptical orbit, appearing up to 30% brighter and 14% larger at perigee compared to apogee, a phenomenon known as a ""Supermoon"". At times, the Moon can appear red or blue. It may appear red during a lunar eclipse, because of the red spectrum of the Sun's light being refracted onto the Moon by Earth's atmosphere. Because of this red color, lunar eclipses are also sometimes called blood moons. The Moon can also seem red when it appears at low angles and through a thick atmosphere. The Moon may appear blue depending on the presence of certain particles in the air, such as volcanic particles, in which case it can be called a blue moon. Because the words ""red moon"" and ""blue moon"" can also be used to refer to specific full moons of the year, they do not always refer to the presence of red or blue moonlight. Eclipses
Eclipses only occur when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are all in a straight line (termed ""syzygy""). Solar eclipses occur at new moon, when the Moon is between the Sun and Earth. In contrast, lunar eclipses occur at full moon, when Earth is between the Sun and Moon. The apparent size of the Moon is roughly the same as that of the Sun, with both being viewed at close to one-half a degree wide. The Sun is much larger than the Moon, but it is the vastly greater distance that gives it the same apparent size as the much closer and much smaller Moon from the perspective of Earth.","[-0.0014372433070093393, -0.07131770998239517, 0.04969991743564606, 0.03389022871851921, -0.010785574093461037, -0.05609149485826492, 0.047828976064920425, -0.01927945576608181, 0.11454112827777863, -0.027702340856194496, 0.009572048671543598, 0.013063679449260235, -0.016800565645098686, -0.04729875549674034, 0.0016944757662713528, 0.08196021616458893, 0.0884329155087471, 0.011778660118579865, -0.021005216985940933, 2.264126669615507e-05, 0.0012865017633885145, -0.07060457766056061, -0.10446883738040924, 0.016548719257116318, -0.037934716790914536, 0.06347435712814331, 0.009855810552835464, 0.03603672608733177, -0.054102543741464615, 0.016066234558820724, -0.06371390074491501, -0.0074892728589475155, -0.026420511305332184, -0.002677281852811575, 0.0015967360232025385, -0.017470041289925575, 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383,"is much larger than the Moon , but it is the vastly greater distance that gives it the same apparent size as the much closer and much smaller Moon from the perspective of Earth .The variations in apparent size, due to the non-circular orbits, are nearly the same as well, though occurring in different cycles. This makes possible both total (with the Moon appearing larger than the Sun) and annular (with the Moon appearing smaller than the Sun) solar eclipses. In a total eclipse, the Moon completely covers the disc of the Sun and the solar corona becomes visible to the naked eye. Because the distance between the Moon and Earth is very slowly increasing over time, the angular diameter of the Moon is decreasing. As it evolves toward becoming a red giant, the size of the Sun, and its apparent diameter in the sky, are slowly increasing. The combination of these two changes means that hundreds of millions of years ago, the Moon would always completely cover the Sun on solar eclipses, and no annular eclipses were possible. Likewise, hundreds of millions of years in the future, the Moon will no longer cover the Sun completely, and total solar eclipses will not occur. As the Moon's orbit around Earth is inclined by about 5.145° (5° 9′) to the orbit of Earth around the Sun, eclipses do not occur at every full and new moon. For an eclipse to occur, the Moon must be near the intersection of the two orbital planes. The periodicity and recurrence of eclipses of the Sun by the Moon, and of the Moon by Earth, is described by the saros, which has a period of approximately 18 years.","[0.03230363130569458, 0.0409853458404541, 0.09381672739982605, 0.05976616218686104, 0.0247309859842062, -0.05280565470457077, -0.07269972562789917, 0.01745791547000408, 0.09169969707727432, -0.0687781423330307, -0.02577606588602066, 0.012077495455741882, -0.05235612764954567, -0.04742494225502014, 0.03840755298733711, -0.00752783939242363, 0.029749523848295212, 0.0005957523244433105, -0.006316601298749447, 0.013083665631711483, -0.0455205962061882, -0.06573795527219772, -0.06810110062360764, 0.03706696629524231, -0.046845655888319016, 0.060339365154504776, -0.05431315675377846, -0.02909102849662304, -0.07474737614393234, -0.030798524618148804, -0.04371335357427597, 0.02110503427684307, -0.018777677789330482, -0.0018445145105943084, -0.019492151215672493, -0.03810207173228264, -0.027247024700045586, -0.021825579926371574, 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384,"The periodicity and recurrence of eclipses of the Sun by the Moon , and of the Moon by Earth , is described by the saros , which has a period of approximately 18 years .Because the Moon continuously blocks the view of a half-degree-wide circular area of the sky, the related phenomenon of occultation occurs when a bright star or planet passes behind the Moon and is occulted: hidden from view. In this way, a solar eclipse is an occultation of the Sun. Because the Moon is comparatively close to Earth, occultations of individual stars are not visible everywhere on the planet, nor at the same time. Because of the precession of the lunar orbit, each year different stars are occulted. Moon illusion
History of exploration and human presence
Pre-telescopic observation (before 1609)
It is believed by some that the oldest cave paintings from up to 40,000 BP of bulls and geometric shapes, or 20–30,000 year old tally sticks were used to observe the phases of the Moon, keeping time using the waxing and waning of the Moon's phases. Aspects of the Moon were identified and aggregated in lunar deities from prehistoric times and were eventually documented and put into symbols from the very first instances of writing in the 4th millennium BC. One of the earliest-discovered possible depictions of the Moon is a 3,000 BCE rock carving Orthostat 47 at Knowth, Ireland. The crescent depicting the Moon as with the lunar deity Nanna/Sin have been found from the 3rd millennium BCE. The oldest named astronomer and poet Enheduanna, Akkadian high priestess to the lunar deity Nanna/Sin and pricess, daughter of Sargon the Great (c. 2334 – c. 2279 BCE), had the Moon tracked in her chambers.","[-0.041346319019794464, 0.04156198352575302, 0.029593903571367264, 0.04735520854592323, -0.004295635968446732, -0.0794174075126648, 0.01231258176267147, -0.04248508810997009, 0.11541447788476944, -0.01663350500166416, -0.0012319725938141346, 0.02548404037952423, 0.01565549708902836, -0.03832590952515602, -0.032423049211502075, -0.02430659718811512, -0.035582829266786575, 0.006810935214161873, 0.08863502740859985, 0.011923126876354218, -0.0214362982660532, -0.09281415492296219, -0.08337802439928055, -0.03534147888422012, 0.022385619580745697, 0.0684071034193039, -0.042650241404771805, -0.03311999887228012, 0.0026779649779200554, 0.03472791984677315, 0.02740015648305416, 0.05787963047623634, -0.02915261872112751, -0.00151179195381701, -0.036735523492097855, -0.020151056349277496, 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385,"Enheduanna , Akkadian high priestess to the lunar deity Nanna/Sin and pricess , daughter of Sargon the Great ( c. 2334 – c. 2279 BCE ) , had the Moon tracked in her chambers .The oldest found and identified depiction of the Moon in an astronomical relation to other astronomical features is the Nebra sky disc from c. 1800–1600 BCE, depicting features like the Pleiades next to the Moon. The ancient Greek philosopher Anaxagoras (d. 428 BC) reasoned that the Sun and Moon were both giant spherical rocks, and that the latter reflected the light of the former. Elsewhere in the 5th century BC to 4th century BC, Babylonian astronomers had recorded the 18-year Saros cycle of lunar eclipses,  and Indian astronomers had described the Moon's monthly elongation. The Chinese astronomer Shi Shen (fl. 4th century BC) gave instructions for predicting solar and lunar eclipses. In Aristotle's (384–322 BC) description of the universe, the Moon marked the boundary between the spheres of the mutable elements (earth, water, air and fire), and the imperishable stars of aether, an influential philosophy that would dominate for centuries. Archimedes (287–212 BC) designed a planetarium that could calculate the motions of the Moon and other objects in the Solar System. In the 2nd century BC, Seleucus of Seleucia correctly thought that tides were due to the attraction of the Moon, and that their height depends on the Moon's position relative to the Sun. In the same century, Aristarchus computed the size and distance of the Moon from Earth, obtaining a value of about twenty times the radius of Earth for the distance.","[-0.02010441944003105, 0.07390381395816803, 0.003872746368870139, 0.03797595947980881, -0.07969792187213898, -0.08342822641134262, 0.006427715998142958, -0.03109755367040634, 0.04556263983249664, -0.011645804159343243, -0.01843763142824173, -0.059717874974012375, -0.0008818915812298656, -0.02953890711069107, -0.04164848104119301, -0.040099434554576874, -0.04642462357878685, 0.03428328037261963, -0.02557506039738655, 0.00028827169444411993, -0.004461526870727539, -0.0665532797574997, -0.0500405915081501, 0.008219116367399693, 0.05778435245156288, 0.06590752303600311, 0.008899189531803131, -0.09625903517007828, -0.049523670226335526, 0.03792823478579521, -0.012264108285307884, 0.008740922436118126, -0.013524417765438557, 0.020162053406238556, -0.011474582366645336, 0.013705333694815636, 0.01906297728419304, 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386,"the Sun . In the same century , Aristarchus computed the size and distance of the Moon from Earth , obtaining a value of about twenty times the radius of Earth for the distance .The Chinese of the Han dynasty believed the Moon to be energy equated to qi and their 'radiating influence' theory recognized that the light of the Moon was merely a reflection of the Sun; Jing Fang (78–37 BC) noted the sphericity of the Moon. Ptolemy (90–168 AD) greatly improved on the numbers of Aristarchus, calculating a mean distance of 59 times Earth's radius and a diameter of 0.292 Earth diameters, close to the correct values of about 60 and 0.273 respectively. In the 2nd century AD, Lucian wrote the novel A True Story, in which the heroes travel to the Moon and meet its inhabitants. In 510 AD, the Indian astronomer Aryabhata mentioned in his Aryabhatiya that reflected sunlight is the cause of the shining of the Moon. The astronomer and physicist Ibn al-Haytham (965–1039) found that sunlight was not reflected from the Moon like a mirror, but that light was emitted from every part of the Moon's sunlit surface in all directions. Shen Kuo (1031–1095) of the Song dynasty created an allegory equating the waxing and waning of the Moon to a round ball of reflective silver that, when doused with white powder and viewed from the side, would appear to be a crescent. During the Middle Ages, before the invention of the telescope, the Moon was increasingly recognized as a sphere, though many believed that it was ""perfectly smooth"". Telescopic exploration (1609–1959)
The telescope was developed and reported on in 1608. The first record of telescopic astronomy and rough mapping of the Moon's features is from early summer 1609 by Thomas Harriot, but which he did not publish.","[-0.02979964390397072, 0.1135537400841713, 0.051704082638025284, 0.06871407479047775, -0.04666391387581825, -0.08166901022195816, 0.029532041400671005, 0.015439368784427643, -0.025530880317091942, 0.003923265729099512, 0.011254452168941498, -0.03621518239378929, 0.03552050516009331, -0.0489499606192112, 0.01955222338438034, -0.0528152696788311, -0.006556886248290539, 0.04292778670787811, -0.019734807312488556, -0.0553240105509758, -0.03443198651075363, -0.07594296336174011, 0.022281870245933533, -0.030852973461151123, 0.07523433864116669, 0.011668551713228226, 0.015837417915463448, -0.05981229990720749, -0.032254744321107864, 0.047496333718299866, -0.020406439900398254, 0.014907613396644592, -0.011758627369999886, -0.038892004638910294, -0.08953049033880234, 0.024109812453389168, -0.0019193132175132632, -0.027103198692202568, 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387,"reported on in 1608 . The first record of telescopic astronomy and rough mapping of the Moon 's features is from early summer 1609 by Thomas Harriot , but which he did not publish .At the same time Galileo Galilei too started to use telescopes to observe the sky and the Moon, recording later that year more detailed observations and crucial conclusions, such as that the Moon was not smooth, featuring mountains and craters, which he published in 1610 in his ground-breaking and soon widely discussed book Sidereus Nuncius. Later in the 17th century, the efforts of Giovanni Battista Riccioli and Francesco Maria Grimaldi led to the system of naming of lunar features in use today. The more exact 1834–1836 Mappa Selenographica of Wilhelm Beer and Johann Heinrich von Mädler, and their associated 1837 book Der Mond, the first trigonometrically accurate study of lunar features, included the heights of more than a thousand mountains, and introduced the study of the Moon at accuracies possible in earthly geography. Lunar craters, first noted by Galileo, were thought to be volcanic until the 1870s proposal of Richard Proctor that they were formed by collisions. This view gained support in 1892 from the experimentation of geologist Grove Karl Gilbert, and from comparative studies from 1920 to the 1940s, leading to the development of lunar stratigraphy, which by the 1950s was becoming a new and growing branch of astrogeology. First missions to the Moon (1959–1976)
After World War II the first launch systems were developed and by the end of the 1950s they reached capabilities that allowed the Soviet Union and the United States to launch spacecraft into space. The Cold War fueled a closely followed development of launch systems by the two states, resulting in the so-called Space Race and its later phase the Moon Race, accelerating efforts and interest in exploration of the Moon.","[-0.04189912974834442, -0.010790403932332993, 0.017765797674655914, 0.01575210876762867, -0.07383762300014496, -0.1301979273557663, -0.08619807660579681, 0.08666730672121048, -0.04445242881774902, -0.044994112104177475, 0.029491502791643143, -0.0424380861222744, -0.007549199741333723, -0.026267632842063904, -0.07158809155225754, -0.004620212130248547, -0.0885467380285263, 0.07504232972860336, 0.06050841137766838, -0.0007680673152208328, -0.06547093391418457, -0.0034177927300333977, -0.04025707021355629, 0.018134746700525284, 0.1301429122686386, 0.07091367989778519, -0.013335389085114002, -0.058982592076063156, -0.020257221534848213, 0.042948346585035324, -0.0010969106806442142, 0.04952589049935341, -0.006037347484380007, -0.054791249334812164, 0.014319398440420628, 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388,"closely followed development of launch systems by the two states , resulting in the so-called Space Race and its later phase the Moon Race , accelerating efforts and interest in exploration of the Moon .After the first spaceflight of Sputnik 1 in 1957 during International Geophysical Year the spacecraft of the Soviet Union's Luna program were the first to accomplish a number of goals. Following three unnamed failed missions in 1958, the first human-made object Luna 1 escaped Earth's gravity and passed the Moon on 4 January 1959. Later that year the first human-made object Luna 2 reached the Moon's surface by intentionally impacting. By the end of the year Luna 3 reached as the first human-made object the normally occluded far side of the Moon, taking the first photographs of it. The first spacecraft to perform a successful lunar soft landing was Luna 9 and the first vehicle to orbit the Moon was Luna 10, both in 1966. Following President John F. Kennedy's 1961 commitment to a crewed Moon landing before the end of the decade, the United States, under NASA leadership, launched a series of uncrewed probes to develop an understanding of the lunar surface in preparation for human missions: the Jet Propulsion Laboratory's Ranger program, the Lunar Orbiter program and the Surveyor program. The crewed Apollo program was developed in parallel; after a series of uncrewed and crewed tests of the Apollo spacecraft in Earth orbit, and spurred on by a potential Soviet lunar human landing, in 1968 Apollo 8 made the first human mission to lunar orbit (the first Earthlings, two tortoises, had circled the Moon three months earlier on the Soviet Union's Zond 5, followed by turtles on Zond 6).","[0.001954752951860428, -0.02469240315258503, 0.02035248652100563, 0.058100827038288116, -0.015533238649368286, -0.0739821270108223, -0.009013631381094456, -0.0038680508732795715, -0.034391921013593674, 0.030120184645056725, 0.020290473476052284, -0.002970149740576744, 0.010186024941504002, -0.025341344997286797, -0.022270919755101204, -0.025144502520561218, -0.007645952515304089, 0.009884152561426163, -0.018217582255601883, 0.07204128801822662, 0.02419615164399147, -0.04523850232362747, 0.026336438953876495, -0.034133993089199066, 0.01932459883391857, -0.00244809128344059, 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389,"mission to lunar orbit ( the first Earthlings , two tortoises , had circled the Moon three months earlier on the Soviet Union 's Zond 5 , followed by turtles on Zond 6 ) .The first time a person landed on the Moon and any extraterrestrial body was when Neil Armstrong, the commander of the American mission Apollo 11, set foot on the Moon at 02:56 UTC on July 21, 1969. Considered the culmination of the Space Race, an estimated 500 million people worldwide watched the transmission by the Apollo TV camera, the largest television audience for a live broadcast at that time. While at the same time another mission, the robotic sample return mission Luna 15 by the Soviet Union had been in orbit around the Moon, becoming together with Apollo 11 the first ever case of two extraterrestrial missions being conducted at the same time. The Apollo missions 11 to 17 (except Apollo 13, which aborted its planned lunar landing) removed 380.05 kilograms (837.87 lb) of lunar rock and soil in 2,196 separate samples. Scientific instrument packages were installed on the lunar surface during all the Apollo landings. Long-lived instrument stations, including heat flow probes, seismometers, and magnetometers, were installed at the Apollo 12, 14, 15, 16, and 17 landing sites. Direct transmission of data to Earth concluded in late 1977 because of budgetary considerations, but as the stations' lunar laser ranging corner-cube retroreflector arrays are passive instruments, they are still being used. Apollo 17 in 1972 remains the last crewed mission to the Moon. Explorer 49 in 1973 was the last dedicated U.S. probe to the Moon until 1994.","[-0.06178934499621391, -0.010263013653457165, -0.015722112730145454, -0.0017831939039751887, 0.02965439297258854, -0.11675029993057251, 0.01745828054845333, 0.018336009234189987, -0.04530322179198265, 0.03375006094574928, 0.03964932635426521, -0.017824681475758553, 0.021901754662394524, -0.012285320088267326, -0.008020211942493916, -0.03770036622881889, 0.05567193776369095, -0.0019491104176267982, -0.06250320374965668, -0.005115933250635862, -0.04491560906171799, 0.014188927598297596, 0.07167073339223862, 0.020695040002465248, 0.02463410794734955, 0.037430696189403534, -0.07041029632091522, -0.03155940771102905, -0.04473157599568367, 0.004962880630046129, -0.012957488186657429, 0.02367595210671425, -0.024128694087266922, -0.013136344961822033, 0.016717655584216118, 0.023165594786405563, -0.0454571470618248, -0.08330480754375458, 0.04267321154475212, -0.020985538139939308, -0.01449187844991684, 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390,"they are still being used . Apollo 17 in 1972 remains the last crewed mission to the Moon . Explorer 49 in 1973 was the last dedicated U.S. probe to the Moon until 1994 .The Soviet Union continued sending robotic missions to the Moon until 1976, deploying in 1970 with Luna 17 the first remote controlled rover Lunokhod 1 on an extraterrestrial surface, and collecting and returning 0.3 kg of rock and soil samples with three Luna sample return missions (Luna 16 in 1970, Luna 20 in 1972, and Luna 24 in 1976). Moon Treaty and explorational absence (1976–1990)
Following the last Soviet mission to the Moon of 1976, there was little further lunar exploration for fourteen years. Astronautics had shifted its focus towards the exploration of the inner (e.g. Venera program) and outer (e.g. Pioneer 10, 1972) Solar System planets, but also towards Earth orbit, developing and continuously operating, beside communication satellites, Earth observation satellites (e.g. Landsat program, 1972), space telescopes and particularly space stations (e.g. Salyut program, 1971). Negotiation in 1979 of Moon treaty, and its subsequent ratification in 1984 was the only major activity regarding the Moon until 1990. Renewed exploration (1990–present)
In 1990 Hiten – Hagoromo, the first dedicated lunar mission since 1976, reached the Moon. Sent by Japan, it became the first mission that was not a Soviet Union or U.S. mission to the Moon. In 1994, the U.S. dedicated a mission to fly a spacecraft (Clementine) to the Moon again for the first time since 1973. This mission obtained the first near-global topographic map of the Moon, and the first global multispectral images of the lunar surface.","[-0.0040142470970749855, -0.025739610195159912, 0.0022726799361407757, 0.04204465076327324, 0.048604145646095276, -0.08696074038743973, -0.02395106852054596, 0.006932779680937529, -0.05793148651719093, 0.04428112134337425, 0.01818723976612091, 0.010849013924598694, -0.006957653909921646, 0.01605696603655815, 0.025761688128113747, 0.04440416023135185, 0.01791103556752205, 0.0011306025553494692, 0.015252224169671535, -0.027951711788773537, -0.09927932173013687, -0.006487512961030006, -0.005041494499891996, -0.019764233380556107, 0.014792626723647118, 0.03301132842898369, -0.04196415841579437, -0.060365550220012665, -0.02130201831459999, 0.053582943975925446, -0.0727161318063736, 0.06960228830575943, -0.015384731814265251, -0.004186687059700489, -0.00012959414743818343, 0.03457314521074295, -0.01811504177749157, -0.08305367827415466, 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391,") to the Moon again for the first time since 1973 . This mission obtained the first near-global topographic map of the Moon , and the first global multispectral images of the lunar surface .In 1998, this was followed by the Lunar Prospector mission, whose instruments indicated the presence of excess hydrogen at the lunar poles, which is likely to have been caused by the presence of water ice in the upper few meters of the regolith within permanently shadowed craters. The next years saw a row of first missions to the Moon by a new group of states actively exploring the Moon. Between 2004 and 2006 the first spacecraft by the European Space Agency (ESA) (SMART-1) reached the Moon, recording the first detailed survey of chemical elements on the lunar surface. The Chinese Lunar Exploration Program reached the Moon for the first time with the orbiter Chang'e 1 (2007–2009), obtaining a full image map of the Moon. India reached, orbited and impacted the Moon in 2008 for the first time with its Chandrayaan-1 and Moon Impact Probe, becoming the fifth and sixth state to do so, creating a high-resolution chemical, mineralogical and photo-geological map of the lunar surface, and confirming the presence of water molecules in lunar soil. The U.S. launched the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) and the LCROSS impactor on June 18, 2009. LCROSS completed its mission by making a planned and widely observed impact in the crater Cabeus on October 9, 2009, whereas LRO is currently in operation, obtaining precise lunar altimetry and high-resolution imagery. China continued its lunar program in 2010 with Chang'e 2, mapping the surface at a higher resolution over an eight-month period, and in 2013 with Chang'e 3, a lunar lander along with a lunar rover named Yutu (Chinese: 玉兔; lit. 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392,"an eight-month period , and in 2013 with Chang ' e 3 , a lunar lander along with a lunar rover named Yutu ( Chinese : 玉兔 ; lit . 'Jade Rabbit ' ) .This was the first lunar rover mission since Lunokhod 2 in 1973 and the first lunar soft landing since Luna 24 in 1976, making China the third country to achieve this. In 2014 the first privately funded probe, the Manfred Memorial Moon Mission, reached the Moon. Another Chinese rover mission, Chang'e 4, achieved the first landing on the Moon's far side in early 2019. Also in 2019, India successfully sent its second probe, Chandrayaan-2 to the Moon. In 2020, China carried out its first robotic sample return mission (Chang'e 5), bringing back 1,731 grams of lunar material to Earth. The U.S. developed plans for returning to the Moon beginning in 2004, and with the signing of the U.S.-led Artemis Accords in 2020, the Artemis program aims to return the astronauts to the Moon in the 2020s. The Accords have been joined by a growing number of countries. The introduction of the Artemis Accords has fueled a renewed discussion about the international framework and cooperation of lunar activity, building on the Moon Treaty and the ESA-led Moon Village concept. 2022 South Korea launched Danuri successfully, its first mission to the Moon, from the US. In 2023 and 2024 India and Japan became the fourth and fifth country to soft land a spacecraft on the Moon, following the Soviet Union and United States in the 1960s, and China in the 2010s. Notably, Japan's spacecraft, the Smart Lander for Investigating Moon, survived 3 lunar nights. The IM-1 lander became the first commercially built lander to land on the Moon in 2024.","[-0.026422562077641487, -0.053892843425273895, 0.0675429031252861, 0.028835121542215347, 0.03899579495191574, -0.08686935156583786, -0.03312130644917488, -0.02365267463028431, -0.016650747507810593, 0.0376463420689106, 0.05633065104484558, -0.02891368418931961, 0.010687349364161491, 0.004931293427944183, 0.005281774792820215, 0.03139254078269005, 0.006433762609958649, 0.010541876778006554, -0.054647792130708694, -0.04596883803606033, -0.0402076430618763, -0.04103695601224899, 0.06928663700819016, -0.010854163207113743, 0.004861433990299702, -0.0016270095948129892, -0.006564647424966097, -0.06690983474254608, 0.006019055377691984, -0.03167806938290596, 0.010929228737950325, 0.0707743912935257, -0.08090614527463913, 0.02989627979695797, -0.021837018430233, 0.08814064413309097, -0.04589580371975899, -0.06437593698501587, 0.018061190843582153, -0.07860098779201508, 0.016203491017222404, 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393,"Notably , Japan 's spacecraft , the Smart Lander for Investigating Moon , survived 3 lunar nights . The IM-1 lander became the first commercially built lander to land on the Moon in 2024 .China launched the Chang'e 6 on May 3, 2024, which conducted another lunar sample return from the far side of the Moon. It also carried a Chinese rover to conduct infrared spectroscopy of lunar surface. Pakistan sent a lunar orbiter called ICUBE-Q along with Chang'e 6. Nova-C 2, iSpace Lander and Blue Ghost were all launched to the Moon in 2024. Future
Beside the progressing Artemis program and supporting Commercial Lunar Payload Services, China is continuing its ambitious Chang'e program, having announced with Russia's struggling Luna-Glob program joint missions. Both the Chinese and US lunar programs have the goal to establish in the 2030s a lunar base with their international partners, though the US and its partners will first establish an orbital Lunar Gateway station in the 2020s, from which Artemis missions will land the Human Landing System to set up temporary surface camps. While the Apollo missions were explorational in nature, the Artemis program plans to establish a more permanent presence. To this end, NASA is partnering with industry leaders to establish key elements such as modern communication infrastructure. A 4G connectivity demonstration is to be launched aboard an Intuitive Machines Nova-C lander in 2024. Another focus is on in situ resource utilization, which is a key part of the DARPA lunar programs. DARPA has requested that industry partners develop a 10–year lunar architecture plan to enable the beginning of a lunar economy. Human presence
In 1959 the first extraterrestrial probes reached the Moon (Luna program), just a year into the space age, after the first ever orbital flight. Since then, humans have sent a range of probes and people to the Moon.","[-0.06482551991939545, -0.05134078115224838, 0.0942167192697525, -0.01742912270128727, 0.015397276729345322, -0.0767645388841629, -0.0373888798058033, -0.01597597450017929, -0.01583954505622387, 0.03021911531686783, 0.007445827592164278, -0.020140063017606735, 0.040935080498456955, 0.021692883223295212, 0.0007934919558465481, 0.03898065909743309, -0.05511249974370003, -0.06942830979824066, -0.0490499809384346, -0.0331466943025589, -0.039152879267930984, -0.022770218551158905, 0.014493966475129128, 0.0006856489926576614, -0.0057755084708333015, -0.03274710103869438, 0.020072925835847855, -0.01964847557246685, 0.011167921125888824, -0.011162355542182922, -0.017238225787878036, 0.10724762082099915, -0.03454013541340828, 0.051477350294589996, 0.01289309374988079, 0.05502047762274742, 0.006817089859396219, -0.04447197914123535, 0.00929341372102499, -0.0936548113822937, 0.01243493240326643, -0.11586689949035645, 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394,"Luna program ) , just a year into the space age , after the first ever orbital flight . Since then , humans have sent a range of probes and people to the Moon .The first stay of people on the Moon was conducted in 1969, in a series of crewed exploration missions (the Apollo Program), the last having taken place in 1972. Uninterrupted presence has been the case through the remains of impactors, landings and lunar orbiters. Some landings and orbiters have maintained a small lunar infrastructure, providing continuous observation and communication at the Moon. Longterm missions continuing to be active are some orbiters such as the 2009-launched Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter surveilling the Moon for future missions, as well as some Landers such as the 2013-launched Chang'e 3 with its Lunar Ultraviolet Telescope still operational. Five retroreflectors have been installed on the Moon since the 1970s and since used for accurate measurements of the physical librations through laser ranging to the Moon. Increasing human activity in cislunar space as well as on the Moon's surface, particularly missions at the far side of the Moon or the lunar north and south polar regions, are in need for a lunar infrastructure. For that purpose, orbiters in orbits around the Moon or the Earth–Moon Lagrange points, have since 2006 been operated. With highly eccentric orbits providing continuous communication, as with the orbit of Queqiao and Queqiao-2 relay satellite or the planned first extraterrestrial space station, the Lunar Gateway. There are several missions by different agencies and companies planned to establish a long-term human presence on the Moon, with the Lunar Gateway as the currently most advanced project as part of the Artemis program. Human impact
While the Moon has the lowest planetary protection target-categorization, its degradation as a pristine body and scientific place has been discussed.","[-0.012360668741166592, -0.08104591816663742, 0.04139408841729164, 0.022491343319416046, -0.029144978150725365, -0.0533868744969368, -0.037976138293743134, -0.052317678928375244, -0.06570358574390411, 0.017212679609656334, 0.07828138768672943, -0.0028567546978592873, -0.011844716034829617, -0.04195137694478035, 0.042937636375427246, 0.03711686655879021, 0.02709551900625229, -0.04496536776423454, 0.0010073200101032853, -0.015452368184924126, -0.09387469291687012, -0.07812782377004623, 0.005656170658767223, 0.03381219133734703, -0.02005988545715809, -0.008486545644700527, -0.014703551307320595, -0.08007418364286423, -0.01233509462326765, -0.0075752269476652145, 0.01299961470067501, 0.09175967425107956, -0.027454745024442673, 0.030251575633883476, -0.05582994967699051, 0.08869671076536179, -0.01155851036310196, -0.08876602351665497, 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395,"most advanced project as part of the Artemis program . Human impact While the Moon has the lowest planetary protection target-categorization , its degradation as a pristine body and scientific place has been discussed .If there is astronomy performed from the Moon, it will need to be free from any physical and radio pollution. While the Moon has no significant atmosphere, traffic and impacts on the Moon causes clouds of dust that can spread far and possibly contaminate the original state of the Moon and its special scientific content. Scholar Alice Gorman asserts that, although the Moon is inhospitable, describing the Moon as dead negates its dynamics, which requires sustainable human activity to treat the Moon's ecology as a co-participant. The so-called ""Tardigrade affair"" of the 2019 crashed Beresheet lander and its carrying of tardigrades has been discussed as an example for lacking measures and lacking international regulation for planetary protection. Space debris beyond Earth around the Moon has been considered as a future challenge with increasing numbers of missions to the Moon, particularly as a danger for such missions. As such lunar waste management has been raised as an issue which future lunar missions, particularly on the surface, need to tackle. Human remains have been transported to the Moon, including by private companies such as Celestis and Elysium Space. Because the Moon has been sacred or significant to many cultures, the practice of space burials have attracted criticism from indigenous peoples leaders. For example, then–Navajo Nation president Albert Hale criticized NASA for sending the cremated ashes of scientist Eugene Shoemaker to the Moon in 1998. Beside the remains of human activity on the Moon, there have been some intended permanent installations like the Moon Museum art piece, Apollo 11 goodwill messages, six lunar plaques, the Fallen Astronaut memorial, and other artifacts. Astronomy from the Moon
The Moon has been used as a site for astronomical and Earth observations.","[-0.037564054131507874, 0.03952213376760483, 0.10910505801439285, -0.02484028972685337, 0.12126117199659348, -0.08550012856721878, 0.006361993495374918, 0.0008753712754696608, -0.04292646050453186, 0.03738575428724289, 0.014075337909162045, -0.027318483218550682, -0.04061257094144821, -0.007701379247009754, -0.07202928513288498, 0.017831893637776375, 0.029197026044130325, 0.01002996414899826, -0.06443076580762863, 0.08501414209604263, -0.05644036456942558, 0.06620944291353226, 0.007992696017026901, 0.0293019637465477, -0.0729219913482666, 0.057132788002491, -0.04553864151239395, -0.05817369744181633, -0.030129436403512955, -0.014444609172642231, -0.028154699131846428, 0.06549002230167389, -0.08486984670162201, 0.007525629363954067, -0.038235969841480255, 0.15105871856212616, 0.005044115707278252, -0.02770562469959259, 0.0572650320827961, -0.08648204803466797, -0.04452476650476456, -0.1398015022277832, 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396,"11 goodwill messages , six lunar plaques , the Fallen Astronaut memorial , and other artifacts . Astronomy from the Moon The Moon has been used as a site for astronomical and Earth observations .The Earth appears in the Moon's sky with an apparent size of 1° 48′ to 2°, three to four times the size of the Moon or Sun in Earth's sky, or about the apparent width of two little fingers at an arm's length away. Observations from the Moon started as early as 1966 with the first images of Earth from the Moon, taken by Lunar Orbiter 1. Of particular cultural significance is the 1968 photograph called Earthrise, taken by Bill Anders of Apollo 8 in 1968. In April 1972 the Apollo 16 mission set up the first dedicated telescope, the Far Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph, recording various astronomical photos and spectra. The Moon is recognized as an excellent site for telescopes. It is relatively nearby; certain craters near the poles are permanently dark and cold and especially useful for infrared telescopes; and radio telescopes on the far side would be shielded from the radio chatter of Earth. The lunar soil, although it poses a problem for any moving parts of telescopes, can be mixed with carbon nanotubes and epoxies and employed in the construction of mirrors up to 50 meters in diameter. A lunar zenith telescope can be made cheaply with an ionic liquid. With increased human activity on the surface of the Moon the atmospheric circulation of lunar dust will increase, reducing the favourable conditions for astronomy from the surface depending on meassures to mitigate the spread of lunar dust. Living on the Moon
Humans have lived on the Moon in groups of two and for up to three days. Altogether twelve people have stayed on the Moon over the course of six visits. 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397,"up to three days . Altogether twelve people have stayed on the Moon over the course of six visits . They all lived in one type of surface habitat , the Apollo Lunar Module .In the course of these stays some people have spent in total up to one day roaming the surface. Challenges when roaming the surface arise from lunar dust sticking to suits and tools, and has been carried inside the habitats. Astronauts could taste and smell the dust, which smells like gunpowder and was called the ""Apollo aroma"". This fine lunar dust can cause health issues. In 2019, at least one plant seed sprouted in an experiment on the Chang'e 4 lander. It was carried from Earth along with other small life in its Lunar Micro Ecosystem. Legal status
Although Luna landers scattered pennants of the Soviet Union on the Moon, and U.S. flags were symbolically planted at their landing sites by the Apollo astronauts, no nation claims ownership of any part of the Moon's surface. Likewise no private ownership of parts of the Moon, or as a whole, is considered credible. The 1967 Outer Space Treaty defines the Moon and all outer space as the ""province of all mankind"". It restricts the use of the Moon to peaceful purposes, explicitly banning military installations and weapons of mass destruction. A majority of countries are parties of this treaty. The 1979 Moon Agreement was created to elaborate, and restrict the exploitation of the Moon's resources by any single nation, leaving it to a yet unspecified international regulatory regime. As of January 2020, it has been signed and ratified by 18 nations, none of which have human spaceflight capabilities. Since 2020, countries have joined the U.S. in their Artemis Accords, which are challenging the treaty.","[-0.03407701849937439, 0.026602929458022118, 0.07405775040388107, 0.03787129744887352, 0.13725906610488892, -0.053332701325416565, 0.07459261268377304, -0.03853817656636238, -0.03581816703081131, -0.0039693075232207775, 0.07711468636989594, -0.03844102844595909, -0.016284599900245667, -0.0003769574104808271, 0.0032322711776942015, 0.044643960893154144, -0.05701877921819687, -0.047243375331163406, -0.10382553189992905, 0.027689417824149132, -0.04076329991221428, -0.0007293684757314622, 0.02561159059405327, 0.0023008587304502726, -0.013639871962368488, 0.041998397558927536, -0.042187370359897614, -0.022359851747751236, 0.025906147435307503, -0.027162447571754456, 0.033724572509527206, 0.12046188861131668, -0.05856882780790329, 0.012714283540844917, 0.03760884329676628, 0.009494290687143803, 0.005309658125042915, -0.04767327383160591, 0.10399764776229858, -0.05059723183512688, 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398,"been signed and ratified by 18 nations , none of which have human spaceflight capabilities . Since 2020 , countries have joined the U.S. in their Artemis Accords , which are challenging the treaty .The U.S. has furthermore emphasized in a presidential executive order (""Encouraging International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources."") that ""the United States does not view outer space as a 'global commons'"" and calls the Moon Agreement ""a failed attempt at constraining free enterprise"". With Australia signing and ratifying both the Moon Treaty in 1986 as well as the Artemis Accords in 2020, there has been a discussion if they can be harmonized. In this light an Implementation Agreement for the Moon Treaty has been advocated for, as a way to compensate for the shortcomings of the Moon Treaty and to harmonize it with other laws and agreements such as the Artemis Accords, allowing it to be more widely accepted. In the face of such increasing commercial and national interest, particularly prospecting territories, U.S. lawmakers have introduced in late 2020 specific regulation for the conservation of historic landing sites and interest groups have argued for making such sites World Heritage Sites and zones of scientific value protected zones, all of which add to the legal availability and territorialization of the Moon. In 2021, the Declaration of the Rights of the Moon was created by a group of ""lawyers, space archaeologists and concerned citizens"", drawing on precedents in the Rights of Nature movement and the concept of legal personality for non-human entities in space. Coordination and regulation
Increasing human activity at the Moon has raised the need for coordination to safeguard international and commercial lunar activity. 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399,"raised the need for coordination to safeguard international and commercial lunar activity . Issues from cooperation to mere coordination , through for example the development of a shared Lunar time , have been raised .In particular the establishment of an international or United Nations regulatory regime for lunar human activity has been called for by the Moon Treaty and suggested through an Implementation Agreement, but remains contentious. Current lunar programs are multilateral, with the US-led Artemis program and the China-led International Lunar Research Station. For broader international cooperation and coordination, the International Lunar Exploration Working Group (ILEWG), the Moon Village Association (MVA) and more generally the International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG) has been established. In culture and life
Timekeeping
Since pre-historic times people have taken note of the Moon's phases and its waxing and waning cycle and used it to keep record of time. Tally sticks, notched bones dating as far back as 20–30,000 years ago, are believed by some to mark the phases of the Moon. The counting of the days between the Moon's phases eventually gave rise to generalized time periods of lunar cycles as months, and possibly of its phases as weeks. The words for the month in a range of different languages carry this relation between the period of the month and the Moon etymologically. The English month as well as moon, and its cognates in other Indo-European languages (e.g. the Latin mensis and Ancient Greek μείς (meis) or μήν (mēn), meaning ""month"") stem from the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root of moon, *méh1nōt, derived from the PIE verbal root *meh1-, ""to measure"", ""indicat[ing] a functional conception of the Moon, i.e. marker of the month"" (cf. the English words measure and menstrual).","[-0.039650797843933105, -0.030209118500351906, 0.01398001704365015, 0.002936464734375477, -0.01837601512670517, -0.054280560463666916, -0.03542836755514145, -0.04003845527768135, 0.012735078111290932, 0.0026870309375226498, 0.055689822882413864, -0.01831960864365101, -0.0655970647931099, 0.020907912403345108, -0.05891304463148117, -0.024109406396746635, -0.07794249057769775, -0.00900167878717184, 0.009644529782235622, -0.026175687089562416, -0.03112943284213543, -0.04704819247126579, 0.03289933502674103, 0.041569825261831284, -0.0061274319887161255, 0.06624031811952591, 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400,"`` to measure '' , `` indicat [ ing ] a functional conception of the Moon , i.e . marker of the month '' ( cf . the English words measure and menstrual ) .To give another example from a different language family, the Chinese language uses the same word (月) for moon as for month, which furthermore can be found in the symbols for the word week (星期). This lunar timekeeping gave rise to the historically dominant, but varied, lunisolar calendars. The 7th-century Islamic calendar is an example of a purely lunar calendar, where months are traditionally determined by the visual sighting of the hilal, or earliest crescent moon, over the horizon. Of particular significance has been the occasion of full moon, highlighted and celebrated in a range of calendars and cultures, an example being the Buddhist Vesak. The full moon around the southern or northern autumnal equinox is often called the harvest moon and is celebrated with festivities such as the Harvest Moon Festival of the Chinese lunar calendar, its second most important celebration after the Chinese lunisolar Lunar New Year. Furthermore, association of time with the Moon can also be found in religion, such as the ancient Egyptian temporal and lunar deity Khonsu. Cultural representation
Humans have not only observed the Moon since prehistoric times, but have also developed intricate perceptions of the Moon. Over time the Moon has been characterized and associated in many different ways, from having a spirit or being a deity, and an aspect thereof or an aspect in astrology, being made an important part of many cosmologies. This rich history of humans viewing the Moon has been evidenced starting with depictions from 40,000 BP and in written form from the 4th millennium BCE in the earliest cases of writing.","[-0.02223956771194935, 0.08505839109420776, 0.009214071556925774, 0.029855193570256233, -0.04388235881924629, -0.03474922105669975, -0.02700250782072544, -0.0791245847940445, 0.07323087006807327, -0.03859653323888779, 0.05376138165593147, -0.08566637337207794, -0.0505155585706234, -0.0036341275554150343, 0.04874952509999275, -0.017902439460158348, -0.029897479340434074, 0.057132918387651443, 0.03597208857536316, -0.037384290248155594, -0.014805537648499012, -0.11537710577249527, -0.027903126552700996, 0.028447521850466728, 0.03584849089384079, 0.03570252284407616, -0.03856154903769493, 0.045838791877031326, 0.018887940794229507, 0.07878179103136063, -0.013435188680887222, 0.11630979180335999, 0.01853078417479992, 0.003096590284258127, -0.0610169917345047, 0.08275795727968216, -0.0022054833825677633, 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401,"cosmologies . This rich history of humans viewing the Moon has been evidenced starting with depictions from 40,000 BP and in written form from the 4th millennium BCE in the earliest cases of writing .The oldest named astronomer and poet Enheduanna, Akkadian high priestess to the lunar deity Nanna/Sin and daughter of Sargon the Great (c. 2334 – c. 2279 BCE), tracked the Moon and wrote poems about her divine Moon. Crescent
For the representation of the Moon, especially its lunar phases, the crescent (🌙) has been a recurring symbol in a range of cultures since at least 3,000 BCE or possibly earlier with bull horns dating to the earliest cave paintings at 40,000 BP. In writing systems such as Chinese the crescent has developed into the symbol 月, the word for Moon, and in ancient Egyptian it was the symbol 𓇹, meaning Moon and spelled like the ancient Egyptian lunar deity Iah, which the other ancient Egyptian lunar deities Khonsu and Thoth were associated with. Iconographically the crescent was used in Mesopotamia as the primary symbol of Nanna/Sîn, the ancient Sumerian lunar deity, who was the father of Inanna/Ishtar, the goddess of the planet Venus (symbolized as the eight pointed Star of Ishtar), and Utu/Shamash, the god of the Sun (symbolized as a disc, optionally with eight rays), all three often depicted next to each other. Nanna/Sîn is, like some other lunar deities, for example Iah and Khonsu of ancient Egypt, Mene/Selene of ancient Greece and Luna of ancient Rome, depicted as a horned deity, featuring crescent shaped headgears or crowns. The particular arrangement of the crescent with a star known as the star and crescent (☪️) goes back to the Bronze Age, representing either the Sun and Moon, or the Moon and the planet Venus, in combination.","[-0.000800557725597173, 0.044503334909677505, -0.02139473147690296, -0.01208981778472662, -0.08315842598676682, -0.062102943658828735, -0.006188469938933849, -0.024483347311615944, 0.10517202317714691, -0.004408709704875946, -0.006794577464461327, -0.04488515853881836, 0.010489806532859802, -0.0511898510158062, 0.027227649465203285, 0.0039872825145721436, -0.01952759362757206, 0.02375607192516327, 0.01966826803982258, -0.05862899497151375, 0.010552248917520046, -0.06910867989063263, -0.036460183560848236, -0.005314690992236137, 0.027142511680722237, 0.08439911901950836, 0.013015971519052982, -0.0434025377035141, 0.026563312858343124, 0.05823410674929619, -0.07646232843399048, -0.0022270381450653076, 0.008001907728612423, 0.04887478053569794, -0.06942306458950043, 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402,"star known as the star and crescent ( ☪️ ) goes back to the Bronze Age , representing either the Sun and Moon , or the Moon and the planet Venus , in combination .It came to represent the selene goddess Artemis, and via the patronage of Hecate, which as triple deity under the epithet trimorphos/trivia included aspects of Artemis/Diana, came to be used as a symbol of Byzantium, with Virgin Mary (Queen of Heaven) later taking her place, becoming depicted in Marian veneration on a crescent and adorned with stars. Since then the heraldric use of the star and crescent proliferated, Byzantium's symbolism possibly influencing the development of the Ottoman flag, specifically the combination of the Turkish crescent with a star, and becoming a popular symbol for Islam (as the hilal of the Islamic calendar) and for a range of nations. Other associations
The features of the Moon, the contrasting brighter highlands and darker maria, have been seen by different cultures forming abstract shapes. Such shapes are among others the Man in the Moon (e.g. Coyolxāuhqui) or the Moon Rabbit (e.g. the Chinese Tu'er Ye or in Indigenous American mythologies the aspect of the Mayan Moon goddess, from which possibly Awilix is derived, or of Metztli/Tēcciztēcatl). Occasionally some lunar deities have been also depicted driving a chariot across the sky, such as the Hindu Chandra/Soma, the Greek Artemis, which is associated with Selene, or Luna, Selene's ancient Roman equivalent. Color and material wise the Moon has been associated in Western alchemy with silver, while gold is associated with the Sun. Through a miracle, the so-called splitting of the Moon (Arabic: انشقاق القمر) in Islam, association with the Moon applies also to Muhammad.","[0.03310242295265198, 0.06868772208690643, 0.010621067136526108, 0.0420617014169693, -0.0943126380443573, -0.06525809317827225, 0.031659290194511414, -0.07906690239906311, 0.07878467440605164, -0.03744402900338173, 0.01928163506090641, -0.0040677934885025024, -0.024568423628807068, -0.06957423686981201, 0.030238810926675797, -0.015224083326756954, 0.02426917478442192, 0.042627062648534775, 0.0051549444906413555, -0.03521702438592911, -0.0010432391427457333, -0.11536813527345657, 0.014279039576649666, 0.08909152448177338, 0.007681278511881828, -0.010391218587756157, -0.05480242893099785, 0.03455457091331482, 0.00025309165357612073, -0.009189599193632603, -0.01325496006757021, 0.07365446537733078, -0.10739694535732269, 0.03214511647820473, -0.06936831772327423, 0.060297343879938126, 0.05332769826054573, -0.0023914200719445944, 0.05832792446017265, 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403,"gold is associated with the Sun . Through a miracle , the so-called splitting of the Moon ( Arabic : انشقاق القمر ) in Islam , association with the Moon applies also to Muhammad .Representation in modern culture
The perception of the Moon in the modern era has been informed by telescope-enabled modern astronomy and later by spaceflight which enabled actual human activity at the Moon, particularly the culturally impactful lunar landings. These new insights inspired cultural references, connecting romantic reflections about the Moon and speculative fiction such as science-fiction dealing with the Moon. Contemporarily the Moon has been seen as a place for economic expansion into space, with missions prospecting for lunar resources. This has been accompanied with renewed public and critical reflection on humanity's cultural and legal relation to the celestial body, especially regarding colonialism, as in the 1970 poem ""Whitey on the Moon"". In this light the Moon's nature has been invoked, particularly for lunar conservation and as a common. In 2021 20 July, the date of the first crewed Moon landing, became the annual International Moon Day. Lunar effect
The lunar effect is an unproven correlation between specific stages of the roughly 29.5-day lunar cycle and behavior and physiological changes in living beings on Earth, including humans. The Moon has long been associated with insanity and irrationality; the words lunacy and lunatic are derived from the Latin name for the Moon, Luna. Philosophers Aristotle and Pliny the Elder argued that the full moon induced insanity in susceptible individuals, believing that the brain, which is mostly water, must be affected by the Moon and its power over the tides, but the Moon's gravity is too slight to affect any single person.","[0.013454392552375793, 0.04444320127367973, 0.07765158265829086, 0.07627929747104645, 0.02254948578774929, -0.0663481131196022, 0.023950966075062752, -0.060951605439186096, -0.00920974463224411, -0.018555210903286934, -0.013991393148899078, -0.015186218544840813, -0.025541821494698524, 0.009081017225980759, 2.557977677497547e-05, 0.045589789748191833, -0.017604410648345947, -0.001124901813454926, -0.0729113519191742, 0.012710931710898876, 0.010938562452793121, -0.037762511521577835, -0.00705959927290678, 0.04590548947453499, -0.012325311079621315, 0.08797924965620041, 0.030089152976870537, 0.007504839450120926, -0.022471047937870026, 0.06988672912120819, -0.008066588081419468, 0.1050967276096344, 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404,"the brain , which is mostly water , must be affected by the Moon and its power over the tides , but the Moon 's gravity is too slight to affect any single person .Even today, people who believe in a lunar effect claim that admissions to psychiatric hospitals, traffic accidents, homicides or suicides increase during a full moon, but over 37 studies invalidate these claims. Lunar cycles have significant impacts on human culture but no solid evidence connects these cycles to human biology. See also
List of natural satellites
Selenography – Study of the surface and shape of the Moon
Timekeeping on the Moon

Explanatory notes
References
Further reading
External links
NASA images and videos about the Moon Archived July 13, 2023, at the Wayback Machine
Video (04:56) – The Moon in 4K (NASA, April 2018) on YouTube
Find moonrise, moonset and moon phase for a location

Cartographic resources
Unified Geologic Map of the Moon – United States Geological Survey
Moon Trek – An integrated map browser of datasets and maps for the Moon
Consolidated Lunar Atlas
3D zoomable globes:
The Moon on Google Maps, a 3-D rendition of the Moon akin to Google Earth
World Wind Central on Moon Archived May 15, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
Maps and panoramas at Apollo landing sites
earthly mission
Large image of the Moon's north pole area","[0.07016035169363022, 0.009290261194109917, 0.08438708633184433, 0.02323949709534645, -0.005058859474956989, -0.011394110508263111, -0.05142419785261154, -0.004422119352966547, -0.034416891634464264, 0.016194194555282593, 0.004380451515316963, 0.0011192930396646261, -0.019226310774683952, -0.03523420915007591, -0.0025670116301625967, -0.020014042034745216, -0.020243164151906967, 0.06636762619018555, -0.024415845051407814, 0.03663470596075058, -0.04012490436434746, -0.01517520286142826, -0.002948369365185499, 0.011031604371964931, -0.04080808162689209, 0.07578148692846298, 0.006461396347731352, -0.05566659942269325, -0.022674791514873505, -0.006053746212273836, -0.03605885058641434, 0.08151771873235703, -0.026661541312932968, -0.04619762673974037, -0.07950931787490845, 0.036054033786058426, 0.06293471157550812, -0.038361210376024246, 0.03164108470082283, -0.038838356733322144, -0.010368281975388527, -0.06442929804325104, 0.029926318675279617, 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405," There is evidence that the formation of the Solar System began about 4.6 billion years ago with the gravitational collapse of a small part of a giant molecular cloud. Most of the collapsing mass collected in the center, forming the Sun, while the rest flattened into a protoplanetary disk out of which the planets, moons, asteroids, and other small Solar System bodies formed. This model, known as the nebular hypothesis, was first developed in the 18th century by Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and Pierre-Simon Laplace. Its subsequent development has interwoven a variety of scientific disciplines including astronomy, chemistry, geology, physics, and planetary science. Since the dawn of the Space Age in the 1950s and the discovery of exoplanets in the 1990s, the model has been both challenged and refined to account for new observations. The Solar System has evolved considerably since its initial formation. Many moons have formed from circling discs of gas and dust around their parent planets, while other moons are thought to have formed independently and later to have been captured by their planets. Still others, such as Earth's Moon, may be the result of giant collisions. Collisions between bodies have occurred continually up to the present day and have been central to the evolution of the Solar System. Beyond Neptune, many sub-planet sized objects formed. Several thousand trans-Neptunian objects have been observed. Unlike the planets, these trans-Neptunian objects mostly move on eccentric orbits, inclined to the plane of the planets. The positions of the planets might have shifted due to gravitational interactions. The process of planetary migration explains parts of the Solar System's current structure.","[-0.035208821296691895, -0.04065380245447159, 0.04871967434883118, -0.0033169726375490427, 0.05035923421382904, -0.06817823648452759, -0.05740583315491676, 0.09014220535755157, 0.08515232056379318, 0.05166337639093399, 0.04183661937713623, -0.0034461095929145813, 0.003986152820289135, -0.025673119351267815, -0.010743020102381706, -0.03592695668339729, -0.04771433770656586, -0.1021389588713646, 0.003849667264148593, 0.06295999884605408, -0.06880932301282883, 0.010912653990089893, -0.07383301854133606, 0.020868023857474327, 0.0369923859834671, 0.017121346667408943, 0.0064053963869810104, -0.0784459263086319, -0.04075054079294205, 0.032539818435907364, 0.044839806854724884, 0.025829223915934563, -4.370341412140988e-05, 0.02172713167965412, -0.005996652413159609, 0.02032283879816532, 0.039353545755147934, -0.02411586418747902, -0.003531028050929308, -0.05652783066034317, -0.06593914330005646, 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406,"to the plane of the planets . The positions of the planets might have shifted due to gravitational interactions . The process of planetary migration explains parts of the Solar System 's current structure .In roughly 5 billion years, the Sun will cool and expand outward to many times its current diameter, becoming a red giant, before casting off its outer layers as a planetary nebula and leaving behind a stellar remnant known as a white dwarf. In the distant future, the gravity of passing stars will gradually reduce the Sun's retinue of planets. Some planets will be destroyed, and others ejected into interstellar space. Ultimately, over the course of tens of billions of years, it is likely that the Sun will be left with none of the original bodies in orbit around it. History
Ideas concerning the origin and fate of the world date from the earliest known writings; however, for almost all of that time, there was no attempt to link such theories to the existence of a ""Solar System"", simply because it was not generally thought that the Solar System, in the sense we now understand it, existed. The first step toward a theory of Solar System formation and evolution was the general acceptance of heliocentrism, which placed the Sun at the centre of the system and the Earth in orbit around it. This concept had been developed for millennia (Aristarchus of Samos had suggested it as early as 250 BC), but was not widely accepted until the end of the 17th century. The first recorded use of the term ""Solar System"" dates from 1704. The current standard theory for Solar System formation, the nebular hypothesis, has fallen into and out of favour since its formulation by Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and Pierre-Simon Laplace in the 18th century.","[-0.03686254844069481, 0.021514203399419785, 0.04544489085674286, 0.06476429104804993, 0.054430264979600906, -0.0346689373254776, -0.027202093973755836, -0.0024059314746409655, 0.08998306095600128, 0.03994181752204895, 0.021251695230603218, 0.02753550186753273, -0.002810950390994549, -0.05818675458431244, 0.04930959269404411, -0.045063864439725876, -0.043530985713005066, -0.05378779396414757, 0.013567663729190826, 0.05767277255654335, -0.010016663931310177, 0.007433578372001648, -0.0696117952466011, 0.003493644529953599, -0.026571232825517654, -0.0115693723782897, 0.001165266614407301, -0.052660778164863586, -0.06316708028316498, 0.018512370064854622, -0.0008681691251695156, 0.024220934137701988, -0.005733133293688297, 0.036540012806653976, -0.01661558449268341, 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407,"theory for Solar System formation , the nebular hypothesis , has fallen into and out of favour since its formulation by Emanuel Swedenborg , Immanuel Kant , and Pierre-Simon Laplace in the 18th century .The most significant criticism of the hypothesis was its apparent inability to explain the Sun's relative lack of angular momentum when compared to the planets. However, since the early 1980s studies of young stars have shown them to be surrounded by cool discs of dust and gas, exactly as the nebular hypothesis predicts, which has led to its re-acceptance. Understanding of how the Sun is expected to continue to evolve required an understanding of the source of its power. Arthur Stanley Eddington's confirmation of Albert Einstein's theory of relativity led to his realisation that the Sun's energy comes from nuclear fusion reactions in its core, fusing hydrogen into helium. In 1935, Eddington went further and suggested that other elements also might form within stars. Fred Hoyle elaborated on this premise by arguing that evolved stars called red giants created many elements heavier than hydrogen and helium in their cores. When a red giant finally casts off its outer layers, these elements would then be recycled to form other star systems. Formation
Presolar nebula
The nebular hypothesis says that the Solar System formed from the gravitational collapse of a fragment of a giant molecular cloud, most likely at the edge of a Wolf-Rayet bubble. The cloud was about 20 parsecs (pc), or approximately 65 light-years (ly) across, while the fragments were roughly 1 pc (~3.26 ly) across. The further collapse of the fragments led to the formation of dense cores 0.01–0.1 parsec (2,000–20,000 AU) in size. One of these collapsing fragments (known as the presolar nebula) formed what became the Solar System.","[-0.06212910637259483, -0.036308106034994125, -0.0036271419376134872, 0.09167367219924927, 0.0798286572098732, -0.049136169254779816, 0.03175022080540657, 0.029037142172455788, 0.015467931516468525, 0.015506578609347343, -0.0024798251688480377, -0.004154114052653313, -0.04549260437488556, -0.037890445441007614, 0.040290869772434235, -0.03494366258382797, -0.018485041335225105, -0.04023350775241852, -0.006805846467614174, 0.019930288195610046, -0.05264652892947197, -0.01977049745619297, -0.0654209554195404, 0.0027967533096671104, 0.06953588128089905, 0.03941510617733002, -0.0025950937997549772, -0.0413745753467083, -0.039448171854019165, 0.04709584265947342, 0.05379131808876991, 0.003921440336853266, 0.015345278196036816, 0.003835926530882716, 0.006872284226119518, 0.048481535166502, 0.040622178465127945, -0.027102220803499222, -0.04515744745731354, -0.00036514399107545614, 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408,"led to the formation of dense cores 0.01–0.1 parsec ( 2,000–20,000 AU ) in size . One of these collapsing fragments ( known as the presolar nebula ) formed what became the Solar System .The composition of this region with a mass just over that of the Sun (M☉) was about the same as that of the Sun today, with hydrogen, along with helium and trace amounts of lithium produced by Big Bang nucleosynthesis, forming about 98% of its mass. The remaining 2% of the mass consisted of heavier elements that were created by nucleosynthesis in earlier generations of stars. Late in the life of these stars, they ejected heavier elements into the interstellar medium. Some scientists have given the name Coatlicue to a hypothetical star that went supernova and created the presolar nebula. The oldest inclusions found in meteorites, thought to trace the first solid material to form in the presolar nebula, are 4,568.2 million years old, which is one definition of the age of the Solar System. Studies of ancient meteorites reveal traces of stable daughter nuclei of short-lived isotopes, such as iron-60, that only form in exploding, short-lived stars. This indicates that one or more supernovae occurred nearby. A shock wave from a supernova may have triggered the formation of the Sun by creating relatively dense regions within the cloud, causing these regions to collapse. The highly homogeneous distribution of iron-60 in the Solar System points to the occurrence of this supernova and its injection of iron-60 being well before the accretion of nebular dust into planetary bodies. Because only massive, short-lived stars produce supernovae, the Sun must have formed in a large star-forming region that produced massive stars, possibly similar to the Orion Nebula.","[-0.04013868793845177, 0.017608771100640297, 0.020061645656824112, 0.12180528044700623, 0.04271824657917023, -0.03295731544494629, 0.006152280606329441, 0.06280538439750671, -0.02515001967549324, 0.022028515115380287, 0.00917732436209917, -0.04591603949666023, -0.04341648891568184, -0.047796428203582764, 0.02420458197593689, -0.017214572057127953, 0.013939224183559418, -0.0999300479888916, 0.04073462635278702, 0.10407494008541107, 0.003999508451670408, 0.010977002792060375, -0.10897501558065414, 0.007875610142946243, 0.10290031135082245, 0.036175668239593506, -0.077548086643219, -0.024125035852193832, 0.04783431440591812, 0.022204698994755745, 0.07106557488441467, 0.013730580918490887, 0.09293856471776962, 0.029581289738416672, 0.044661954045295715, -0.002368680201470852, 0.052731167525053024, 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409,"into planetary bodies . Because only massive , short-lived stars produce supernovae , the Sun must have formed in a large star-forming region that produced massive stars , possibly similar to the Orion Nebula .Studies of the structure of the Kuiper belt and of anomalous materials within it suggest that the Sun formed within a cluster of between 1,000 and 10,000 stars with a diameter of between 6.5 and 19.5 ly and a collective mass of 3,000 M☉. This cluster began to break apart between 135 million and 535 million years after formation. Several simulations of our young Sun interacting with close-passing stars over the first 100 million years of its life produced anomalous orbits observed in the outer Solar System, such as detached objects. A recent study suggests that such a passing star is not only responsible for the orbits of the detached objects but also the hot and cold Kuiper belt population, the Sedna-like objects, the extreme TNOs and the retrograde TNOs. Because of the conservation of angular momentum, the nebula spun faster as it collapsed. As the material within the nebula condensed, the temperature rose. The center, where most of the mass collected, became increasingly hotter than the surrounding disc. Over about 100,000 years, the competing forces of gravity, gas pressure, magnetic fields, and rotation caused the contracting nebula to flatten into a spinning protoplanetary disc with a diameter of about 200 AU and form a hot, dense protostar (a star in which hydrogen fusion has not yet begun) at the centre.","[-0.02893650159239769, -0.017319897189736366, 0.057126570492982864, 0.07880228757858276, 0.003593077417463064, -0.10715965181589127, -0.03738529607653618, -0.0190904438495636, 0.06000751629471779, 0.04677719995379448, 0.0280874352902174, -0.038392987102270126, 0.005676313769072294, -0.06933347880840302, 0.0886637344956398, -0.040842123329639435, 0.014600653201341629, -0.11114207655191422, -0.024408580735325813, 0.06907489895820618, -0.019460557028651237, 0.02238960936665535, -0.11509983241558075, 0.036601319909095764, 0.013179317116737366, -0.005606533028185368, -0.0350610613822937, -0.06157243996858597, 0.005580993834882975, 0.007463528774678707, 0.008948545902967453, 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410,"into a spinning protoplanetary disc with a diameter of about 200 AU and form a hot , dense protostar ( a star in which hydrogen fusion has not yet begun ) at the centre .Since about half of all known stars form systems of multiple stars, and because Jupiter is made of the same elements as the Sun (hydrogen and helium), it has been suggested that the Solar System might have been early in its formation a protostar system with Jupiter being the second but failed protostar, but Jupiter has far too little mass to trigger fusion in its core and so became a gas giant; it is in fact younger than the Sun and the oldest planet of the Solar System. At this point in the Sun's evolution, the Sun is thought to have been a T Tauri star. Studies of T Tauri stars show that they are often accompanied by discs of pre-planetary matter with masses of 0.001–0.1 M☉. These discs extend to several hundred AU—the Hubble Space Telescope has observed protoplanetary discs of up to 1000 AU in diameter in star-forming regions such as the Orion Nebula—and are rather cool, reaching a surface temperature of only about 1,000 K (730 °C; 1,340 °F) at their hottest. Within 50 million years, the temperature and pressure at the core of the Sun became so great that its hydrogen began to fuse, creating an internal source of energy that countered gravitational contraction until hydrostatic equilibrium was achieved. This marked the Sun's entry into the prime phase of its life, known as the main sequence. Main-sequence stars derive energy from the fusion of hydrogen into helium in their cores. The Sun remains a main-sequence star today. As the early Solar System continued to evolve, it eventually drifted away from its siblings in the stellar nursery, and continued orbiting the Milky Way's center on its own.","[-0.015076463110744953, -0.038037993013858795, -0.020320789888501167, 0.0057091498747467995, 0.026405835524201393, -0.06624279916286469, 0.015518383122980595, 0.06442448496818542, 0.05061374232172966, 0.0573224313557148, -0.03721928596496582, -0.04360276833176613, 0.02503380738198757, -0.08202411979436874, 0.07255428284406662, -0.056960366666316986, 0.004768192768096924, -0.1474568098783493, 0.09104312211275101, 0.055937547236680984, -0.054903510957956314, 0.009063164703547955, -0.06776820123195648, 0.06623318046331406, -0.005464605521410704, 0.033306561410427094, -0.04074226692318916, -0.04265349358320236, -0.04822675883769989, 0.01595255546271801, -0.025336602702736855, -0.004798226524144411, -0.02644551545381546, 0.07559271156787872, -0.018313555046916008, -0.056627143174409866, -0.00010081808432005346, 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411,"today . As the early Solar System continued to evolve , it eventually drifted away from its siblings in the stellar nursery , and continued orbiting the Milky Way 's center on its own .The Sun likely drifted from its original orbital distance from the center of the galaxy. The chemical history of the Sun suggests it may have formed as much as 3 kpc closer to the galaxy core. Solar System birth environment
Like most stars, the Sun likely formed not in isolation but as part of a young star cluster. There are several indications that hint at the cluster environment having had some influence over the young, still-forming Solar System. For example, the decline in mass beyond Neptune and the extreme eccentric-orbit of Sedna have been interpreted as a signature of the Solar System having been influenced by its birth environment. Whether the presence of the isotopes iron-60 and aluminium-26 can be interpreted as a sign of a birth cluster containing massive stars is still under debate. If the Sun was part of a star cluster, it might have been influenced by close flybys of other stars, the strong radiation of nearby massive stars and ejecta from supernovae occurring close by. Formation of the planets
The various planets are thought to have formed from the solar nebula, the disc-shaped cloud of gas and dust left over from the Sun's formation. The currently accepted method by which the planets formed is accretion, in which the planets began as dust grains in orbit around the central protostar. Through direct contact and self-organization, these grains formed into clumps up to 200 m (660 ft) in diameter, which in turn collided to form larger bodies (planetesimals) of ~10 km (6.2 mi) in size. These gradually increased through further collisions, growing at the rate of centimetres per year over the course of the next few million years.","[-0.0583747960627079, -0.022703412920236588, 0.008702391758561134, 0.09586204588413239, 0.1003987118601799, -0.01963815651834011, -0.02792762964963913, 0.017466984689235687, 0.04431351646780968, 0.006087084300816059, 0.07375000417232513, -0.051016028970479965, 0.06756842136383057, -0.08760184049606323, 0.07956895977258682, -0.07240131497383118, -0.03725064545869827, -0.09073607623577118, 0.04520117864012718, 0.0953221544623375, -0.044355232268571854, 0.02597150206565857, -0.024099811911582947, 0.027086706832051277, 0.04116716980934143, 0.04229922592639923, -0.017725806683301926, -0.021947337314486504, 0.0005949121550656855, 0.012793414294719696, 0.01619601994752884, 0.07858384400606155, 0.009997449815273285, 0.029251735657453537, 0.05008704215288162, 0.008504621684551239, 0.04158995300531387, 0.01974271610379219, -0.00260324589908123, 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412,"of ~10 km ( 6.2 mi ) in size . These gradually increased through further collisions , growing at the rate of centimetres per year over the course of the next few million years .The inner Solar System, the region of the Solar System inside 4 AU, was too warm for volatile molecules like water and methane to condense, so the planetesimals that formed there could only form from compounds with high melting points, such as metals (like iron, nickel, and aluminium) and rocky silicates. These rocky bodies would become the terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars). These compounds are quite rare in the Universe, comprising only 0.6% of the mass of the nebula, so the terrestrial planets could not grow very large. The terrestrial embryos grew to about 0.05 Earth masses (M🜨) and ceased accumulating matter about 100,000 years after the formation of the Sun; subsequent collisions and mergers between these planet-sized bodies allowed terrestrial planets to grow to their present sizes. When terrestrial planets were forming, they remained immersed in a disk of gas and dust. Pressure partially supported the gas and so did not orbit the Sun as rapidly as the planets. The resulting drag and, more importantly, gravitational interactions with the surrounding material caused a transfer of angular momentum, and as a result the planets gradually migrated to new orbits. Models show that density and temperature variations in the disk governed this rate of migration, but the net trend was for the inner planets to migrate inward as the disk dissipated, leaving the planets in their current orbits. The giant planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) formed further out, beyond the frost line, which is the point between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter where the material is cool enough for volatile icy compounds to remain solid.","[0.07122062891721725, -0.03175435960292816, 0.08509346097707748, 0.02256813831627369, 0.06540869921445847, -0.06999102979898453, -0.009729431010782719, 0.04495871439576149, 0.045653086155653, 0.05341000109910965, -0.02362527698278427, -0.0620855912566185, 0.009030249901115894, -0.044519826769828796, 0.09062965959310532, -0.0252725537866354, -0.02969135157763958, -0.09000228345394135, -0.05416127294301987, 0.1443597674369812, 0.013990258798003197, 0.03620348498225212, -0.08460698276758194, 0.03460944443941116, -0.04365141689777374, -0.0027894149534404278, -0.07932810485363007, -0.04280032217502594, 0.039287667721509933, -0.022827105596661568, -0.018058784306049347, 0.003478388302028179, 0.04126695170998573, 0.02824748307466507, 0.016411177814006805, 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413,") formed further out , beyond the frost line , which is the point between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter where the material is cool enough for volatile icy compounds to remain solid .The ices that formed the Jovian planets were more abundant than the metals and silicates that formed the terrestrial planets, allowing the giant planets to grow massive enough to capture hydrogen and helium, the lightest and most abundant elements. Planetesimals beyond the frost line accumulated up to 4 M🜨 within about 3 million years. Today, the four giant planets comprise just under 99% of all the mass orbiting the Sun. Theorists believe it is no accident that Jupiter lies just beyond the frost line. Because the frost line accumulated large amounts of water via evaporation from infalling icy material, it created a region of lower pressure that increased the speed of orbiting dust particles and halted their motion toward the Sun. In effect, the frost line acted as a barrier that caused the material to accumulate rapidly at ~5 AU from the Sun. This excess material coalesced into a large embryo (or core) on the order of 10 M🜨, which began to accumulate an envelope via accretion of gas from the surrounding disc at an ever-increasing rate. Once the envelope mass became about equal to the solid core mass, growth proceeded very rapidly, reaching about 150 Earth masses ~105 years thereafter and finally topping out at 318 M🜨. Saturn may owe its substantially lower mass simply to having formed a few million years after Jupiter, when there was less gas available to consume. T Tauri stars like the young Sun have far stronger stellar winds than more stable, older stars. Uranus and Neptune are thought to have formed after Jupiter and Saturn did, when the strong solar wind had blown away much of the disc material.","[-0.04431365057826042, -0.0019439281895756721, 0.04350655898451805, 0.06542163342237473, 0.14133736491203308, -0.04487563669681549, 0.011671078391373158, 0.11146484315395355, 0.03326805308461189, 0.08288586884737015, -0.0651717558503151, -0.03396303206682205, 0.04593410715460777, -0.10133689641952515, 0.0842425525188446, -0.020063702017068863, -0.05755051597952843, -0.078771211206913, -0.04796795919537544, 0.012711025774478912, 0.06938076764345169, -0.02186463586986065, -0.00934712402522564, -0.0021804622374475002, -0.06602288037538528, 0.012573539279401302, -0.06074564903974533, -0.0538262315094471, 0.025034092366695404, 0.00012786757724825293, -0.03204573690891266, 0.06925244629383087, 0.09996084123849869, 0.03671768307685852, -0.00039260261110030115, 0.019735530018806458, 0.03639843687415123, 0.005767576862126589, -0.04375587776303291, 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414,"than more stable , older stars . Uranus and Neptune are thought to have formed after Jupiter and Saturn did , when the strong solar wind had blown away much of the disc material .As a result, those planets accumulated little hydrogen and helium—not more than 1 M🜨 each. Uranus and Neptune are sometimes referred to as failed cores. The main problem with formation theories for these planets is the timescale of their formation. At the current locations it would have taken millions of years for their cores to accrete. This means that Uranus and Neptune may have formed closer to the Sun—near or even between Jupiter and Saturn—later migrating or being ejected outward (see Planetary migration below). Motion in the planetesimal era was not all inward toward the Sun; the Stardust sample return from Comet Wild 2 has suggested that materials from the early formation of the Solar System migrated from the warmer inner Solar System to the region of the Kuiper belt. After between three and ten million years, the young Sun's solar wind would have cleared away all the gas and dust in the protoplanetary disc, blowing it into interstellar space, thus ending the growth of the planets. Subsequent evolution
The planets were originally thought to have formed in or near their current orbits. This has been questioned during the last 20 years. Currently, many planetary scientists think that the Solar System might have looked very different after its initial formation: several objects at least as massive as Mercury may have been present in the inner Solar System, the outer Solar System may have been much more compact than it is now, and the Kuiper belt may have been much closer to the Sun. Terrestrial planets
At the end of the planetary formation epoch, the inner Solar System was populated by 50–100 Moon-to-Mars-sized protoplanets.","[-0.042546480894088745, -0.02993534877896309, 0.07330208271741867, 0.03268103301525116, 0.08104012906551361, -0.04533155634999275, -0.03154923394322395, 0.049822960048913956, 0.029411237686872482, 0.08732772618532181, 0.015154951252043247, -0.014485749416053295, 0.05736692249774933, -0.08395493775606155, 0.041370563209056854, -0.018680389970541, -0.047154851257801056, -0.10421950370073318, 0.007882146164774895, 0.05494305118918419, 0.008124200627207756, 0.0078587019816041, -0.054473865777254105, -0.03143644705414772, 0.040446944534778595, 0.018680131062865257, -0.08093991130590439, -0.02266634628176689, 0.06749847531318665, 0.020928572863340378, 0.009831168688833714, -0.00010038090840680525, -0.03866532817482948, 0.05673453211784363, 0.023452693596482277, 0.018068308010697365, 0.04271711781620979, 0.020954554900527, -0.06651876121759415, -0.015544438734650612, 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415,"and the Kuiper belt may have been much closer to the Sun . Terrestrial planets At the end of the planetary formation epoch , the inner Solar System was populated by 50–100 Moon-to-Mars-sized protoplanets .Further growth was possible only because these bodies collided and merged, which took less than 100 million years. These objects would have gravitationally interacted with one another, tugging at each other's orbits until they collided, growing larger until the four terrestrial planets we know today took shape. One such giant collision is thought to have formed the Moon (see Moons below), while another removed the outer envelope of the young Mercury. One unresolved issue with this model is that it cannot explain how the initial orbits of the proto-terrestrial planets, which would have needed to be highly eccentric in order to collide, produced the remarkably stable and nearly circular orbits they have today. One hypothesis for this ""eccentricity dumping"" is that terrestrials formed in a disc of gas still not expelled by the Sun. The ""gravitational drag"" of this residual gas would have eventually lowered the planets' energy, smoothing out their orbits. However, such gas, if it existed, would have prevented the terrestrial planets' orbits from becoming so eccentric in the first place. Another hypothesis is that gravitational drag occurred not between the planets and residual gas but between the planets and the remaining small bodies. As the large bodies moved through the crowd of smaller objects, the smaller objects, attracted by the larger planets' gravity, formed a region of higher density, a ""gravitational wake"", in the larger objects' path. As they did so, the increased gravity of the wake slowed the larger objects down into more regular orbits. Asteroid belt
The outer edge of the terrestrial region, between 2 and 4 AU from the Sun, is called the asteroid belt.","[0.03590235486626625, 0.017168527469038963, 0.08876658231019974, 0.009020275436341763, 0.043484169989824295, -0.11472104489803314, -0.05015747621655464, 0.037261713296175, 0.04619717225432396, 0.050878655165433884, 0.025179840624332428, -0.051993176341056824, -0.020315077155828476, -0.05455368757247925, 0.028521062806248665, -0.028605539351701736, -0.0375601202249527, -0.052059877663850784, -0.03032807819545269, 0.08599718660116196, -0.08046255260705948, 0.001200237195007503, -0.014830831438302994, 0.06924884021282196, -0.07999745011329651, 0.02532203495502472, -0.04308432340621948, 0.015361659228801727, 0.030055832117795944, -0.021652478724718094, -0.026079734787344933, 0.009299993515014648, 0.039385098963975906, 0.026176853105425835, -0.015216049738228321, -0.017822718247771263, 0.00206778128631413, 0.04450386390089989, -0.010071512311697006, -0.07627402991056442, 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416,"slowed the larger objects down into more regular orbits . Asteroid belt The outer edge of the terrestrial region , between 2 and 4 AU from the Sun , is called the asteroid belt .The asteroid belt initially contained more than enough matter to form 2–3 Earth-like planets, and, indeed, a large number of planetesimals formed there. As with the terrestrials, planetesimals in this region later coalesced and formed 20–30 Moon- to Mars-sized planetary embryos; however, the proximity of Jupiter meant that after this planet formed, 3 million years after the Sun, the region's history changed dramatically. Orbital resonances with Jupiter and Saturn are particularly strong in the asteroid belt, and gravitational interactions with more massive embryos scattered many planetesimals into those resonances. Jupiter's gravity increased the velocity of objects within these resonances, causing them to shatter upon collision with other bodies, rather than accrete. As Jupiter migrated inward following its formation (see Planetary migration below), resonances would have swept across the asteroid belt, dynamically exciting the region's population and increasing their velocities relative to each other. The cumulative action of the resonances and the embryos either scattered the planetesimals away from the asteroid belt or excited their orbital inclinations and eccentricities. Some of those massive embryos too were ejected by Jupiter, while others may have migrated to the inner Solar System and played a role in the final accretion of the terrestrial planets. During this primary depletion period, the effects of the giant planets and planetary embryos left the asteroid belt with a total mass equivalent to less than 1% that of the Earth, composed mainly of small planetesimals. This is still 10–20 times more than the current mass in the main belt, which is now about 0.0005 M🜨.","[0.06722307205200195, -0.03469972684979439, 0.04551566392183304, 0.006980658508837223, 0.03703382983803749, -0.10525347292423248, -0.07066810876131058, 0.05293559283018112, 0.04480750486254692, 0.031106112524867058, -0.04108274728059769, -0.03946457430720329, 0.004929763730615377, -0.08228520303964615, 0.06413353979587555, -0.00265911384485662, 0.008280482143163681, -0.028416935354471207, -0.07028433680534363, 0.031451232731342316, -0.036013346165418625, 0.00855959765613079, -0.007406232878565788, 0.018859386444091797, -0.09469528496265411, 0.020498938858509064, -0.03717675805091858, -0.03290765359997749, -0.0158824622631073, -0.048041872680187225, 0.022736582905054092, -0.020229844376444817, 0.021660229191184044, -0.006231972947716713, -0.048900194466114044, -0.002969160908833146, -0.017858490347862244, 0.05711197853088379, -0.006972137838602066, -0.07493486255407333, 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417,"1 % that of the Earth , composed mainly of small planetesimals . This is still 10–20 times more than the current mass in the main belt , which is now about 0.0005 M🜨 .A secondary depletion period that brought the asteroid belt down close to its present mass is thought to have followed when Jupiter and Saturn entered a temporary 2:1 orbital resonance (see below). The inner Solar System's period of giant impacts probably played a role in Earth acquiring its current water content (~6×1021 kg) from the early asteroid belt. Water is too volatile to have been present at Earth's formation and must have been subsequently delivered from outer, colder parts of the Solar System. The water was probably delivered by planetary embryos and small planetesimals thrown out of the asteroid belt by Jupiter. A population of main-belt comets discovered in 2006 has also been suggested as a possible source for Earth's water. In contrast, comets from the Kuiper belt or farther regions delivered not more than about 6% of Earth's water. The panspermia hypothesis holds that life itself may have been deposited on Earth in this way, although this idea is not widely accepted. Planetary migration
According to the nebular hypothesis, the outer two planets may be in the ""wrong place"". Uranus and Neptune (known as the ""ice giants"") exist in a region where the reduced density of the solar nebula and longer orbital times render their formation there highly implausible. The two are instead thought to have formed in orbits near Jupiter and Saturn (known as the ""gas giants""), where more material was available, and to have migrated outward to their current positions over hundreds of millions of years. The migration of the outer planets is also necessary to account for the existence and properties of the Solar System's outermost regions.","[0.01244613341987133, 0.029654627665877342, 0.06992609798908234, -0.002578008221462369, 0.11601164191961288, -0.07046280801296234, 0.021377310156822205, 0.07649563997983932, -0.016344202682375908, 0.04844043776392937, -0.047573115676641464, -0.07262729853391647, 0.028133222833275795, -0.03737888112664223, 0.006916949991136789, -0.05298241227865219, 0.011796168051660061, -0.05010146275162697, -0.044326264411211014, 0.016666945070028305, -0.040375351905822754, 0.03327181935310364, -0.03704683482646942, -0.003473859280347824, -0.04367632046341896, 0.0417204312980175, -0.017359359189867973, -0.0483943372964859, -0.060462839901447296, 0.017631126567721367, -0.026689276099205017, -0.0032786305528134108, 0.012687207199633121, -0.12303013354539871, 0.024002395570278168, 0.02185637317597866, 0.030392082408070564, -0.0029190978966653347, 0.03628998249769211, 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418,"to their current positions over hundreds of millions of years . The migration of the outer planets is also necessary to account for the existence and properties of the Solar System 's outermost regions .Beyond Neptune, the Solar System continues into the Kuiper belt, the scattered disc, and the Oort cloud, three sparse populations of small icy bodies thought to be the points of origin for most observed comets. At their distance from the Sun, accretion was too slow to allow planets to form before the solar nebula dispersed, and thus the initial disc lacked enough mass density to consolidate into a planet. The Kuiper belt lies between 30 and 55 AU from the Sun, while the farther scattered disc extends to over 100 AU, and the distant Oort cloud begins at about 50,000 AU. Originally, however, the Kuiper belt was much denser and closer to the Sun, with an outer edge at approximately 30 AU. Its inner edge would have been just beyond the orbits of Uranus and Neptune, which were in turn far closer to the Sun when they formed (most likely in the range of 15–20 AU), and in 50% of simulations ended up in opposite locations, with Uranus farther from the Sun than Neptune. According to the Nice model, after the formation of the Solar System, the orbits of all the giant planets continued to change slowly, influenced by their interaction with the large number of remaining planetesimals. After 500–600 million years (about 4 billion years ago) Jupiter and Saturn fell into a 2:1 resonance: Saturn orbited the Sun once for every two Jupiter orbits. This resonance created a gravitational push against the outer planets, possibly causing Neptune to surge past Uranus and plough into the ancient Kuiper belt. The planets scattered the majority of the small icy bodies inwards, while themselves moving outwards.","[0.021585647016763687, -0.000811341917142272, 0.04708613082766533, -0.017149588093161583, 0.04318015277385712, -0.11882676929235458, -0.04679141566157341, 0.0588863268494606, 0.07772999256849289, 0.026169681921601295, 0.016361551359295845, -0.046148672699928284, 0.0045240893959999084, -0.08714956790208817, 0.023239025846123695, -0.04889858141541481, 0.09449946880340576, -0.09295117110013962, -0.007217126432806253, 0.015724780037999153, -0.011611630208790302, 0.03821514546871185, 0.010907474905252457, -0.021484311670064926, -0.047936998307704926, -0.022908879444003105, -0.0541636198759079, -0.028607109561562538, 0.025975121185183525, -0.04216168448328972, -0.0032399501651525497, -0.00560715002939105, -0.018059298396110535, 0.016125228255987167, 0.07500029355287552, -0.027333997189998627, -0.012073381803929806, 0.02677919529378414, -0.01963147707283497, -0.03300876170396805, 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419,"outer planets , possibly causing Neptune to surge past Uranus and plough into the ancient Kuiper belt . The planets scattered the majority of the small icy bodies inwards , while themselves moving outwards .These planetesimals then scattered off the next planet they encountered in a similar manner, moving the planets' orbits outwards while they moved inwards. This process continued until the planetesimals interacted with Jupiter, whose immense gravity sent them into highly elliptical orbits or even ejected them outright from the Solar System. This caused Jupiter to move slightly inward. Those objects scattered by Jupiter into highly elliptical orbits formed the Oort cloud; those objects scattered to a lesser degree by the migrating Neptune formed the current Kuiper belt and scattered disc. This scenario explains the Kuiper belt's and scattered disc's present low mass. Some of the scattered objects, including Pluto, became gravitationally tied to Neptune's orbit, forcing them into mean-motion resonances. Eventually, friction within the planetesimal disc made the orbits of Uranus and Neptune near-circular again. In contrast to the outer planets, the inner planets are not thought to have migrated significantly over the age of the Solar System, because their orbits have remained stable following the period of giant impacts. Another question is why Mars came out so small compared with Earth. A study by Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas, published June 6, 2011 (called the Grand tack hypothesis), proposes that Jupiter had migrated inward to 1.5 AU. After Saturn formed, migrated inward, and established the 2:3 mean motion resonance with Jupiter, the study assumes that both planets migrated back to their present positions. Jupiter thus would have consumed much of the material that would have created a bigger Mars. The same simulations also reproduce the characteristics of the modern asteroid belt, with dry asteroids and water-rich objects similar to comets.","[0.015474695712327957, -0.048352546989917755, 0.09838651120662689, 0.02138286456465721, 0.06625238060951233, -0.10265130549669266, -0.014050852507352829, 0.052818361669778824, 0.09026578068733215, 0.054519347846508026, -0.009501397609710693, -0.02030624821782112, 0.0517735555768013, -0.083230160176754, 0.005265031475573778, -0.04032014682888985, 0.02038247510790825, -0.023764168843626976, -0.02823217213153839, 0.041000913828611374, -0.015355285257101059, 0.04554929956793785, -0.01297419611364603, 0.014309380203485489, -0.10778338462114334, -0.0076505281031131744, -0.05426318570971489, -0.06615331023931503, 0.023988870903849602, -0.05168331041932106, -0.017689071595668793, 0.028629019856452942, -0.07729480415582657, 0.016368605196475983, 0.012392138130962849, 0.019283579662442207, 0.022890938445925713, 0.04861178994178772, 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420,"much of the material that would have created a bigger Mars . The same simulations also reproduce the characteristics of the modern asteroid belt , with dry asteroids and water-rich objects similar to comets .However, it is unclear whether conditions in the solar nebula would have allowed Jupiter and Saturn to move back to their current positions, and according to current estimates this possibility appears unlikely. Moreover, alternative explanations for the small mass of Mars exist. Late Heavy Bombardment and after
Gravitational disruption from the outer planets' migration would have sent large numbers of asteroids into the inner Solar System, severely depleting the original belt until it reached today's extremely low mass. This event may have triggered the Late Heavy Bombardment that is hypothesised to have occurred approximately 4 billion years ago, 500–600 million years after the formation of the Solar System. However, a recent re-appraisal of the cosmo-chemical constraints indicates that there was likely no late spike (""terminal cataclysm"") in the bombardment rate. If it occurred, this period of heavy bombardment lasted several hundred million years and is evident in the cratering still visible on geologically dead bodies of the inner Solar System such as the Moon and Mercury. The oldest known evidence for life on Earth dates to 3.8 billion years ago—almost immediately after the end of the Late Heavy Bombardment. Impacts are thought to be a regular (if currently infrequent) part of the evolution of the Solar System. That they continue to happen is evidenced by the collision of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 with Jupiter in 1994, the 2009 Jupiter impact event, the Tunguska event, the Chelyabinsk meteor and the impact that created Meteor Crater in Arizona. The process of accretion, therefore, is not complete, and may still pose a threat to life on Earth.","[0.011382445693016052, 0.0029389793053269386, 0.04619988799095154, 0.03189382329583168, 0.0840836837887764, -0.08208472281694412, -0.03458089753985405, 0.07598628103733063, -0.0215828325599432, 0.07645104825496674, 0.034785639494657516, -0.02100309729576111, 0.02343873307108879, 0.00013941894576419145, 0.025812586769461632, -0.06153688579797745, 0.00478263758122921, -0.05637795478105545, -0.039773136377334595, 0.07819479703903198, -0.048704225569963455, 0.0829705148935318, -0.03827265650033951, 0.052323032170534134, -0.02162536419928074, 0.040289390832185745, -0.026516873389482498, 0.013660985976457596, -0.01683439500629902, -0.015399457886815071, -0.05555880069732666, -0.03302767127752304, 0.013212304562330246, -0.025013579055666924, 0.05171864852309227, 0.0467706061899662, 0.027481911703944206, -0.0029130480252206326, 0.02826976217329502, -0.04040231928229332, 0.014421205036342144, 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421,"the Chelyabinsk meteor and the impact that created Meteor Crater in Arizona . The process of accretion , therefore , is not complete , and may still pose a threat to life on Earth .Over the course of the Solar System's evolution, comets were ejected out of the inner Solar System by the gravity of the giant planets and sent thousands of AU outward to form the Oort cloud, a spherical outer swarm of cometary nuclei at the farthest extent of the Sun's gravitational pull. Eventually, after about 800 million years, the gravitational disruption caused by galactic tides, passing stars and giant molecular clouds began to deplete the cloud, sending comets into the inner Solar System. The evolution of the outer Solar System also appears to have been influenced by space weathering from the solar wind, micrometeorites, and the neutral components of the interstellar medium. The evolution of the asteroid belt after Late Heavy Bombardment was mainly governed by collisions. Objects with large mass have enough gravity to retain any material ejected by a violent collision. In the asteroid belt this usually is not the case. As a result, many larger objects have been broken apart, and sometimes newer objects have been forged from the remnants in less violent collisions. Moons around some asteroids currently can only be explained as consolidations of material flung away from the parent object without enough energy to entirely escape its gravity. Moons
Moons have come to exist around most planets and many other Solar System bodies. These natural satellites originated by one of three possible mechanisms:

Co-formation from a circumplanetary disc (only in the cases of the giant planets);
Formation from impact debris (given a large enough impact at a shallow angle); and
Capture of a passing object.","[-0.004208299797028303, 0.034122616052627563, 0.08841980993747711, 0.06674259155988693, 0.09613034129142761, -0.07406574487686157, 0.0010375293204560876, 0.056616488844156265, 0.030393950641155243, 0.05362439528107643, -0.012496677227318287, 0.0063885836862027645, 0.028518153354525566, -0.09448084980249405, 0.027888763695955276, -0.04632047563791275, 0.07069941610097885, -0.09741763770580292, -0.05068822577595711, 0.04098005220293999, -0.03955274447798729, 0.0849544033408165, -0.061376530677080154, 0.04185012727975845, -0.029165567830204964, 0.041014667600393295, -0.07095305621623993, 0.02132558450102806, -0.032223813235759735, -0.08729241788387299, 0.013513951562345028, -0.022394724190235138, -0.029860636219382286, 0.002430640859529376, 0.04869938641786575, 0.04389331862330437, -0.026520995423197746, 0.012044467031955719, -0.014400159940123558, -0.054886095225811005, -0.04660910367965698, -0.032087646424770355, 0.006289886776357889, 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422,"disc ( only in the cases of the giant planets ) ; Formation from impact debris ( given a large enough impact at a shallow angle ) ; and Capture of a passing object .Jupiter and Saturn have several large moons, such as Io, Europa, Ganymede and Titan, which may have originated from discs around each giant planet in much the same way that the planets formed from the disc around the Sun. This origin is indicated by the large sizes of the moons and their proximity to the planet. These attributes are impossible to achieve via capture, while the gaseous nature of the primaries also makes formation from collision debris unlikely. The outer moons of the giant planets tend to be small and have eccentric orbits with arbitrary inclinations. These are the characteristics expected of captured bodies. Most such moons orbit in the direction opposite to the rotation of their primary. The largest irregular moon is Neptune's moon Triton, which is thought to be a captured Kuiper belt object. Moons of solid Solar System bodies have been created by both collisions and capture. Mars's two small moons, Deimos and Phobos, are thought to be captured asteroids. The Earth's moon is thought to have formed as a result of a single, large head-on collision. The impacting object probably had a mass comparable to that of Mars, and the impact probably occurred near the end of the period of giant impacts. The collision kicked into orbit some of the impactor's mantle, which then coalesced into the Moon. The impact was probably the last in a series of mergers that formed the Earth. It has been further hypothesized that the Mars-sized object may have formed at one of the stable Earth–Sun Lagrangian points (either L4 or L5) and drifted from its position.","[0.032213952392339706, -0.015378369018435478, 0.04833696782588959, -0.024571247398853302, 0.05660692974925041, -0.0752604529261589, 0.023887043818831444, 0.04776092991232872, 0.04798998683691025, 0.06682255119085312, -0.0004928947892040014, -0.04919172823429108, -0.014440778642892838, -0.07333018630743027, 0.003365236334502697, -0.04642524942755699, 0.024366730824112892, -0.0011050653411075473, -0.00809479970484972, 0.06492244452238083, -0.008501838892698288, 0.019194431602954865, -0.03869333490729332, 0.040474507957696915, -0.13373617827892303, 0.04837183281779289, -0.044052720069885254, 0.014970353804528713, 0.03998158499598503, -0.05574316158890724, -0.037532925605773926, 0.000987486564554274, -0.036709707230329514, 0.0024589989334344864, 0.0066052330657839775, 0.019513754174113274, -0.06262055784463882, 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423,"the Earth . It has been further hypothesized that the Mars-sized object may have formed at one of the stable Earth–Sun Lagrangian points ( either L4 or L5 ) and drifted from its position .The moons of trans-Neptunian objects Pluto (Charon) and Orcus (Vanth) may also have formed by means of a large collision: the Pluto–Charon, Orcus–Vanth and Earth–Moon systems are unusual in the Solar System in that the satellite's mass is at least 1% that of the larger body. Future
Astronomers estimate that the current state of the Solar System will not change drastically until the Sun has fused almost all the hydrogen fuel in its core into helium, beginning its evolution from the main sequence of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram and into its red-giant phase. The Solar System will continue to evolve until then. Eventually, the Sun will likely expand sufficiently to overwhelm the inner planets (Mercury, Venus, and possibly Earth) but not the outer planets, including Jupiter and Saturn. Afterward, the Sun would be reduced to the size of a white dwarf, and the outer planets and their moons would continue orbiting this diminutive solar remnant. This future development may be similar to the observed detection of MOA-2010-BLG-477L b, a Jupiter-sized exoplanet orbiting its host white dwarf star MOA-2010-BLG-477L. Long-term stability
The Solar System is chaotic over million- and billion-year timescales, with the orbits of the planets open to long-term variations. One notable example of this chaos is the Neptune–Pluto system, which lies in a 3:2 orbital resonance. Although the resonance itself will remain stable, it becomes impossible to predict the position of Pluto with any degree of accuracy more than 10–20 million years (the Lyapunov time) into the future.","[-0.04399601370096207, -0.022220101207494736, 0.04799259454011917, 0.003502607112750411, 0.06984058022499084, -0.05257318168878555, -0.04829075187444687, 0.03003590740263462, 0.024726709350943565, 0.005996098276227713, 0.04117867723107338, 0.020546413958072662, -0.012109178118407726, -0.05989238619804382, 0.030902516096830368, -0.009706753306090832, -0.019175231456756592, -0.0025895212311297655, -0.041978899389505386, 0.07354708015918732, -0.02268396131694317, 0.0045725200325250626, -0.04063878580927849, 0.016167819499969482, -0.05233930051326752, -0.0008883458212949336, -0.025080030784010887, -0.015729870647192, -0.0047215973027050495, -0.062324997037649155, -0.056262630969285965, -0.04503581300377846, -0.059099260717630386, 0.03287490829825401, 0.00043274369090795517, 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424,"the resonance itself will remain stable , it becomes impossible to predict the position of Pluto with any degree of accuracy more than 10–20 million years ( the Lyapunov time ) into the future .Another example is Earth's axial tilt, which, due to friction raised within Earth's mantle by tidal interactions with the Moon (see below), is incomputable from some point between 1.5 and 4.5 billion years from now. The outer planets' orbits are chaotic over longer timescales, with a Lyapunov time in the range of 2–230 million years. In all cases, this means that the position of a planet along its orbit ultimately becomes impossible to predict with any certainty (so, for example, the timing of winter and summer becomes uncertain). Still, in some cases, the orbits themselves may change dramatically. Such chaos manifests most strongly as changes in eccentricity, with some planets' orbits becoming significantly more—or less—elliptical. Ultimately, the Solar System is stable in that none of the planets are likely to collide with each other or be ejected from the system in the next few billion years. Beyond this, within five billion years or so, Mars's eccentricity may grow to around 0.2, such that it lies on an Earth-crossing orbit, leading to a potential collision. In the same timescale, Mercury's eccentricity may grow even further, and a close encounter with Venus could theoretically eject it from the Solar System altogether or send it on a collision course with Venus or Earth. This could happen within a billion years, according to numerical simulations in which Mercury's orbit is perturbed. Moon–ring systems
The evolution of moon systems is driven by tidal forces. 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425,"systems is driven by tidal forces . A moon will raise a tidal bulge in the object it orbits ( the primary ) due to the differential gravitational force across diameter of the primary .If a moon is revolving in the same direction as the planet's rotation and the planet is rotating faster than the orbital period of the moon, the bulge will constantly be pulled ahead of the moon. In this situation, angular momentum is transferred from the rotation of the primary to the revolution of the satellite. The moon gains energy and gradually spirals outward, while the primary rotates more slowly over time. The Earth and its Moon are one example of this configuration. Today, the Moon is tidally locked to the Earth; one of its revolutions around the Earth (currently about 29 days) is equal to one of its rotations about its axis, so it always shows one face to the Earth. The Moon will continue to recede from Earth, and Earth's spin will continue to slow gradually. Other examples are the Galilean moons of Jupiter (as well as many of Jupiter's smaller moons) and most of the larger moons of Saturn. A different scenario occurs when the moon is either revolving around the primary faster than the primary rotates or is revolving in the direction opposite the planet's rotation. In these cases, the tidal bulge lags behind the moon in its orbit. In the former case, the direction of angular momentum transfer is reversed, so the rotation of the primary speeds up while the satellite's orbit shrinks. In the latter case, the angular momentum of the rotation and revolution have opposite signs, so transfer leads to decreases in the magnitude of each (that cancel each other out).","[0.01428294274955988, -0.05401167273521423, 0.031682100147008896, -0.01707186922430992, -0.020585117861628532, -0.04612218216061592, -0.07758796215057373, -0.01751873269677162, 0.12759950757026672, -0.0005945640150457621, 0.01233587134629488, 0.05047590658068657, -0.004714774899184704, -0.08970565348863602, 0.03629377484321594, -0.05485223978757858, -0.02384496107697487, 0.1123105138540268, -0.04859785735607147, -0.015895428135991096, -0.04456023871898651, -0.03644997626543045, -0.06154037266969681, 0.10348689556121826, -0.09182073175907135, 0.05477147921919823, -0.0256242286413908, -0.020228777080774307, -0.007285562343895435, -0.06389471143484116, -0.04587647318840027, 0.01191638968884945, -0.07743668556213379, 0.03393155708909035, -0.10008470714092255, 0.027214257046580315, -0.033493708819150925, 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426,"In the latter case , the angular momentum of the rotation and revolution have opposite signs , so transfer leads to decreases in the magnitude of each ( that cancel each other out ) .In both cases, tidal deceleration causes the moon to spiral in towards the primary until it either is torn apart by tidal stresses, potentially creating a planetary ring system, or crashes into the planet's surface or atmosphere. Such a fate awaits the moons Phobos of Mars (within 30 to 50 million years), Triton of Neptune (in 3.6 billion years), and at least 16 small satellites of Uranus and Neptune. Uranus's Desdemona may even collide with one of its neighboring moons. A third possibility is where the primary and moon are tidally locked to each other. In that case, the tidal bulge stays directly under the moon, there is no angular momentum transfer, and the orbital period will not change. Pluto and Charon are an example of this type of configuration. There is no consensus on the mechanism of the formation of the rings of Saturn. Although theoretical models indicated that the rings were likely to have formed early in the Solar System's history, data from the Cassini–Huygens spacecraft suggests they formed relatively late. The Sun and planetary environments
In the long term, the greatest changes in the Solar System will come from changes in the Sun itself as it ages. As the Sun burns through its hydrogen fuel supply, it gets hotter and burns the remaining fuel even faster. As a result, the Sun is growing brighter at a rate of ten percent every 1.1 billion years.","[-0.01460485253483057, -0.07067105919122696, 0.04405145347118378, -0.04263850301504135, -0.07625704258680344, -0.08671511709690094, -0.08466675132513046, 0.05202721059322357, 0.07786724716424942, 0.03144185617566109, -0.0037732701748609543, 0.025238070636987686, 0.016219941899180412, -0.07782068103551865, 0.038157835602760315, -0.01475785207003355, -0.0987512394785881, 0.07744815945625305, -0.013597224839031696, 0.1237749308347702, 0.005988525692373514, -0.015435769222676754, -0.11947499215602875, 0.02320847660303116, -0.04601793736219406, 0.07205434143543243, 0.062355466187000275, 0.01176949217915535, -0.029920145869255066, -0.07787653803825378, -0.05289759486913681, -0.046853650361299515, -0.09632528573274612, 0.023150423541665077, -0.007831647992134094, 0.02068643644452095, -0.006064197048544884, -0.02875412628054619, 0.0259952824562788, -0.048423364758491516, 0.06029558926820755, 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System,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.
427,"hydrogen fuel supply , it gets hotter and burns the remaining fuel even faster . As a result , the Sun is growing brighter at a rate of ten percent every 1.1 billion years .In about 600 million years, the Sun's brightness will have disrupted the Earth's carbon cycle to the point where trees and forests (C3 photosynthetic plant life) will no longer be able to survive; and in around 800 million years, the Sun will have killed all complex life on the Earth's surface and in the oceans. In 1.1 billion years, the Sun's increased radiation output will cause its circumstellar habitable zone to move outwards, making the Earth's surface too hot for liquid water to exist there naturally. At this point, all life will be reduced to single-celled organisms. Evaporation of water, a potent greenhouse gas, from the oceans' surface could accelerate temperature increase, potentially ending all life on Earth even sooner. During this time, it is possible that as Mars's surface temperature gradually rises, carbon dioxide and water currently frozen under the surface regolith will release into the atmosphere, creating a greenhouse effect that will heat the planet until it achieves conditions parallel to Earth today, providing a potential future abode for life. By 3.5 billion years from now, Earth's surface conditions will be similar to those of Venus today. Around 5.4 billion years from now, the core of the Sun will become hot enough to trigger hydrogen fusion in its surrounding shell. This will cause the outer layers of the star to expand greatly, and the star will enter a phase of its life in which it is called a red giant. Within 7.5 billion years, the Sun will have expanded to a radius of 1.2 AU (180×10^6 km; 110×10^6 mi)—256 times its current size.","[-0.024048779159784317, 0.07038234174251556, 0.016906999051570892, 0.039112962782382965, 0.12085016816854477, -0.05664333701133728, -0.03926660120487213, -0.024927185848355293, 0.02250802144408226, 0.08788358420133591, 0.0336209312081337, -0.0010103012900799513, 0.05315706878900528, 0.0030086911283433437, 0.03913038223981857, 0.011718597263097763, -0.07692943513393402, -0.033430296927690506, -0.040709637105464935, 0.022684505209326744, 0.02745559997856617, 0.03131415694952011, -0.021212730556726456, 0.0321200005710125, -0.12339029461145401, 0.006324592512100935, -0.02640865184366703, 0.06497148424386978, -0.05462734028697014, 0.022651830688118935, -0.035256337374448776, -0.024171965196728706, 0.06929994374513626, 0.05724625289440155, -0.012225326150655746, 0.08435691893100739, 0.03493537753820419, -0.027695588767528534, -0.025756118819117546, 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428,"is called a red giant . Within 7.5 billion years , the Sun will have expanded to a radius of 1.2 AU ( 180×10^6 km ; 110×10^6 mi ) —256 times its current size .At the tip of the red-giant branch, as a result of the vastly increased surface area, the Sun's surface will be much cooler (about 2,600 K (2,330 °C; 4,220 °F)) than now, and its luminosity much higher—up to 2,700 current solar luminosities. For part of its red-giant life, the Sun will have a strong stellar wind that will carry away around 33% of its mass. During these times, it is possible that Saturn's moon Titan could achieve surface temperatures necessary to support life. As the Sun expands, it will swallow the planets Mercury and Venus. Earth's fate is less clear; although the Sun will envelop Earth's current orbit, the star's loss of mass (and thus weaker gravity) will cause the planets' orbits to move farther out. If it were only for this, Venus and Earth would probably escape incineration, but a 2008 study suggests that Earth will likely be swallowed up as a result of tidal interactions with the Sun's weakly-bound outer envelope. Additionally, the Sun's habitable zone will move into the outer Solar System and eventually beyond the Kuiper belt at the end of the red-giant phase, causing icy bodies such as Enceladus and Pluto to thaw. During this time, these worlds could support a water-based hydrologic cycle, but as they were too small to hold a dense atmosphere like Earth, they would experience extreme day–night temperature differences.","[-0.016524706035852432, 0.009520132094621658, 0.05766415596008301, 0.044901199638843536, 0.0545647069811821, -0.016451044008135796, 0.001126543851569295, 0.05029284209012985, -0.04003041237592697, 0.02741187997162342, -0.07420209795236588, 0.010292092338204384, -0.023757992312312126, -0.0010563799878582358, 0.08727383613586426, 0.013115900568664074, -0.005100628826767206, -0.042345136404037476, -0.05812384560704231, 0.04284318536520004, 0.046831950545310974, -0.003390831407159567, -0.06179983168840408, 0.03265627473592758, -0.11290957778692245, -0.008841784670948982, -0.07128916680812836, -0.030284639447927475, -0.0639684796333313, 0.03904314711689949, -0.040707752108573914, -0.05420975759625435, -0.0014975195517763495, 0.0043885111808776855, -0.05521901696920395, 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429,"During this time , these worlds could support a water-based hydrologic cycle , but as they were too small to hold a dense atmosphere like Earth , they would experience extreme day–night temperature differences .When the Sun leaves the red-giant branch and enters the asymptotic giant branch, the habitable zone will abruptly shrink to roughly the space between Jupiter and Saturn's present-day orbits, but toward the end of the 200 million-year duration of the asymptotic giant phase, it will expand outward to about the same distance as before. Gradually, the hydrogen burning in the shell around the solar core will increase the mass of the core until it reaches about 45% of the present solar mass. At this point, the density and temperature will become so high that the fusion of helium into carbon will begin, leading to a helium flash; the Sun will shrink from around 250 to 11 times its present (main-sequence) radius. Consequently, its luminosity will decrease from around 3,000 to 54 times its current level, and its surface temperature will increase to about 4,770 K (4,500 °C; 8,130 °F). The Sun will become a horizontal giant, burning helium in its core in a stable fashion, much like it burns hydrogen today. The helium-fusing stage will last only 100 million years. Eventually, it will have to again resort to the reserves of hydrogen and helium in its outer layers. It will expand a second time, becoming what is known as an asymptotic giant. Here the luminosity of the Sun will increase again, reaching about 2,090 present luminosities, and it will cool to about 3,500 K (3,230 °C; 5,840 °F).","[-0.0020279628224670887, 0.03727366775274277, 0.027504676952958107, 0.09153404086828232, 0.06881462782621384, -0.03383550047874451, -0.06766955554485321, 0.06843806803226471, -0.04123848304152489, -0.010477171279489994, -0.06674259155988693, 0.008183877915143967, -0.01976446993649006, -0.038569219410419464, 0.07989240437746048, -0.021432513371109962, 0.018589433282613754, -0.04966867342591286, -0.020363716408610344, -0.01505908090621233, 0.0412626788020134, -0.04106425866484642, -0.032637473195791245, 0.009507572278380394, -0.07297734916210175, -0.015340273268520832, -0.0182656217366457, -0.03729735687375069, -0.028269091621041298, -0.021861795336008072, -0.01315813884139061, 0.02083004266023636, 0.036097582429647446, 0.05882510170340538, 0.03187911584973335, 0.05506778880953789, 0.010159983299672604, -0.034435469657182693, 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430,"asymptotic giant . Here the luminosity of the Sun will increase again , reaching about 2,090 present luminosities , and it will cool to about 3,500 K ( 3,230 °C ; 5,840 °F ) .This phase lasts about 30 million years, after which, over the course of a further 100,000 years, the Sun's remaining outer layers will fall away, ejecting a vast stream of matter into space and forming a halo known (misleadingly) as a planetary nebula. The ejected material will contain the helium and carbon produced by the Sun's nuclear reactions, continuing the enrichment of the interstellar medium with heavy elements for future generations of stars and planets. This is a relatively peaceful event, nothing akin to a supernova, which the Sun is too small to undergo as part of its evolution. Any observer present to witness this occurrence would see a massive increase in the speed of the solar wind, but not enough to destroy a planet completely. However, the star's loss of mass could send the orbits of the surviving planets into chaos, causing some to collide, others to be ejected from the Solar System, and others to be torn apart by tidal interactions. Afterwards, all that will remain of the Sun is a white dwarf, an extraordinarily dense object, 54% of its original mass but only the size of Earth. Initially, this white dwarf may be 100 times as luminous as the Sun is now. It will consist entirely of degenerate carbon and oxygen but will never reach temperatures hot enough to fuse these elements. Thus, the white dwarf Sun will gradually cool, growing dimmer and dimmer. As the Sun dies, its gravitational pull on orbiting bodies, such as planets, comets, and asteroids, will weaken due to its mass loss.","[-0.012713405303657055, 0.05144275352358818, 0.07336700707674026, 0.1076362133026123, 0.050569865852594376, -0.04295165836811066, -0.03311542794108391, 0.018416982144117355, 0.022305486723780632, 0.014109360985457897, -0.014024997130036354, -0.01212004292756319, 0.023562155663967133, -0.06902237236499786, 0.02631296031177044, 0.024843161925673485, 0.06591976433992386, -0.0863688588142395, -0.03828619420528412, 0.05584827810525894, 0.014272022061049938, 0.014972801320254803, -0.08455806225538254, 0.040880367159843445, -0.026106050238013268, -0.024349967017769814, -0.05501988157629967, -0.058070339262485504, -0.03519821539521217, -0.02657110057771206, 0.01739628054201603, -0.03102242201566696, 0.0018501640297472477, 0.07405023276805878, 0.027323510497808456, 0.04563264176249504, 0.03703709691762924, -0.06994852423667908, 0.018461059778928757, 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431,", growing dimmer and dimmer . As the Sun dies , its gravitational pull on orbiting bodies , such as planets , comets , and asteroids , will weaken due to its mass loss .All remaining planets' orbits will expand; if Venus, Earth, and Mars still exist, their orbits will lie roughly at 1.4 AU (210 million km; 130 million mi), 1.9 AU (280 million km; 180 million mi), and 2.8 AU (420 million km; 260 million mi), respectively. They and the other remaining planets will become dark, frigid husks, completely devoid of life. They will continue to orbit their star, their speed slowed due to their increased distance from the Sun and the Sun's reduced gravity. Two billion years later, when the Sun has cooled to the 6,000–8,000 K (5,730–7,730 °C; 10,340–13,940 °F) range, the carbon and oxygen in the Sun's core will freeze, with over 90% of its remaining mass assuming a crystalline structure. Eventually, after roughly one quadrillion years, the Sun will finally cease to shine altogether, becoming a black dwarf. Galactic interaction
The Solar System travels alone through the Milky Way in a circular orbit approximately 30,000 light years from the Galactic Center. Its speed is about 220 km/s. The period required for the Solar System to complete one revolution around the Galactic Center, the galactic year, is in the range of 220–250 million years. Since its formation, the Solar System has completed at least 20 such revolutions. Various scientists have speculated that the Solar System's path through the galaxy is a factor in the periodicity of mass extinctions observed in the Earth's fossil record. One hypothesis supposes that vertical oscillations made by the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Centre cause it to regularly pass through the galactic plane.","[0.002768134232610464, 0.022856537252664566, 0.007460822816938162, 0.09680593758821487, 0.0171220600605011, -0.07466309517621994, -0.05820852890610695, 0.05030505731701851, 0.0367005318403244, 0.03529352322220802, 0.027059558779001236, -0.009353762492537498, 0.012311656959354877, -0.08941357582807541, 0.048204634338617325, 0.0392388179898262, 0.01926852948963642, -0.025591347366571426, -0.049882352352142334, 0.04841604828834534, 0.03631630167365074, 0.016845952719449997, -0.08177057653665543, 0.03288375586271286, -0.05551151558756828, -0.01947743259370327, -0.05243324860930443, -0.07640020549297333, -0.07426133751869202, -0.01885625347495079, -0.03783499076962471, -0.03552325814962387, 0.014002127572894096, 0.06448282301425934, 0.012750090099871159, 0.02425093948841095, 0.011299209669232368, -0.044021863490343094, 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432,"extinctions observed in the Earth 's fossil record . One hypothesis supposes that vertical oscillations made by the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Centre cause it to regularly pass through the galactic plane .When the Sun's orbit takes it outside the galactic disc, the influence of the galactic tide is weaker; as it re-enters the galactic disc, as it does every 20–25 million years, it comes under the influence of the far stronger ""disc tides"", which, according to mathematical models, increase the flux of Oort cloud comets into the Solar System by a factor of 4, leading to a massive increase in the likelihood of a devastating impact. However, others argue that the Sun is currently close to the galactic plane, and yet the last great extinction event was 15 million years ago. Therefore, the Sun's vertical position cannot alone explain such periodic extinctions, and that extinctions instead occur when the Sun passes through the galaxy's spiral arms. Spiral arms are home not only to larger numbers of molecular clouds, whose gravity may distort the Oort cloud, but also to higher concentrations of bright blue giants, which live for relatively short periods and then explode violently as supernovae. Galactic collision and planetary disruption
Although the vast majority of galaxies in the Universe are moving away from the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, the largest member of the Local Group of galaxies, is heading toward it at about 120 km/s. In 4 billion years, Andromeda and the Milky Way will collide, causing both to deform as tidal forces distort their outer arms into vast tidal tails. If this initial disruption occurs, astronomers calculate a 12% chance that the Solar System will be pulled outward into the Milky Way's tidal tail and a 3% chance that it will become gravitationally bound to Andromeda and thus a part of that galaxy.","[-0.03650078922510147, 0.03836693987250328, 0.1083916649222374, 0.053486064076423645, 0.007303777150809765, 0.006535612512379885, -0.0724973976612091, 0.08576308935880661, 0.11488744616508484, 0.014154463075101376, -0.0225613284856081, 0.05466622859239578, 0.02326444908976555, -0.04895859956741333, 0.02625013142824173, 0.017374848946928978, 0.04941803961992264, -0.0732249766588211, -0.01996617764234543, 0.02563091181218624, 0.032184191048145294, 0.0830804780125618, -0.023557443171739578, 0.06870408356189728, -0.07239512354135513, -0.04712718725204468, -0.04728148132562637, -0.014019005931913853, -0.019925691187381744, -0.055242251604795456, 0.029434436932206154, 0.019606677815318108, -0.08450141549110413, 0.01411228533834219, 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433,"the Solar System will be pulled outward into the Milky Way 's tidal tail and a 3 % chance that it will become gravitationally bound to Andromeda and thus a part of that galaxy .After a further series of glancing blows, during which the likelihood of the Solar System's ejection rises to 30%, the galaxies' supermassive black holes will merge. Eventually, in roughly 6 billion years, the Milky Way and Andromeda will complete their merger into a giant elliptical galaxy. During the merger, if there is enough gas, the increased gravity will force the gas to the centre of the forming elliptical galaxy. This may lead to a short period of intensive star formation called a starburst. In addition, the infalling gas will feed the newly formed black hole, transforming it into an active galactic nucleus. The force of these interactions will likely push the Solar System into the new galaxy's outer halo, leaving it relatively unscathed by the radiation from these collisions. It is a common misconception that this collision will disrupt the orbits of the planets in the Solar System. Although it is true that the gravity of passing stars can detach planets into interstellar space, distances between stars are so great that the likelihood of the Milky Way–Andromeda collision causing such disruption to any individual star system is negligible. Although the Solar System as a whole could be affected by these events, the Sun and planets are not expected to be disturbed. However, over time, the cumulative probability of a chance encounter with a star increases, and disruption of the planets becomes all but inevitable. Assuming that the Big Crunch or Big Rip scenarios for the end of the Universe do not occur, calculations suggest that the gravity of passing stars will have completely stripped the dead Sun of its remaining planets within 1 quadrillion (1015) years.","[-0.047644488513469696, -0.035008687525987625, 0.051984306424856186, 0.030343331396579742, -0.008404402993619442, -0.019954560324549675, -0.06407167762517929, 0.05724211782217026, 0.053456153720617294, -0.02856290340423584, 0.01221113745123148, -0.0025426195934414864, -0.006584407761693001, -0.06787821650505066, 0.07695414125919342, 0.008557007648050785, 0.037549227476119995, -0.06632836163043976, -0.007406325079500675, 0.10086409002542496, 0.046029914170503616, 0.04884188249707222, -0.06417177617549896, 0.038778237998485565, -0.001373547362163663, -0.028315875679254532, -0.022474605590105057, -0.05750127136707306, -0.04563527926802635, -0.020679865032434464, 0.013178008608520031, -0.01440160721540451, -0.037764035165309906, 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434,"end of the Universe do not occur , calculations suggest that the gravity of passing stars will have completely stripped the dead Sun of its remaining planets within 1 quadrillion ( 1015 ) years .This point marks the end of the Solar System. Although the Sun and planets may survive, the Solar System, in any meaningful sense, will cease to exist. Chronology
The time frame of the Solar System's formation has been determined using radiometric dating. Scientists estimate that the Solar System is 4.6 billion years old. The oldest known mineral grains on Earth are approximately 4.4 billion years old. Rocks this old are rare, as Earth's surface is constantly being reshaped by erosion, volcanism, and plate tectonics. To estimate the age of the Solar System, scientists use meteorites, which were formed during the early condensation of the solar nebula. Almost all meteorites (see the Canyon Diablo meteorite) are found to have an age of 4.6 billion years, suggesting that the Solar System must be at least this old. Studies of discs around other stars have also done much to establish a time frame for Solar System formation. Stars between one and three million years old have discs rich in gas, whereas discs around stars more than 10 million years old have little to no gas, suggesting that giant planets within them have ceased forming. Timeline of Solar System evolution
Note: All dates and times in this chronology are approximate and should be taken as an order of magnitude indicator only. See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
Duncan, Martin J.; Lissauer, Jack J. (1997). ""Orbital Stability of the Uranian Satellite System"". Icarus. 125 (1): 1–12. Bibcode:1997Icar..125....1D. doi:10.1006/icar.1996.5568. Zeilik, Michael A.; Gregory, Stephen A. (1998). Introductory Astronomy & Astrophysics (4th ed.).","[-0.03613347187638283, 0.019783740863204002, 0.0787992924451828, 0.018036548048257828, 0.04092462733387947, -0.057958491146564484, -0.06827373802661896, 0.018498165532946587, 0.013437383808195591, 0.05920958146452904, -0.030946392565965652, -0.03199659287929535, 0.016516463831067085, -0.01880822330713272, 0.029158951714634895, -0.013665890321135521, -0.05806664004921913, -0.12286779284477234, 0.060239825397729874, 0.04337038844823837, 0.005500774830579758, 0.049138378351926804, -0.060503456741571426, -0.015409222804009914, 0.03482065349817276, 0.033391084522008896, -0.06649339199066162, -0.08877571672201157, -0.0176526065915823, 0.03429483622312546, 0.022976474836468697, 0.03160623088479042, 0.04256224259734154, 0.03858309984207153, 0.02400660701096058, 0.04953635111451149, 0.0012240078067407012, -0.0053406935185194016, -0.0199755746871233, -0.008025112561881542, -0.08561621606349945, -0.07360723614692688, 0.022333316504955292, 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System,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.
435,": 1–12 . Bibcode:1997Icar .. 125 .... 1D . doi:10.1006/icar.1996.5568 . Zeilik , Michael A. ; Gregory , Stephen A . ( 1998 ) . Introductory Astronomy & Astrophysics ( 4th ed . ) .Saunders College Publishing. ISBN 0-03-006228-4. External links
7M animation from skyandtelescope.com showing the early evolution of the outer Solar System. QuickTime animation of the future collision between the Milky Way and Andromeda
How the Sun Will Die: And What Happens to Earth (Video at Space.com)","[-0.05083765089511871, 0.0045214309357106686, 0.09003520756959915, -0.007151286117732525, 0.06508167833089828, -0.0144501943141222, -0.050811767578125, 0.07050430774688721, 0.0701804980635643, -0.03862171247601509, 0.018071584403514862, -0.042276982218027115, -0.06509068608283997, -0.041737668216228485, -0.04626945033669472, -0.015112673863768578, -0.0346047580242157, -0.062425702810287476, -0.03169805184006691, 0.05490117892622948, 0.035331472754478455, 0.04427526518702507, -0.04483100026845932, 0.05114064738154411, 0.040131308138370514, -0.011095276102423668, 0.0189363993704319, -0.025046860799193382, -0.010144119150936604, -0.023491831496357918, 0.055174361914396286, -0.03029451332986355, -0.025420039892196655, 0.017739176750183105, -0.04184060916304588, -0.010462384670972824, 0.08287933468818665, -0.09812265634536743, 0.031925976276397705, -0.025287915021181107, -0.033034734427928925, -0.02880147472023964, 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436," A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby obscuring the view of the Sun from a small part of Earth, totally or partially. Such an alignment occurs approximately every six months, during the eclipse season in its new moon phase, when the Moon's orbital plane is closest to the plane of Earth's orbit. In a total eclipse, the disk of the Sun is fully obscured by the Moon. In partial and annular eclipses, only part of the Sun is obscured. Unlike a lunar eclipse, which may be viewed from anywhere on the night side of Earth, a solar eclipse can only be viewed from a relatively small area of the world. As such, although total solar eclipses occur somewhere on Earth every 18 months on average, they recur at any given place only once every 360 to 410 years. If the Moon were in a perfectly circular orbit and in the same orbital plane as Earth, there would be total solar eclipses at every new moon. Instead, because the Moon's orbit is tilted at about 5 degrees to Earth's orbit, its shadow usually misses Earth. Solar (and lunar) eclipses therefore happen only during eclipse seasons, resulting in at least two, and up to five, solar eclipses each year, no more than two of which can be total. Total eclipses are rarer because they require a more precise alignment between the centers of the Sun and Moon, and because the Moon's apparent size in the sky is sometimes too small to fully cover the Sun. An eclipse is a natural phenomenon. In some ancient and modern cultures, solar eclipses were attributed to supernatural causes or regarded as bad omens.","[0.047647833824157715, -0.03616953268647194, 0.08632425963878632, 0.02585752308368683, -0.02303445152938366, -0.06811930984258652, -0.04085433855652809, -0.107347272336483, 0.1684708446264267, -0.040649741888046265, 0.027947936207056046, 0.02454126626253128, 0.008943636901676655, -0.053193919360637665, 0.033941011875867844, -0.021975303068757057, -0.027587438002228737, -0.010685103945434093, 0.039979711174964905, -0.003966447431594133, -0.05525355413556099, -0.0921352431178093, -0.07039124518632889, 0.010314579121768475, -0.04595797136425972, 0.056147344410419464, -0.01178675889968872, -0.02861885540187359, -0.07503455877304077, 0.007344492711126804, -0.03721668943762779, 0.04899131506681442, -0.06709740310907364, 0.059285279363393784, -0.006503088865429163, -0.039008066058158875, -0.05699791759252548, 0.010607226751744747, 0.06165948510169983, -0.06087448075413704, 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437,"too small to fully cover the Sun . An eclipse is a natural phenomenon . In some ancient and modern cultures , solar eclipses were attributed to supernatural causes or regarded as bad omens .Astronomers' predictions of eclipses began in China as early as the 4th century BC; eclipses hundreds of years into the future may now be predicted with high accuracy. Looking directly at the Sun can lead to permanent eye damage, so special eye protection or indirect viewing techniques are used when viewing a solar eclipse. Only the total phase of a total solar eclipse is safe to view without protection. Enthusiasts known as eclipse chasers or umbraphiles travel to remote locations to see solar eclipses. Predictions
Geometry
The diagrams to the right show the alignment of the Sun, Moon, and Earth during a solar eclipse. The dark gray region between the Moon and Earth is the umbra, where the Sun is completely obscured by the Moon. The small area where the umbra touches Earth's surface is where a total eclipse can be seen. The larger light gray area is the penumbra, in which a partial eclipse can be seen. An observer in the antumbra, the area of shadow beyond the umbra, will see an annular eclipse. The Moon's orbit around Earth is inclined at an angle of just over 5 degrees to the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun (the ecliptic). Because of this, at the time of a new moon, the Moon will usually pass to the north or south of the Sun. A solar eclipse can occur only when a new moon occurs close to one of the points (known as nodes) where the Moon's orbit crosses the ecliptic. As noted above, the Moon's orbit is also elliptical. The Moon's distance from Earth varies by up to about 5.9% from its average value.","[0.02118978463113308, 0.03396798297762871, 0.06786627322435379, 0.03611428663134575, 0.043631263077259064, -0.0797894075512886, -0.003992041107267141, -0.05843270570039749, 0.1193941980600357, -0.012791413813829422, 0.05774455890059471, -0.04189377278089523, -0.029684267938137054, -0.031328313052654266, -0.06747620552778244, -0.026720914989709854, 0.059480004012584686, -0.046148113906383514, -0.048335492610931396, 0.012582503259181976, -0.026028869673609734, -0.10759579390287399, -0.07399115711450577, -0.04432515799999237, -0.052270226180553436, 0.07985502481460571, -0.009320291690528393, -0.0050499895587563515, -0.07502195239067078, -0.05419391021132469, -0.017787985503673553, -0.05752221494913101, -0.0199135672301054, 0.018893539905548096, -0.015794532373547554, -0.05078932270407677, -0.012369486503303051, -0.007238465361297131, 0.047636277973651886, -0.043328557163476944, -0.019181063398718834, 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438,"orbit crosses the ecliptic . As noted above , the Moon 's orbit is also elliptical . The Moon 's distance from Earth varies by up to about 5.9 % from its average value .Therefore, the Moon's apparent size varies with its distance from Earth, and it is this effect that leads to the difference between total and annular eclipses. The distance of Earth from the Sun also varies during the year, but this is a smaller effect (by up to about 0.85% from its average value). On average, the Moon appears to be slightly (2.1%) smaller than the Sun as seen from Earth, so the majority (about 60%) of central eclipses are annular. It is only when the Moon is closer to Earth than average (near its perigee) that a total eclipse occurs. The Moon orbits Earth in approximately 27.3 days, relative to a fixed frame of reference. This is known as the sidereal month. However, during one sidereal month, Earth revolves part way around the Sun, making the average time between one new moon and the next longer than the sidereal month (approximately 29.5 days). This is known as the synodic month and corresponds to what is commonly called the lunar month. The Moon crosses from south to north of the ecliptic at its ascending node, and vice versa at its descending node. However, the nodes of the Moon's orbit are gradually moving in a retrograde motion, due to the action of the Sun's gravity on the Moon's motion, and they make a complete circuit every 18.6 years. This regression means that the time between each passage of the Moon through the ascending node is slightly shorter than the sidereal month. This period is called the nodical or draconic month.","[0.10689789801836014, -0.027527878060936928, 0.05764313414692879, -0.0021065997425466776, -0.006305370479822159, -0.08129088580608368, -0.06360660493373871, -0.019516119733452797, 0.0854429230093956, -0.03502073884010315, 0.027231911197304726, -0.05502110347151756, -0.05193634703755379, -0.03683726489543915, 0.020960072055459023, -0.02579823136329651, 0.007399482652544975, 0.0007418880704790354, -0.006873441860079765, 0.05732838436961174, -0.09248793125152588, -0.12386125326156616, -0.018418386578559875, 0.044655706733465195, -0.020327337086200714, 0.04982265830039978, -0.015575584955513477, -0.011063359677791595, -0.06581715494394302, -0.0023733749985694885, -0.05398683249950409, 0.06159014627337456, -0.003893264103680849, -0.03410791605710983, -0.05075019598007202, -0.03129342943429947, -0.03465597331523895, -0.041559264063835144, 0.06049911677837372, -0.05370835214853287, 0.002259828383103013, 0.04051179811358452, 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439,". This regression means that the time between each passage of the Moon through the ascending node is slightly shorter than the sidereal month . This period is called the nodical or draconic month .Finally, the Moon's perigee is moving forwards or precessing in its orbit and makes a complete circuit in 8.85 years. The time between one perigee and the next is slightly longer than the sidereal month and known as the anomalistic month. The Moon's orbit intersects with the ecliptic at the two nodes that are 180 degrees apart. Therefore, the new moon occurs close to the nodes at two periods of the year approximately six months (173.3 days) apart, known as eclipse seasons, and there will always be at least one solar eclipse during these periods. Sometimes the new moon occurs close enough to a node during two consecutive months to eclipse the Sun on both occasions in two partial eclipses. This means that, in any given year, there will always be at least two solar eclipses, and there can be as many as five. Eclipses can occur only when the Sun is within about 15 to 18 degrees of a node, (10 to 12 degrees for central eclipses). This is referred to as an eclipse limit, and is given in ranges because the apparent sizes and speeds of the Sun and Moon vary throughout the year. In the time it takes for the Moon to return to a node (draconic month), the apparent position of the Sun has moved about 29 degrees, relative to the nodes. Since the eclipse limit creates a window of opportunity of up to 36 degrees (24 degrees for central eclipses), it is possible for partial eclipses (or rarely a partial and a central eclipse) to occur in consecutive months.","[0.014469416812062263, -0.056237008422613144, 0.07570824772119522, 0.03500795736908913, -0.023207595571875572, -0.05982010066509247, -0.10903516411781311, -0.05228462070226669, 0.07234883308410645, -0.027744263410568237, 0.04496196657419205, -0.04076502099633217, -0.0193682499229908, -0.09123680740594864, 0.011516309343278408, 0.049320828169584274, -0.06251585483551025, -0.028860269114375114, 0.0342523530125618, 0.010114054195582867, -0.024825444445014, -0.14274224638938904, -0.1005348339676857, -0.012223011814057827, -0.011191532015800476, 0.07255839556455612, -0.03655562922358513, 0.003156870836392045, -0.040442053228616714, 0.023247014731168747, -0.03859519958496094, 0.04304143786430359, -0.039317432790994644, 0.04069442301988602, -0.035282451659440994, 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440,"of up to 36 degrees ( 24 degrees for central eclipses ) , it is possible for partial eclipses ( or rarely a partial and a central eclipse ) to occur in consecutive months .Path
During a central eclipse, the Moon's umbra (or antumbra, in the case of an annular eclipse) moves rapidly from west to east across Earth. Earth is also rotating from west to east, at about 28 km/min at the Equator, but as the Moon is moving in the same direction as Earth's rotation at about 61 km/min, the umbra almost always appears to move in a roughly west–east direction across a map of Earth at the speed of the Moon's orbital velocity minus Earth's rotational velocity. The width of the track of a central eclipse varies according to the relative apparent diameters of the Sun and Moon. In the most favourable circumstances, when a total eclipse occurs very close to perigee, the track can be up to 267 km (166 mi) wide and the duration of totality may be over 7 minutes. Outside of the central track, a partial eclipse is seen over a much larger area of Earth. Typically, the umbra is 100–160 km wide, while the penumbral diameter is in excess of 6400 km. Besselian elements are used to predict whether an eclipse will be partial, annular, or total (or annular/total), and what the eclipse circumstances will be at any given location. Calculations with Besselian elements can determine the exact shape of the umbra's shadow on Earth's surface. But at what longitudes on Earth's surface the shadow will fall, is a function of Earth's rotation, and on how much that rotation has slowed down over time. A number called ΔT is used in eclipse prediction to take this slowing into account. As Earth slows, ΔT increases.","[0.08965949714183807, -0.035119928419589996, 0.014522198587656021, -0.05871887505054474, -0.02846635691821575, -0.08870983868837357, -0.08573348820209503, -0.026137134060263634, 0.10441435128450394, -0.035526540130376816, 0.04213758558034897, -0.007139130029827356, -0.08257030695676804, -0.03625745698809624, -0.050435587763786316, -0.008617124520242214, 0.037665385752916336, 0.00609549367800355, -0.04082795977592468, 0.05498221516609192, -0.021794110536575317, -0.11836553364992142, -0.0480869859457016, 0.0012570243561640382, -0.016926292330026627, 0.08553773164749146, -0.02330491505563259, -0.01783599518239498, -0.07569728046655655, -0.053646285086870193, -0.031151724979281425, -0.034463800489902496, -0.00998759362846613, -0.013213913887739182, -0.04410773515701294, -0.07463059574365616, -0.0214548259973526, -0.05318668857216835, 0.07518991082906723, -0.019344015046954155, 0.043419431895017624, 0.051911137998104095, 0.03041440062224865, 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441,"and on how much that rotation has slowed down over time . A number called ΔT is used in eclipse prediction to take this slowing into account . As Earth slows , ΔT increases .ΔT for dates in the future can only be roughly estimated because Earth's rotation is slowing irregularly. This means that, although it is possible to predict that there will be a total eclipse on a certain date in the far future, it is not possible to predict in the far future exactly at what longitudes that eclipse will be total. Historical records of eclipses allow estimates of past values of ΔT and so of Earth's rotation. Duration
The following factors determine the duration of a total solar eclipse (in order of decreasing importance):

The Moon being almost exactly at perigee (making its angular diameter as large as possible). Earth being very near aphelion (furthest away from the Sun in its elliptical orbit, making its angular diameter nearly as small as possible). The midpoint of the eclipse being very close to Earth's equator, where the rotational velocity is greatest and is closest to the speed of the lunar shadow moving over Earth's surface. The vector of the eclipse path at the midpoint of the eclipse aligning with the vector of Earth's rotation (i.e. not diagonal but due east). The midpoint of the eclipse being near the subsolar point (the part of Earth closest to the Sun). The longest eclipse that has been calculated thus far is the eclipse of July 16, 2186 (with a maximum duration of 7 minutes 29 seconds over northern Guyana). Types
The Sun's distance from Earth is about 400 times the Moon's distance, and the Sun's diameter is about 400 times the Moon's diameter.","[0.009773604571819305, 0.002881760010495782, 0.09778325259685516, -0.037856511771678925, 0.02438662201166153, -0.060966551303863525, -0.08487476408481598, -0.014648928306996822, 0.12695981562137604, -0.08649959415197372, 0.042279746383428574, 0.03661899268627167, -0.04086315631866455, -0.03891747444868088, -0.055811457335948944, -0.055317267775535583, -0.0381043516099453, 0.06706219166517258, -0.0017801132053136826, -0.016401441767811775, -0.05745844170451164, -0.06715957075357437, -0.0020873588509857655, 0.04174225032329559, 0.019291503354907036, 0.08029352873563766, -0.036851320415735245, -0.09197670221328735, -0.07707103341817856, 0.013303264044225216, -0.035785239189863205, 0.06364250928163528, -0.06258974969387054, -0.0016801835736259818, -0.1170475035905838, -0.0825265422463417, -0.0032738789450377226, -0.011564569547772408, 0.0846308022737503, 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442,"over northern Guyana ) . Types The Sun 's distance from Earth is about 400 times the Moon 's distance , and the Sun 's diameter is about 400 times the Moon 's diameter .Because these ratios are approximately the same, the Sun and the Moon as seen from Earth appear to be approximately the same size: about 0.5 degree of arc in angular measure. The Moon's orbit around Earth is slightly elliptical, as is Earth's orbit around the Sun. The apparent sizes of the Sun and Moon therefore vary. The magnitude of an eclipse is the ratio of the apparent size of the Moon to the apparent size of the Sun during an eclipse. An eclipse that occurs when the Moon is near its closest distance to Earth (i.e., near its perigee) can be a total eclipse because the Moon will appear to be large enough to completely cover the Sun's bright disk or photosphere; a total eclipse has a magnitude greater than or equal to 1.000. Conversely, an eclipse that occurs when the Moon is near its farthest distance from Earth (i.e., near its apogee) can be only an annular eclipse because the Moon will appear to be slightly smaller than the Sun; the magnitude of an annular eclipse is less than 1. Because Earth's orbit around the Sun is also elliptical, Earth's distance from the Sun similarly varies throughout the year. This affects the apparent size of the Sun in the same way, but not as much as does the Moon's varying distance from Earth. When Earth approaches its farthest distance from the Sun in early July, a total eclipse is somewhat more likely, whereas conditions favour an annular eclipse when Earth approaches its closest distance to the Sun in early January.","[0.11504802852869034, 0.00024362653493881226, 0.004942824132740498, 0.0015025932807475328, -0.0005622539320029318, -0.09518963098526001, -0.05569176748394966, -0.02693747915327549, 0.1289341151714325, -0.05336161330342293, 0.015307608060538769, -0.05651390179991722, -0.03700868412852287, -0.015409588813781738, -5.624657933367416e-05, -0.021959682926535606, 0.058513179421424866, -0.0065696341916918755, -0.012809823267161846, 0.04484705999493599, -0.02423611469566822, -0.05282069370150566, -0.02290503680706024, 0.03554622828960419, -0.018743233755230904, -0.004813809879124165, 0.0024048967752605677, 0.005176667124032974, -0.0764099508523941, 0.005739571060985327, -0.026272699236869812, -0.007998487912118435, -0.03683661296963692, -0.017023349180817604, 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443,"distance from the Sun in early July , a total eclipse is somewhat more likely , whereas conditions favour an annular eclipse when Earth approaches its closest distance to the Sun in early January .There are three main types of solar eclipses:

Total eclipse
A total eclipse occurs on average every 18 months when the dark silhouette of the Moon completely obscures the bright light of the Sun, allowing the much fainter solar corona to be visible. During an eclipse, totality occurs only along a narrow track on the surface of Earth. This narrow track is called the path of totality. Annular eclipse
An annular eclipse, like a total eclipse, occurs when the Sun and Moon are exactly in line with Earth. During an annular eclipse, however, the apparent size of the Moon is not large enough to completely block out the Sun. Totality thus does not occur; the Sun instead appears as a very bright ring, or annulus, surrounding the dark disk of the Moon. Annular eclipses occur once every one or two years, not annually. The term derives from the Latin root word anulus, meaning ""ring"", rather than annus, for ""year"". Partial eclipse
A partial eclipse occurs about twice a year, when the Sun and Moon are not exactly in line with Earth and the Moon only partially obscures the Sun. This phenomenon can usually be seen from a large part of Earth outside of the track of an annular or total eclipse. However, some eclipses can be seen only as a partial eclipse, because the umbra passes above Earth's polar regions and never intersects Earth's surface. Partial eclipses are virtually unnoticeable in terms of the Sun's brightness, as it takes well over 90% coverage to notice any darkening at all. 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444,"of the Sun 's brightness , as it takes well over 90 % coverage to notice any darkening at all . Even at 99 % , it would be no darker than civil twilight .Hybrid eclipse
A hybrid eclipse (also called annular/total eclipse) shifts between a total and annular eclipse. At certain points on the surface of Earth, it appears as a total eclipse, whereas at other points it appears as annular. Hybrid eclipses are comparatively rare. A hybrid eclipse occurs when the magnitude of an eclipse changes during the event from less to greater than one, so the eclipse appears to be total at locations nearer the midpoint, and annular at other locations nearer the beginning and end, since the sides of Earth are slightly further away from the Moon. These eclipses are extremely narrow in their path width and relatively short in their duration at any point compared with fully total eclipses; the 2023 April 20 hybrid eclipse's totality is over a minute in duration at various points along the path of totality. Like a focal point, the width and duration of totality and annularity are near zero at the points where the changes between the two occur. Central eclipse
Central Eclipse is used as a generic term for a total, annular, or hybrid eclipse. This is, however, not completely correct: the definition of a central eclipse is an eclipse during which the central line of the umbra touches Earth's surface. It is possible, though rare, that part of the umbra intersects with Earth (thus creating an annular or total eclipse), but not its central line. This is then called a non-central total or annular eclipse. Gamma is a measure of how centrally the shadow strikes. The last (umbral yet) non-central solar eclipse was on April 29, 2014. This was an annular eclipse.","[0.05539030209183693, 0.023118821904063225, 0.03773284703493118, -0.022586185485124588, 0.04712526500225067, -0.08877355605363846, -0.03139238432049751, -0.0022683877032250166, 0.13123731315135956, -0.06847899407148361, -0.02418087236583233, -0.016167737543582916, -0.01344452053308487, -0.03311014175415039, 0.01707100309431553, -0.007777851540595293, 0.05447469651699066, -0.005875254049897194, -0.03597705438733101, 0.006321935914456844, -0.08816941827535629, -0.09376375377178192, -0.05364111438393593, 0.002171967877075076, 0.00025630806339904666, 0.07161936163902283, -0.010394592769443989, -0.03456346318125725, -0.055354200303554535, -0.02405630424618721, -0.05831987038254738, 0.017725951969623566, -0.02995723858475685, 0.01802244782447815, -0.01847665384411812, -0.12229359149932861, -0.028425103053450584, 0.009111798368394375, 0.0646437257528305, -0.007477468345314264, -0.009193728677928448, 0.0035194391384720802, 0.00452891830354929, 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445,"eclipse . Gamma is a measure of how centrally the shadow strikes . The last ( umbral yet ) non-central solar eclipse was on April 29 , 2014 . This was an annular eclipse .The next non-central total solar eclipse will be on April 9, 2043. Eclipse phases
The visual phases observed during a total eclipse are called:

First contact—when the Moon's limb (edge) is exactly tangential to the Sun's limb. Second contact—starting with Baily's Beads (caused by light shining through valleys on the Moon's surface) and the diamond ring effect. Almost the entire disk is covered. Totality—the Moon obscures the entire disk of the Sun and only the solar corona is visible. Third contact—when the first bright light becomes visible and the Moon's shadow is moving away from the observer. Again a diamond ring may be observed. Fourth contact—when the trailing edge of the Moon ceases to overlap with the solar disk and the eclipse ends. Occurrence and cycles
A total solar eclipse is a rare event, recurring somewhere on Earth every 18 months on average, yet is estimated to recur at any given location only every 360–410 years on average. The total eclipse lasts for only a maximum of a few minutes at any location because the Moon's umbra moves eastward at over 1700 km/h (1100 mph; 470 m/s; 1500 ft/s). Totality currently can never last more than 7 min 32 s. This value changes over the millennia and is currently decreasing. By the 8th millennium, the longest theoretically possible total eclipse will be less than 7 min 2 s. The last time an eclipse longer than 7 minutes occurred was June 30, 1973 (7 min 3 sec). Observers aboard a Concorde supersonic aircraft were able to stretch totality for this eclipse to about 74 minutes by flying along the path of the Moon's umbra.","[-0.013648103922605515, -0.032035693526268005, 0.046162329614162445, 0.027382491156458855, -0.021000191569328308, -0.07729198783636093, 0.030993495136499405, -0.016995063051581383, 0.14061257243156433, -0.06545951962471008, 0.014870810322463512, -0.00647406280040741, -0.02674088440835476, -0.0054330239072442055, -0.035431038588285446, 0.01161773968487978, 0.031211737543344498, -0.04945340380072594, 0.02370564267039299, 0.04744229465723038, -0.021214447915554047, -0.07275982946157455, -0.03401565924286842, -0.035867441445589066, -0.01957498863339424, 0.10795757174491882, -0.014281029812991619, -0.044876690953969955, -0.048406824469566345, 0.00504399836063385, -0.08491476625204086, 0.0636744350194931, -0.09081847220659256, 0.061756644397974014, 0.009138688445091248, -0.03159220516681671, -0.027509599924087524, 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446,"7 min 3 sec ) . Observers aboard a Concorde supersonic aircraft were able to stretch totality for this eclipse to about 74 minutes by flying along the path of the Moon 's umbra .The next total eclipse exceeding seven minutes in duration will not occur until June 25, 2150. The longest total solar eclipse during the 11000 year period from 3000 BC to at least 8000 AD will occur on July 16, 2186, when totality will last 7 min 29 s. For comparison, the longest total eclipse of the 20th century at 7 min 8 s occurred on June 20, 1955, and there will be no total solar eclipses over 7 min in duration in the 21st century. It is possible to predict other eclipses using eclipse cycles. The saros is probably the best known and one of the most accurate. A saros lasts 6585.3 days (a little over 18 years), which means that, after this period, a practically identical eclipse will occur. The most notable difference will be a westward shift of about 120° in longitude (due to the 0.3 days) and a little in latitude (north-south for odd-numbered cycles, the reverse for even-numbered ones). A saros series always starts with a partial eclipse near one of Earth's polar regions, then shifts over the globe through a series of annular or total eclipses, and ends with a partial eclipse at the opposite polar region. A saros series lasts 1226 to 1550 years and 69 to 87 eclipses, with about 40 to 60 of them being central. Frequency per year
Between two and five solar eclipses occur every year, with at least one per eclipse season. Since the Gregorian calendar was instituted in 1582, years that have had five solar eclipses were 1693, 1758, 1805, 1823, 1870, and 1935. The next occurrence will be 2206.","[-0.0025997732300311327, -0.013859231024980545, 0.027936087921261787, -0.023802198469638824, -0.0049915071576833725, -0.08922326564788818, -0.07771645486354828, -0.0009122244664467871, 0.025084856897592545, -0.032192524522542953, -0.053895510733127594, 0.07939134538173676, -0.05276324227452278, 0.023909689858555794, -0.041441660374403, -0.025991549715399742, -0.029038161039352417, -0.03647998720407486, 0.02458922751247883, 0.015852337703108788, 0.0049248356372118, -0.0730232298374176, -0.03361465409398079, 0.05758785828948021, -0.006871049292385578, 0.07377255707979202, -0.03183737024664879, -0.07442885637283325, -0.07251837104558945, 0.03575463965535164, -0.052937187254428864, 0.00922937598079443, 0.006933167576789856, -0.007367508020251989, 7.939896022435278e-05, -0.07206669449806213, 0.0436120331287384, -0.036221571266651154, 0.054075248539447784, -0.06115763261914253, -0.03671279177069664, -0.02973814308643341, 0.04043668881058693, 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447,"Gregorian calendar was instituted in 1582 , years that have had five solar eclipses were 1693 , 1758 , 1805 , 1823 , 1870 , and 1935 . The next occurrence will be 2206 .On average, there are about 240 solar eclipses each century. Final totality
Total solar eclipses are seen on Earth because of a fortuitous combination of circumstances. Even on Earth, the diversity of eclipses familiar to people today is a temporary (on a geological time scale) phenomenon. Hundreds of millions of years in the past, the Moon was closer to Earth and therefore apparently larger, so every solar eclipse was total or partial, and there were no annular eclipses. Due to tidal acceleration, the orbit of the Moon around Earth becomes approximately 3.8 cm more distant each year. Millions of years in the future, the Moon will be too far away to fully occlude the Sun, and no total eclipses will occur. In the same timeframe, the Sun may become brighter, making it appear larger in size. Estimates of the time when the Moon will be unable to occlude the entire Sun when viewed from Earth range between 650 million and 1.4 billion years in the future. Viewing
Looking directly at the photosphere of the Sun (the bright disk of the Sun itself), even for just a few seconds, can cause permanent damage to the retina of the eye, because of the intense visible and invisible radiation that the photosphere emits. This damage can result in impairment of vision, up to and including blindness. The retina has no sensitivity to pain, and the effects of retinal damage may not appear for hours, so there is no warning that injury is occurring. Under normal conditions, the Sun is so bright that it is difficult to stare at it directly.","[0.03491366282105446, 0.01273292675614357, 0.09600041061639786, 0.008529435843229294, -0.04393303394317627, -0.04419613257050514, -0.103220634162426, -0.027645671740174294, 0.08790165930986404, -0.045594338327646255, 0.014394515193998814, -0.025454118847846985, -0.017247378826141357, -0.02295660972595215, -0.009671042673289776, 0.0018333655316382647, -0.02870280295610428, 0.004196465481072664, -0.0012788008898496628, -0.006268712226301432, -0.08447787165641785, -0.045932427048683167, -0.0320756621658802, 0.011425194330513477, -0.02769058756530285, 0.03397601470351219, -0.026812385767698288, -0.05156038701534271, -0.06617208570241928, 0.07799296826124191, 0.00374772516079247, 0.03264468535780907, 0.007151828147470951, -0.01448582112789154, -0.013971623964607716, -0.014749934896826744, -0.04166633263230324, -0.013538139872252941, 0.07418889552354813, -0.05436310917139053, -0.03601539880037308, 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448,"may not appear for hours , so there is no warning that injury is occurring . Under normal conditions , the Sun is so bright that it is difficult to stare at it directly .However, during an eclipse, with so much of the Sun covered, it is easier and more tempting to stare at it. Looking at the Sun during an eclipse is as dangerous as looking at it outside an eclipse, except during the brief period of totality, when the Sun's disk is completely covered (totality occurs only during a total eclipse and only very briefly; it does not occur during a partial or annular eclipse). Viewing the Sun's disk through any kind of optical aid (binoculars, a telescope, or even an optical camera viewfinder) is extremely hazardous and can cause irreversible eye damage within a fraction of a second. Partial and annular eclipses
Viewing the Sun during partial and annular eclipses (and during total eclipses outside the brief period of totality) requires special eye protection, or indirect viewing methods if eye damage is to be avoided. The Sun's disk can be viewed using appropriate filtration to block the harmful part of the Sun's radiation. Sunglasses do not make viewing the Sun safe. Only properly designed and certified solar filters should be used for direct viewing of the Sun's disk. Especially, self-made filters using common objects such as a floppy disk removed from its case, a Compact Disc, a black colour slide film, smoked glass, etc. must be avoided. The safest way to view the Sun's disk is by indirect projection.","[0.010685465298593044, 0.03323211520910263, 0.05675255134701729, -0.011381745338439941, 0.11536942422389984, -0.02757471613585949, 0.042815983295440674, 0.02782335691154003, 0.08419448137283325, 0.03168043866753578, -0.014449726790189743, 0.027283059433102608, -0.006904498673975468, 0.014132119715213776, -0.024112852290272713, -0.07019544392824173, 0.028556041419506073, -0.008224235847592354, -0.01790161244571209, 0.02259128913283348, -0.014224010519683361, -0.05892936885356903, -0.06352927535772324, -0.014843152835965157, -0.006812063977122307, 0.04869664087891579, -0.005435537081211805, -0.0009611593559384346, -0.08635737001895905, 0.007080060429871082, -0.0898834690451622, -0.037343237549066544, -0.08990626037120819, 0.04722445085644722, -0.026911037042737007, -0.049626585096120834, 0.0042863101698458195, -0.04953450709581375, -0.038992371410131454, -0.10253343731164932, -0.04524810612201691, -0.02510184422135353, 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449,"case , a Compact Disc , a black colour slide film , smoked glass , etc . must be avoided . The safest way to view the Sun 's disk is by indirect projection .This can be done by projecting an image of the disk onto a white piece of paper or card using a pair of binoculars (with one of the lenses covered), a telescope, or another piece of cardboard with a small hole in it (about 1 mm diameter), often called a pinhole camera. The projected image of the Sun can then be safely viewed; this technique can be used to observe sunspots, as well as eclipses. Care must be taken, however, to ensure that no one looks through the projector (telescope, pinhole, etc.) directly. A kitchen colander with small holes can also be used to project multiple images of the partially eclipsed Sun onto the ground or a viewing screen. Viewing the Sun's disk on a video display screen (provided by a video camera or digital camera) is safe, although the camera itself may be damaged by direct exposure to the Sun. The optical viewfinders provided with some video and digital cameras are not safe. Securely mounting #14 welder's glass in front of the lens and viewfinder protects the equipment and makes viewing possible. Professional workmanship is essential because of the dire consequences any gaps or detaching mountings will have. In the partial eclipse path, one will not be able to see the corona or nearly complete darkening of the sky. However, depending on how much of the Sun's disk is obscured, some darkening may be noticeable. If three-quarters or more of the Sun is obscured, then an effect can be observed by which the daylight appears to be dim, as if the sky were overcast, yet objects still cast sharp shadows.","[-0.030289480462670326, 0.09671219438314438, -0.021947011351585388, -0.06461184471845627, 0.05367559194564819, -0.04965721815824509, 0.0504034087061882, 0.03138404339551926, 0.1088411808013916, 0.006202759221196175, 0.001380360103212297, 0.015598396770656109, 0.013126020319759846, 0.02244897373020649, -0.08642831444740295, -0.07746738195419312, 0.012315155938267708, 0.022389359772205353, 0.02715832181274891, 0.007695934735238552, -0.009396325796842575, -0.05779818445444107, -0.04748401790857315, -0.04403248801827431, -0.012294476851820946, 0.05088870972394943, -0.010222144424915314, 0.014373604208230972, -0.0918862447142601, 0.040533483028411865, -0.044983040541410446, -0.06633500009775162, -0.09798029065132141, 0.028498975560069084, 0.05970027297735214, -0.04558402672410011, 0.020246796309947968, 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450,"of the Sun is obscured , then an effect can be observed by which the daylight appears to be dim , as if the sky were overcast , yet objects still cast sharp shadows .Totality
It is safe to observe the total phase of a solar eclipse directly only when the Sun's photosphere is completely covered by the Moon, and not before or after totality. During this period, the Sun is too dim to be seen through filters. The Sun's faint corona will be visible, and the chromosphere, solar prominences, coronal streamers and possibly even a solar flare may be seen. At the end of totality, the same effects will occur in reverse order, and on the opposite side of the Moon. Eclipse chasing
A dedicated group of eclipse chasers have pursued the observation of solar eclipses when they occur around Earth. A person who chases eclipses is known as an umbraphile, meaning shadow lover. Umbraphiles travel for eclipses and use various tools to help view the sun including solar viewing glasses, also known as eclipse glasses, as well as telescopes. Photography
The first known photograph of a solar eclipse was taken on July 28, 1851, by Julius Berkowski, using the daguerreotype process. Photographing an eclipse is possible with fairly common camera equipment. In order for the disk of the Sun/Moon to be easily visible, a fairly high magnification long focus lens is needed (at least 200 mm for a 35 mm camera), and for the disk to fill most of the frame, a longer lens is needed (over 500 mm). As with viewing the Sun directly, looking at it through the optical viewfinder of a camera can produce damage to the retina, so care is recommended. Solar filters are required for digital photography even if an optical viewfinder is not used.","[-0.034726813435554504, 0.01634136401116848, 0.04235869646072388, 0.0664365142583847, 0.025717133656144142, -0.12335405498743057, 0.02997777983546257, -0.03789416328072548, 0.0644499734044075, -0.028335213661193848, 0.023750875145196915, -0.018832888454198837, 0.004851749632507563, -0.000678962969686836, -0.024881569668650627, 0.014635319821536541, 0.08690199255943298, 0.016902891919016838, 0.01246121060103178, 0.03991526737809181, -0.019482456147670746, -0.10616961866617203, -0.08924076706171036, -0.04310672730207443, 0.04195136949419975, 0.11046144366264343, -0.057389914989471436, -0.05019905045628548, -0.06344956904649734, -0.020037492737174034, -0.03081129863858223, -0.03697645664215088, -0.04479176178574562, 0.049754492938518524, 0.0018031320068985224, -0.04879901558160782, 0.052857786417007446, -0.058230921626091, 0.07671240717172623, 0.002420775592327118, -0.03311653807759285, 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451,"through the optical viewfinder of a camera can produce damage to the retina , so care is recommended . Solar filters are required for digital photography even if an optical viewfinder is not used .Using a camera's live view feature or an electronic viewfinder is safe for the human eye, but the Sun's rays could potentially irreparably damage digital image sensors unless the lens is covered by a properly designed solar filter. Historical eclipses
Historical eclipses are a very valuable resource for historians, in that they allow a few historical events to be dated precisely, from which other dates and ancient calendars may be deduced. The oldest recorded solar eclipse was recorded on a clay tablet found at Ugarit, in modern Syria, with two plausible dates usually cited: 3 May 1375 BC or 5 March 1223 BC, the latter being favored by most recent authors on the topic. A solar eclipse of June 15, 763 BC, mentioned in an Assyrian text is important for the chronology of the ancient Near East. There have been other claims to date earlier eclipses. The legendary Chinese king Zhong Kang supposedly beheaded two astronomers, Hsi and Ho, who failed to predict an eclipse 4000 years ago. Perhaps the earliest still-unproven claim is that of archaeologist Bruce Masse, who putatively links an eclipse that occurred on May 10, 2807, BC with a possible meteor impact in the Indian Ocean on the basis of several ancient flood myths that mention a total solar eclipse. Eclipses have been interpreted as omens, or portents. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote that Thales of Miletus predicted an eclipse that occurred during a battle between the Medes and the Lydians. Both sides put down their weapons and declared peace as a result of the eclipse. The exact eclipse involved remains uncertain, although the issue has been studied by hundreds of ancient and modern authorities.","[-0.07600266486406326, 0.10243828594684601, 0.05301697179675102, -0.021302029490470886, 0.02052347920835018, -0.06622354686260223, 0.005919273942708969, -0.05065472796559334, 0.018334651365876198, 0.0217523742467165, -0.007269579917192459, -0.02004675380885601, -0.03424645960330963, 0.01358733419328928, -0.10097139328718185, -0.05847420543432236, -0.021744070574641228, -0.011070052161812782, 0.04001212492585182, 0.007001236081123352, -0.05868047475814819, -0.090492382645607, -0.0035962469410151243, -0.0662965178489685, 0.04848209768533707, 0.046297069638967514, 0.014744051732122898, -0.04855728894472122, -0.04443134367465973, 0.02786923199892044, -0.0632668286561966, -0.05842836946249008, -0.01924770697951317, -0.0008446066058240831, -0.00588622409850359, 0.0032279216684401035, 0.023913605138659477, -0.06936375796794891, 0.04498158022761345, 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452,"put down their weapons and declared peace as a result of the eclipse . The exact eclipse involved remains uncertain , although the issue has been studied by hundreds of ancient and modern authorities .One likely candidate took place on May 28, 585 BC, probably near the Halys river in Asia Minor. An eclipse recorded by Herodotus before Xerxes departed for his expedition against Greece, which is traditionally dated to 480 BC, was matched by John Russell Hind to an annular eclipse of the Sun at Sardis on February 17, 478 BC. Alternatively, a partial eclipse was visible from Persia on October 2, 480 BC. Herodotus also reports a solar eclipse at Sparta during the Second Persian invasion of Greece. The date of the eclipse (August 1, 477 BC) does not match exactly the conventional dates for the invasion accepted by historians. In ancient China, where solar eclipses were known as an ""eating of the Sun"" (rìshí 日食), the earliest records of eclipses date to around 720 BC. The 4th century BC astronomer Shi Shen described the prediction of eclipses by using the relative positions of the Moon and Sun. Attempts have been made to establish the exact date of Good Friday by assuming that the darkness described at Jesus's crucifixion was a solar eclipse. This research has not yielded conclusive results, and Good Friday is recorded as being at Passover, which is held at the time of a full moon. Further, the darkness lasted from the sixth hour to the ninth, or three hours, which is much, much longer than the eight-minute upper limit for any solar eclipse's totality. Contemporary chronicles wrote about an eclipse at the beginning of May 664 that coincided with the beginning of the plague of 664 in the British isles.","[-0.069125235080719, 0.11616610735654831, 0.08258700370788574, 0.05779446288943291, -0.01917063631117344, -0.1022401675581932, 0.02226254902780056, -0.03685321286320686, -0.02038724534213543, -0.04110615327954292, 0.011547467671334743, -0.0010048666736111045, 0.03948259726166725, 0.03149008750915527, -0.022076798602938652, -0.07383056730031967, -0.025875581428408623, -0.005886933766305447, 0.04156938195228577, 0.019355788826942444, -0.07505159080028534, -0.10393209755420685, -0.0014092435594648123, -0.05145061016082764, 0.07623136788606644, 0.05926639959216118, 0.0633193701505661, -0.09288547933101654, -0.0365055687725544, 0.04214231297373772, -0.017567094415426254, -0.024533748626708984, 0.004326965659856796, -0.020708639174699783, 0.0175998006016016, -0.008951050229370594, 0.08086060732603073, -0.06158220022916794, 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453,"limit for any solar eclipse 's totality . Contemporary chronicles wrote about an eclipse at the beginning of May 664 that coincided with the beginning of the plague of 664 in the British isles .In the Western hemisphere, there are few reliable records of eclipses before AD 800, until the advent of Arab and monastic observations in the early medieval period. A solar eclipse took place on January 27, 632 over Arabia during Muhammad's lifetime. Muhammad denied the eclipse had anything to do with his son dying earlier that day, saying ""The sun and the moon do not eclipse because of the death of someone from the people but they are two signs amongst the signs of God."" The Cairo astronomer Ibn Yunus wrote that the calculation of eclipses was one of the many things that connect astronomy with the Islamic law, because it allowed knowing when a special prayer can be made. The first recorded observation of the corona was made in Constantinople in AD 968. The first known telescopic observation of a total solar eclipse was made in France in 1706. Nine years later, English astronomer Edmund Halley accurately predicted and observed the solar eclipse of May 3, 1715. By the mid-19th century, scientific understanding of the Sun was improving through observations of the Sun's corona during solar eclipses. The corona was identified as part of the Sun's atmosphere in 1842, and the first photograph (or daguerreotype) of a total eclipse was taken of the solar eclipse of July 28, 1851. Spectroscope observations were made of the solar eclipse of August 18, 1868, which helped to determine the chemical composition of the Sun. John Fiske summed up myths about the solar eclipse like this in his 1872 book Myth and Myth-Makers,  the myth of Hercules and Cacus, the fundamental idea is the victory of the solar god over the robber who steals the light.","[-0.0004189101455267519, 0.07827848941087723, 0.03347774222493172, 0.03586909547448158, -0.011617342010140419, -0.08560647070407867, -0.013603064231574535, -0.06270737946033478, 0.04802883788943291, -0.04912877082824707, -0.011934515088796616, 0.01748708263039589, 0.013556662946939468, 0.00021728403226006776, -0.06104740500450134, -0.029709333553910255, -0.04655957221984863, -0.018655862659215927, 0.03222811594605446, -0.019091924652457237, -0.08252214640378952, -0.02529919520020485, -0.016565576195716858, -0.01515432819724083, 0.04509454220533371, 0.08170423656702042, -0.02567523717880249, -0.03584744408726692, -0.01834142580628395, 0.08647684752941132, 0.022632163017988205, -0.028378421440720558, -0.036635030061006546, -0.019944708794355392, 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454,"like this in his 1872 book Myth and Myth-Makers , the myth of Hercules and Cacus , the fundamental idea is the victory of the solar god over the robber who steals the light .Now whether the robber carries off the light in the evening when Indra has gone to sleep, or boldly rears his black form against the sky during the daytime, causing darkness to spread over the earth, would make little difference to the framers of the myth. To a chicken a solar eclipse is the same thing as nightfall, and he goes to roost accordingly. Why, then, should the primitive thinker have made a distinction between the darkening of the sky caused by black clouds and that caused by the rotation of the earth? He had no more conception of the scientific explanation of these phenomena than the chicken has of the scientific explanation of an eclipse. For him it was enough to know that the solar radiance was stolen, in the one case as in the other, and to suspect that the same demon was to blame for both robberies. Particular observations, phenomena and impact
A total solar eclipse provides a rare opportunity to observe the corona (the outer layer of the Sun's atmosphere). Normally this is not visible because the photosphere is much brighter than the corona. According to the point reached in the solar cycle, the corona may appear small and symmetric, or large and fuzzy. It is very hard to predict this in advance. Phenomena associated with eclipses include shadow bands (also known as flying shadows), which are similar to shadows on the bottom of a swimming pool. They occur only just prior to and after totality, when a narrow solar crescent acts as an anisotropic light source.","[-0.006965324282646179, 0.07747794687747955, 0.057092566043138504, 0.05785761773586273, 0.07392428815364838, -0.034622035920619965, 0.04301862046122551, -0.017027197405695915, 0.17909781634807587, -0.037397969514131546, -0.003366413526237011, 0.00030659366166219115, 0.0012538573937490582, -0.03904786705970764, -0.03854794800281525, -0.048758577555418015, 0.015512335114181042, 0.0005258512101136148, 0.023924602195620537, 0.01900932937860489, -0.0536406971514225, -0.02824021317064762, 0.011057667434215546, 0.02357606217265129, -0.01187791209667921, 0.053756169974803925, -0.03048982284963131, -0.033156510442495346, -0.056972064077854156, 0.025439217686653137, 0.016348253935575485, -0.002410853048786521, -0.05859506502747536, 0.021709097549319267, 0.01672975905239582, -0.057964444160461426, 0.07234029471874237, -0.011661199852824211, 0.027033818885684013, 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455,"which are similar to shadows on the bottom of a swimming pool . They occur only just prior to and after totality , when a narrow solar crescent acts as an anisotropic light source .As the light filters through leaves of trees during a partial eclipse, the overlapping leaves create natural pinholes, displaying mini eclipses on the ground. 1919 observations
The observation of a total solar eclipse of May 29, 1919, helped to confirm Einstein's theory of general relativity. By comparing the apparent distance between stars in the constellation Taurus, with and without the Sun between them, Arthur Eddington stated that the theoretical predictions about gravitational lenses were confirmed. The observation with the Sun between the stars was possible only during totality since the stars are then visible. Though Eddington's observations were near the experimental limits of accuracy at the time, work in the later half of the 20th century confirmed his results. Gravity anomalies
There is a long history of observations of gravity-related phenomena during solar eclipses, especially during the period of totality. Maurice Allais reported observing unusual and unexplained movements during solar eclipses in both 1954 and 1959. The reality of this phenomenon, named the Allais effect, has remained controversial. Similarly, in 1970, Saxl and Allen observed the sudden change in motion of a torsion pendulum; this phenomenon is called the Saxl effect. Observation during the 1997 solar eclipse by Wang et al. suggested a possible gravitational shielding effect, which generated debate. In 2002, Wang and a collaborator published detailed data analysis, which suggested that the phenomenon still remains unexplained. Eclipses and transits
In principle, the simultaneous occurrence of a solar eclipse and a transit of a planet is possible. 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456,". Eclipses and transits In principle , the simultaneous occurrence of a solar eclipse and a transit of a planet is possible . But these events are extremely rare because of their short durations .The next anticipated simultaneous occurrence of a solar eclipse and a transit of Mercury will be on July 5, 6757, and a solar eclipse and a transit of Venus is expected on April 5, 15232. More common, but still infrequent, is a conjunction of a planet (especially, but not only, Mercury or Venus) at the time of a total solar eclipse, in which event the planet will be visible very near the eclipsed Sun, when without the eclipse it would have been lost in the Sun's glare. At one time, some scientists hypothesized that there may be a planet (often given the name Vulcan) even closer to the Sun than Mercury; the only way to confirm its existence would have been to observe it in transit or during a total solar eclipse. No such planet was ever found, and general relativity has since explained the observations that led astronomers to suggest that Vulcan might exist. Artificial satellites
Artificial satellites can also pass in front of the Sun as seen from Earth, but none is large enough to cause an eclipse. At the altitude of the International Space Station, for example, an object would need to be about 3.35 km (2.08 mi) across to blot the Sun out entirely. These transits are difficult to watch because the zone of visibility is very small. The satellite passes over the face of the Sun in about a second, typically. As with a transit of a planet, it will not get dark. Observations of eclipses from spacecraft or artificial satellites orbiting above Earth's atmosphere are not subject to weather conditions.","[0.010106830857694149, -0.030306540429592133, 0.07843251526355743, 0.04439046233892441, 0.04893136024475098, -0.08945555239915848, 0.008786511607468128, -0.04686635732650757, 0.09949418157339096, -0.028557879850268364, 0.018879326060414314, 0.01664571836590767, 0.018769925460219383, -0.05210535600781441, 0.012849625200033188, -0.03300078213214874, 0.005887952633202076, 0.0076637668535113335, 0.010229185223579407, 0.06219477578997612, -0.06783917546272278, -0.0786975845694542, -0.0560443252325058, 0.03229423984885216, -0.09042965620756149, 0.019877230748534203, 0.02035360597074032, -0.049321819096803665, -0.03196197375655174, 0.04465809091925621, 0.005712417885661125, -0.048752639442682266, -0.11979952454566956, 0.009974575601518154, -0.03556784987449646, 0.004823925904929638, 0.00910344161093235, -0.0233415886759758, -0.006062396802008152, 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457,". As with a transit of a planet , it will not get dark . Observations of eclipses from spacecraft or artificial satellites orbiting above Earth 's atmosphere are not subject to weather conditions .The crew of Gemini 12 observed a total solar eclipse from space in 1966. The partial phase of the 1999 total eclipse was visible from Mir. As of 2025, a pair of satellites launched by the European Space Agency (Proba-3 mission) began creating on-demand eclipses relative to one another. These eclipses cannot be seen from earth, but are captured by imaging from one satellite while the other interposes itself between the sun and the imaging satellite. Impact
The solar eclipse of March 20, 2015, was the first occurrence of an eclipse estimated to potentially have a significant impact on the power system, with the electricity sector taking measures to mitigate any impact. The continental Europe and Great Britain synchronous areas were estimated to have about 90 gigawatts of solar power and it was estimated that production would temporarily decrease by up to 34 GW compared to a clear sky day. Eclipses may cause the temperature to decrease by 3 °C (5 °F), with wind power potentially decreasing as winds are reduced by 0.7 meters (2.3 ft) per second. In addition to the drop in light level and air temperature, animals change their behavior during totality. For example, birds and squirrels return to their nests and crickets chirp. Recent and forthcoming solar eclipses
Eclipses occur only in the eclipse season, when the Sun is close to either the ascending or descending node of the Moon. Each eclipse is separated by one, five or six lunations (synodic months), and the midpoint of each season is separated by 173.3 days, which is the mean time for the Sun to travel from one node to the next.","[-0.006064654793590307, -7.01439639669843e-05, 0.09497170150279999, 0.033952340483665466, 0.035517096519470215, -0.10480621457099915, -0.017437338829040527, -0.025698864832520485, 0.06630918383598328, -0.005549568682909012, -0.014327175915241241, 0.045552290976047516, 0.013942976482212543, -0.0266486294567585, -0.04117231070995331, 0.002693390939384699, 0.0349855050444603, -0.0519527867436409, -0.023456472903490067, 0.028439154848456383, -0.08902604877948761, -0.05593043193221092, -0.07027707993984222, -0.030359534546732903, 0.06856178492307663, 0.07100923359394073, 0.003616528119891882, -0.023296451196074486, -0.10459577292203903, 0.07248411327600479, -0.07571599632501602, -0.02459527552127838, -0.07929790765047073, -0.015113255940377712, 0.04567709192633629, -0.01759304851293564, 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458,"lunations ( synodic months ) , and the midpoint of each season is separated by 173.3 days , which is the mean time for the Sun to travel from one node to the next .The period is a little less than half a calendar year because the lunar nodes slowly regress. Because 223 synodic months is roughly equal to 239 anomalistic months and 242 draconic months, eclipses with similar geometry recur 223 synodic months (about 6,585.3 days) apart. This period (18 years 11.3 days) is a saros. Because 223 synodic months is not identical to 239 anomalistic months or 242 draconic months, saros cycles do not endlessly repeat. Each cycle begins with the Moon's shadow crossing Earth near the north or south pole, and subsequent events progress toward the other pole until the Moon's shadow misses Earth and the series ends. Saros cycles are numbered; currently, cycles 117 to 156 are active. 2018–2021
2022–2025
2026–2029
See also
Lists of solar eclipses
List of films featuring eclipses
Apollo–Soyuz: First joint U.S.–Soviet space flight. Mission included an arranged eclipse of the Sun by the Apollo module to allow instruments on the Soyuz to take photographs of the solar corona.","[-0.015965750440955162, -0.02846633270382881, 0.019718682393431664, 0.015554148703813553, -0.05074601247906685, -0.08960910141468048, -0.05017537996172905, -0.03291955590248108, 0.051927708089351654, -0.021541070193052292, -0.02745438553392887, 0.020492088049650192, -0.05614782124757767, -0.005614614114165306, 0.028793655335903168, -0.0038064345717430115, -0.09023474156856537, 0.04145948216319084, 0.09045667201280594, 0.056111887097358704, 0.025354908779263496, -0.08806589245796204, -0.06394331902265549, 0.030928805470466614, -0.032927125692367554, 0.06538213044404984, -0.04267366975545883, -0.059804514050483704, -0.07258332520723343, 0.04158063232898712, -0.021966710686683655, 0.06965982913970947, -0.0672636404633522, -0.013606027700006962, 0.010936888866126537, -0.0020218275021761656, 0.0068612066097557545, -0.04160921275615692, 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459,"eclipses Apollo–Soyuz : First joint U.S.–Soviet space flight . Mission included an arranged eclipse of the Sun by the Apollo module to allow instruments on the Soyuz to take photographs of the solar corona .Eclipse chasing: Travel to eclipse locations for study and enjoyment
Occultation: Generic term for occlusion of an object by another object that passes between it and the observer, thus revealing (for example) the presence of an exoplanet orbiting a distant star by eclipsing it as seen from Earth
Eclipses in history and culture: treatment of solar and lunar eclipses by historical and contemporary society and religion
Solar eclipses in fiction
Solar eclipses on the Moon: Eclipse of the Sun by planet Earth, as seen from the Moon
Lunar eclipse: Solar eclipse of the Moon, as seen from Earth; the shadow cast on the Moon by that eclipse
Transit of Venus: Passage of the planet Venus between the Sun and Earth, as seen from Earth. Technically a partial eclipse. Transit of Deimos from Mars: Passage of the Martian moon Deimos between the Sun and Mars, as seen from Mars
Transit of Phobos from Mars: Passage of the Martian moon Phobos between the Sun and Mars, as seen from Mars

Footnotes
References
Bibliography
Mucke, Hermann; Meeus, Jean (1992). Canon of Solar Eclipses −2003 to +2526 (2 ed.). Vienna: Astronomisches Büro. Harrington, Philip S. (1997). Eclipse! The What, Where, When, Why and How Guide to Watching Solar and Lunar Eclipses. New York: John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-471-12795-7. Steel, Duncan (1999). Eclipse: The celestial phenomenon which has changed the course of history. London: Headline. ISBN 0-7472-7385-5. Mobberley, Martin (2007). Total Solar Eclipses and How to Observe Them. Astronomers' Observing Guides. New York: Springer. 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460,": Headline . ISBN 0-7472-7385-5 . Mobberley , Martin ( 2007 ) . Total Solar Eclipses and How to Observe Them . Astronomers ' Observing Guides . New York : Springer . ISBN 978-0-387-69827-4 .Espenak, Fred (2015). Thousand Year Canon of Solar Eclipses 1501 to 2500. Portal AZ: Astropixels Publishing. ISBN 978-1-941983-02-7. Espenak, Fred (2016). 21st Century Canon of Solar Eclipses. Portal AZ: Astropixels Publishing. ISBN 978-1-941983-12-6. Fotheringham, John Knight (1921). Historical eclipses: being the Halley lecture delivered 17 May 1921. Oxford: Clarendon Press. External links

NASA Eclipse Web Site, with information on future eclipses and eye safety information
NASA Eclipse Web Site (older version)
Eclipsewise, Fred Espenak's new eclipse site
Andrew Lowe's Eclipse Page, with maps and circumstances for 5000 years of solar eclipses
A Guide to Eclipse Activities for Educators, Explaining eclipses in educational settings
Detailed eclipse explanations and predictions, Hermit Eclipse
Eclipse Photography, Prof. Miroslav Druckmüller
Animated maps of August 21, 2017 solar eclipses, Larry Koehn
Five Millennium (−1999 to +3000) Canon of Solar Eclipses Database, Xavier M. Jubier
Animated explanation of the mechanics of a solar eclipse Archived 2013-05-25 at the Wayback Machine, University of South Wales
Eclipse Image Gallery Archived 2016-10-15 at the Wayback Machine, The World at Night
Ring of Fire Eclipse: 2012, Photos
""Sun, Eclipses of the"" . Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921.","[0.033844366669654846, 0.00029308488592505455, 0.03837928548455238, 0.007130948826670647, -0.008731400594115257, -0.03086964786052704, -0.08955474942922592, 0.004772652871906757, -0.03746030479669571, 0.031565506011247635, 0.040282778441905975, 0.020266564562916756, 0.029865186661481857, -0.011183842085301876, -0.06231080740690231, -0.032593984156847, -0.02968544326722622, 0.009949848055839539, 0.030029062181711197, -0.013542592525482178, -0.03329750895500183, -0.04926939681172371, 0.038343317806720734, 0.044484321027994156, 0.02152421325445175, 0.0737609714269638, -0.04227462410926819, -0.11010334640741348, -0.07578626275062561, 0.02403131313621998, -0.08011595904827118, 0.017650237306952477, -0.04966297000646591, -0.010221222415566444, 0.06936269253492355, -0.0011335999006405473, 0.025235556066036224, -0.03624932840466499, 0.043420467525720596, -0.039401598274707794, -0.054518673568964005, -0.009948237799108028, -0.011995983310043812, 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461,"Gallery Archived 2016-10-15 at the Wayback Machine , The World at Night Ring of Fire Eclipse : 2012 , Photos '' Sun , Eclipses of the '' . Collier 's New Encyclopedia . 1921 .Centered and aligned video recording of Total Solar Eclipse 20th March 2015 on YouTube
Solar eclipse photographs taken from the Lick Observatory from the Lick Observatory Records Digital Archive, UC Santa Cruz Library’s Digital Collections Archived 2020-06-05 at the Wayback Machine
Video with Total Solar Eclipse March 09 2016 (from the beginning to the total phase) on YouTube
Total Solar Eclipse Shadow on Earth March 09 2016 CIMSSSatelite
List of all solar eclipses
National Geographic Solar Eclipse 101 video Archived 2018-08-04 at the Wayback Machine
 Wikiversity has a solar eclipse lab that students can do on any sunny day.","[-0.005162748973816633, 0.06007833033800125, 0.0022617902141064405, 0.04523840919137001, 0.002406775951385498, -0.08781030774116516, -0.04379824921488762, -0.07866355031728745, 0.029524417594075203, -0.06063604727387428, 0.019026581197977066, 0.020983882248401642, 0.024853192269802094, -0.012020422145724297, 0.021772800013422966, -0.00671134190633893, -0.01965443603694439, 0.05237011983990669, 0.05739685893058777, -0.046432193368673325, -0.0755632221698761, -0.04371749609708786, 0.03880351409316063, 0.016656894236803055, 0.0181562602519989, 0.08746655285358429, -0.058691270649433136, -0.007485613692551851, -0.07069417834281921, -0.052714668214321136, -0.09888704121112823, 0.04086923599243164, -0.10569997876882553, -0.02174387127161026, 0.05497940257191658, -0.06315881758928299, -0.0011781976791098714, 0.002972327172756195, 0.023274673148989677, 0.06864107400178909, -0.03852585330605507, -0.02602064050734043, 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462," A lunar eclipse, also called a blood moon, is an astronomical event that occurs when the Moon orbits through Earth's shadow.‍‍ Lunar eclipses occur during eclipse season, when the Moon's orbital plane is approximately in line with Earth and the Sun. The type and length of a lunar eclipse depend on the Moon's proximity to the lunar node.‍‍ In contrast with illusive and short-lasting solar eclipses, lunar eclipses can be observed from anywhere on the night side of Earth and often last for an hour or longer. Lunar eclipses are safe to observe without eye protection. Lunar eclipses are notable for causing the Moon to appear orange or red. This occurs when the Moon passes through the Earth's umbra, necessitating any sunlight that reaches the Moon to first pass through the Earth's atmosphere. The resulting Rayleigh scattering removes high-wavelength colors such as violet and blue from the incoming light before it reflects off the lunar surface and is observed on Earth. Types of lunar eclipses
Penumbral lunar eclipse
A penumbral lunar eclipse occurs when Earth's silhouette partially blocks the Sun in the lunar sky but does not occlude it completely, ensuring some sunlight can still reach the Moon directly. The designation refers to the Moon being partially inside of the penumbra, which describes the region of any shadow that is cast by a light source which is not collimated and has a non-zero angular diameter. A penumbral eclipse is designated as a total penumbral eclipse if the moon lies exclusively inside of the penumbra. Penumbral eclipses are observed from Earth as a subtle dimming of the lunar surface.‍ Of all lunar eclipses, approximately one-third are penumbral eclipses; of those, only 3% are total penumbral eclipses. Partial lunar eclipse
A partial lunar eclipse refers to the Moon lying partially inside of the umbra, where the relative size of the Earth in the lunar sky allows it to block the Sun entirely.","[0.010827776975929737, -0.02819436602294445, 0.05096707493066788, 0.03194841369986534, 0.01523093692958355, -0.0628618374466896, 0.03368185833096504, -0.09273893386125565, 0.1270468682050705, -0.048682671040296555, 0.022754333913326263, 0.028536776080727577, -0.055195603519678116, -0.03696036711335182, -0.08375797420740128, 0.05404958873987198, 0.03971029445528984, -0.026522889733314514, -0.013595552183687687, 0.026833292096853256, -0.04999321699142456, -0.08945517987012863, -0.09085723012685776, 0.020966503769159317, -0.04202045127749443, 0.08693130314350128, 0.03944171220064163, 0.00571047468110919, -0.04685378819704056, -0.00830362644046545, -0.038471803069114685, -0.05598710849881172, -0.030936630442738533, -0.00930733047425747, -0.0086505813524127, -0.05971192568540573, -0.010763224214315414, 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463,"eclipse A partial lunar eclipse refers to the Moon lying partially inside of the umbra , where the relative size of the Earth in the lunar sky allows it to block the Sun entirely .During a partial eclipse, the dark region covered by the umbra will appear more much more distinct than the penumbral dimming. The Moon's average orbital speed is about 1.03 km/s (2,300 mph), or a little more than its diameter per hour, so totality may last up to nearly 107 minutes. Nevertheless, the total time between the first and last contacts of the Moon's limb with Earth's shadow is much longer and could last up to 236 minutes.‍

Total lunar eclipse
When the Moon's near side entirely passes into the Earth's umbral shadow, a total lunar eclipse occurs.‍ Just prior to complete entry, the brightness of the lunar limb—the curved edge of the Moon still being hit by direct sunlight—will cause the rest of the Moon to appear comparatively dim. The moment the Moon enters a complete eclipse, the entire surface will become more or less uniformly bright, being able to reveal stars surrounding it. Later, as the Moon's opposite limb is struck by sunlight, the overall disk will again become obscured. This is because, as viewed from the Earth, the brightness of a lunar limb is generally greater than that of the rest of the surface, due to reflections from the many surface irregularities within the limb: sunlight striking these irregularities is always reflected back in greater quantities than that striking more central parts, which is why the edges of full moons generally appear brighter than the rest of the lunar surface. This is similar to the effect of velvet fabric over a convex curved surface, which, to an observer, will appear darkest at the center of the curve.","[0.06441660225391388, -0.008804962038993835, 0.08569244295358658, 0.032603856176137924, -0.030766068026423454, -0.09425231069326401, -0.04862026125192642, -0.04439028725028038, 0.12276686728000641, -0.03758898377418518, 0.016805926337838173, 0.005464151967316866, -0.04198826104402542, -0.042636990547180176, -0.01328305248171091, 0.01394767127931118, 0.09614912420511246, -0.009204939939081669, -0.037827253341674805, 0.039762578904628754, -0.01250504795461893, -0.09171146154403687, -0.05648401379585266, -0.04317422956228256, -0.016424406319856644, 0.09363393485546112, -0.025294994935393333, -0.01102987676858902, -0.02833785116672516, -0.045550305396318436, -0.07534854114055634, -0.010388742201030254, -0.017279986292123795, 0.016564233228564262, -0.02552155591547489, -0.03912985697388649, -0.019083641469478607, -0.03433024138212204, 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eclipse,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.
464,"the lunar surface . This is similar to the effect of velvet fabric over a convex curved surface , which , to an observer , will appear darkest at the center of the curve .It will be true of any planetary body with little or no atmosphere and an irregular cratered surface (e.g., Mercury) when viewed opposite the Sun.‍

Central lunar eclipse
When, during a total lunar eclipse, the Moon passes near and through the centre of Earth's shadow, contacting the antisolar point, it is classified as a central lunar eclipse.‍ This type of lunar eclipse is less frequent, occurring in 59.6% of all total lunar eclipses.‍
The relative distance of the Moon from Earth at the time of an eclipse can affect the eclipse's duration. In particular, when the Moon is near apogee, the farthest point from Earth in its orbit, its orbital speed is the slowest. The diameter of Earth's umbra does not decrease appreciably within the changes in the Moon's orbital distance. Thus, the concurrence of a totally eclipsed Moon near apogee will lengthen the duration of totality.‍

Selenelion
A selenelion or selenehelion, also called a horizontal eclipse, occurs where and when both the Sun and an eclipsed Moon can be observed at the same time. The event can only be observed just before sunset or just after sunrise, when both bodies will appear just above opposite horizons at nearly opposite points in the sky. A selenelion occurs during every total lunar eclipse—it is an experience of the observer, not a planetary event separate from the lunar eclipse itself. Typically, observers on Earth located on high mountain ridges undergoing false sunrise or false sunset at the same moment of a total lunar eclipse will be able to experience it.","[0.03186962753534317, -0.014022442512214184, 0.08358287066221237, -0.006963793653994799, -0.007763362023979425, -0.10171525180339813, -0.025350231677293777, -0.010721167549490929, 0.10274811089038849, -0.044849567115306854, 0.03716618940234184, -0.014198577962815762, -0.02988925762474537, -0.03959063068032265, -0.013457790948450565, 0.021428769454360008, 0.08249850571155548, 0.033704355359077454, -0.015088323503732681, 0.049186453223228455, -0.033253058791160583, -0.10534843802452087, -0.033325761556625366, 0.02154804952442646, -0.050337035208940506, 0.06499697268009186, -0.04404475539922714, 0.020357778295874596, -0.04396272450685501, -0.02433265745639801, -0.0766548365354538, -0.010346189141273499, -0.01580144464969635, 0.009282244369387627, 0.014888987876474857, -0.05770105496048927, -0.06523653864860535, 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eclipse,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.
465,"eclipse itself . Typically , observers on Earth located on high mountain ridges undergoing false sunrise or false sunset at the same moment of a total lunar eclipse will be able to experience it .Although during selenelion the Moon is completely within the Earth's umbra, both it and the Sun can be observed in the sky because atmospheric refraction causes each body to appear higher (i.e., more central) in the sky than its true geometric planetary position.‍

Timing
The timing of total lunar eclipses is determined by what are known as its ""contacts"" (moments of contact with Earth's shadow):‍

P1 (First contact): Beginning of the penumbral eclipse. Earth's penumbra touches the Moon's outer limb. U1 (Second contact): Beginning of the partial eclipse. Earth's umbra touches the Moon's outer limb. U2 (Third contact): Beginning of the total eclipse. The Moon's surface is entirely within Earth's umbra. Greatest eclipse: The peak stage of the total eclipse. The Moon is at its closest to the center of Earth's umbra. U3 (Fourth contact): End of the total eclipse. The Moon's outer limb exits Earth's umbra. U4 (Fifth contact): End of the partial eclipse. Earth's umbra leaves the Moon's surface. P4 (Sixth contact): End of the penumbral eclipse. Earth's penumbra no longer makes contact with the Moon. Danjon scale
The following scale (the Danjon scale) was devised by André Danjon for rating the overall darkness of lunar eclipses:‍

L = 0: Very dark eclipse. Moon almost invisible, especially at mid-totality. L = 1: Dark eclipse, gray or brownish in coloration. Details distinguishable only with difficulty. L = 2: Deep red or rust-colored eclipse.","[-0.00134539813734591, -0.05154140293598175, 0.05895715951919556, -0.025646928697824478, -0.012094618752598763, -0.09925874322652817, 0.006378272082656622, -0.03236822783946991, 0.14050985872745514, -0.055517494678497314, 0.04308699071407318, -0.06083730235695839, -0.07408963143825531, -0.07962457835674286, -0.025997143238782883, -0.006903545930981636, 0.05565938353538513, -0.018731335178017616, 0.010961167514324188, 0.051206570118665695, 0.03889438137412071, -0.1012602150440216, -0.012584701180458069, -0.027171330526471138, -0.014697023667395115, 0.07431145012378693, -0.005344789009541273, 0.014439907856285572, -0.0003622206568252295, -0.0671992152929306, -0.05423686280846596, -0.026044297963380814, -0.015168240293860435, -0.007784623187035322, 0.032548680901527405, -0.03019518405199051, 0.023244846612215042, -0.0705665796995163, 0.03666460141539574, -0.008615400642156601, -0.0007203225395642221, -0.026249604299664497, -0.033553753048181534, 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466,"invisible , especially at mid-totality . L = 1 : Dark eclipse , gray or brownish in coloration . Details distinguishable only with difficulty . L = 2 : Deep red or rust-colored eclipse .Very dark central shadow, while outer edge of umbra is relatively bright. L = 3: Brick-red eclipse. Umbral shadow usually has a bright or yellow rim. L = 4: Very bright copper-red or orange eclipse. Umbral shadow is bluish and has a very bright rim. Lunar versus solar eclipses
There is often confusion between a solar eclipse and a lunar eclipse. While both involve interactions between the Sun, Earth, and the Moon, they are very different in their interactions. The Moon does not completely darken as it passes through the umbra because of the refraction of sunlight by Earth's atmosphere into the shadow cone; if Earth had no atmosphere, the Moon would be completely dark during the eclipse.‍ The reddish coloration arises because sunlight reaching the Moon must pass through a long and dense layer of Earth's atmosphere, where it is scattered. Shorter wavelengths are more likely to be scattered by the air molecules and small particles; thus, the longer wavelengths predominate by the time the light rays have penetrated the atmosphere. Human vision perceives this resulting light as red. This is the same effect that causes sunsets and sunrises to turn the sky a reddish color.‍ An alternative way of conceiving this scenario is to realize that, as viewed from the Moon, the Sun would appear to be setting (or rising) behind Earth. The amount of refracted light depends on the amount of dust or clouds in the atmosphere; this also controls how much light is scattered. In general, the dustier the atmosphere, the more that other wavelengths of light will be removed (compared to red light), leaving the resulting light a deeper red color.","[0.008010078221559525, -0.04663986340165138, 0.0454300194978714, 0.01848791353404522, 0.057381268590688705, -0.01526758074760437, -0.0028262666892260313, -0.07473835349082947, 0.1317896544933319, -0.05496441572904587, 0.03144940733909607, -0.05879359319806099, -0.015524434857070446, -0.07493703812360764, -0.02966202236711979, 0.0567445307970047, 0.08328063040971756, -0.033647019416093826, -0.06880859285593033, 0.0057589770294725895, 0.02288321778178215, -0.07068018615245819, -0.07715902477502823, -0.07341764867305756, 0.021279996261000633, 0.06910554319620132, -0.04010552540421486, -0.01452609896659851, -0.03817517310380936, -0.06131913885474205, -0.007136670872569084, -0.02877953089773655, 0.02928832173347473, 0.0018328457372263074, 0.01125272922217846, -0.12808124721050262, 0.046816203743219376, 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eclipse,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.
467,". In general , the dustier the atmosphere , the more that other wavelengths of light will be removed ( compared to red light ) , leaving the resulting light a deeper red color .This causes the resulting coppery-red hue of the Moon to vary from one eclipse to the next. Volcanoes are notable for expelling large quantities of dust into the atmosphere, and a large eruption shortly before an eclipse can have a large effect on the resulting color.‍

In culture
The symbol for a lunar eclipse (or any body in the shadow of another) is  (U+1F776 🝶). Several cultures have myths related to lunar eclipses or allude to the lunar eclipse as being a good or bad omen. The Egyptians saw the eclipse as a sow swallowing the Moon for a short time; other cultures view the eclipse as the Moon being swallowed by other animals, such as a jaguar in Mayan tradition, or a mythical three-legged toad known as Chan Chu in China. Some societies thought it was a demon swallowing the Moon, and that they could chase it away by throwing stones and curses at it.‍ Ancient Greeks understood the Earth was round, citing the Earth's shadow observed during a lunar eclipse as evidence.‍ Some Hindus believe in the importance of bathing in the Ganges River following an eclipse because it will help to achieve salvation.‍

Inca
Similarly to the Mayans, the Incans believed that lunar eclipses occurred when a jaguar ate the Moon, which is why a blood moon looks red. The Incans also believed that once the jaguar finished eating the Moon, it could come down and devour all the animals on Earth, so they would take spears and shout at the Moon to keep it away.‍

Mesopotamians
The ancient Mesopotamians believed that a lunar eclipse was when the Moon was being attacked by seven demons.","[-0.01736616902053356, 0.04736759886145592, 0.07257901132106781, 0.07899382710456848, -0.0036006122827529907, -0.08905872702598572, 0.07588205486536026, -0.08564446121454239, 0.1078442633152008, -0.06261001527309418, 0.041936904191970825, -0.06298243999481201, -0.025247983634471893, -0.04553019255399704, -0.014497979544103146, -0.011643091216683388, -0.002511598402634263, 0.042734161019325256, -0.05436311289668083, -0.033740442246198654, -0.06137949228286743, -0.05023695155978203, -0.038312215358018875, 0.03255124390125275, -0.02144169621169567, 0.02649339847266674, 0.023731930181384087, -0.01544248592108488, -0.037487976253032684, -0.051267679780721664, -0.018044685944914818, -0.046507250517606735, -0.01939002424478531, -0.008561413735151291, -0.033266421407461166, -0.005578519776463509, 0.051522694528102875, -0.028525900095701218, 0.04994037002325058, -0.038361165672540665, 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468,", so they would take spears and shout at the Moon to keep it away.‍ Mesopotamians The ancient Mesopotamians believed that a lunar eclipse was when the Moon was being attacked by seven demons .This attack was more than just one on the Moon, however, for the Mesopotamians linked what happened in the sky with what happened on the land, and because the king of Mesopotamia represented the land, the seven demons were thought to be also attacking the king. In order to prevent this attack on the king, the Mesopotamians made someone pretend to be the king so they would be attacked instead of the true king. After the lunar eclipse was over, the substitute king was made to disappear (possibly by poisoning).‍

Chinese
In some Chinese cultures, people would ring bells to prevent a dragon or other wild animals from biting the Moon.‍ In the 19th century, during a lunar eclipse, the Chinese navy fired its artillery because of this belief.‍ During the Zhou dynasty (c. 1046 BC –  256 BC), according to the Book of Songs, the sight of a red moon engulfed in darkness was believed to foreshadow famine or disease.‍

Occurrence
In the 21st century there are 228 lunar eclipses, an average of 2.28 per year, with at least two every year. Total lunar eclipses are less common than partial lunar eclipses. Over a 5,000 year span from 2000 BCE to 3000 CE, 36.3% of lunar eclipses are penumbral, 34.9% are partial, and 28.8% are total.‍ If the date and time of an eclipse is known, the occurrence of upcoming eclipses is predictable using an eclipse cycle, like the saros.","[-0.032091494649648666, 0.0797538235783577, 0.11680105328559875, 0.09152530878782272, -0.022007832303643227, -0.07138722389936447, 0.024419141933321953, -0.09009014070034027, 0.0721575990319252, -0.03029283881187439, 0.06957650929689407, -0.05970073863863945, 0.0023403356317430735, -0.06045733764767647, -0.04279530048370361, 0.01997281052172184, -0.05130567029118538, 0.03814317658543587, -0.04968546703457832, -0.02422442100942135, -0.09197171032428741, -0.06023772060871124, -0.008512823842465878, 0.024223890155553818, -0.031987838447093964, 0.04842977598309517, 0.00550920981913805, 0.0047840820625424385, -0.03956058993935585, -0.007728420197963715, -0.06340885907411575, 0.0012943766778334975, -0.03946411609649658, 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eclipse,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.
469,"are partial , and 28.8 % are total.‍ If the date and time of an eclipse is known , the occurrence of upcoming eclipses is predictable using an eclipse cycle , like the saros .During a saros period, lasting 18 years and 11 days, there will usually be 70 eclipses, of which 29 are lunar.‍ Eclipses occur only during an eclipse season, when the Sun appears to pass near either node of the Moon's orbit. View from the Moon
A lunar eclipse is, on the Moon, a solar eclipse. The occurrence makes Earth's atmosphere appear as a red ring around the dark Earth. One such event was captured by the Surveyor 3 camera in 1967.‍ A second event was photographed in color by the Blue Ghost Mission 1 in 2025.‍ During a full moon, the phase during which lunar eclipses take place, the dark side of the Earth is illuminated by the Moon and its moonlight. See also
Lists of lunar eclipses and List of lunar eclipses in the 21st century
Lunar occultation – When an object is hidden behind anotherPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Moon illusion – Perceived variation in the moon's size
Orbit of the Moon – The Moon's circuit around Earth
Solar eclipse – Natural phenomenon wherein the Sun is obscured by the Moon
Eclipses in history and culture

Notes
References
Works cited
Further reading
Bao-Lin Liu, Canon of Lunar Eclipses 1500 B.C.-A.D. 3000.","[-0.0261852964758873, 0.004867974203079939, 0.023997092619538307, 0.026709072291851044, 0.040491193532943726, -0.08536581695079803, 0.014295504428446293, -0.05038301274180412, 0.1126391738653183, 0.004065604880452156, -0.009517260827124119, -0.01082895789295435, 3.730804019141942e-05, -0.004852679558098316, -0.014675230719149113, 0.022436223924160004, -0.046471402049064636, 0.0028969128616154194, -0.010313780978322029, 0.011942331679165363, -0.03671063110232353, -0.06514409929513931, -0.0500405877828598, 0.05112801119685173, -0.034751858562231064, 0.053767696022987366, 0.015189620666205883, -0.056177768856287, -0.0916840136051178, -0.000517473032232374, -0.07103762775659561, 0.029047157615423203, -0.018965156748890877, -0.0066892364993691444, 0.037210699170827866, -0.028970828279852867, -0.0005904913996346295, -0.01835463009774685, 0.035319287329912186, -0.022486373782157898, -0.031053608283400536, -0.04602345451712608, 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470,"Solar eclipse – Natural phenomenon wherein the Sun is obscured by the Moon Eclipses in history and culture Notes References Works cited Further reading Bao-Lin Liu , Canon of Lunar Eclipses 1500 B.C.-A.D. 3000 .Willmann-Bell, Richmond VA, 1992
Espenak, F. Thousand Year Canon of Lunar Eclipses 1501 to 2500, Astropixels Publishing, Portal AZ, 2014

External links

Lunar Eclipse Essentials: video from NASA on YouTube
Animated explanation of the mechanics of a lunar eclipse Archived 3 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine, University of South Wales
U.S. Navy Lunar Eclipse Computer Archived 13 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine
NASA Lunar Eclipse Page
Search among the 12,064 lunar eclipses over five millennium and display interactive maps
Lunar Eclipses for Beginners
Tips on photographing the lunar eclipse from New York Institute of Photography Archived 14 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine
Lunar Eclipse 8 October 2014 - NASA FULL VERSION on YouTube","[-0.011611133813858032, 0.05164485052227974, 0.09442344307899475, 0.08088704198598862, 0.014097772538661957, -0.07336737215518951, -0.003305376973003149, -0.0886140763759613, 0.0430925078690052, -0.027999170124530792, 0.05892731249332428, -0.00713324686512351, 0.01573282852768898, -0.07091023772954941, -0.027227861806750298, -0.01786215603351593, 0.025357766076922417, -0.0007287648040801287, 0.06393667310476303, -0.00807334203273058, -0.07242127507925034, -0.031518347561359406, -0.03849762678146362, 0.046023230999708176, 0.028741048648953438, 0.06531008332967758, -0.026204191148281097, -0.014119002036750317, -0.048457324504852295, -0.013258234597742558, -0.04461804777383804, 0.028900129720568657, -0.06649784743785858, 0.004338314291089773, 0.05089125409722328, -0.036674175411462784, 0.010980278253555298, -0.018254898488521576, 0.03282717242836952, -0.019591156393289566, -0.06841640174388885, -0.03081866353750229, 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471," A coronal mass ejection (CME) is a significant ejection of plasma mass from the Sun's corona into the heliosphere. CMEs are often associated with solar flares and other forms of solar activity, but a broadly accepted theoretical understanding of these relationships has not been established. If a CME enters interplanetary space, it is sometimes referred to as an interplanetary coronal mass ejection (ICME). ICMEs are capable of reaching and colliding with Earth's magnetosphere, where they can cause geomagnetic storms, aurorae, and in rare cases damage to electrical power grids. The largest recorded geomagnetic perturbation, resulting presumably from a CME, was the solar storm of 1859. Also known as the Carrington Event, it disabled parts of the newly created United States telegraph network, starting fires and electrically shocking some telegraph operators. Near solar maxima, the Sun produces about three CMEs every day, whereas near solar minima, there is about one CME every five days. Physical description
CMEs release large quantities of matter from the Sun's atmosphere into the solar wind and interplanetary space. The ejected matter is a plasma consisting primarily of electrons and protons embedded within its magnetic field. This magnetic field is commonly in the form of a flux rope, a helical magnetic field with changing pitch angles. The average mass ejected is 1.6×1012 kg (3.5×1012 lb). However, the estimated mass values for CMEs are only lower limits, because coronagraph measurements provide only two-dimensional data. CMEs erupt from strongly twisted or sheared, large-scale magnetic field structures in the corona that are kept in equilibrium by overlying magnetic fields. Origin
CMEs erupt from the lower corona, where processes associated with the local magnetic field dominate over other processes. As a result, the coronal magnetic field plays an important role in the formation and eruption of CMEs.","[-0.01915973238646984, 0.0361483134329319, 0.0964774340391159, 0.12188287824392319, -0.002063056454062462, -0.008122727274894714, 0.047220826148986816, 0.08402189612388611, 0.027509108185768127, 0.02930239774286747, -0.03409500792622566, -0.0688805878162384, 0.04137979447841644, -0.01548186969012022, 0.013425515033304691, -0.019150065258145332, -0.002139914780855179, -0.09970024228096008, -0.03361990302801132, 0.06965967267751694, 0.010803419165313244, 0.012943752110004425, -0.12407364696264267, 0.024319030344486237, -0.038636792451143265, 0.07081858813762665, -0.06642192602157593, -0.01664605550467968, -0.09551236778497696, -0.0009092317195609212, 0.020444324240088463, -0.03906834498047829, -0.012529963627457619, 0.05458836257457733, -0.005311441142112017, 0.01959782838821411, 0.04759686812758446, -0.04074004292488098, 0.055413294583559036, 0.03150235489010811, 0.02247418463230133, 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ejection,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.
472,"corona , where processes associated with the local magnetic field dominate over other processes . As a result , the coronal magnetic field plays an important role in the formation and eruption of CMEs .Pre-eruption structures originate from magnetic fields that are initially generated in the Sun's interior by the solar dynamo. These magnetic fields rise to the Sun's surface—the photosphere—where they may form localized areas of highly concentrated magnetic flux and expand into the lower solar atmosphere forming active regions. At the photosphere, active region magnetic flux is often distributed in a dipole configuration, that is, with two adjacent areas of opposite magnetic polarity across which the magnetic field arches. Over time, the concentrated magnetic flux cancels and disperses across the Sun's surface, merging with the remnants of past active regions to become a part of the quiet Sun. Pre-eruption CME structures can be present at different stages of the growth and decay of these regions, but they always lie above polarity inversion lines (PIL), or boundaries across which the sign of the vertical component of the magnetic field reverses. PILs may exist in, around, and between active regions or form in the quiet Sun between active region remnants. More complex magnetic flux configurations, such as quadrupolar fields, can also host pre-eruption structures. In order for pre-eruption CME structures to develop, large amounts of energy must be stored and be readily available to be released. As a result of the dominance of magnetic field processes in the lower corona, the majority of the energy must be stored as magnetic energy.","[-0.051195334643125534, -0.01470298133790493, 0.08607904613018036, 0.0663294792175293, 0.04248349741101265, -0.014755996875464916, -0.02663726545870304, 9.751264769874979e-06, 0.0937119796872139, -0.02033788152039051, 0.009067647159099579, 0.03485603630542755, 0.04480054974555969, -0.01645192876458168, 0.11608920991420746, -0.0008355361642315984, -0.08459488302469254, -0.07561127841472626, 0.028357598930597305, 0.04849446937441826, -0.008979878388345242, -0.01592954620718956, -0.11243124306201935, -0.04092961177229881, -0.02837388589978218, 0.04664567857980728, -0.021851524710655212, -0.006759482901543379, -0.0009944308549165726, -0.017167119309306145, 0.071346715092659, 0.035497866570949554, -0.022222958505153656, 0.08581561595201492, -0.03013337031006813, 0.009144318290054798, -0.004853768739849329, -0.0032897652126848698, 0.0224147979170084, 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ejection,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.
473,"and be readily available to be released . As a result of the dominance of magnetic field processes in the lower corona , the majority of the energy must be stored as magnetic energy .The magnetic energy that is freely available to be released from a pre-eruption structure, referred to as the magnetic free energy or nonpotential energy of the structure, is the excess magnetic energy stored by the structure's magnetic configuration relative to that stored by the lowest-energy magnetic configuration the underlying photospheric magnetic flux distribution could theoretically take, a potential field state. Emerging magnetic flux and photospheric motions continuously shifting the footpoints of a structure can result in magnetic free energy building up in the coronal magnetic field as twist or shear. Some pre-eruption structures, referred to as sigmoids,  take on an S or reverse-S shape as shear accumulates. This has been observed in active region coronal loops and filaments with forward-S sigmoids more common in the southern hemisphere and reverse-S sigmoids more common in the northern hemisphere. Magnetic flux ropes—twisted and sheared magnetic flux tubes that can carry electric current and magnetic free energy—are an integral part of the post-eruption CME structure; however, whether flux ropes are always present in the pre-eruption structure or whether they are created during the eruption from a strongly sheared core field (see § Initiation) is subject to ongoing debate. Some pre-eruption structures have been observed to support prominences, also known as filaments, composed of much cooler material than the surrounding coronal plasma. Prominences are embedded in magnetic field structures referred to as prominence cavities, or filament channels, which may constitute part of a pre-eruption structure (see § Coronal signatures). Early evolution
The early evolution of a CME involves its initiation from a pre-eruption structure in the corona and the acceleration that follows. The processes involved in the early evolution of CMEs are poorly understood due to a lack of observational evidence.","[-0.07877705991268158, -0.005060051567852497, 0.02122276835143566, 0.0577072910964489, 0.0375138558447361, -0.017665863037109375, -0.043461598455905914, 0.060330409556627274, 0.06627803295850754, 0.019096309319138527, 0.00312484591268003, 0.006989842746406794, -0.0103163355961442, -0.01662163995206356, 0.07925184071063995, 0.03332367539405823, -0.06870588660240173, -0.0009640719508752227, 0.0022366538178175688, 0.09380325675010681, 0.04886668920516968, -0.016688276082277298, -0.09031183272600174, 0.026981132104992867, 0.04474392160773277, 0.036289066076278687, -0.08804994821548462, 0.0076644523069262505, -0.040090762078762054, -0.03088604286313057, 0.05669509246945381, -0.049469199031591415, -0.08264920115470886, 0.0865013375878334, 0.03948027268052101, 0.059735335409641266, -0.021567802876234055, 0.026822345331311226, 0.005170468240976334, 0.10637747496366501, 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474,"its initiation from a pre-eruption structure in the corona and the acceleration that follows . The processes involved in the early evolution of CMEs are poorly understood due to a lack of observational evidence .Initiation
CME initiation occurs when a pre-eruption structure in an equilibrium state enters a nonequilibrium or metastable state where energy can be released to drive an eruption. The specific processes involved in CME initiation are debated, and various models have been proposed to explain this phenomenon based on physical speculation. Furthermore, different CMEs may be initiated by different processes. It is unknown whether a magnetic flux rope exists prior to initiation, in which case either ideal or non-ideal magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) processes drive the expulsion of this flux rope, or whether a flux rope is created during the eruption by non-ideal process. Under ideal MHD, initiation may involve ideal instabilities or catastrophic loss of equilibrium along an existing flux rope:

The kink instability occurs when a magnetic flux rope is twisted to a critical point, whereupon the flux rope is unstable to further twisting. The torus instability occurs when the magnetic field strength of an arcade overlying a flux rope decreases rapidly with height. When this decrease is sufficiently rapid, the flux rope is unstable to further expansion. The catastrophe model  involves a catastrophic loss of equilibrium. Under non-ideal MHD, initiations mechanisms may involve resistive instabilities or magnetic reconnection:

Tether-cutting, or flux cancellation, occurs in strongly sheared arcades when nearly antiparallel field lines on opposite sides of the arcade form a current sheet and reconnect with each other. This can form a helical flux rope or cause a flux rope already present to grow and its axis to rise. The magnetic breakout model consists of an initial quadrupolar magnetic topology with a null point above a central flux system.","[-0.09209676086902618, -0.015141869895160198, 0.07273107767105103, 0.05573783069849014, -0.02260272391140461, -0.005374193657189608, -0.08743177354335785, 0.0920361652970314, 0.012534653767943382, 0.024852100759744644, -0.012045050039887428, -0.03170425444841385, 0.05695296823978424, -0.024994295090436935, 0.004443165380507708, 0.0447777584195137, -0.04723421484231949, -0.030800312757492065, -0.002243801485747099, 0.081828773021698, 0.03631224483251572, -0.009739631786942482, -0.05981907248497009, 0.038034189492464066, -0.045856181532144547, 0.0388832651078701, -0.0403996966779232, 0.01116167288273573, 0.028040332719683647, -0.014365258626639843, 0.028380487114191055, -0.10404524207115173, -0.07615040987730026, 0.06088854372501373, 0.02790023200213909, 0.028437094762921333, -0.031013403087854385, 0.020454995334148407, -0.0343298576772213, 0.0879695862531662, 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475,"cause a flux rope already present to grow and its axis to rise . The magnetic breakout model consists of an initial quadrupolar magnetic topology with a null point above a central flux system .As shearing motions cause this central flux system to rise, the null point forms a current sheet and the core flux system reconnects with the overlying magnetic field. Initial acceleration
Following initiation, CMEs are subject to different forces that either assist or inhibit their rise through the lower corona. Downward magnetic tension force exerted by the strapping magnetic field as it is stretched and, to a lesser extent, the gravitational pull of the Sun oppose movement of the core CME structure. In order for sufficient acceleration to be provided, past models have involved magnetic reconnection below the core field or an ideal MHD process, such as instability or acceleration from the solar wind. In the majority of CME events, acceleration is provided by magnetic reconnection cutting the strapping field's connections to the photosphere from below the core and outflow from this reconnection pushing the core upward. When the initial rise occurs, the opposite sides of the strapping field below the rising core are oriented nearly antiparallel to one another and are brought together to form a current sheet above the PIL. Fast magnetic reconnection can be excited along the current sheet by microscopic instabilities, resulting in the rapid release of stored magnetic energy as kinetic, thermal, and nonthermal energy. The restructuring of the magnetic field cuts the strapping field's connections to the photosphere thereby decreasing the downward magnetic tension force while the upward reconnection outflow pushes the CME structure upwards. A positive feedback loop results as the core is pushed upwards and the sides of the strapping field are brought in closer and closer contact to produce additional magnetic reconnection and rise.","[-0.0791541337966919, -0.00010753741662483662, 0.038874562829732895, 0.07638704776763916, -0.0004463771765585989, 0.013776182197034359, -0.044272251427173615, 0.08938754349946976, 0.03748340904712677, 0.04986496642231941, 0.029588116332888603, -0.012597644701600075, 0.03680381551384926, -0.06309261173009872, 0.019032666459679604, 0.04626867547631264, -0.04671541973948479, 0.005232318304479122, 0.02333545684814453, 0.05114170163869858, -0.055536430329084396, -0.06309983879327774, -0.01412340346723795, 0.0192499328404665, -0.06616543233394623, 0.007846399210393429, -0.10526438057422638, 0.0027237681206315756, -0.013334258459508419, -0.049635253846645355, -0.044387295842170715, -0.0369640588760376, -0.08281096816062927, 0.07670971751213074, -0.020337652415037155, 0.07856423407793045, 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476,"upwards . A positive feedback loop results as the core is pushed upwards and the sides of the strapping field are brought in closer and closer contact to produce additional magnetic reconnection and rise .While upward reconnection outflow accelerates the core, simultaneous downward outflow is sometimes responsible for other phenomena associated with CMEs (see § Coronal signatures). In cases where significant magnetic reconnection does not occur, ideal MHD instabilities or the dragging force from the solar wind can theoretically accelerate a CME. However, if sufficient acceleration is not provided, the CME structure may fall back in what is referred to as a failed or confined eruption. Coronal signatures
The early evolution of CMEs is frequently associated with other solar phenomena observed in the low corona, such as eruptive prominences and solar flares. CMEs that have no observed signatures are sometimes referred to as stealth CMEs. Prominences embedded in some CME pre-eruption structures may erupt with the CME as eruptive prominences. Eruptive prominences are associated with at least 70% of all CMEs and are often embedded within the bases of CME flux ropes. When observed in white-light coronagraphs, the eruptive prominence material, if present, corresponds to the observed bright core of dense material. When magnetic reconnection is excited along a current sheet of a rising CME core structure, the downward reconnection outflows can collide with loops below to form a cusp-shaped, two-ribbon solar flare. CME eruptions can also produce EUV waves, also known as EIT waves after the Extreme ultraviolet Imaging Telescope or as Moreton waves when observed in the chromosphere, which are fast-mode MHD wave fronts that emanate from the site of the CME. A coronal dimming is a localized decrease in extreme ultraviolet and soft X-ray emissions in the lower corona.","[-0.0751948133111, -0.017042921856045723, 0.0572500117123127, 0.11777801811695099, 0.010528295300900936, -0.030703693628311157, -0.005665976088494062, 0.10328879952430725, 0.08153066784143448, -0.016532573848962784, 0.01815895177423954, -0.03140142187476158, 0.035642605274915695, -0.04232019558548927, 0.05223216488957405, 0.032491929829120636, -0.023851122707128525, 0.007073121145367622, 0.0037895713467150927, 0.09589532762765884, -0.013534708879888058, -0.0012987155932933092, -0.1034766435623169, 0.020264333114027977, -0.023222407326102257, 0.037842582911252975, -0.05236748978495598, -0.012065871618688107, -0.00954972393810749, -0.04695078730583191, -0.005218751262873411, -0.02451600879430771, -0.06470656394958496, 0.0710308700799942, 0.03614969179034233, 0.03224477916955948, 0.05968550592660904, 0.0010865713702514768, -0.015974869951605797, 0.04573449864983559, 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ejection,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.
477,", which are fast-mode MHD wave fronts that emanate from the site of the CME . A coronal dimming is a localized decrease in extreme ultraviolet and soft X-ray emissions in the lower corona .When associated with a CME, coronal dimmings are thought to occur predominantly due to a decrease in plasma density caused by mass outflows during the expansion of the associated CME. They often occur either in pairs located within regions of opposite magnetic polarity, a core dimming, or in a more widespread area, a secondary dimming. Core dimmings are interpreted as the footpoint locations of the erupting flux rope; secondary dimmings are interpreted as the result of the expansion of the overall CME structure and are generally more diffuse and shallow. Coronal dimming was first reported in 1974, and, due to their appearance resembling that of coronal holes, they were sometimes referred to as transient coronal holes. Propagation
Observations of CMEs are typically through white-light coronagraphs which measure the Thomson scattering of sunlight off of free electrons within the CME plasma. An observed CME may have any or all of three distinctive features: a bright core, a dark surrounding cavity, and a bright leading edge. The bright core is usually interpreted as a prominence embedded in the CME (see § Origin) with the leading edge as an area of compressed plasma ahead of the CME flux rope. However, some CMEs exhibit more complex geometry. From white-light coronagraph observations, CMEs have been measured to reach speeds in the plane-of-sky ranging from 20 to 3,200 km/s (12 to 2,000 mi/s) with an average speed of 489 km/s (304 mi/s). Observations of CME speeds indicate that CMEs tend to accelerate or decelerate until they reach the speed of the solar wind (§ Interactions in the heliosphere).","[-0.01790003664791584, 0.019847556948661804, 0.061666592955589294, 0.12594880163669586, -0.018697254359722137, -0.045646559447050095, -0.04293439909815788, 0.12494529038667679, 0.06368604302406311, -0.03057321533560753, -0.03200545534491539, -0.07692229747772217, -0.0034513804130256176, 0.03122679889202118, 0.054002344608306885, -0.0020773853175342083, -0.0021588653326034546, -0.04849483445286751, 0.007350556086748838, 0.07571659237146378, 0.061352066695690155, 0.005298139993101358, -0.10701072216033936, 0.012077688239514828, 0.0465165451169014, 0.03289820998907089, -0.018403207883238792, -0.024401646107435226, -0.0034790714271366596, 0.005977326538413763, -0.021808523684740067, 0.06388852745294571, -0.0157364159822464, 0.14520828425884247, 0.05978381261229515, -0.0269728172570467, 0.032948434352874756, -0.00263526220805943, 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ejection,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.
478,"km/s ( 304 mi/s ) . Observations of CME speeds indicate that CMEs tend to accelerate or decelerate until they reach the speed of the solar wind ( § Interactions in the heliosphere ) .When observed in interplanetary space at distances greater than about 50 solar radii (0.23 AU) away from the Sun, CMEs are sometimes referred to as interplanetary CMEs, or ICMEs. Interactions in the heliosphere
As CMEs propagate through the heliosphere, they may interact with the surrounding solar wind, the interplanetary magnetic field, and other CMEs and celestial bodies. CMEs can experience aerodynamic drag forces that act to bring them to kinematic equilibrium with the solar wind. As a consequence, CMEs faster than the solar wind tend to slow down whereas CMEs slower than the solar wind tend to speed up until their speed matches that of the solar wind. How CMEs evolve as they propagate through the heliosphere is poorly understood. Models of their evolution have been proposed that are accurate to some CMEs but not others. Aerodynamic drag and snowplow models assume that ICME evolution is governed by its interactions with the solar wind. Aerodynamic drag alone may be able to account for the evolution of some ICMEs, but not all of them. CMEs typically reach Earth one to five days after leaving the Sun. The strongest deceleration or acceleration occurs close to the Sun, but it can continue even beyond Earth orbit (1 AU), which was observed using measurements at Mars and by the Ulysses spacecraft. ICMEs faster than about 500 km/s (310 mi/s) eventually drive a shock wave. This happens when the speed of the ICME in the frame of reference moving with the solar wind is faster than the local fast magnetosonic speed. Such shocks have been observed directly by coronagraphs in the corona, and are related to type II radio bursts.","[-0.034281063824892044, -0.01238181907683611, 0.058683253824710846, 0.04756859317421913, 0.030581967905163765, -0.0006581547204405069, -0.019524287432432175, 0.054969921708106995, 0.030058905482292175, 0.05256090313196182, -0.0020702839829027653, -0.10122814774513245, 0.015952546149492264, -0.10878711193799973, 0.04197843372821808, -0.03977195546030998, 0.009986316785216331, 0.024667320773005486, -0.10723157972097397, 0.041580554097890854, -0.01426921971142292, 0.01637546345591545, -0.05703414976596832, 0.016060782596468925, -0.02046133205294609, 0.07012119889259338, -0.05374399945139885, 0.016327528282999992, -0.03635028377175331, -0.009599982760846615, 0.014640833251178265, 0.011017349548637867, -0.01946437358856201, 0.06202252581715584, -0.030495427548885345, 0.005085689481347799, 0.052586041390895844, -0.03048994578421116, -0.022972574457526207, 0.00984408799558878, 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479,"moving with the solar wind is faster than the local fast magnetosonic speed . Such shocks have been observed directly by coronagraphs in the corona , and are related to type II radio bursts .They are thought to form sometimes as low as 2 R☉ (solar radii). They are also closely linked with the acceleration of solar energetic particles. As ICMEs propagate through the interplanetary medium, they may collide with other ICMEs in what is referred to as CME–CME interaction or CME cannibalism. During such CME-CME interactions, the first CME may clear the way for the second one and/or when two CMEs collide it can lead to more severe impacts on Earth. Historical records show that the most extreme space weather events involved multiple successive CMEs. For example, the famous Carrington event in 1859 had several eruptions and caused auroras to be visible at low latitudes for four nights. Similarly, the solar storm of September 1770 lasted for nearly nine days, and caused repeated low-latitude auroras. The interaction between two moderate CMEs between the Sun and Earth can create extreme conditions on Earth. Recent studies have shown that the magnetic structure in particular its chirality/handedness, of a CME can greatly affect how it interacts with Earth's magnetic field. This interaction can result in the conservation or loss of magnetic flux, particularly its southward magnetic field component, through magnetic reconnection with the interplanetary magnetic field. Morphology
In the solar wind, CMEs manifest as magnetic clouds. They have been defined as regions of enhanced magnetic field strength, smooth rotation of the magnetic field vector, and low proton temperature. The association between CMEs and magnetic clouds was made by Burlaga et al. in 1982 when a magnetic cloud was observed by Helios-1 two days after being observed by the Solar Maximum Mission (SMM).","[-0.03475263714790344, -0.02233426831662655, 0.10742290318012238, 0.08936895430088043, 0.05182334780693054, -0.04841670021414757, -0.013560988008975983, 0.053030937910079956, 0.02173699252307415, -0.0035039617214351892, -0.007906295359134674, -0.08139491826295853, 0.03777254372835159, -0.025585921481251717, 0.04671752080321312, -0.013104156590998173, -0.021750809624791145, -0.07060524076223373, -0.056350063532590866, 0.11717136949300766, -0.034044694155454636, -0.008291643112897873, -0.12084516882896423, 0.02115093544125557, -0.009570181369781494, 0.06388112157583237, -0.011031115427613258, -0.0036957000847905874, -0.047930821776390076, 0.0033562416210770607, 0.030692938715219498, -0.020761720836162567, -0.01582922972738743, 0.05917118489742279, -0.014339752495288849, 0.03010164201259613, 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480,"CMEs and magnetic clouds was made by Burlaga et al . in 1982 when a magnetic cloud was observed by Helios-1 two days after being observed by the Solar Maximum Mission ( SMM ) .However, because observations near Earth are usually done by a single spacecraft, many CMEs are not seen as being associated with magnetic clouds. The typical structure observed for a fast CME by a satellite such as the Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) is a fast-mode shock wave followed by a dense (and hot) sheath of plasma (the downstream region of the shock) and a magnetic cloud. Other signatures of magnetic clouds are now used in addition to the one described above: among other, bidirectional superthermal electrons, unusual charge state or abundance of iron, helium, carbon, and/or oxygen. The typical time for a magnetic cloud to move past a satellite at the Lagrange Point (L1 point) is 1 day corresponding to a radius of 0.15 AU with a typical speed of 450 km/s (280 mi/s) and magnetic field strength of 20 nT. Solar cycle
The frequency of ejections depends on the phase of the solar cycle: from about 0.2 per day near the solar minimum to 3.5 per day near the solar maximum. However, the peak CME occurrence rate is often 6–12 months after sunspot number reaches its maximum. Impact on Earth
Only a very small fraction of CMEs are directed toward, and reach, the Earth. A CME arriving at Earth results in a shock wave causing a geomagnetic storm that may disrupt Earth's magnetosphere, compressing it on the day side and extending the night-side magnetic tail. When the magnetosphere reconnects on the nightside, it releases power on the order of terawatts directed back toward Earth's upper atmosphere. This can result in events such as the March 1989 geomagnetic storm.","[-0.040772948414087296, -0.012563802301883698, 0.01798381097614765, 0.08991441875696182, 0.019490879029035568, 0.002570095472037792, -0.015955867245793343, -0.012965320609509945, -0.00010425504297018051, 0.009005407802760601, -0.009656580165028572, -0.03890545293688774, 0.05617152154445648, -0.09059084206819534, 0.03256243094801903, -0.06648516654968262, 0.059321362525224686, -0.08940427750349045, -0.005082795396447182, 0.04856347292661667, -0.018741700798273087, -0.025568021461367607, -0.05025187507271767, -0.022822780534625053, 0.028446421027183533, 0.04835081100463867, -0.05960588529706001, -0.05543500557541847, -0.08228617161512375, -0.03338415175676346, 0.04066600650548935, -0.009251372888684273, -0.0437336191534996, 0.11586934328079224, 0.023776765912771225, 0.030307816341519356, -0.02024965174496174, -0.0680132806301117, 0.059036824852228165, -0.026372719556093216, -0.015707029029726982, -0.14441895484924316, 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481,"magnetosphere reconnects on the nightside , it releases power on the order of terawatts directed back toward Earth 's upper atmosphere . This can result in events such as the March 1989 geomagnetic storm .CMEs, along with solar flares, can disrupt radio transmissions and cause damage to satellites and electrical transmission line facilities, resulting in potentially massive and long-lasting power outages. Shocks in the upper corona driven by CMEs can also accelerate solar energetic particles toward the Earth resulting in gradual solar particle events. Interactions between these energetic particles and the Earth can cause an increase in the number of free electrons in the ionosphere, especially in the high-latitude polar regions, enhancing radio wave absorption, especially within the D-region of the ionosphere, leading to polar cap absorption events. The interaction of CMEs with the Earth's magnetosphere leads to dramatic changes in the outer radiation belt, with either a decrease or an increase of relativistic particle fluxes by orders of magnitude. The changes in radiation belt particle fluxes are caused by acceleration, scattering and radial diffusion of relativistic electrons, due to the interactions with various plasma waves. Halo coronal mass ejections
A halo coronal mass ejection is a CME which appears in white-light coronagraph observations as an expanding ring completely surrounding the occulting disk of the coronagraph. Halo CMEs are interpreted as CMEs directed toward or away from the observing coronagraph. When the expanding ring does not completely surround the occulting disk, but has an angular width of more than 120 degrees around the disk, the CME is referred to as a partial halo coronal mass ejection. Partial and full halo CMEs have been found to make up about 10% of all CMEs with about 4% of all CMEs being full halo CMEs. Frontside, or Earth-direct, halo CMEs are often associated with Earth-impacting CMEs; however, not all frontside halo CMEs impact Earth.","[0.0023545718286186457, 0.03001382388174534, 0.07717090845108032, 0.09969092905521393, 0.04262925684452057, 0.009542950429022312, 0.023916110396385193, 0.06860610842704773, 0.04682915285229683, -0.015452928841114044, -0.021878769621253014, -0.04175407811999321, 0.05105685442686081, -0.03442678228020668, 0.1162262111902237, 0.007107230834662914, 0.05226719006896019, -0.04145978391170502, -0.02484377659857273, 0.037016380578279495, -0.04245900362730026, 0.016714151948690414, -0.07637134194374084, 0.028274955227971077, -0.035176292061805725, 0.05834491178393364, -0.036040984094142914, -0.03490016981959343, -0.1276710033416748, -0.009431475773453712, 0.011344981379806995, -0.02550354413688183, -0.05340773984789848, 0.0780973806977272, -0.010190811939537525, 0.04698418453335762, 0.018083281815052032, 0.03971723094582558, 0.012651525437831879, 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482,"about 4 % of all CMEs being full halo CMEs . Frontside , or Earth-direct , halo CMEs are often associated with Earth-impacting CMEs ; however , not all frontside halo CMEs impact Earth .Future risk
In 2019, researchers used an alternative method (Weibull distribution) and estimated the chance of Earth being hit by a Carrington-class storm in the next decade to be between 0.46% and 1.88%. History
First traces
CMEs have been observed indirectly for thousands of years via aurora. Other indirect observations that predated the discovery of CMEs were through measurements of geomagnetic perturbations, radioheliograph measurements of solar radio bursts, and in-situ measurements of interplanetary shocks. The largest recorded geomagnetic perturbation, resulting presumably from a CME, coincided with the first-observed solar flare on 1 September 1859. The resulting solar storm of 1859 is referred to as the Carrington Event. The flare and the associated sunspots were visible to the naked eye, and the flare was independently observed by English astronomers R. C. Carrington and R. Hodgson. At around the same time as the flare, a magnetometer at Kew Gardens recorded what would become known as a magnetic crochet, a magnetic field detected by ground-based magnetometers induced by a perturbation of Earth's ionosphere by ionizing soft X-rays. This could not easily be understood at the time because it predated the discovery of X-rays in 1895 and the recognition of the ionosphere in 1902. About 18 hours after the flare, further geomagnetic perturbations were recorded by multiple magnetometers as a part of a geomagnetic storm. The storm disabled parts of the recently created US telegraph network, starting fires and shocking some telegraph operators. First optical observations
The first optical observation of a CME was made on 14 December 1971 using the coronagraph of Orbiting Solar Observatory 7 (OSO-7). It was first described by R. Tousey of the Naval Research Laboratory in a research paper published in 1973.","[-6.172381108626723e-05, -0.01828068122267723, 0.058345552533864975, 0.08085468411445618, 0.04546177387237549, 0.007413907442241907, -0.0366847887635231, 0.05591854453086853, 0.005185757298022509, 0.0056532095186412334, -0.02638302743434906, -0.09483838081359863, 0.07528620958328247, -0.06440992653369904, 0.0008562423172406852, -0.008800588548183441, -0.04832110181450844, -0.03756727650761604, -0.03125185891985893, 0.10030221939086914, -0.11621816456317902, -0.013339769095182419, -0.10458914935588837, 0.060206543654203415, -0.010203788056969643, 0.03833001106977463, -0.00028590759029611945, -0.015970388427376747, -0.1100396066904068, 0.01661050319671631, 0.02751036174595356, 0.009861575439572334, 0.030096033588051796, 0.09301836788654327, 0.021500209346413612, 0.010444633662700653, 0.08999273180961609, -0.03828071802854538, 0.03956712409853935, 0.03416518121957779, -0.0011930307373404503, 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ejection,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.
483,"14 December 1971 using the coronagraph of Orbiting Solar Observatory 7 ( OSO-7 ) . It was first described by R. Tousey of the Naval Research Laboratory in a research paper published in 1973 .The discovery image (256 × 256 pixels) was collected on a Secondary Electron Conduction (SEC) vidicon tube, transferred to the instrument computer after being digitized to 7 bits. Then it was compressed using a simple run-length encoding scheme and sent down to the ground at 200 bit/s. A full, uncompressed image would take 44 minutes to send down to the ground. The telemetry was sent to ground support equipment (GSE) which built up the image onto Polaroid print. David Roberts, an electronics technician working for NRL who had been responsible for the testing of the SEC-vidicon camera, was in charge of day-to-day operations. He thought that his camera had failed because certain areas of the image were much brighter than normal. But on the next image the bright area had moved away from the Sun and he immediately recognized this as being unusual and took it to his supervisor, Dr. Guenter Brueckner, and then to the solar physics branch head, Dr. Tousey. Earlier observations of coronal transients or even phenomena observed visually during solar eclipses are now understood as essentially the same thing. Instruments
On 1 November 1994, NASA launched the Wind spacecraft as a solar wind monitor to orbit Earth's L1 Lagrange point as the interplanetary component of the Global Geospace Science (GGS) Program within the International Solar Terrestrial Physics (ISTP) program. 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484,"spacecraft is a spin axis-stabilized satellite that carries eight instruments measuring solar wind particles from thermal to greater than MeV energies , electromagnetic radiation from DC to 13 MHz radio waves , and gamma-rays .On 25 October 2006, NASA launched STEREO, two near-identical spacecraft which, from widely separated points in their orbits, are able to produce the first stereoscopic images of CMEs and other solar activity measurements. The spacecraft orbit the Sun at distances similar to that of Earth, with one slightly ahead of Earth and the other trailing. Their separation gradually increased so that after four years they were almost diametrically opposite each other in orbit. Notable coronal mass ejections
On 9 March 1989, a CME occurred, which struck Earth four days later on 13 March. It caused power failures in Quebec, Canada and short-wave radio interference. On 23 July 2012, a large, and potentially damaging CME occurred but missed Earth, an event that many scientists consider to be a Carrington-class event. On 14 October 2014, an ICME was photographed by the Sun-watching spacecraft PROBA2 (ESA), Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (ESA/NASA), and Solar Dynamics Observatory (NASA) as it left the Sun, and STEREO-A observed its effects directly at 1 astronomical unit (AU). ESA's Venus Express gathered data. The CME reached Mars on 17 October and was observed by the Mars Express, MAVEN, Mars Odyssey, and Mars Science Laboratory missions. On 22 October, at 3.1 AU, it reached comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko, perfectly aligned with the Sun and Mars, and was observed by Rosetta. On 12 November, at 9.9 AU, it was observed by Cassini at Saturn. The New Horizons spacecraft was at 31.6 AU approaching Pluto when the CME passed three months after the initial eruption, and it may be detectable in the data.","[-0.016414105892181396, 0.028814908117055893, 0.05836404487490654, 0.032199546694755554, 0.014189290814101696, -0.04201561585068703, -0.011495486833155155, 0.08944810181856155, 0.061602991074323654, 0.02338368445634842, 0.00554008549079299, -0.0441666878759861, 0.03435055911540985, -0.0096328966319561, 0.03301700949668884, -0.053587786853313446, 0.004527076613157988, -0.0983397513628006, -0.09297508746385574, 0.05686789005994797, -0.07651335746049881, 0.0034030419774353504, -0.09342706948518753, 0.06028278172016144, 0.018610121682286263, 0.031420912593603134, -0.012782268226146698, -0.04466235265135765, -0.1028812825679779, 0.0020705817732959986, 0.04993795230984688, -0.029007015749812126, -0.06383511424064636, 0.032906949520111084, 0.019754426553845406, 0.046806883066892624, 0.06765992194414139, -0.08368250727653503, 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ejection,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.
485,"by Cassini at Saturn . The New Horizons spacecraft was at 31.6 AU approaching Pluto when the CME passed three months after the initial eruption , and it may be detectable in the data .Voyager 2 has data that can be interpreted as the passing of the CME, 17 months after. The Curiosity rover's RAD instrument, Mars Odyssey, Rosetta and Cassini showed a sudden decrease in galactic cosmic rays (Forbush decrease) as the CME's protective bubble passed by. Stellar coronal mass ejections
There have been a small number of CMEs observed on other stars, all of which as of 2016 have been found on red dwarfs. These have been detected mainly by spectroscopy, most often by studying Balmer lines: the material ejected toward the observer causes asymmetry in the blue wing of the line profiles due to Doppler shift. This enhancement can be seen in absorption when it occurs on the stellar disc (the material is cooler than its surroundings), and in emission when it is outside the disc. The observed projected velocities of CMEs range from ≈84 to 5,800 km/s (52 to 3,600 mi/s). There are few stellar CME candidates in shorter wavelengths in UV or X-ray data. Compared to activity on the Sun, CME activity on other stars seems to be far less common. The low number of stellar CME detections can be caused by lower intrinsic CME rates compared to the models (e.g. due to magnetic suppression), projection effects, or overestimated Balmer signatures because of the unknown plasma parameters of the stellar CMEs. See also
Forbush decrease
Health threat from cosmic rays
K-index
List of solar storms
Orbiting Solar Observatory
Solar and Heliospheric Observatory
Space weather

References
Further reading
Books
Gopalswamy, Natchimuthukonar; Mewaldt, Richard; Torsti, Jarmo (2006). 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ejection,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.
486,"Further reading Books Gopalswamy , Natchimuthukonar ; Mewaldt , Richard ; Torsti , Jarmo ( 2006 ) . Gopalswamy , Natchimuthukonar ; Mewaldt , Richard A. ; Torsti , Jarmo ( eds . ) .Solar Eruptions and Energetic Particles. Geophysical Monograph Series. Vol. 165. Washington DC: American Geophysical Union. Bibcode:2006GMS...165.....G. doi:10.1029/GM165. ISBN 0-87590-430-0. Internet articles
Bell, Trudy E.; Phillips, Tony (6 May 2008). ""A Super Solar Flare"". Science@NASA. Lavraud, Benoit; Masson, Arnaud (21 November 2007). ""Cluster captures the impact of CMEs"". European Space Agency. Odenwald, Sten F.; Green, James L. (28 July 2008). ""Bracing the Satellite Infrastructure for a Solar Superstorm"". Scientific American. Phillips, Tony (27 May 2008). ""Cartwheel Coronal Mass Ejection"". Science@NASA. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 12 July 2017. External links

NOAA/NWS Space Weather Prediction Center
Coronal Mass Ejection FAQ
STEREO and SOHO observed CME rate versus the Sunspot number (PNG plot) / (text version)","[-0.07553483545780182, -0.004272350110113621, 0.09088893234729767, 0.12776584923267365, -0.002513311803340912, -0.014513117261230946, -0.001393479062244296, 0.06155655160546303, 0.014789960347115993, 0.03940046206116676, 0.0016891651321202517, 0.035770051181316376, 0.04842307046055794, -0.01960141398012638, 0.022985301911830902, 0.020251095294952393, -0.0029041634406894445, -0.06378263980150223, -0.010175877250730991, 0.027476051822304726, 0.022199079394340515, -0.003057122230529785, -0.0707622542977333, 0.0746799185872078, 0.01918724924325943, 0.03224416449666023, -0.11809749901294708, -0.005401413422077894, -0.08459815382957458, 0.051808834075927734, 0.006013892125338316, 0.02974245510995388, -0.09117671102285385, 0.029173098504543304, 0.02368491142988205, 0.03779910132288933, 0.035250142216682434, -0.02764209173619747, 0.04467063024640083, 0.03134669363498688, 0.015604289248585701, 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ejection,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.
487," The solar wind is a stream of charged particles released from the Sun's outermost atmospheric layer, the corona. This plasma mostly consists of electrons, protons and alpha particles with kinetic energy between 0.5 and 10 keV. The composition of the solar wind plasma also includes a mixture of particle species found in the solar plasma: trace amounts of heavy ions and atomic nuclei of elements such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, neon, magnesium, silicon, sulfur, and iron. There are also rarer traces of some other nuclei and isotopes such as phosphorus, titanium, chromium, and nickel's isotopes 58Ni, 60Ni, and 62Ni. Superimposed with the solar-wind plasma is the interplanetary magnetic field. The solar wind varies in density, temperature and speed over time and over solar latitude and longitude. Its particles can escape the Sun's gravity because of their high energy resulting from the high temperature of the corona, which in turn is a result of the coronal magnetic field. The boundary separating the corona from the solar wind is called the Alfvén surface. At a distance of more than a few solar radii from the Sun, the solar wind reaches speeds of 250–750 km/s and is supersonic, meaning it moves faster than the speed of fast magnetosonic waves. The flow of the solar wind is no longer supersonic at the termination shock. Other related phenomena include the aurora (northern and southern lights), comet tails that always point away from the Sun, and geomagnetic storms that can change the direction of magnetic field lines. History
Observations from Earth
The existence of particles flowing outward from the Sun to the Earth was first suggested by British astronomer Richard C. Carrington. In 1859, Carrington and Richard Hodgson independently made the first observations of what would later be called a solar flare.","[-0.012543050572276115, 0.07305341213941574, 0.010679727420210838, 0.04835336655378342, 0.07084845751523972, 0.02650930918753147, 0.07211843878030777, -0.01931026205420494, 0.0774177685379982, -0.04226979613304138, -0.05409034341573715, -0.06676408648490906, -0.04223548620939255, -0.06210380420088768, 0.09766491502523422, -0.005033715628087521, 0.01855665072798729, -0.07305815070867538, 0.027232667431235313, 0.06463245302438736, -0.0157393179833889, 0.024790674448013306, -0.060972295701503754, -0.0125443609431386, 0.0755898505449295, 0.10495910048484802, -0.08250170946121216, -0.05882615968585014, -0.06155671179294586, 0.03276405110955238, 0.02741701900959015, 0.03513491526246071, -0.03728765249252319, 0.0589173398911953, -0.026865605264902115, -0.0038030194118618965, 0.0018696447368711233, 0.03982004150748253, -0.016209641471505165, 0.03435349464416504, 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488,"to the Earth was first suggested by British astronomer Richard C. Carrington . In 1859 , Carrington and Richard Hodgson independently made the first observations of what would later be called a solar flare .This is a sudden, localised increase in brightness on the solar disc, which is now known to often occur in conjunction with an episodic ejection of material and magnetic flux from the Sun's atmosphere, known as a coronal mass ejection. The following day, a powerful geomagnetic storm was observed, and Carrington suspected that there might be a connection; the geomagnetic storm is now attributed to the arrival of the coronal mass ejection in near-Earth space and its subsequent interaction with the Earth's magnetosphere. Irish academic George FitzGerald later suggested that matter was being regularly accelerated away from the Sun, reaching the Earth after several days. In 1910, British astrophysicist Arthur Eddington essentially suggested the existence of the solar wind, without naming it, in a footnote to an article on Comet Morehouse. Eddington's proposition was never fully embraced, even though he had also made a similar suggestion at a Royal Institution address the previous year, in which he had postulated that the ejected material consisted of electrons, whereas in his study of Comet Morehouse he had supposed them to be ions. The idea that the ejected material consisted of both ions and electrons was first suggested by Norwegian scientist Kristian Birkeland. His geomagnetic surveys showed that auroral activity was almost uninterrupted. As these displays and other geomagnetic activity were being produced by particles from the Sun, he concluded that the Earth was being continually bombarded by ""rays of electric corpuscles emitted by the Sun"".","[-0.045157525688409805, 0.014678340405225754, 0.04958821088075638, 0.10406932979822159, 0.05808160454034805, -0.0009996305452659726, 0.058219414204359055, -0.01342000812292099, 0.03359467536211014, 0.0015012011863291264, 0.036349546164274216, -0.016804225742816925, -0.01683102548122406, -0.02638314664363861, 0.024854399263858795, 0.011163592338562012, -0.03128907084465027, -0.08184445649385452, -0.002344106789678335, 0.08961410075426102, -0.06415404379367828, 0.024884790182113647, -0.05930500105023384, 0.046090103685855865, 0.045937877148389816, 0.04035015031695366, -0.04270544648170471, 0.0012578613823279738, -0.08323536813259125, 0.056875623762607574, 0.051144398748874664, -0.010783741250634193, -0.022979462519288063, 0.035597167909145355, -0.028947360813617706, 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489,"displays and other geomagnetic activity were being produced by particles from the Sun , he concluded that the Earth was being continually bombarded by `` rays of electric corpuscles emitted by the Sun '' .He proposed in 1916 that, ""From a physical point of view it is most probable that solar rays are neither exclusively negative nor positive rays, but of both kinds""; in other words, the solar wind consists of both negative electrons and positive ions. Three years later, in 1919, British physicist Frederick Lindemann also suggested that the Sun ejects particles of both polarities: protons as well as electrons. Around the 1930s, scientists had concluded that the temperature of the solar corona must be a million degrees Celsius because of the way it extended into space (as seen during a total solar eclipse). Later spectroscopic work confirmed this extraordinary temperature to be the case. In the mid-1950s, British mathematician Sydney Chapman calculated the properties of a gas at such a temperature and determined that the corona being such a superb conductor of heat, it must extend way out into space, beyond the orbit of Earth. Also in the 1950s, German astronomer Ludwig Biermann became interested in the fact that the tail of a comet always points away from the Sun, regardless of the direction in which the comet is travelling. Biermann postulated that this happens because the Sun emits a steady stream of particles that pushes the comet's tail away. German astronomer Paul Ahnert is credited (by Wilfried Schröder) as being the first to relate solar wind to the direction of a comet's tail based on observations of the comet Whipple–Fedke (1942g).","[-0.010396870784461498, 0.07057143747806549, -0.006493823602795601, 0.11799269914627075, 0.025357870385050774, -0.0113221425563097, 0.0714264065027237, 0.05407536029815674, 0.04679723456501961, 0.04708969593048096, 0.03036252036690712, -0.03540444374084473, 0.01262571383267641, 0.0557340607047081, 0.047272954136133194, 0.003089598845690489, 0.040786392986774445, -0.07577863335609436, 0.04064420983195305, 0.034320563077926636, -0.025009434670209885, -0.04149647429585457, -0.015954049304127693, -0.047491274774074554, 0.08065583556890488, 0.062432125210762024, -0.031053880229592323, -0.09758713096380234, -0.059160616248846054, 0.12428784370422363, -0.01929592713713646, 0.00974313449114561, -0.026302209123969078, 0.030336890369653702, 0.028183594346046448, -0.08351553231477737, 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490,"Ahnert is credited ( by Wilfried Schröder ) as being the first to relate solar wind to the direction of a comet 's tail based on observations of the comet Whipple–Fedke ( 1942g ) .American astrophysicist Eugene Parker realised that heat flowing from the Sun in Chapman's model, and the comet tail blowing away from the Sun in Biermann's hypothesis, had to be the result of the same phenomenon which he termed the ""solar wind"". In 1957, Parker showed that although the Sun's corona is strongly attracted by solar gravity, it is such a good conductor of heat that it is still very hot at large distances from the Sun. As solar gravity weakens with increasing distance from the Sun, the outer coronal atmosphere is able to escape supersonically into interstellar space. Parker was also the first person to notice that the weakening influence of the Sun's gravity has the same effect on hydrodynamic flow as a de Laval nozzle, inciting a transition from subsonic to supersonic flow. There was strong opposition to Parker's hypothesis on the solar wind; the paper he submitted to The Astrophysical Journal in 1958 was rejected by two reviewers, before being accepted by the editor Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar. Observations from space
In January 1959, the Soviet spacecraft Luna 1 first directly observed the solar wind and measured its strength, using hemispherical ion traps. The discovery, made by Konstantin Gringauz, was verified by Luna 2, Luna 3, and the more distant measurements of Venera 1. Three years later, a similar measurement was performed by American geophysicist Marcia Neugebauer and collaborators using the Mariner 2 spacecraft. The first numerical simulation of the solar wind in the solar corona, including closed and open field lines, was performed by Pneuman and Kopp in 1971. The magnetohydrodynamics equations in steady state were solved iteratively starting with an initial dipolar configuration.","[-0.10833753645420074, 0.05978969857096672, 0.046462733298540115, 0.10120832920074463, 0.06280852109193802, -0.023109080269932747, 0.03725684806704521, 0.05001445487141609, 0.0207347571849823, 0.02461979165673256, -0.031508542597293854, -0.007294083945453167, -0.023187655955553055, -0.05197285860776901, 0.04402777552604675, 0.03409900888800621, 0.04576878249645233, -0.034167759120464325, 0.027786860242486, 0.015556057915091515, -0.07790040224790573, 0.013287432491779327, 0.007879392243921757, 0.013606220483779907, 0.07162783294916153, 0.007772252894937992, -0.05541189759969711, -0.01849805749952793, -0.09293079376220703, 0.010379420593380928, 0.01168203167617321, 0.0019361738814041018, -0.09682665020227432, 0.03485516831278801, 0.0100164283066988, -0.05539872497320175, 0.037966229021549225, 0.04318719729781151, -0.021173084154725075, 0.005642496515065432, 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491,"solar corona , including closed and open field lines , was performed by Pneuman and Kopp in 1971 . The magnetohydrodynamics equations in steady state were solved iteratively starting with an initial dipolar configuration .In 1990, the Ulysses probe was launched to study the solar wind from high solar latitudes. All prior observations had been made at or near the Solar System's ecliptic plane. In the late 1990s, the Ultraviolet Coronal Spectrometer (UVCS) instrument on board the SOHO spacecraft observed the acceleration region of the fast solar wind emanating from the poles of the Sun and found that the wind accelerates much faster than can be accounted for by thermodynamic expansion alone. Parker's model predicted that the wind should make the transition to supersonic flow at an altitude of about four solar radii (approx. 3,000,000 km) from the photosphere (surface); but the transition (or ""sonic point"") now appears to be much lower, perhaps only one solar radius (approx. 700,000 km) above the photosphere, suggesting that some additional mechanism accelerates the solar wind away from the Sun. The acceleration of the fast wind is still not understood and cannot be fully explained by Parker's theory. However, the gravitational and electromagnetic explanation for this acceleration is detailed in an earlier paper by 1970 Nobel laureate in Physics, Hannes Alfvén. From May 10 to May 12, 1999, NASA's Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) and WIND spacecraft observed a 98% decrease of solar wind density. This allowed energetic electrons from the Sun to flow to Earth in narrow beams known as ""strahl"", which caused a highly unusual ""polar rain"" event, in which a visible aurora appeared over the North Pole. In addition, Earth's magnetosphere increased to between 5 and 6 times its normal size.","[-0.0816224068403244, 0.043316800147295, 0.019987957552075386, 0.054208461195230484, 0.07366777211427689, -0.04089135304093361, -0.06176852807402611, 0.022067030891776085, 0.023913521319627762, -0.011942624114453793, 0.042197830975055695, -0.007987722754478455, -0.01644539088010788, -0.03847663477063179, 0.058964502066373825, 0.0342198982834816, 0.016850408166646957, -0.10169398784637451, 0.046255242079496384, 0.01734652929008007, 0.015552230179309845, 0.011945991776883602, -0.012778636999428272, 0.0007468881667591631, 0.07933755218982697, 0.0497349388897419, -0.09062983095645905, -0.09799665212631226, -0.08299250155687332, 0.09279974550008774, 0.005294854752719402, 0.019616538658738136, -0.062104418873786926, 0.041043613106012344, 0.02148297429084778, 0.02130342461168766, 0.06505139917135239, 0.02564593032002449, 0.022504692897200584, 0.05488492175936699, -0.04110261797904968, 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492,"unusual `` polar rain '' event , in which a visible aurora appeared over the North Pole . In addition , Earth 's magnetosphere increased to between 5 and 6 times its normal size .The STEREO mission was launched in 2006 to study coronal mass ejections and the solar corona, using stereoscopy from two widely separated imaging systems. Each STEREO spacecraft carried two heliospheric imagers:  highly sensitive wide-field cameras capable of imaging the solar wind itself, via Thomson scattering of sunlight off of free electrons. Movies from STEREO revealed the solar wind near the ecliptic, as a large-scale turbulent flow. On December 13, 2010, Voyager 1 determined that the velocity of the solar wind, at its location 10.8 billion miles (17.4 billion kilometres) from Earth had slowed to zero. ""We have gotten to the point where the wind from the Sun, which until now has always had an outward motion, is no longer moving outward; it is only moving sideways so that it can end up going down the tail of the heliosphere, which is a comet-shaped-like object"", said Voyager project scientist Edward Stone. In 2018, NASA launched the Parker Solar Probe, named in honor of American astrophysicist Eugene Parker, on a mission to study the structure and dynamics of the solar corona, in an attempt to understand the mechanisms that cause particles to be heated and accelerated as solar wind. During its seven-year mission, the probe will make twenty-four orbits of the Sun, passing further into the corona with each orbit's perihelion, ultimately passing within 0.04 astronomical units of the Sun's surface. It is the first NASA spacecraft named for a living person, and Parker, at age 91, was on hand to observe the launch.","[-0.04237858206033707, 0.002407805062830448, 0.05850599333643913, 0.01741963066160679, 0.044323552399873734, -0.014859030023217201, -0.0062450082041323185, -0.032211706042289734, 0.036260925233364105, -0.011835074052214622, -0.04159465432167053, 0.03242367133498192, -0.06536520272493362, -0.02616746723651886, 0.03815789520740509, 0.03029642626643181, 0.040156830102205276, -0.05716748908162117, -0.0032166754826903343, 0.016252245754003525, -0.05729280039668083, -0.010640556924045086, -0.022291557863354683, 0.0010630137985572219, 0.07261314243078232, 0.01894872449338436, -0.04037999361753464, -0.08367949724197388, -0.0882672518491745, -0.0083082877099514, 0.05407855287194252, 0.09112029522657394, -0.10991489887237549, 0.006287999451160431, -0.021022140979766846, 0.010126875713467598, 0.06861957907676697, 0.011626039631664753, 0.02899079956114292, 0.012626894749701023, 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493,"astronomical units of the Sun 's surface . It is the first NASA spacecraft named for a living person , and Parker , at age 91 , was on hand to observe the launch .Acceleration mechanism
While early models of the solar wind relied primarily on thermal energy to accelerate the material, by the 1960s it was clear that thermal acceleration alone cannot account for the high speed of solar wind. An additional unknown acceleration mechanism is required and likely relates to magnetic fields in the solar atmosphere. The Sun's corona, or extended outer layer, is a region of plasma that is heated to over a megakelvin. As a result of thermal collisions, the particles within the inner corona have a range and distribution of speeds described by a Maxwellian distribution. The mean velocity of these particles is about 145 km/s, which is well below the solar escape velocity of 618 km/s. However, a few of the particles achieve energies sufficient to reach the terminal velocity of 400 km/s, which allows them to feed the solar wind. At the same temperature, electrons, due to their much smaller mass, reach escape velocity and build up an electric field that further accelerates ions away from the Sun. The total number of particles carried away from the Sun by the solar wind is about 1.3×1036 per second. Thus, the total mass loss each year is about (2–3)×10−14 solar masses, or about 1.3–1.9 million tonnes per second. This is equivalent to losing a mass equal to the Earth every 150 million years. However, since the Sun's formation, only about 0.01% of its initial mass has been lost through the solar wind. Other stars have much stronger stellar winds that result in significantly higher mass-loss rates.","[-0.005751146003603935, 0.061381153762340546, 0.04551522806286812, 0.09795217961072922, 0.027692465111613274, -0.00912413839250803, 0.02634749561548233, 0.011497855186462402, 0.03665738180279732, -0.005019150674343109, -0.0006723181577399373, -0.05820644646883011, 0.020230866968631744, -0.04648688808083534, 0.07881473004817963, -0.03330827131867409, 0.0723671019077301, -0.03622688725590706, -0.03456120938062668, 0.05292118340730667, -0.03989141434431076, 0.03835480287671089, -0.028979972004890442, -0.005352403968572617, 0.07803740352392197, 0.045024849474430084, -0.13844098150730133, -0.02641637809574604, -0.06207393482327461, 0.07654315233230591, 0.03124760091304779, -0.027752211317420006, -0.022699711844325066, 0.10808482766151428, -0.022106997668743134, -0.003986467607319355, 0.0029897214844822884, 0.016308670863509178, -0.008867296390235424, 0.025897158309817314, 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494,"Sun 's formation , only about 0.01 % of its initial mass has been lost through the solar wind . Other stars have much stronger stellar winds that result in significantly higher mass-loss rates .Jetlets
In March 2023 solar extreme ultraviolet observations have shown that small-scale magnetic reconnection could be a driver of the solar wind as a swarm of nanoflares in the form omnipresent jetting activity a.k.a. jetlets producing short-lived streams of hot plasma and Alfvén waves at the base of the solar corona. This activity could also be connected to the magnetic switchback phenomenon of the solar wind. Properties and structure
Fast and slow solar wind
The solar wind is observed to exist in two fundamental states, termed the slow solar wind and the fast solar wind, though their differences extend well beyond their speeds. In near-Earth space, the slow solar wind is observed to have a velocity of 300–500 km/s, a temperature of ~100 kilokelvin and a composition that is a close match to the corona. By contrast, the fast solar wind has a typical velocity of 750 km/s, a temperature of 800 kilokelvin and it nearly matches the composition of the Sun's photosphere. The slow solar wind is twice as dense and more variable in nature than the fast solar wind. The slow solar wind appears to originate from a region around the Sun's equatorial belt that is known as the ""streamer belt"", where coronal streamers are produced by magnetic flux open to the heliosphere draping over closed magnetic loops. The exact coronal structures involved in slow solar wind formation and the method by which the material is released is still under debate. Observations of the Sun between 1996 and 2001 showed that emission of the slow solar wind occurred at latitudes up to 30–35° during the solar minimum (the period of lowest solar activity), then expanded toward the poles as the solar cycle approached maximum.","[-0.009630430489778519, -0.021702930331230164, 0.006727748550474644, 0.07740166038274765, 0.018576497212052345, 0.026949483901262283, -0.0066849528811872005, -0.037626028060913086, 0.07281859219074249, -0.030066005885601044, 0.008401187136769295, 0.0008396577904932201, -0.04383736848831177, -0.0810142233967781, 0.09278431534767151, 0.003685127478092909, 0.002410344546660781, -0.003379973815754056, 0.01583034358918667, 0.0659400001168251, -0.04750234633684158, -0.05715629458427429, -0.03181445226073265, -0.026275664567947388, 0.06935926526784897, 0.08303570747375488, -0.08069798350334167, 0.009688361547887325, -0.06393276154994965, 0.031508106738328934, 0.053401630371809006, 0.07366014271974564, -0.11253673583269119, 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wind,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.
495,"the slow solar wind occurred at latitudes up to 30–35° during the solar minimum ( the period of lowest solar activity ) , then expanded toward the poles as the solar cycle approached maximum .At solar maximum, the poles were also emitting a slow solar wind. The fast solar wind originates from coronal holes, which are funnel-like regions of open field lines in the Sun's magnetic field. Such open lines are particularly prevalent around the Sun's magnetic poles. The plasma source is small magnetic fields created by convection cells in the solar atmosphere. These fields confine the plasma and transport it into the narrow necks of the coronal funnels, which are located only 20,000 km above the photosphere. The plasma is released into the funnel when these magnetic field lines reconnect. Velocity and density
Near the Earth's orbit at 1 astronomical unit (AU) the plasma flows at speeds ranging from 250 to 750 km/s with a density ranging between 3 and 10 particles per cubic centimeter and temperature ranging from 104 to 106 kelvin. On average, the plasma density decreases with the square of the distance from the Sun, while the velocity decreases and flattens out at 1 AU. Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 reported plasma density n between 0.001 and 0.005 particles/cm3 at distances of 80 to 120 AU, increasing rapidly beyond 120 AU at heliopause to between 0.05 and 0.2 particles/cm3. Pressure
At 1 AU, the wind exerts a pressure typically in the range of 1–6 nPa ((1–6)×10−9 N/m2), although it can readily vary outside that range. The ram pressure is a function of wind speed and density.","[0.0328858345746994, 0.03868832439184189, 0.017103038728237152, 0.0496918261051178, -0.008302204310894012, -0.0008002908434718847, -0.0050478712655603886, -0.02307681180536747, 0.06404121220111847, -0.010098133236169815, -0.010042091831564903, -0.0005217319121584296, 0.014841686934232712, -0.07026851177215576, 0.09379947185516357, -0.01487821340560913, 0.06143299490213394, -0.0592028982937336, 0.009179523214697838, 0.022976329550147057, -0.007605317048728466, -0.01570005901157856, -0.04468122869729996, -0.015911275520920753, 0.05356791615486145, -0.011007757857441902, -0.07267501205205917, -0.09317859262228012, -0.06141601502895355, 0.03359980508685112, -0.02193082496523857, 0.02792862430214882, -0.08566678315401077, 0.07380827516317368, -0.02952299267053604, -0.03316318243741989, 0.055802442133426666, 0.06511782109737396, 0.022750064730644226, 0.062140464782714844, -0.0052060033194720745, -0.07512214779853821, 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496,"in the range of 1–6 nPa ( ( 1–6 ) ×10−9 N/m2 ) , although it can readily vary outside that range . The ram pressure is a function of wind speed and density .The formula is

  
    
      
        P
        =
        
          m
          
            p
          
        
        ⋅
        n
        ⋅
        
          V
          
            2
          
        
        =
        
          1.6726
          ×
          
            10
            
              −
              27
            
          
          
          k
          g
        
        ⋅
        n
        ⋅
        
          V
          
            2
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle P=m_{\text{p}}\cdot n\cdot V^{2}=\mathrm {1.6726\times 10^{-27}\,kg} \cdot n\cdot V^{2}}
  

where mp is the proton mass, pressure P is in Pa (pascals), n is the density in particles/cm3 and V is the speed in km/s of the solar wind. Coronal mass ejection
Both the fast and slow solar wind can be interrupted by large, fast-moving bursts of plasma called coronal mass ejections, or CMEs. CMEs are caused by a release of magnetic energy at the Sun. CMEs are often called ""solar storms"" or ""space storms"" in the popular media. They are sometimes, but not always, associated with solar flares, which are another manifestation of magnetic energy release at the Sun. CMEs cause shock waves in the thin plasma of the heliosphere, launching electromagnetic waves and accelerating particles (mostly protons and electrons) to form showers of ionizing radiation that precede the CME. When a CME impacts the Earth's magnetosphere, it temporarily deforms the Earth's magnetic field, changing the direction of compass needles and inducing large electrical ground currents in Earth itself; this is called a geomagnetic storm and it is a global phenomenon. CME impacts can induce magnetic reconnection in Earth's magnetotail (the midnight side of the magnetosphere); this launches protons and electrons downward toward Earth's atmosphere, where they form the aurora. CMEs are not the only cause of space weather.","[-0.0027574249543249607, 0.06537864357233047, 0.025315815582871437, 0.10137452185153961, -0.016472604125738144, 0.014475854113698006, 0.03619486466050148, 0.023424915969371796, 0.10966626554727554, 0.001949064084328711, -0.0010128590511158109, -0.03004862740635872, -0.016100386157631874, -0.05324610322713852, 0.06243203580379486, 0.003964441828429699, 0.021763714030385017, -0.021924031898379326, -0.0010298872366547585, 0.11451809108257294, 0.03996938839554787, 0.04503239691257477, -0.04501527547836304, -0.013734366744756699, -0.002371980808675289, 0.062267884612083435, -0.07626929134130478, -0.01356715802103281, 0.01859322190284729, -0.014390566386282444, -0.0253615565598011, 0.02001812495291233, -0.020797990262508392, 0.08761574327945709, 0.0365525558590889, 0.013771598227322102, -0.02088986523449421, 0.010510559193789959, -0.04642210900783539, 0.07785259932279587, 0.018850991502404213, -0.03146102651953697, 0.007757647428661585, 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497,"the midnight side of the magnetosphere ) ; this launches protons and electrons downward toward Earth 's atmosphere , where they form the aurora . CMEs are not the only cause of space weather .Different patches on the Sun are known to give rise to slightly different speeds and densities of wind depending on local conditions. In isolation, each of these different wind streams would form a spiral with a slightly different angle, with fast-moving streams moving out more directly and slow-moving streams wrapping more around the Sun. Fast-moving streams tend to overtake slower streams that originate westward of them on the Sun, forming turbulent co-rotating interaction regions that give rise to wave motions and accelerated particles, and that affect Earth's magnetosphere in the same way as, but more gently than, CMEs. CMEs have a complex internal structure, with a highly turbulent region of hot and compressed plasma (known as sheath) preceding an arrival of relatively cold and strongly magnetized plasma region (known as magnetic cloud or ejecta). Sheath and ejecta have very different impact on the Earth's magnetosphere and on various space weather phenomena, such as the behavior of Van Allen radiation belts. Magnetic switchbacks
Magnetic switchbacks are sudden reversals in the magnetic field of the solar wind. They can also be described as traveling disturbances in the solar wind that caused the magnetic field to bend back on itself. They were first observed by the NASA–ESA  mission Ulysses, the first spacecraft to fly over the Sun's poles. Parker Solar Probe observed first switchbacks in 2018. Solar System effects
Over the Sun's lifetime, the interaction of its surface layers with the escaping solar wind has significantly decreased its surface rotation rate. The wind is considered responsible for comets' tails, along with the Sun's radiation. The solar wind contributes to fluctuations in celestial radio waves observed on the Earth, through an effect called interplanetary scintillation.","[-0.015018473379313946, -0.00831505749374628, 0.0645475909113884, 0.04135848209261894, 0.00154944509267807, -0.02105708234012127, -0.029312187805771828, -0.01501611527055502, 0.08051147311925888, -0.014562224969267845, -0.04701106622815132, -0.016089100390672684, 0.03354978933930397, -0.06641002744436264, 0.06839502602815628, -0.03586435317993164, 0.01624898985028267, -0.04500451683998108, -0.028088826686143875, 0.04706214740872383, -0.04358458146452904, -0.0042158011347055435, -0.08773168176412582, 0.028794359415769577, -0.0595770999789238, 0.04611561447381973, -0.003760864958167076, -0.0030257829930633307, -0.09158248454332352, -0.07399074733257294, 0.03492998331785202, -0.032404545694589615, -0.08893836289644241, 0.06409689784049988, -0.05201147124171257, 0.02420162968337536, 0.019947707653045654, 0.030936723574995995, 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498,"responsible for comets ' tails , along with the Sun 's radiation . The solar wind contributes to fluctuations in celestial radio waves observed on the Earth , through an effect called interplanetary scintillation .Magnetospheres
Where the solar wind intersects with a planet that has a well-developed magnetic field (such as Earth, Jupiter or Saturn), the particles are deflected by the Lorentz force. This region, known as the magnetosphere, causes the particles to travel around the planet rather than bombarding the atmosphere or surface. The magnetosphere is roughly shaped like a hemisphere on the side facing the Sun, then is drawn out in a long wake on the opposite side. The boundary of this region is called the magnetopause, and some of the particles are able to penetrate the magnetosphere through this region by partial reconnection of the magnetic field lines. The solar wind is responsible for the overall shape of Earth's magnetosphere. Fluctuations in its speed, density, direction, and entrained magnetic field strongly affect Earth's local space environment. For example, the levels of ionizing radiation and radio interference can vary by factors of hundreds to thousands; and the shape and location of the magnetopause and bow shock wave upstream of it can change by several Earth radii, exposing geosynchronous satellites to the direct solar wind. These phenomena are collectively called space weather. From the European Space Agency's Cluster mission, a new study has taken place that proposes that it is easier for the solar wind to infiltrate the magnetosphere than previously believed. A group of scientists directly observed the existence of certain waves in the solar wind that were not expected. A recent study shows that these waves enable incoming charged particles of solar wind to breach the magnetopause. This suggests that the magnetic bubble forms more as a filter than a continuous barrier.","[0.053560446947813034, 0.002245398238301277, 0.08250012248754501, 0.013650891371071339, 0.09437846392393112, 0.0006349353352561593, 0.026099052280187607, -0.0092162461951375, 0.05426062270998955, -0.02197113260626793, -0.05223902314901352, 0.03640828654170036, 0.04946477338671684, -0.11758993566036224, 0.06100413203239441, -0.0265661533921957, 0.033713649958372116, -0.07568859308958054, -0.0004206055891700089, 0.022496985271573067, -0.05118894577026367, -0.0015286626294255257, -0.033363327383995056, 0.005617941729724407, -0.03151801601052284, 0.013774629682302475, -0.015843147411942482, -0.01026577316224575, -0.10393603891134262, 0.020424816757440567, 0.06951775401830673, 0.046908456832170486, -0.10439387708902359, 0.026973405852913857, -0.07899647206068039, 0.056321099400520325, 0.0325181782245636, 0.050330474972724915, 0.02082608826458454, -0.004290533252060413, -0.05795244500041008, 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499,"A recent study shows that these waves enable incoming charged particles of solar wind to breach the magnetopause . This suggests that the magnetic bubble forms more as a filter than a continuous barrier .This latest discovery occurred through the distinctive arrangement of the four identical Cluster spacecraft, which fly in a controlled configuration through near-Earth space. As they sweep from the magnetosphere into interplanetary space and back again, the fleet provides exceptional three-dimensional insights on the phenomena that connect the sun to Earth. The research characterised variances in formation of the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) largely influenced by Kelvin–Helmholtz instability (which occur at the interface of two fluids) as a result of differences in thickness and numerous other characteristics of the boundary layer. Experts believe that this was the first occasion that the appearance of Kelvin–Helmholtz waves at the magnetopause had been displayed at high latitude downward orientation of the IMF. These waves are being seen in unforeseen places under solar wind conditions that were formerly believed to be undesired for their generation. These discoveries show how Earth's magnetosphere can be penetrated by solar particles under specific IMF circumstances. The findings are also relevant to studies of magnetospheric progressions around other planetary bodies. This study suggests that Kelvin–Helmholtz waves can be a somewhat common, and possibly constant, instrument for the entrance of solar wind into terrestrial magnetospheres under various IMF orientations. Atmospheres
The solar wind affects other incoming cosmic rays interacting with planetary atmospheres. Moreover, planets with a weak or non-existent magnetosphere are subject to atmospheric stripping by the solar wind. Venus, the nearest and most similar planet to Earth, has 100 times denser atmosphere, with little or no geo-magnetic field. Space probes discovered a comet-like tail that extends to Earth's orbit.","[0.013908359222114086, -0.007064596749842167, 0.04948418587446213, -0.010807547718286514, 0.07014941424131393, -0.01690542884171009, -0.015506500378251076, -0.032850347459316254, -0.018800858408212662, -0.05069197341799736, -0.05916280671954155, -0.0002401862439000979, 0.057154539972543716, -0.06735002994537354, 0.057572972029447556, -0.02283879555761814, -0.002009144052863121, -0.056314948946237564, -0.0004266613977961242, 0.01317074429243803, -0.06552718579769135, -0.01640833541750908, -0.020292025059461594, -0.0007034289301373065, -0.029227837920188904, 0.05652857571840286, -0.049729201942682266, -0.06701430678367615, -0.06977567076683044, 0.04239041730761528, 0.026034433394670486, 0.04330345243215561, -0.05210433155298233, 0.027484862133860588, -0.044354137033224106, 0.023426847532391548, 0.029577024281024933, 0.045937586575746536, -0.03213842585682869, 0.0035903931129723787, -0.09591316431760788, 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500,"the nearest and most similar planet to Earth , has 100 times denser atmosphere , with little or no geo-magnetic field . Space probes discovered a comet-like tail that extends to Earth 's orbit .Earth itself is largely protected from the solar wind by its magnetic field, which deflects most of the charged particles; however, some of the charged particles are trapped in the Van Allen radiation belt. A smaller number of particles from the solar wind manage to travel, as though on an electromagnetic energy transmission line, to the Earth's upper atmosphere and ionosphere in the auroral zones. The only time the solar wind is observable on the Earth is when it is strong enough to produce phenomena such as the aurora and geomagnetic storms. Bright auroras strongly heat the ionosphere, causing its plasma to expand into the magnetosphere, increasing the size of the plasma geosphere and injecting atmospheric matter into the solar wind. Geomagnetic storms result when the pressure of plasmas contained inside the magnetosphere is sufficiently large to inflate and thereby distort the geomagnetic field. Although Mars is larger than Mercury and four times farther from the Sun, it is thought that the solar wind has stripped away up to a third of its original atmosphere, leaving a layer 1/100 as dense as the Earth's. It is believed the mechanism for this atmospheric stripping is gas caught in bubbles of the magnetic field, which are ripped off by the solar wind. In 2015 the NASA Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) mission measured the rate of atmospheric stripping caused by the magnetic field carried by the solar wind as it flows past Mars, which generates an electric field, much as a turbine on Earth can be used to generate electricity. This electric field accelerates electrically charged gas atoms, called ions, in Mars's upper atmosphere and shoots them into space.","[0.05226847156882286, 0.025557128712534904, 0.0678345113992691, 0.03407858684659004, 0.09350594878196716, -0.022238895297050476, 0.04883534461259842, -0.04908212646842003, 0.06964085251092911, 0.020217835903167725, -0.04230908304452896, -0.001857976894825697, 0.056063588708639145, -0.09315795451402664, 0.0860401839017868, 0.004870973527431488, 0.09042249619960785, -0.08702711760997772, -0.034418221563100815, 0.004572357051074505, -0.037130143493413925, 0.027113575488328934, -0.03908636048436165, 0.023313626646995544, -0.027406901121139526, 0.01757768727838993, -0.02398843690752983, -0.018071427941322327, -0.10268855839967728, -0.0028667813166975975, 0.023297511041164398, -0.02425164170563221, -0.09229493141174316, 0.0528581365942955, -0.04559804126620293, 0.06591959297657013, 0.03381011262536049, 0.06561629474163055, -0.010250306688249111, 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wind,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.
501,"as a turbine on Earth can be used to generate electricity . This electric field accelerates electrically charged gas atoms , called ions , in Mars 's upper atmosphere and shoots them into space .The MAVEN mission measured the rate of atmospheric stripping at about 100 grams (≈1/4 lb) per second. Moons and planetary surfaces
Mercury, the nearest planet to the Sun, bears the full brunt of the solar wind, and since its atmosphere is vestigial and transient, its surface is bathed in radiation. Mercury has an intrinsic magnetic field, so under normal solar wind conditions, the solar wind cannot penetrate its magnetosphere and particles only reach the surface in the cusp regions. During coronal mass ejections, however, the magnetopause may get pressed into the surface of the planet, and under these conditions, the solar wind may interact freely with the planetary surface. The Earth's Moon has no atmosphere or intrinsic magnetic field, and consequently its surface is bombarded with the full solar wind. The Project Apollo missions deployed passive aluminum collectors in an attempt to sample the solar wind, and lunar soil returned for study confirmed that the lunar regolith is enriched in atomic nuclei deposited from the solar wind. These elements may prove useful resources for future lunar expeditions. Limits
Alfvén surface
The Alfvén surface is the boundary separating the corona from the solar wind defined as where the coronal plasma's Alfvén speed and the large-scale solar wind speed are equal. Researchers were unsure exactly where the Alfvén critical surface of the Sun lay. Based on remote images of the corona, estimates had put it somewhere between 10 and 20 solar radii from the surface of the Sun. On April 28, 2021, during its eighth flyby of the Sun, NASA's Parker Solar Probe encountered the specific magnetic and particle conditions at 18.8 solar radii that indicated that it penetrated the Alfvén surface.","[0.007625814061611891, 0.07615706324577332, 0.03462665155529976, 0.039474863559007645, 0.10327211022377014, -0.10469178110361099, 0.056061893701553345, -0.03702089563012123, 0.004195560235530138, -0.012524785473942757, 0.04278969392180443, -0.05161837860941887, 0.037991639226675034, -0.047224145382642746, 0.04251920059323311, 0.013096977025270462, 0.018348626792430878, -0.003537358483299613, 0.018009470775723457, 0.07527139037847519, 0.00595411891117692, 0.03567752242088318, -0.01430963072925806, 0.004132901784032583, 0.0027080136351287365, 0.11578962206840515, -0.1232936754822731, 0.02128712832927704, -0.013437863439321518, 0.004931390285491943, -0.017687862738966942, 0.01664906181395054, -0.0422169528901577, 0.007751370780169964, -0.001534761511720717, 0.07204398512840271, 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502,"2021 , during its eighth flyby of the Sun , NASA 's Parker Solar Probe encountered the specific magnetic and particle conditions at 18.8 solar radii that indicated that it penetrated the Alfvén surface .Outer limits
The solar wind ""blows a bubble"" in the interstellar medium (the rarefied hydrogen and helium gas that permeates the galaxy). The point where the solar wind's strength is no longer great enough to push back the interstellar medium is known as the heliopause and is often considered to be the outer border of the Solar System. The distance to the heliopause is not precisely known and probably depends on the current velocity of the solar wind and the local density of the interstellar medium, but it is far outside Pluto's orbit. Scientists hope to gain perspective on the heliopause from data acquired through the Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) mission, launched in October 2008. The heliopause is noted as one of the ways of defining the extent of the Solar System, along with the Kuiper Belt and the radius at which the Sun's gravitational influence is matched by other stars. The maximum extent of that influence has been estimated at between 50,000 AU and 2 light-years, compared to the heliopause (the outer boundary of the heliosphere), which has been detected at about 120 AU by the Voyager 1 spacecraft. The Voyager 2 spacecraft crossed the termination shock more than five times between August 30 and December 10, 2007. Voyager 2 crossed the shock about a Tm closer to the Sun than the 13.5 Tm distance where Voyager 1 came upon the termination shock. The spacecraft moved outward through the termination shock into the heliosheath and onward toward the interstellar medium. See also
References
Further reading
""NASA study using cluster reveals new insights into solar wind"". EurekAlert!. 24 October 2012. Cuperman, S.; Metzler, N. 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wind,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.
503,"References Further reading '' NASA study using cluster reveals new insights into solar wind '' . EurekAlert ! . 24 October 2012 . Cuperman , S. ; Metzler , N. ( June 1973 ) .""On the role of fluctuations in the interplanetary magnetic field on heat conduction in the solar wind"". Journal of Geophysical Research. 78 (16): 3167–3168. Bibcode:1973JGR....78.3167C. doi:10.1029/JA078i016p03167. Cuperman, S.; Metzler, N. (June 1973). ""On the Thermal Conductivity of the Quiet Solar-Wind Plasma and Consequences"". The Astrophysical Journal. 182: 961. Bibcode:1973ApJ...182..961C. doi:10.1086/152196. ISSN 0004-637X. Cuperman, S.; Metzler, N. (February 1975). ""Solution of three-fluid model equations with anomalous transport coefficients for the quiet solar wind"". The Astrophysical Journal. 196: 205. Bibcode:1975ApJ...196..205C. doi:10.1086/153406. ISSN 0004-637X. Cuperman, S.; Metzler, N.; Spiegelglass, M. (June 1975). ""Confirmation of known numerical solutions for the quiet solar wind equations"". The Astrophysical Journal. 198: 755–759. Bibcode:1975ApJ...198..755C. doi:10.1086/153652. ISSN 0004-637X. Cuperman, S.; Metzler, N. (December 1976). ""On the relative magnitude of streaming velocities of alpha particles and protons at 1 AU"". Astrophysics and Space Science. 45 (2): 411–417. Bibcode:1976Ap&SS..45..411C. doi:10.1007/BF00642675. ISSN 1572-946X. Metzler, N. (1978). A multi-fluid model for stellar winds. Proceedings of the L.D.de Feiter Memorial Symposium on the Study of Traveling Interplanetary Phenomena. Air Force Systems Command, USAF. Metzler, N.; Dryer, M. (June 1978). ""A self-consistent solution of the three-fluid model for the solar wind"". The Astrophysical Journal. 222: 689–695. 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wind,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.
504,"( June 1978 ) . `` A self-consistent solution of the three-fluid model for the solar wind '' . The Astrophysical Journal . 222 : 689–695 . Bibcode:1978ApJ ... 222 .. 689M . doi:10.1086/156187 .ISSN 0004-637X. Cuperman, S.; Metzler, N. (May 1979). ""Comments on 'Acceleration of solar wind He++, 3. Effects of resonant and nonresonant interactions with transverse waves' by J. V. Hollweg and J. M. Turner"". Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics. 84 (A5): 2139–2140. Bibcode:1979JGR....84.2139C. doi:10.1029/JA084iA05p02139. ISSN 0148-0227. Metzler, N.; Cuperman, S.; Dryer, M.; Rosenau, P. (August 1979). ""A time-dependent two-fluid model with thermal conduction for the solar wind"". The Astrophysical Journal. 231: 960. Bibcode:1979ApJ...231..960M. doi:10.1086/157258. ISSN 0004-637X. Alexander, Peter (13 October 1992). ""History of solar coronal expansion studies"". Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union. 73 (41): 433–438. Bibcode:1992EOSTr..73..433A. doi:10.1029/91EO00319. ISSN 0096-3941. External links

Real-time plots of solar wind activity from the Advanced Composition Explorer
Get data from A.C.E. (Advanced Composition Explorer) and boost the brain Archived 2022-08-11 at the Wayback Machine","[-0.07810717076063156, -0.006481270771473646, 0.06762835383415222, 0.04154757410287857, -0.007363844662904739, -0.021397221833467484, -0.041073381900787354, 0.008213520981371403, 0.04651770368218422, -0.0465116947889328, 0.025541948154568672, -0.03942982107400894, 0.030312037095427513, -0.021698184311389923, 0.10026095062494278, -0.020238665863871574, -0.010321194306015968, 0.02287908084690571, -0.015952736139297485, 0.01386954914778471, -0.028774378821253777, 0.016289273276925087, -0.011963427066802979, -0.03781842067837715, 0.13146787881851196, -0.006087478715926409, -0.0065455809235572815, -0.007672377862036228, -0.033458370715379715, 0.10181766748428345, 0.011288945563137531, 0.06396724283695221, -0.14492826163768768, 0.02655988186597824, -0.016754761338233948, 0.002321273786947131, 0.02647814154624939, -0.0026787046808749437, -0.11865467578172684, 0.008205540478229523, 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505," Patterns of solar irradiance and solar variation have been a main driver of climate change over the millions to billions of years of the geologic time scale. Evidence that this is the case comes from analysis on many timescales and from many sources, including: direct observations; composites from baskets of different proxy observations; and numerical climate models. On millennial timescales, paleoclimate indicators have been compared to cosmogenic isotope abundances as the latter are a proxy for solar activity. These have also been used on century times scales but, in addition, instrumental data are increasingly available (mainly telescopic observations of sunspots and thermometer measurements of air temperature) and show that, for example, the temperature fluctuations do not match the solar activity variations and that the commonly-invoked association of the Little Ice Age with the Maunder minimum is far too simplistic as, although solar variations may have played a minor role, a much bigger factor is known to be Little Ice Age volcanism. In recent decades observations of unprecedented accuracy, sensitivity and scope (of both solar activity and terrestrial climate) have become available from spacecraft and show unequivocally that recent global warming is not caused by changes in the Sun. Geologic time
Earth formed around 4.54 billion years ago by accretion from the solar nebula. Volcanic outgassing probably created the primordial atmosphere, which contained almost no oxygen and would have been toxic to humans and most modern life. Much of the Earth was molten because of frequent collisions with other bodies which led to extreme volcanism. Over time, the planet cooled and formed a solid crust, eventually allowing liquid water to exist on the surface. Three to four billion years ago the Sun emitted only 70% of its current power. Under the present atmospheric composition, this past solar luminosity would have been insufficient to prevent water from uniformly freezing.","[-0.03067759983241558, 0.04183501750230789, 0.09037330746650696, 0.057775113731622696, 0.07845165580511093, -0.02846347540616989, -0.051216110587120056, 0.03392380475997925, 0.03075452148914337, 0.014623794704675674, -0.012108676135540009, -0.10690324753522873, 0.019687771797180176, 0.04524453356862068, 0.05444999784231186, -0.057268090546131134, -0.001460617408156395, 0.0014535874361172318, 0.04748097062110901, -0.05061250180006027, -0.024244999513030052, 0.027453497052192688, -0.0872306078672409, 0.018113436177372932, 0.02664397656917572, -0.05571732670068741, -0.1043926328420639, 0.008375938981771469, -0.057927828282117844, 0.11291305720806122, -0.0450732447206974, 0.11539341509342194, 0.012701529078185558, -0.0045022666454315186, 0.0057089184410870075, 0.04285051301121712, 0.04777903854846954, 0.0030348356813192368, -0.08753357082605362, 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506,"billion years ago the Sun emitted only 70 % of its current power . Under the present atmospheric composition , this past solar luminosity would have been insufficient to prevent water from uniformly freezing .There is nonetheless evidence that liquid water was already present in the Hadean and Archean eons, leading to what is known as the faint young Sun paradox. Hypothesized solutions to this paradox include a vastly different atmosphere, with much higher concentrations of greenhouse gases than currently exist. Over the following approximately 4 billion years, the Sun's energy output increased and the composition of the Earth atmosphere changed. The Great Oxygenation Event around 2.4 billion years ago was the most notable alteration of the atmosphere. Over the next five billion years, the Sun's ultimate death as it becomes a very bright red giant and then a very faint white dwarf will have dramatic effects on climate, with the red giant phase likely already ending any life on Earth. Measurement
Since 1978, solar irradiance has been directly measured by satellites with very good accuracy. These measurements indicate that the Sun's total solar irradiance fluctuates by +-0.1% over the ~11 years of the solar cycle, but that its average value has been stable since the measurements started in 1978. Solar irradiance before the 1970s is estimated using proxy variables, such as tree rings, the number of sunspots, and the abundances of cosmogenic isotopes such as  10Be, all of which are calibrated to the post-1978 direct measurements. Solar activity has been on a declining trend since the 1960s, as indicated by solar cycles 19–24, in which the maximum number of sunspots were 201, 111, 165, 159, 121 and 82, respectively. In the three decades following 1978, the combination of solar and volcanic activity is estimated to have had a slight cooling influence.","[-0.032176531851291656, 0.10906945168972015, 0.09845340996980667, 0.1286163181066513, 0.13321025669574738, -0.065880686044693, 0.0034488399978727102, 0.04858419671654701, 0.01728879287838936, 0.0004338169237598777, -0.017199605703353882, -0.02744416706264019, 0.021934857591986656, 0.006695758085697889, 0.043022219091653824, -0.01979955844581127, -0.020309699699282646, -0.017097705975174904, -0.005988486111164093, -0.05156171694397926, -0.029980076476931572, 0.035299576818943024, -0.02482282556593418, -0.005060368217527866, -0.012504464015364647, -0.024506404995918274, -0.0239061638712883, -0.013614315539598465, -0.061087820678949356, 0.037234462797641754, -0.019518300890922546, 0.0246600192040205, 0.04181859642267227, -0.02899123728275299, -0.008077622391283512, 0.04855567216873169, 0.11584267765283585, -0.08720365166664124, -0.0381956472992897, 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507,", 165 , 159 , 121 and 82 , respectively . In the three decades following 1978 , the combination of solar and volcanic activity is estimated to have had a slight cooling influence .A 2010 study found that the composition of solar radiation might have changed slightly, with in an increase of ultraviolet radiation and a decrease in other wavelengths."" Modern era
In the modern era, the Sun has operated within a sufficiently narrow  band that climate has been little affected. Models indicate that the combination of solar variations and volcanic activity can explain periods of relative warmth and cold between A.D. 1000 and 1900. The Holocene
Numerous paleoenvironmental reconstructions have looked for relationships between solar variability and climate. Arctic paleoclimate, in particular, has linked total solar irradiance variations and climate variability. A 2001 paper identified a ~1500 year solar cycle that was a significant influence on North Atlantic climate throughout the Holocene. Little Ice Age
One historical long-term correlation between solar activity and climate change is the 1645–1715 Maunder minimum, a period of little or no sunspot activity which partially overlapped the ""Little Ice Age"" during which cold weather prevailed in Europe. The Little Ice Age encompassed roughly the 16th to the 19th centuries. Whether the low solar activity or other factors caused the cooling is debated. The Spörer Minimum between 1460 and 1550 was matched to a significant cooling period. A 2012 paper instead linked the Little Ice Age to volcanism, through an ""unusual 50-year-long episode with four large sulfur-rich explosive eruptions,"" and claimed ""large changes in solar irradiance are not required"" to explain the phenomenon. A 2010 paper suggested that a new 90-year period of low solar activity would reduce global average temperatures by about 0.3 °C, which would be far from enough to offset the increased forcing from greenhouse gases.","[-0.03461891785264015, 0.10750363767147064, 0.08226978033781052, 0.08302401751279831, 0.05560692772269249, -0.0023335330188274384, -0.06684444099664688, 0.027216419577598572, -0.043731629848480225, 0.015669358894228935, 0.0020231737289577723, -0.054597362875938416, -0.0023527343291789293, 0.054222021251916885, 0.07337313890457153, 0.002924884669482708, -0.08145038783550262, 0.004941971506923437, 0.0597546212375164, -0.002132027642801404, -0.01089311670511961, -0.008519218303263187, -0.07166267186403275, -0.029671819880604744, 0.02140967920422554, -0.02642827108502388, -0.07223449647426605, 0.017702875658869743, -0.09823910146951675, 0.11163593828678131, -0.018570009618997574, 0.06857505440711975, 0.03290409967303276, -0.013289046473801136, 0.06031373515725136, 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508,"suggested that a new 90-year period of low solar activity would reduce global average temperatures by about 0.3 °C , which would be far from enough to offset the increased forcing from greenhouse gases .Fossil fuel era
The link between recent solar activity and climate has been quantified and is not a major driver of the warming that has occurred since early in the twentieth century. Human-induced forcings are needed to reproduce the late-20th century warming. Some studies associate solar cycle-driven irradiation increases with part of twentieth century warming. Three mechanisms are proposed by which solar activity affects climate:

Solar irradiance changes directly affecting the climate (""radiative forcing""). This is generally considered to be a minor effect, as the measured amplitudes of the variations are too small to have significant effect, absent some amplification process. Variations in the ultraviolet component. The UV component varies by more than the total, so if UV were for some (as yet unknown) reason to have a disproportionate effect, this might explain a larger solar signal. Effects mediated by changes in galactic cosmic rays (which are affected by the solar wind) such as changes in cloud cover. Climate models have been unable to reproduce the rapid warming observed in recent decades when they only consider variations in total solar irradiance and volcanic activity. Hegerl et al. (2007) concluded that greenhouse gas forcing had ""very likely"" caused most of the observed global warming since the mid-20th century. In making this conclusion, they allowed for the possibility that climate models had been underestimating the effect of solar forcing. Another line of evidence comes from looking at how temperatures at different levels in the Earth's atmosphere have changed. Models and observations show that greenhouse gas results in warming of the troposphere, but cooling of the stratosphere. Depletion of the ozone layer by chemical refrigerants stimulated a stratospheric cooling effect.","[-0.03168289363384247, 0.05595088005065918, 0.15420328080654144, 0.05166884511709213, 0.08350856602191925, 0.04680121690034866, -0.04935014620423317, 0.00010592540638754144, 0.00029768369859084487, 0.05256488919258118, 0.013002689927816391, -0.06087132543325424, 0.06143797188997269, 0.013850395567715168, 0.14572831988334656, 0.0012648575939238071, -0.00881980825215578, 0.026170430704951286, -0.013698793947696686, -0.02758733369410038, 0.016410211101174355, 0.02502809464931488, -0.05639541149139404, -0.03805309534072876, -0.01988529972732067, -0.045306138694286346, -0.0626617968082428, 0.006632363889366388, -0.06501100957393646, 0.11182843893766403, -0.008922017179429531, 0.11155742406845093, -0.006259700749069452, 0.03480743244290352, -0.05260926112532616, 0.03337688744068146, -0.007851624861359596, 0.0006000782013870776, -0.048673663288354874, 0.05716951563954353, -0.050125062465667725, 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509,". Models and observations show that greenhouse gas results in warming of the troposphere , but cooling of the stratosphere . Depletion of the ozone layer by chemical refrigerants stimulated a stratospheric cooling effect .If the Sun was responsible for observed warming, warming of the troposphere at the surface and warming at the top of the stratosphere would be expected as the increased solar activity would replenish ozone and oxides of nitrogen. Lines of evidence
The assessment of the solar activity/climate relationship involves multiple, independent lines of evidence. Sunspots
Early research attempted to find a correlation between weather and sunspot activity, mostly without notable success. Later research has concentrated more on correlating solar activity with global temperature. Irradiation
Accurate measurement of solar forcing is crucial to understanding possible solar impact on terrestrial climate. Accurate measurements only became available during the satellite era, starting in the late 1970s, and even that is open to some residual disputes: different teams find different values, due to different methods of cross-calibrating measurements taken by instruments with different spectral sensitivity. Scafetta and Willson argue for significant variations of solar luminosity between 1980 and 2000, but Lockwood and Frohlich find that solar forcing declined after 1987. The 2001 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Third Assessment Report (TAR) concluded that the measured impact of recent solar variation is much smaller than the amplification effect due to greenhouse gases, but acknowledged that scientific understanding is poor with respect to solar variation. Estimates of long-term solar irradiance changes have decreased since the TAR. However, empirical results of detectable tropospheric changes have strengthened the evidence for solar forcing of climate change. The most likely mechanism is considered to be some combination of direct forcing by TSI changes and indirect effects of ultraviolet (UV) radiation on the stratosphere. Least certain are indirect effects induced by galactic cosmic rays. In 2002, Lean et al.","[-0.02204171009361744, 0.06804001331329346, 0.01529143936932087, 0.08281121402978897, 0.10492538660764694, -0.021856585517525673, 0.014740907587110996, 0.03770512342453003, 0.03351983428001404, 0.011265433393418789, -0.03574327751994133, -0.036268651485443115, 0.06662721931934357, -0.009497460909187794, 0.05737899988889694, -0.010551615618169308, 0.0309908427298069, -0.0035496726632118225, 0.047253310680389404, -0.07945533841848373, -0.04424091428518295, -0.037870921194553375, -0.019692160189151764, -0.0319271944463253, 0.07099056243896484, -0.02077740803360939, -0.15625686943531036, 0.044550821185112, -0.13371795415878296, 0.10854096710681915, -0.011150416918098927, 0.09937196969985962, -0.015284747816622257, 0.02539794147014618, -0.036694835871458054, 0.0016911354614421725, 0.04875316843390465, -0.01876506395637989, -0.04328117147088051, 0.07370375841856003, -0.02024424821138382, -0.08701711893081665, 0.012057771906256676, -0.010119936428964138, 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510,"forcing by TSI changes and indirect effects of ultraviolet ( UV ) radiation on the stratosphere . Least certain are indirect effects induced by galactic cosmic rays . In 2002 , Lean et al .stated that while ""There is ... growing empirical evidence for the Sun's role in climate change on multiple time scales including the 11-year cycle"", ""changes in terrestrial proxies of solar activity (such as the 14C and 10Be cosmogenic isotopes and the aa geomagnetic index) can occur in the absence of long-term (i.e., secular) solar irradiance changes ... because the stochastic response increases with the cycle amplitude, not because there is an actual secular irradiance change."" They conclude that because of this, ""long-term climate change may appear to track the amplitude of the solar activity cycles,"" but that ""Solar radiative forcing of climate is reduced by a factor of 5 when the background component is omitted from historical reconstructions of total solar irradiance ...This suggests that general circulation model (GCM) simulations of twentieth century warming may overestimate the role of solar irradiance variability."" A 2006 review suggested that solar brightness had relatively little effect on global climate, with little likelihood of significant shifts in solar output over long periods of time. Lockwood and Fröhlich, 2007, found ""considerable evidence for solar influence on the Earth's pre-industrial climate and the Sun may well have been a factor in post-industrial climate change in the first half of the last century"", but that ""over the past 20 years, all the trends in the Sun that could have had an influence on the Earth's climate have been in the opposite direction to that required to explain the observed rise in global mean temperatures."" In a study that considered geomagnetic activity as a measure of known solar-terrestrial interaction, Love et al.","[-0.02142360620200634, 0.035794928669929504, 0.13772429525852203, 0.05265181139111519, 0.05277778208255768, 0.03957301378250122, -0.07904083281755447, -0.017329169437289238, 0.003717828309163451, 0.01876339130103588, -0.004721194040030241, -0.011640211567282677, 0.06584125757217407, -0.03355474770069122, 0.11755988001823425, -0.04901914671063423, -0.004811139311641455, 0.006884196773171425, 0.015131969936192036, -0.0204140767455101, -0.035724930465221405, 0.04687120392918587, -0.0621504969894886, -0.028925253078341484, 0.005252971779555082, -0.0984668955206871, -0.03640942648053169, -0.028744693845510483, -0.07108595967292786, 0.07698121666908264, -0.028537271544337273, 0.09134328365325928, -0.012147861532866955, 0.01455268170684576, 0.007320965640246868, 0.0008605673792771995, -0.05740077793598175, -0.0481707900762558, -0.06208861991763115, 0.07016648352146149, 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511,"opposite direction to that required to explain the observed rise in global mean temperatures . '' In a study that considered geomagnetic activity as a measure of known solar-terrestrial interaction , Love et al .found a statistically significant correlation between sunspots and geomagnetic activity, but not between global surface temperature and either sunspot number or geomagnetic activity. Benestad and Schmidt concluded that ""the most likely contribution from solar forcing a global warming is 7 ± 1% for the 20th century and is negligible for warming since 1980."" This paper disagreed with Scafetta and West, who claimed that solar variability has a significant effect on climate forcing. Based on correlations between specific climate and solar forcing reconstructions, they argued that a ""realistic climate scenario is the one described by a large preindustrial secular variability (e.g., the paleoclimate temperature reconstruction by Moberg et al.) with TSI experiencing low secular variability (as the one shown by Wang et al.). Under this scenario, they claimed the Sun might have contributed 50% of the observed global warming since 1900. Stott et al. estimated that the residual effects of the prolonged high solar activity during the last 30 years account for between 16% and 36% of warming from 1950 to 1999. Direct measurement and time series
Neither direct measurements nor proxies of solar variation correlate well with Earth global temperature, particularly in recent decades when both quantities are best known. The oppositely-directed trends highlighted by Lockwood and Fröhlich in 2007, with global mean temperatures continuing to rise while solar activity fell, have continued and become even more pronounced since then. In 2007 the difference in the trends was apparent after about 1987 and that difference has grown and accelerated in subsequent years.","[-0.057889409363269806, 0.07910054922103882, 0.1271418333053589, 0.08013249933719635, 0.06845154613256454, 0.021829698234796524, -0.01972828432917595, 0.03705674782395363, -0.023183070123195648, 0.0379616916179657, -0.049184445291757584, -0.017674589529633522, 0.11367480456829071, 0.018335437402129173, 0.06290454417467117, -0.057723112404346466, -0.04803233966231346, -0.014480271376669407, -0.01616113819181919, 0.025546429678797722, -0.053642239421606064, 0.03807317093014717, -0.009017415344715118, 0.013871202245354652, 0.006612041499465704, -0.07263009995222092, -0.04336969181895256, 0.007959356531500816, -0.11471160501241684, 0.16313783824443817, -0.0629630759358406, 0.12417811155319214, -0.014648813754320145, -0.014959645457565784, -0.04911088943481445, 0.06907885521650314, -0.05192169174551964, 0.020581718534231186, -0.05282822623848915, 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512,"fell , have continued and become even more pronounced since then . In 2007 the difference in the trends was apparent after about 1987 and that difference has grown and accelerated in subsequent years .The updated figure (right) shows the variations and contrasts solar cycles 14 and 24, a century apart, that are quite similar in all solar activity measures (in fact cycle 24 is slightly less active than cycle 14 on average), yet the global mean air surface temperature is more than 1 degree Celsius higher for cycle 24 than cycle 14, showing the rise is not associated with solar activity. The total solar irradiance (TSI) panel shows the PMOD composite of observations   with a modelled variation from the SATIRE-T2 model of the effect of sunspots and faculae  with the addition of a quiet -Sun variation (due to sub-resolution photospheric features and any solar radius changes) derived from correlations with comic ray fluxes and cosmogenic isotopes. The finding that solar activity was approximately the same in cycles 14 and 24 applies to all solar outputs that have, in the past, been proposed as a potential cause of terrestrial climate change and includes total solar irradiance, cosmic ray fluxes, spectral UV irradiance, solar wind speed and/or density, heliospheric magnetic field and its distribution of orientations and the consequent level of geomagnetic activity. Daytime/nighttime
Global average diurnal temperature range has decreased. Daytime temperatures have not risen as fast as nighttime temperatures. This is the opposite of the expected warming if solar energy (falling primarily or wholly during daylight, depending on energy regime) were the principal means of forcing. It is, however, the expected pattern if greenhouse gases were preventing radiative escape, which is more prevalent at night. Hemisphere and latitude
The Northern Hemisphere is warming faster than the Southern Hemisphere.","[-0.023055169731378555, -0.019155725836753845, 0.11237432062625885, 0.06739035993814468, 0.08340704441070557, -0.034818924963474274, 0.008130562491714954, 0.07919324189424515, 0.043175484985113144, 0.025259288027882576, 0.02802877686917782, -0.048630211502313614, 0.08115600049495697, 0.026316553354263306, 0.09433358907699585, -0.06293286383152008, 0.015622425824403763, -0.03243675082921982, 0.039209578186273575, -0.0192863829433918, -0.0058980342000722885, 0.012684394605457783, -0.057137373834848404, -4.726254701381549e-05, 0.03179352730512619, -0.017008384689688683, -0.124439537525177, -0.005436948500573635, -0.03987421840429306, 0.05581178888678551, -0.048722539097070694, 0.18384020030498505, 0.015094251371920109, 0.0024415254592895508, 0.033270541578531265, -0.028809990733861923, 0.023350760340690613, 0.024184012785553932, -0.01698075421154499, 0.005172241944819689, -0.031056392937898636, -0.1149422824382782, 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513,", however , the expected pattern if greenhouse gases were preventing radiative escape , which is more prevalent at night . Hemisphere and latitude The Northern Hemisphere is warming faster than the Southern Hemisphere .This is the opposite of the expected pattern if the Sun, currently closer to the Earth during austral summer, were the principal climate forcing. In particular, the Southern Hemisphere, with more ocean area and less land area, has a lower albedo (""whiteness"") and absorbs more light. The Northern Hemisphere, however, has higher population, industry and emissions. Furthermore, the Arctic region is warming faster than the Antarctic and faster than northern mid-latitudes and subtropics, despite polar regions receiving less sun than lower latitudes. Altitude
Solar forcing should warm Earth's atmosphere roughly evenly by altitude, with some variation by wavelength/energy regime. However, the atmosphere is warming at lower altitudes while cooling higher up. This is the expected pattern if greenhouse gases drive temperature, as on Venus. Solar variation theory
A 1994 study of the US National Research Council concluded that TSI variations were the most likely cause of significant climate change in the pre-industrial era, before significant human-generated carbon dioxide entered the atmosphere. Scafetta and West correlated solar proxy data and lower tropospheric temperature for the preindustrial era, before significant anthropogenic greenhouse forcing, suggesting that TSI variations may have contributed 50% of the warming observed between 1900 and 2000 (although they conclude ""our estimates about the solar effect on climate might be overestimated and should be considered as an upper limit."") If interpreted as a detection rather than an upper limit, this would contrast with global climate models  predicting that solar forcing of climate through direct radiative forcing makes an insignificant contribution. In 2000, Stott and others reported on the most comprehensive model simulations of 20th century climate to that date.","[0.019272854551672935, 0.04851405322551727, 0.11437144130468369, 0.038689129054546356, 0.11301034688949585, -0.020728934556245804, -0.044896312057971954, 0.003516585100442171, 0.03598868101835251, 0.054786283522844315, -0.07997474819421768, -0.0057540759444236755, 0.04626818001270294, 0.027516303583979607, 0.18891112506389618, -0.022666307166218758, 0.05831700190901756, -0.02835850790143013, 0.005356332287192345, -0.03921935334801674, -0.0020624357275664806, 0.017208978533744812, 0.034183502197265625, 0.011779924854636192, -0.029707664623856544, -0.04074348136782646, -0.05802096053957939, 0.102841816842556, -0.02518211118876934, 0.11236682534217834, -0.07562347501516342, 0.08026687055826187, -0.02813255600631237, -0.03450978919863701, -0.04346847906708717, -0.03628354147076607, -0.01750521920621395, -0.01795409619808197, -0.026416966691613197, 0.06447544693946838, 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514,"that solar forcing of climate through direct radiative forcing makes an insignificant contribution . In 2000 , Stott and others reported on the most comprehensive model simulations of 20th century climate to that date .Their study looked at both ""natural forcing agents"" (solar variations and volcanic emissions) as well as ""anthropogenic forcing"" (greenhouse gases and sulphate aerosols). They found that ""solar effects may have contributed significantly to the warming in the first half of the century although this result is dependent on the reconstruction of total solar irradiance that is used. In the latter half of the century, we find that anthropogenic increases in greenhouses gases are largely responsible for the observed warming, balanced by some cooling due to anthropogenic sulphate aerosols, with no evidence for significant solar effects."" Stott's group found that combining these factors enabled them to closely simulate global temperature changes throughout the 20th century. They predicted that continued greenhouse gas emissions would cause additional future temperature increases ""at a rate similar to that observed in recent decades"". In addition, the study notes ""uncertainties in historical forcing"" — in other words, past natural forcing may still be having a delayed warming effect, most likely due to the oceans. Stott's 2003 work largely revised his assessment, and found a significant solar contribution to recent warming, although still smaller (between 16 and 36%) than that of greenhouse gases. A study in 2004 concluded that solar activity affects the climate - based on sunspot activity, yet plays only a small role in the current global warming. Correlations to solar cycle length
In 1991, Friis-Christensen and Lassen claimed a strong correlation of the length of the solar cycle with northern hemispheric temperature changes. They initially used sunspot and temperature measurements from 1861 to 1989 and later extended the period using four centuries of climate records.","[-0.049801815301179886, 0.06762055307626724, 0.07970776408910751, 0.07363186776638031, 0.10850512236356735, -0.011902677826583385, -0.11702161282300949, 0.018872549757361412, -0.016566256061196327, 0.04922516644001007, 0.032800767570734024, -0.017045779153704643, 0.03734559565782547, -0.009768706746399403, 0.08841347694396973, -0.040174346417188644, -0.06949054449796677, 0.02594279870390892, -0.01960272714495659, -0.01667105220258236, -0.04564428701996803, 0.021490542218089104, -0.029266800731420517, -0.026586005464196205, -0.02896217070519924, -0.00216233404353261, -0.08186190575361252, 0.02158830128610134, -0.07967522740364075, 0.12719029188156128, -0.060958217829465866, 0.07290688902139664, 0.02430630847811699, -0.02286146581172943, -0.04534861445426941, 0.0039579295553267, -0.060571134090423584, -0.012275378219783306, 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climate,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.
515,"the length of the solar cycle with northern hemispheric temperature changes . They initially used sunspot and temperature measurements from 1861 to 1989 and later extended the period using four centuries of climate records .Their reported relationship appeared to account for nearly 80 per cent of measured temperature changes over this period. The mechanism behind these claimed correlations was a matter of speculation. In a 2003 paper  Laut identified problems with some of these correlation analyses. Damon and Laut claimed:

the apparent strong correlations displayed on these graphs have been obtained by incorrect handling of the physical data. The graphs are still widely referred to in the literature, and their misleading character has not yet been generally recognized. Damon and Laut stated that when the graphs are corrected for filtering errors, the sensational agreement with the recent global warming, which drew worldwide attention, totally disappeared. In 2000, Lassen and Thejll updated their 1991 research and concluded that while the solar cycle accounted for about half the temperature rise since 1900, it failed to explain a rise of 0.4 °C since 1980. Benestad's 2005 review found that the solar cycle did not follow Earth's global mean surface temperature. In 2022, Chatzistergos updated the cycle length series with recent sunspot and solar plages data, extending them to more recent periods than previous studies, and also considering the various available time series. This is important because of the plentiful updates and corrections that have been applied to the sunspot data over the last decade. He showed that cycle lengths significantly diverge from Earth's temperatures and concluded that the strong correlation reported by Friis-Christensen and Lassen was an artefact of their analysis. Owing largely to their guess of next extrema times, arbitrarily restricting the analysis over a specific time period, along with other arbitrarities in their methodology. Weather
Solar activity may also impact regional climates, such as for the rivers Paraná and Po.","[-0.09464512765407562, 0.060521043837070465, 0.10101858526468277, 0.06637979298830032, 0.042743295431137085, -0.0756852775812149, -0.07593975216150284, 0.0013778196880593896, 0.011502932757139206, 0.02538449317216873, -0.0038152835331857204, 0.00865934044122696, 0.03525067865848541, 0.005740594584494829, 0.07082531601190567, -0.043476853519678116, -0.04910095036029816, -0.01746634766459465, 0.015277601778507233, -0.02605052851140499, -0.029432127252221107, -0.007411997765302658, -0.026097232475876808, 0.0106819374486804, 0.03150152787566185, -0.018937913700938225, -0.08697592467069626, 0.015818612650036812, -0.10312654823064804, 0.14044974744319916, -0.0535733699798584, 0.12135519832372665, -0.027287689968943596, 0.026783352717757225, -0.046317290514707565, -0.016344061121344566, 0.025593305006623268, 0.032768040895462036, -0.025172298774123192, 0.03099754825234413, -0.008976008743047714, 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516,"restricting the analysis over a specific time period , along with other arbitrarities in their methodology . Weather Solar activity may also impact regional climates , such as for the rivers Paraná and Po .Measurements from NASA's Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment show that solar UV output is more variable than total solar irradiance. Climate modelling suggests that low solar activity may result in, for example, colder winters in the US and northern Europe and milder winters in Canada and southern Europe, with little change in global averages. More broadly, links have been suggested between solar cycles, global climate and regional events such as El Niño. Hancock and Yarger found ""statistically significant relationships between the double [~21-year] sunspot cycle and the 'January thaw' phenomenon along the East Coast and between the double sunspot cycle and 'drought' (June temperature and precipitation) in the Midwest."" Cloud condensation
Recent research at CERN's CLOUD facility examined links between cosmic rays and cloud condensation nuclei, demonstrating the effect of high-energy particulate radiation in nucleating aerosol particles that are precursors to cloud condensation nuclei. Kirkby (CLOUD team leader) said, ""At the moment, it [the experiment] actually says nothing about a possible cosmic-ray effect on clouds and climate."" After further investigation, the team concluded that ""variations in cosmic ray intensity do not appreciably affect climate through nucleation."" 1983–1994 global low cloud formation data from the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) was highly correlated with galactic cosmic ray (GCR) flux; subsequent to this period, the correlation broke down. Changes of 3–4% in cloudiness and concurrent changes in cloud top temperatures correlated to the 11 and 22-year solar (sunspot) cycles, with increased GCR levels during ""antiparallel"" cycles. 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517,"top temperatures correlated to the 11 and 22-year solar ( sunspot ) cycles , with increased GCR levels during `` antiparallel '' cycles . Global average cloud cover change was measured at 1.5–2 % .Several GCR and cloud cover studies found positive correlation at latitudes greater than 50° and negative correlation at lower latitudes. However, not all scientists accept this correlation as statistically significant, and some who do attribute it to other solar variability (e.g. UV or total irradiance variations) rather than directly to GCR changes. Difficulties in interpreting such correlations include the fact that many aspects of solar variability change at similar times, and some climate systems have delayed responses. Historical perspective
Physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart in The Discovery of Global Warming (2003) wrote:

The study of [sun spot] cycles was generally popular through the first half of the century. Governments had collected a lot of weather data to play with and inevitably people found correlations between sun spot cycles and select weather patterns. If rainfall in England didn't fit the cycle, maybe storminess in New England would. Respected scientists and enthusiastic amateurs insisted they had found patterns reliable enough to make predictions. Sooner or later though every prediction failed. An example was a highly credible forecast of a dry spell in Africa during the sunspot minimum of the early 1930s. When the period turned out to be wet, a meteorologist later recalled ""the subject of sunspots and weather relationships fell into dispute, especially among British meteorologists who witnessed the discomfiture of some of their most respected superiors."" Even in the 1960s he said, ""For a young [climate] researcher to entertain any statement of sun-weather relationships was to brand oneself a crank.""","[-0.0602632537484169, 0.019037893041968346, 0.1278846561908722, 0.0852237120270729, 0.06978660821914673, -0.026612142100930214, -0.013851107098162174, -0.004196322988718748, 0.039755914360284805, 0.017701106145977974, -0.012255564332008362, -0.010006308555603027, 0.05808987841010094, 0.015530823729932308, 0.03376052528619766, -0.04170452058315277, -0.021026303991675377, -0.062101781368255615, 0.030376484617590904, -0.037008244544267654, -0.05593825504183769, 0.010089060291647911, -0.05514901131391525, -0.015974925830960274, 0.016417797654867172, -0.039053723216056824, -0.09225831180810928, 0.0063531179912388325, -0.0688716247677803, 0.09906608611345291, -0.06731300055980682, 0.07311974465847015, 0.010839015245437622, 0.053202662616968155, -0.006071055773645639, 0.00017325294902548194, 0.038233473896980286, 0.014427639544010162, 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climate,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity_and_climate.
518,"most respected superiors . '' Even in the 1960s he said , `` For a young [ climate ] researcher to entertain any statement of sun-weather relationships was to brand oneself a crank . ''See also
Radiative forcing
Solar phenomena
Solar cycle
Solar observation
Space climate
Space weather

References
General references
Karl, Thomas R.; Melillo, Jerry M.; Peterson, Thomas C. (2009). ""Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States"" (PDF). Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 30 January 2024. ""The Sun's role in Climate Changes"" (PDF). Proc. of The International Conference on Global Warming and The Next Ice Age, 19–24 August 2001, Halifax, Nova Scotia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 October 2004. Retrieved 2005-02-21. White, Warren B.; Lean, Judith; Cayan, Daniel R.; Dettinger, Michael D. (1997). ""Response of global upper ocean temperature to changing solar irradiance"". Journal of Geophysical Research. 102 (C2): 3255–3266. Bibcode:1997JGR...102.3255W. doi:10.1029/96JC03549. A graphical representation of the relationship between natural and anthropogenic factors contributing to climate change appears in ""Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis"", a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). External links
Gerrit Lohmann; Norel Rimbu; Mihai Dima (2004). ""Climate signature of solar irradiance variations: analysis of long-term instrumental, historical, and proxy data"" (PDF). International Journal of Climatology. 24 (8): 1045–1056. Bibcode:2004IJCli..24.1045L. doi:10.1002/joc.1054. 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519," The possibility of life on Mars is a subject of interest in astrobiology due to the planet's proximity and similarities to Earth. To date, no conclusive evidence of past or present life has been found on Mars. Cumulative evidence suggests that during the ancient Noachian time period, the surface environment of Mars had liquid water and may have been habitable for microorganisms, but habitable conditions do not necessarily indicate life. Scientific  investigations for potential life on Mars began in the 19th century and continue today with telescopes and robotic probes searching for water, chemical biosignatures in the soil and rocks at the planet's surface, and biomarker gases in the atmosphere. Mars is of particular interest for the study of the origins of life because of its similarity to the early Earth. This is especially true since Mars has a cold climate and lacks plate tectonics or continental drift, so it has remained almost unchanged since the end of the Hesperian period. At least two-thirds of Mars's surface is more than 3.5 billion years old, and it could have been habitable 4.48 billion years ago, 500 million years before the earliest known Earth lifeforms; Mars may thus hold the best record of the prebiotic conditions leading to life, even if life does not or has never existed there. Following the confirmation of the past existence of surface liquid water, the Curiosity, Perseverance and Opportunity rovers started searching for evidence of past life, including a past biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic, or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable. The search for evidence of habitability, fossils, and organic compounds on Mars is now a primary objective for space agencies. The discovery of organic compounds inside sedimentary rocks and of boron on Mars are of interest as they are precursors for prebiotic chemistry.","[-0.04859770089387894, -0.0035863593220710754, -0.0313604474067688, 0.0032758237794041634, 0.122937873005867, -0.001440623658709228, -0.025721261277794838, 0.01859552226960659, -0.019025588408112526, 0.0851278230547905, 0.03389064967632294, -0.06210440769791603, -0.007775288075208664, 0.08714801073074341, -0.03974264860153198, -0.06404475122690201, -0.06748201698064804, -0.050825003534555435, 0.015559653751552105, 0.08701813220977783, 0.021903900429606438, 0.06017550826072693, -0.015309395268559456, -0.010062357410788536, -0.060027118772268295, 0.056146517395973206, 0.005750664509832859, 0.08120124787092209, -0.007840214297175407, 0.03666170313954353, 0.016935212537646294, 0.025985486805438995, 0.10214768350124359, -0.08384039998054504, 0.039571601897478104, 0.07581482827663422, 0.0008857983630150557, 0.010516971349716187, 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520,"on Mars is now a primary objective for space agencies . The discovery of organic compounds inside sedimentary rocks and of boron on Mars are of interest as they are precursors for prebiotic chemistry .Such findings, along with previous discoveries that liquid water was clearly present on ancient Mars, further supports the possible early habitability of Gale Crater on Mars. Currently, the surface of Mars is bathed with ionizing radiation, and Martian soil is rich in perchlorates toxic to microorganisms. Therefore, the consensus is that if life exists—or existed—on Mars, it could be found or is best preserved in the subsurface, away from present-day harsh surface processes. In June 2018, NASA announced the detection of seasonal variation of methane levels on Mars. Methane could be produced by microorganisms or by geological means. The European ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter started mapping the atmospheric methane in April 2018, and the 2022 ExoMars rover Rosalind Franklin was planned to drill and analyze subsurface samples before the programme's indefinite suspension, while the NASA Mars 2020 rover Perseverance, having landed successfully, will cache dozens of drill samples for their potential transport to Earth laboratories in the late 2020s or 2030s. As of 8 February 2021, an updated status of studies considering the possible detection of lifeforms on Venus (via phosphine) and Mars (via methane) was reported. In October 2024, NASA announced that it may be possible for photosynthesis to occur within dusty water ice exposed in the mid-latitude regions of Mars. On 10 September 2025, NASA reported Perseverance found a possible biosignature in a Jezero Crater rock the previous year, hinting at ancient microbial activity. Early speculation
Mars's polar ice caps were discovered in the mid-17th century. 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521,"'s polar ice caps were discovered in the mid-17th century . In the late 18th century , William Herschel proved they grow and shrink alternately , in the summer and winter of each hemisphere .By the mid-19th century, astronomers knew that Mars had certain other similarities to Earth, for example that the length of a day on Mars was almost the same as a day on Earth. They also knew that its axial tilt was similar to Earth's, which meant it experienced seasons just as Earth does—but of nearly double the length owing to its much longer year. These observations led to increasing speculation that the darker albedo features were water and the brighter ones were land, whence followed speculation on whether Mars may be inhabited by some form of life. In 1854, William Whewell, a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, theorized that Mars had seas, land and possibly life forms. Speculation about life on Mars exploded in the late 19th century, following telescopic observation by some observers of apparent Martian canals—which were later found to be optical illusions. Despite this, in 1895, American astronomer Percival Lowell published his book Mars, followed by Mars and its Canals in 1906, proposing that the canals were the work of a long-gone civilization. This idea led British writer H. G. Wells to write The War of the Worlds in 1897, telling of an invasion by aliens from Mars who were fleeing the planet's desiccation. The 1907 book Is Mars Habitable? by British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace was a reply to, and refutation of, Lowell's Mars and Its Canals. Wallace's book concluded that Mars ""is not only uninhabited by intelligent beings such as Mr. Lowell postulates, but is absolutely uninhabitable."" Historian Charles H. Smith refers to Wallace's book as one of the first works in the field of astrobiology.","[-0.006130511406809092, 0.007044276688247919, 0.015272704884409904, 0.03963198885321617, 0.06430038064718246, -0.11608559638261795, -0.0002338186459382996, 0.02840929850935936, -0.05211793631315231, 0.08758179843425751, 0.056560222059488297, 0.03257995843887329, 0.0010815120767802, 0.036980804055929184, -0.061737626791000366, -0.0015570775140076876, -0.1633286476135254, 0.029215654358267784, -0.0675787404179573, 0.07697360962629318, -0.022125815972685814, 0.030496172606945038, -0.07967650890350342, -0.017891718074679375, 0.011329302564263344, 0.11528811603784561, 0.0074286251328885555, 0.015021661296486855, -0.030231429263949394, 0.11381106078624725, -0.016019752249121666, 0.011167424730956554, 0.06052485853433609, -0.03580058366060257, 0.039383307099342346, 0.026742713525891304, 0.07509881258010864, -0.020444901660084724, 0.037350405007600784, -0.03558264672756195, 0.016843067482113838, 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522,"intelligent beings such as Mr. Lowell postulates , but is absolutely uninhabitable . '' Historian Charles H. Smith refers to Wallace 's book as one of the first works in the field of astrobiology .Spectroscopic analysis of Mars's atmosphere began in earnest in 1894, when U.S. astronomer William Wallace Campbell showed that neither water nor oxygen were present in the Martian atmosphere. The influential observer Eugène Antoniadi used the 83-cm (32.6 inch) aperture telescope at Meudon Observatory at the 1909 opposition of Mars and saw no canals, the outstanding photos of Mars taken at the new Baillaud dome at the Pic du Midi observatory also brought formal discredit to the Martian canals theory in 1909, and the notion of canals began to fall out of favor. Habitability
Chemical, physical, geological, and geographic attributes shape the environments on Mars. Isolated measurements of these factors may be insufficient to deem an environment habitable, but the sum of measurements can help predict locations with greater or lesser habitability potential. The two current ecological approaches for predicting the potential habitability of the Martian surface use 19 or 20 environmental factors, with an emphasis on water availability, temperature, the presence of nutrients, an energy source, and protection from solar ultraviolet and galactic cosmic radiation. Scientists do not know the minimum number of parameters for determination of habitability potential, but they are certain it is greater than one or two of the factors in the table below. Similarly, for each group of parameters, the habitability threshold for each is to be determined. Laboratory simulations show that whenever multiple lethal factors are combined, the survival rates plummet quickly. There are no full-Mars simulations published yet that include all of the biocidal factors combined. Furthermore, the possibility of Martian life having a far different biochemistry and habitability requirements than the terrestrial biosphere is an open question.","[-0.0012197170872241259, -0.000824623042717576, 0.00645729573443532, 0.03504212200641632, 0.0946880578994751, -0.09349831938743591, 0.012927600182592869, 0.02605745568871498, -0.06946902722120285, 0.12545733153820038, -0.016882820054888725, -0.038882337510585785, 0.009745342656970024, 0.04972958564758301, -0.056326042860746384, -0.0013507716357707977, -0.02060161530971527, 0.04385146498680115, -0.00660189101472497, 0.06994704157114029, 0.0001000163538265042, 0.08851415663957596, 0.03030143305659294, -0.034824274480342865, -0.020650990307331085, 0.06907329708337784, -0.03140905871987343, 0.09482770413160324, -0.022098679095506668, 0.05284438282251358, 0.00805116817355156, 0.010499104857444763, 0.07445263117551804, -0.05525171384215355, 0.09913419932126999, 0.06718331575393677, 0.010463078506290913, -0.03961021453142166, 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523,"published yet that include all of the biocidal factors combined . Furthermore , the possibility of Martian life having a far different biochemistry and habitability requirements than the terrestrial biosphere is an open question .A common hypothesis is methanogenic Martian life, and while such organisms exist on Earth too, they are exceptionally rare (while in itself numerous, there are not many environments on Earth where life commonly known to humans exists, where methanogenic life also can) and cannot survive in the majority of terrestrial environments that contain oxygen. Past
Recent models have shown that, even with a dense CO2 atmosphere, early Mars was colder than Earth has ever been. Transiently warm conditions related to impacts or volcanism could have produced conditions favoring the formation of the late Noachian valley networks, even though the mid-late Noachian global conditions were probably icy. Local warming of the environment by volcanism and impacts would have been sporadic, but there should have been many events of water flowing at the surface of Mars. Both the mineralogical and the morphological evidence indicates a degradation of habitability from the mid Hesperian onward. The exact causes are not well understood but may be related to a combination of processes including loss of early atmosphere, or impact erosion, or both. Billions of years ago, before this degradation, the surface of Mars was apparently fairly habitable, consisted of liquid water and clement weather, though it is unknown if life existed on Mars. The loss of the Martian magnetic field strongly affected surface environments through atmospheric loss and increased radiation; this change significantly degraded surface habitability. When there was a magnetic field, the atmosphere would have been protected from erosion by the solar wind, which would ensure the maintenance of a dense atmosphere, necessary for liquid water to exist on the surface of Mars. The loss of the atmosphere was accompanied by decreasing temperatures.","[-0.024657029658555984, -0.01242578774690628, 0.061852771788835526, 0.05118360370397568, 0.10871358960866928, -0.07139675319194794, -0.04109221324324608, 0.005613165441900492, -0.02434191107749939, 0.10092242807149887, -0.02361392043530941, -0.07622966915369034, 0.010927691124379635, 0.015108476392924786, 0.023892775177955627, -0.0339064747095108, -0.06700187176465988, -0.049180395901203156, -0.01363963633775711, 0.10126085579395294, 0.013759642839431763, 0.10944976657629013, -0.07356515526771545, 0.02344701811671257, -0.004958308767527342, 0.040588028728961945, -0.013737029395997524, 0.13627490401268005, 0.020815256983041763, 0.011779602617025375, -0.013606435619294643, 0.061776887625455856, 0.07974318414926529, -0.057614050805568695, 0.044165853410959244, 0.11633961647748947, 0.019361263141036034, -0.007620403077453375, -0.05909540876746178, -0.0039016231894493103, 0.05839348956942558, -0.042183198034763336, 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524,"wind , which would ensure the maintenance of a dense atmosphere , necessary for liquid water to exist on the surface of Mars . The loss of the atmosphere was accompanied by decreasing temperatures .Part of the liquid water inventory sublimed and was transported to the poles, while the rest became
trapped in permafrost, a subsurface ice layer. Observations on Earth and numerical modeling have shown that a crater-forming impact can result in the creation of a long-lasting hydrothermal system when ice is present in the crust. For example, a 130 km large crater could sustain an active hydrothermal system for up to 2 million years, that is, long enough for microscopic life to emerge, but unlikely to have progressed any further down the evolutionary path. Soil and rock samples studied in 2013 by NASA's Curiosity rover's onboard instruments brought about additional information on several habitability factors. The rover team identified some of the key chemical ingredients for life in this soil, including sulfur, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and possibly carbon, as well as clay minerals, suggesting a long-ago aqueous environment—perhaps a lake or an ancient streambed—that had neutral acidity and low salinity. On December 9, 2013, NASA reported that, based on evidence from Curiosity studying Aeolis Palus, Gale Crater contained an ancient freshwater lake which could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life. The confirmation that liquid water once flowed on Mars, the existence of nutrients, and the previous discovery of a past magnetic field that protected the planet from cosmic and solar radiation, together strongly suggest that Mars could have had the environmental factors to support life. The assessment of past habitability is not in itself evidence that Martian life has ever actually existed. If it did, it was probably microbial, existing communally in fluids or on sediments, either free-living or as biofilms, respectively.","[-0.04457668215036392, -0.008218099363148212, 0.07623734325170517, 0.01650433987379074, 0.13574329018592834, -0.045207150280475616, -0.0044502331875264645, 0.04532391577959061, 0.0039073447696864605, 0.051838137209415436, -0.020954495295882225, -0.04572223871946335, 0.05676725134253502, -0.023270556703209877, 0.0047693983651697636, -0.0028282650746405125, -0.037354543805122375, -0.0298122838139534, -0.016906585544347763, 0.048281505703926086, 0.020196037366986275, 0.06670369952917099, -0.05785281956195831, 0.026239322498440742, -0.023768050596117973, 0.11050480604171753, -0.021555716171860695, 0.0737101212143898, 0.011149900034070015, -0.0019325027242302895, -0.012601871974766254, 0.006336990278214216, 0.07411804050207138, -0.059491585940122604, 0.06648659706115723, 0.13116221129894257, -0.020068936049938202, -0.04421508312225342, -0.07079530507326126, 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525,"itself evidence that Martian life has ever actually existed . If it did , it was probably microbial , existing communally in fluids or on sediments , either free-living or as biofilms , respectively .The exploration of terrestrial analogues provide clues as to how and where best look for signs of life on Mars. Impactite, shown to preserve signs of life on Earth, was discovered on Mars and could contain signs of ancient life, if life ever existed on the planet. On June 7, 2018, NASA announced that the Curiosity rover had discovered organic molecules in sedimentary rocks dating to three billion years old. The detection of organic molecules in rocks indicate that some of the building blocks for life were present. Research into how the conditions for habitability ended is ongoing. On October 7, 2024, NASA announced that the results of the previous three years of sampling onboard Curiosity suggested that based on high carbon-13 and oxygen-18 levels in the regolith, the early Martian atmosphere was less likely than previously thought, to be stable enough to support surface water hospitable to life, with rapid wetting-drying cycles and very high-salinity cryogenic brines providing potential explanations. Present
Conceivably, if life exists (or existed) on Mars, evidence of life could be found, or is best preserved, in the subsurface, away from present-day harsh surface conditions. Present-day life on Mars, or its biosignatures, could occur kilometers below the surface, or in subsurface geothermal hot spots, or it could occur a few meters below the surface. The permafrost layer on Mars is only a couple of centimeters below the surface, and salty brines can be liquid a few centimeters below that but not far down.","[-0.07064419984817505, -0.022753026336431503, 0.0553964227437973, 0.03747766464948654, 0.16984111070632935, -0.03676493838429451, -0.00494378013536334, 0.0027514752000570297, 0.0034200106747448444, 0.07576058059930801, 0.02893715724349022, -0.05929093062877655, -0.04705849662423134, 0.0665934681892395, 0.0010155002819374204, 0.011953462846577168, -0.04303409531712532, -0.06108273193240166, -0.027151867747306824, 0.09690212458372116, -0.017775721848011017, 0.09205637127161026, -0.004423945676535368, 0.02508905529975891, -0.014473706483840942, 0.07807739078998566, 0.03167600929737091, 0.075076162815094, 0.0006497417343780398, 0.04805312305688858, 0.030122600495815277, 0.07252541929483414, 0.07718012481927872, -0.08657612651586533, 0.09499392658472061, 0.09610430896282196, 0.024429770186543465, -0.04285125806927681, 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526,"below the surface . The permafrost layer on Mars is only a couple of centimeters below the surface , and salty brines can be liquid a few centimeters below that but not far down .Water is close to its boiling point even at the deepest points in the Hellas basin, and so cannot remain liquid for long on the surface of Mars in its present state, except after a sudden release of underground water. So far, NASA has pursued a ""follow the water"" strategy on Mars and has not searched for biosignatures for life there directly since the Viking missions. The consensus by astrobiologists is that it may be necessary to access the Martian subsurface to find currently habitable environments. Cosmic radiation
In 1965, the Mariner 4 probe discovered that Mars had no global magnetic field that would protect the planet from potentially life-threatening cosmic radiation and solar radiation; observations made in the late 1990s by the Mars Global Surveyor confirmed this discovery. Scientists speculate that the lack of magnetic shielding helped the solar wind blow away much of Mars's atmosphere over the course of several billion years. As a result, the planet has been vulnerable to radiation from space for about 4 billion years. Recent in-situ data from Curiosity rover indicates that ionizing radiation from galactic cosmic rays (GCR) and solar particle events (SPE) may not be a limiting factor in habitability assessments for present-day surface life on Mars. The level of 76 mGy per year measured by Curiosity is similar to levels inside the ISS. Cumulative effects
Curiosity rover measured ionizing radiation levels of 76 mGy per year. This level of ionizing radiation is sterilizing for dormant life on the surface of Mars. It varies considerably in habitability depending on its orbital eccentricity and the tilt of its axis.","[0.001775806536898017, 0.046922944486141205, 0.024758756160736084, -0.0155494948849082, 0.10911980271339417, -0.038822922855615616, -0.036320317536592484, 0.0011202212190255523, -0.02366558276116848, 0.0328848659992218, 0.014798013493418694, -0.076836958527565, 0.08729001879692078, 0.03833920136094093, -0.011381933465600014, -0.005280588753521442, -0.038557540625333786, -0.03956756368279457, 0.001199502730742097, 0.06905347853899002, -0.09213914722204208, 0.0987875759601593, -0.046348828822374344, 0.007407705765217543, -0.03776000440120697, 0.0394667387008667, 0.03293830528855324, 0.061065156012773514, -0.032684050500392914, 0.03623584285378456, 0.011751146055758, 0.003662491450086236, 0.02586783468723297, -0.04764232784509659, 0.04016650840640068, 0.10645778477191925, 0.001103745074942708, -0.0007639495306648314, 0.01975671574473381, -0.021944252774119377, -0.030113812536001205, 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527,"year . This level of ionizing radiation is sterilizing for dormant life on the surface of Mars . It varies considerably in habitability depending on its orbital eccentricity and the tilt of its axis .If the surface life has been reanimated as recently as 450,000 years ago, then rovers on Mars could find dormant but still viable life at a depth of one meter below the surface, according to an estimate. Even the hardiest cells known could not possibly survive the cosmic radiation near the surface of Mars since Mars lost its protective magnetosphere and atmosphere. After mapping cosmic radiation levels at various depths on Mars, researchers have concluded that over time, any life within the first several meters of the planet's surface would be killed by lethal doses of cosmic radiation. The team calculated that the cumulative damage to DNA and RNA by cosmic radiation would limit retrieving viable dormant cells on Mars to depths greater than 7.5 meters below the planet's surface. Even the most radiation-tolerant terrestrial bacteria would survive in dormant spore state only 18,000 years at the surface; at 2 meters—the greatest depth at which the ExoMars rover will be capable of reaching—survival time would be 90,000 to half a million years, depending on the type of rock. Data collected by the Radiation assessment detector (RAD) instrument on board the Curiosity rover revealed that the absorbed dose measured is 76 mGy/year at the surface, and that ""ionizing radiation strongly influences chemical compositions and structures, especially for water, salts, and redox-sensitive components such as organic molecules."" Regardless of the source of Martian organic compounds (meteoric, geological, or biological), its carbon bonds are susceptible to breaking and reconfiguring with surrounding elements by ionizing charged particle radiation.","[-0.021761169657111168, -0.012321289628744125, -0.041674308478832245, 0.008724885061383247, 0.06756813824176788, -0.07449591159820557, -0.012419897131621838, 0.07065130025148392, -0.03626316413283348, 0.06411866098642349, 0.0882129892706871, -0.010172300040721893, 0.0766606330871582, 0.05011006444692612, 0.00949881412088871, 0.010006926953792572, -0.0328492633998394, -0.05282161384820938, -0.0489974319934845, 0.08816291391849518, -0.013962716795504093, 0.1215871125459671, -0.04131930693984032, 0.010774469934403896, -0.05429476872086525, 0.001650685560889542, 0.01596680097281933, 0.023824049159884453, -0.023908240720629692, 0.017988581210374832, -0.019458239898085594, -0.028348030522465706, 0.06275168806314468, -0.010058481246232986, 0.04728236049413681, 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528,"Regardless of the source of Martian organic compounds ( meteoric , geological , or biological ) , its carbon bonds are susceptible to breaking and reconfiguring with surrounding elements by ionizing charged particle radiation .These improved subsurface radiation estimates give insight into the potential for the preservation of possible organic biosignatures as a function of depth as well as survival times of possible microbial or bacterial life forms left dormant beneath the surface. The report concludes that the in situ ""surface measurements—and subsurface estimates—constrain the preservation window for Martian organic matter following exhumation and exposure to ionizing radiation in the top few meters of the Martian surface."" In September 2017, NASA reported radiation levels on the surface of the planet Mars were temporarily doubled and were associated with an aurora 25 times brighter than any observed earlier, due to a major, and unexpected, solar storm in the middle of the month. UV radiation
On UV radiation, a 2014 report concludes that ""[T]he Martian UV radiation environment is rapidly lethal to unshielded microbes but can be attenuated by global dust storms and shielded completely by < 1 mm of regolith or by other organisms."" In addition, laboratory research published in July 2017 demonstrated that UV irradiated perchlorates cause a 10.8-fold increase in cell death when compared to cells exposed to UV radiation after 60 seconds of exposure. The penetration depth of UV radiation into soils is in the sub-millimeter to millimeter range and depends on the properties of the soil. A recent study found that photosynthesis could occur within dusty ice exposed in the Martian mid-latitudes because the overlying dusty ice blocks the harmful ultraviolet radiation at Mars's surface.","[-0.006716699805110693, 0.040983375161886215, 0.0573967844247818, 0.06094924360513687, 0.15547344088554382, -0.09577576816082001, 0.03209532052278519, 0.03225698694586754, -0.01003310177475214, 0.11772149801254272, 0.05520001798868179, -0.05856354534626007, 0.04951222985982895, 0.07909730821847916, 0.03297583386301994, 0.055711280554533005, -0.011033881455659866, -0.006346235051751137, -0.055362630635499954, 0.10062318295240402, -0.05169283226132393, 0.09073237329721451, -0.049949612468481064, 0.0037103795912116766, 0.010720763355493546, 0.029663769528269768, -0.03576141223311424, 0.06375344097614288, -0.027970679104328156, 0.03236645087599754, 0.006559424567967653, 0.009377431124448776, 0.010018516331911087, 0.008066633716225624, 0.03357492387294769, 0.1238330751657486, 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529,"of the soil . A recent study found that photosynthesis could occur within dusty ice exposed in the Martian mid-latitudes because the overlying dusty ice blocks the harmful ultraviolet radiation at Mars 's surface .Perchlorates
The Martian regolith is known to contain a maximum of 0.5% (w/v) perchlorate (ClO4−) that is toxic for most living organisms, but since they drastically lower the freezing point of water and a few extremophiles can use it as an energy source (see Perchlorates - Biology) and grow at concentrations of up to 30% (w/v) sodium perchlorate by physiologically adapting to increasing perchlorate concentrations, it has prompted speculation of what their influence would be on habitability. Research published in July 2017 shows that when irradiated with a simulated Martian UV flux, perchlorates become even more lethal to bacteria (bactericide). Even dormant spores lost viability within minutes. In addition, two other compounds of the Martian surface, iron oxides and hydrogen peroxide, act in synergy with irradiated perchlorates to cause a 10.8-fold increase in cell death when compared to cells exposed to UV radiation after 60 seconds of exposure. It was also found that abraded silicates (quartz and basalt) lead to the formation of toxic reactive oxygen species. The researchers concluded that ""the surface of Mars is lethal to vegetative cells and renders much of the surface and near-surface regions uninhabitable."" This research demonstrates that the present-day surface is more uninhabitable than previously thought, and reinforces the notion to inspect at least a few meters into the ground to ensure the levels of radiation would be relatively low. However, researcher Kennda Lynch discovered the first-known instance of a habitat containing perchlorates and perchlorates-reducing bacteria in an analog environment: a paleolake in Pilot Valley, Great Salt Lake Desert, Utah, United States.","[-0.010796934366226196, -0.005221688188612461, -0.03213512524962425, 0.017539866268634796, 0.17558199167251587, -0.06353739649057388, 0.05100846290588379, 0.026378564536571503, 0.019757825881242752, 0.057036954909563065, -0.010504908859729767, -0.0175428856164217, 0.074770987033844, 0.07792115956544876, -0.02347489446401596, 0.038782864809036255, -0.021001456305384636, 0.04854530468583107, -0.06264504790306091, 0.11359767615795135, 0.011904926970601082, 0.06379543244838715, -0.04952371120452881, 0.028036024421453476, -0.08629310876131058, 0.10459344834089279, 0.0022188732400536537, 0.07621536403894424, -0.01962631195783615, 0.029244286939501762, -0.05668853968381882, 0.04501758888363838, 0.08743659406900406, -0.05843241140246391, 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530,"Kennda Lynch discovered the first-known instance of a habitat containing perchlorates and perchlorates-reducing bacteria in an analog environment : a paleolake in Pilot Valley , Great Salt Lake Desert , Utah , United States .She has been studying the biosignatures of these microbes, and is hoping that the Mars Perseverance rover will find matching biosignatures at its Jezero Crater site. Recurrent slope lineae
Recurrent slope lineae (RSL) features form on Sun-facing slopes at times of the year when the local temperatures reach above the melting point for ice. The streaks grow in spring, widen in late summer and then fade away in autumn. This is hard to model in any other way except as involving liquid water in some form, though the streaks themselves are thought to be a secondary effect and not a direct indication of the dampness of the regolith. Although these features are now confirmed to involve liquid water in some form, the water could be either too cold or too salty for life. At present they are treated as potentially habitable, as ""Uncertain Regions, to be treated as Special Regions"".). They were suspected as involving flowing brines back then. The thermodynamic availability of water (water activity) strictly limits microbial propagation on Earth, particularly in hypersaline environments, and there are indications that the brine ionic strength is a barrier to the habitability of Mars. Experiments show that high ionic strength, driven to extremes on Mars by the ubiquitous occurrence of divalent ions, ""renders these environments uninhabitable despite the presence of biologically available water."" Nitrogen fixation
After carbon, nitrogen is arguably the most important element needed for life. Thus, measurements of nitrate over the range of 0.1% to 5% are required to address the question of its occurrence and distribution.","[-0.10126892477273941, -0.011979691684246063, 0.032054729759693146, -0.017641041427850723, 0.04440421983599663, -0.048760443925857544, -0.03139179199934006, 0.011029358953237534, 0.02624257281422615, 0.03767498955130577, -0.0035115964710712433, -0.13353286683559418, 0.024693114683032036, 0.03851180151104927, -0.01908152364194393, 0.01437155157327652, -0.09574670344591141, 0.024234456941485405, -0.023223552852869034, -0.0031857865396887064, 0.0588211826980114, 0.07313226908445358, -0.044591885060071945, 0.05723799392580986, -0.07141692191362381, 0.1050073653459549, 0.004503810778260231, 0.09431041032075882, 0.01201248075813055, -0.016260262578725815, 0.0167342908680439, 0.06489577144384384, 0.03247421979904175, -0.048731397837400436, 0.11137306690216064, 0.08804597705602646, 0.011757537722587585, -0.01129944995045662, -0.0410345159471035, 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531,"arguably the most important element needed for life . Thus , measurements of nitrate over the range of 0.1 % to 5 % are required to address the question of its occurrence and distribution .There is nitrogen (as N2) in the atmosphere at low levels, but this is not adequate to support nitrogen fixation for biological incorporation. Nitrogen in the form of nitrate could be a resource for human exploration both as a nutrient for plant growth and for use in chemical processes. On Earth, nitrates correlate with perchlorates in desert environments, and this may also be true on Mars. Nitrate is expected to be stable on Mars and to have formed by thermal shock from impact or volcanic plume lightning on ancient Mars. On March 24, 2015, NASA reported that the SAM instrument on the Curiosity rover detected nitrates by heating surface sediments. The nitrogen in nitrate is in a ""fixed"" state, meaning that it is in an oxidized form that can be used by living organisms. The discovery supports the notion that ancient Mars may have been hospitable for life. It is suspected that all nitrate on Mars is a relic, with no modern contribution. Nitrate abundance ranges from non-detection to 681 ± 304 mg/kg in the samples examined until late 2017. Modeling indicates that the transient condensed water films on the surface should be transported to lower depths (≈10 m) potentially transporting nitrates, where subsurface microorganisms could thrive. In contrast, phosphate, one of the chemical nutrients thought to be essential for life, is readily available on Mars. Low pressure
Further complicating estimates of the habitability of the Martian surface is the fact that very little is known about the growth of microorganisms at pressures close to those on the surface of Mars.","[-0.0649566724896431, -0.027840817347168922, 0.008802193216979504, 0.0055246357806026936, 0.12125539034605026, -0.05351058393716812, 0.0705496147274971, -0.05292379856109619, 0.007807835005223751, 0.05412270128726959, -0.01535771880298853, -0.035897932946681976, -0.053437694907188416, 0.043263889849185944, -0.09660311788320541, -0.012798363342881203, 0.014383947476744652, -0.027837425470352173, -0.04843709245324135, 0.04623185098171234, -0.010400494560599327, 0.07142747938632965, 0.007749749813228846, -0.010046706534922123, -0.05011361837387085, 0.03272606059908867, -0.0868791937828064, 0.0021168936509639025, 0.030748700723052025, -0.038553621619939804, 0.008445662446320057, 0.06133614480495453, 0.04071952775120735, -0.10525675863027573, 0.016664797440171242, 0.03849036619067192, 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532,"pressure Further complicating estimates of the habitability of the Martian surface is the fact that very little is known about the growth of microorganisms at pressures close to those on the surface of Mars .Some teams determined that some bacteria may be capable of cellular replication down to 25 mbar, but that is still above the atmospheric pressures found on Mars (range 1–14 mbar). In another study, twenty-six strains of bacteria were chosen based on their recovery from spacecraft assembly facilities, and only Serratia liquefaciens strain ATCC 27592 exhibited growth at 7 mbar, 0 °C, and CO2-enriched anoxic atmospheres. On 10 September 2025 NASA announced that the Perseverance Rover had discovered the best possible signs of life on Mars to date: rings of iron phosphate organic molecules à la ancient Terran microbial life. Liquid water
Liquid water is a necessary but not sufficient condition for life as humans know it, as habitability is a function of a multitude of environmental parameters. Liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars except at the lowest elevations for minutes or hours. Liquid water does not appear at the surface itself, but it could form in minuscule amounts around dust particles in snow heated by the Sun. Also, the ancient equatorial ice sheets beneath the ground may slowly sublimate or melt, accessible from the surface via caves. Water on Mars exists almost exclusively as water ice, located in the Martian polar ice caps and under the shallow Martian surface even at more temperate latitudes. A small amount of water vapor is present in the atmosphere.","[-0.08908067643642426, -0.0632886216044426, -0.04160952568054199, 0.007353044580668211, 0.14120544493198395, -0.01007730234414339, 0.0077281733974814415, 0.02761971950531006, 0.007316844537854195, 0.028614476323127747, 0.01049203984439373, -0.07438047975301743, 0.026310503482818604, 0.06970077008008957, -0.08010201156139374, -0.0413685217499733, -0.0726052075624466, -0.06640853732824326, -0.014736749231815338, 0.09827450662851334, 0.014852482825517654, 0.0772763043642044, -0.026438580825924873, 0.0429781898856163, -0.05613179877400398, 0.09837454557418823, 0.017119456082582474, 0.0689002200961113, -0.005109704099595547, 0.0017967794556170702, -0.008315171115100384, 0.019605694338679314, 0.08314059674739838, -0.0846652239561081, 0.12066385895013809, 0.11022239178419113, 0.0009807517053559422, -0.031944986432790756, 0.01135380007326603, -0.03610840439796448, 0.010533095337450504, -0.1039811298251152, 0.04829482361674309, 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533,"as water ice , located in the Martian polar ice caps and under the shallow Martian surface even at more temperate latitudes . A small amount of water vapor is present in the atmosphere .There are no bodies of liquid water on the Martian surface because the water vapor pressure is less than 1 Pa, the atmospheric pressure at the surface averages 600 pascals (0.087 psi)—about 0.6% of Earth's mean sea level pressure—and because the temperature is far too low, (210 K (−63 °C)) leading to immediate freezing. Despite this, about 3.8 billion years ago, there was a denser atmosphere, higher temperature, and vast amounts of liquid water flowed on the surface, including large oceans. It has been estimated that the primordial oceans on Mars would have covered between 36% and 75% of the planet. On November 22, 2016, NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars. The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior. Analysis of Martian sandstones, using data obtained from orbital spectrometry, suggests that the waters that previously existed on the surface of Mars would have had too high a salinity to support most Earth-like life. Tosca et al. found that the Martian water in the locations they studied all had water activity, aw ≤ 0.78 to 0.86—a level fatal to most Terrestrial life. Haloarchaea, however, are able to live in hypersaline solutions, up to the saturation point. In June 2000, possible evidence for current liquid water flowing at the surface of Mars was discovered in the form of flood-like gullies. Additional similar images were published in 2006, taken by the Mars Global Surveyor, that suggested that water occasionally flows on the surface of Mars.","[-0.028340913355350494, 0.04336763173341751, 0.027343174442648888, -0.02631288766860962, 0.0919547900557518, -0.08178246021270752, -0.01623174548149109, 0.03956574574112892, -0.006954019423574209, 0.08323520421981812, -0.049065038561820984, -0.07386785745620728, 0.04412258416414261, 0.021770328283309937, 0.054960671812295914, -0.07098294049501419, -0.043076347559690475, -0.05397605523467064, -0.02778729610145092, 0.04597515985369682, 0.0013116810005158186, 0.07478209584951401, -0.002378758043050766, 0.01692795939743519, -0.008827815763652325, 0.09755688905715942, 0.008437655866146088, 0.10943663865327835, -0.01016783993691206, 0.10402499884366989, -0.056369561702013016, -0.028652317821979523, 0.08901799470186234, -0.052492838352918625, 0.09038696438074112, 0.03153994306921959, -0.04000338166952133, 0.008165787905454636, 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534,"discovered in the form of flood-like gullies . Additional similar images were published in 2006 , taken by the Mars Global Surveyor , that suggested that water occasionally flows on the surface of Mars .The images showed changes in steep crater walls and sediment deposits, providing the strongest evidence yet that water coursed through them as recently as several years ago. There is disagreement in the scientific community as to whether or not the recent gully streaks were formed by liquid water. Some suggest the flows were merely dry sand flows. Others suggest it may be liquid brine near the surface, but the exact source of the water and the mechanism behind its motion are not understood. In July 2018, scientists reported the discovery of a subglacial lake on Mars, 1.5 km (0.93 mi) below the southern polar ice cap, and extending sideways about 20 km (12 mi), the first known stable body of water on the planet. The lake was discovered using the MARSIS radar on board the Mars Express orbiter, and the profiles were collected between May 2012 and December 2015. The lake is centered at 193°E, 81°S, a flat area that does not exhibit any peculiar topographic characteristics but is surrounded by higher ground, except on its eastern side, where there is a depression. However, subsequent studies disagree on whether any liquid can be present at this depth without anomalous heating from the interior of the planet. Instead, some studies propose that other factors may have led to radar signals resembling those containing liquid water, such as clays, or interference between layers of ice and dust. Silica
In May 2007, the Spirit rover disturbed a patch of ground with its inoperative wheel, uncovering an area 90% rich in silica. The feature is reminiscent of the effect of hot spring water or steam coming into contact with volcanic rocks.","[-0.04950835183262825, -0.014963671565055847, 0.05833687260746956, -0.024164164438843727, 0.046181388199329376, -0.0925004780292511, 0.012046457268297672, 0.05610956624150276, 0.019216224551200867, 0.06396690011024475, -0.05226984992623329, -0.01596267893910408, 0.0252494215965271, 0.013133887201547623, -0.07120447605848312, -0.016635652631521225, -0.05789274722337723, -0.06440670043230057, -0.0004852490092162043, -0.01562873087823391, 0.0011073697824031115, 0.0395728163421154, -0.026757868006825447, 0.0035315025597810745, -0.015626734122633934, 0.07290637493133545, -0.013230226933956146, 0.044226184487342834, -0.0034806665498763323, 0.03591819852590561, -0.033280786126852036, 0.0042402902618050575, -0.0201535876840353, -0.01568363793194294, 0.0851200520992279, 0.08527844399213791, 0.016355009749531746, 0.0032330004032701254, 0.03669734299182892, -0.018348220735788345, 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535,"ground with its inoperative wheel , uncovering an area 90 % rich in silica . The feature is reminiscent of the effect of hot spring water or steam coming into contact with volcanic rocks .Scientists consider this as evidence of a past environment that may have been favorable for microbial life and theorize that one possible origin for the silica may have been produced by the interaction of soil with acid vapors produced by volcanic activity in the presence of water. Based on Earth analogs, hydrothermal systems on Mars would be highly attractive for their potential for preserving organic and inorganic biosignatures. For this reason, hydrothermal deposits are regarded as important targets in the exploration for fossil evidence of ancient Martian life. Possible biosignatures
In May 2017, evidence of the earliest known life on land on Earth may have been found in 3.48-billion-year-old geyserite and other related mineral deposits (often found around hot springs and geysers) uncovered in the Pilbara Craton of Western Australia. These findings may be helpful in deciding where best to search for early signs of life on the planet Mars. Methane
Methane (CH4) is chemically unstable in the current oxidizing atmosphere of Mars. It would quickly break down due to ultraviolet radiation from the Sun and chemical reactions with other gases. Therefore, a persistent presence of methane in the atmosphere may imply the existence of a source to continually replenish the gas. Trace amounts of methane, at the level of several parts per billion (ppb), were first reported in Mars's atmosphere by a team at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in 2003. Large differences in the abundances were measured between observations taken in 2003 and 2006, which suggested that the methane was locally concentrated and probably seasonal. On June 7, 2018, NASA announced it has detected a seasonal variation of methane levels on Mars.","[0.0197188388556242, -0.02621052972972393, -0.011235601268708706, -0.0011792965233325958, 0.1618102490901947, -0.022271521389484406, -0.01955912634730339, 0.01159252505749464, 0.0338023416697979, 0.06012507900595665, 0.0008053509518504143, -0.09168227016925812, -0.01734282821416855, 0.0490732379257679, 0.011104035191237926, -0.005264368839561939, -0.062256764620542526, -0.047852154821157455, 0.021905088797211647, 0.09276354312896729, 0.016831152141094208, 0.016557037830352783, -0.049884237349033356, 0.021564410999417305, -0.031025364995002747, 0.06461574882268906, -0.02490842528641224, 0.08806242048740387, -0.011171265505254269, 0.03443082794547081, -0.01677190326154232, 0.03993580490350723, 0.020110128447413445, -0.04940156266093254, 0.0722561851143837, 0.10705097019672394, -0.023535465821623802, -0.009698159992694855, -0.0071087125688791275, 0.04151231795549393, 0.029173992574214935, 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536,"and 2006 , which suggested that the methane was locally concentrated and probably seasonal . On June 7 , 2018 , NASA announced it has detected a seasonal variation of methane levels on Mars .The ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO), launched in March 2016, began on April 21, 2018, to map the concentration and sources of methane in the atmosphere, as well as its decomposition products such as formaldehyde and methanol. As of May 2019, the Trace Gas Orbiter showed that the concentration of methane is under detectable level (< 0.05 ppbv). The principal candidates for the origin of Mars's methane include non-biological processes such as water-rock reactions, radiolysis of water, and pyrite formation, all of which produce H2 that could then generate methane and other hydrocarbons via Fischer–Tropsch synthesis with CO and CO2. It has also been shown that methane could be produced by a process involving water, carbon dioxide, and the mineral olivine, which is known to be common on Mars. Although geologic sources of methane such as serpentinization are possible, the lack of current volcanism, hydrothermal activity or hotspots are not favorable for geologic methane. Living microorganisms, such as methanogens, are another possible source, but no evidence for the presence of such organisms has been found on Mars, until June 2019 as methane was detected by the Curiosity rover. Methanogens do not require oxygen or organic nutrients, are non-photosynthetic, use hydrogen as their energy source and carbon dioxide (CO2) as their carbon source, so they could exist in subsurface environments on Mars. If microscopic Martian life is producing the methane, it probably resides far below the surface, where it is still warm enough for liquid water to exist.","[0.0030404464341700077, -0.02024512179195881, -0.03955193608999252, 0.001943430514074862, 0.15913185477256775, -0.057748544961214066, -0.012075694277882576, 0.0478983111679554, 0.015673603862524033, 0.08454946428537369, -0.021242240443825722, -0.0695127621293068, -0.06395765393972397, 0.03397638723254204, 0.02169659361243248, 0.045056797564029694, -0.02596777118742466, -0.0597209706902504, 0.04521586000919342, 0.021990815177559853, -0.00549327814951539, 0.07139891386032104, 0.027959352359175682, 0.02662377618253231, -0.06592457741498947, 0.00451066717505455, -0.028213458135724068, 0.021488960832357407, 0.000719162286259234, 0.038425371050834656, -0.008090650662779808, 0.005256902426481247, 0.07567474991083145, -0.04700741544365883, 0.040807440876960754, 0.10221462696790695, -0.011949604377150536, 0.032333631068468094, 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537,"in subsurface environments on Mars . If microscopic Martian life is producing the methane , it probably resides far below the surface , where it is still warm enough for liquid water to exist .Since the 2003 discovery of methane in the atmosphere, some scientists have been designing models and in vitro experiments testing the growth of methanogenic bacteria on simulated Martian soil, where all four methanogen strains tested produced substantial levels of methane, even in the presence of 1.0wt% perchlorate salt. A team led by Levin suggested that both phenomena—methane production and degradation—could be accounted for by an ecology of methane-producing and methane-consuming microorganisms. Research at the University of Arkansas presented in June 2015 suggested that some methanogens could survive in Mars's low pressure. Rebecca Mickol found that in her laboratory, four species of methanogens survived low-pressure conditions that were similar to a subsurface liquid aquifer on Mars. The four species that she tested were Methanothermobacter wolfeii, Methanosarcina barkeri, Methanobacterium formicicum, and Methanococcus maripaludis. In June 2012, scientists reported that measuring the ratio of hydrogen and methane levels on Mars may help determine the likelihood of life on Mars. According to the scientists, ""low H2/CH4 ratios (less than approximately 40)"" would ""indicate that life is likely present and active"". The observed ratios in the lower Martian atmosphere were ""approximately 10 times"" higher ""suggesting that biological processes may not be responsible for the observed CH4"". The scientists suggested measuring the H2 and CH4 flux at the Martian surface for a more accurate assessment. Other scientists have recently reported methods of detecting hydrogen and methane in extraterrestrial atmospheres. Even if rover missions determine that microscopic Martian life is the seasonal source of the methane, the life forms probably reside far below the surface, outside of the rover's reach.","[-0.035244300961494446, -0.04444628581404686, -0.0672280564904213, 0.016704970970749855, 0.09481069445610046, -0.06560473144054413, -0.08078618347644806, 0.03883858397603035, 0.013891490176320076, 0.04887831211090088, -0.049413032829761505, -0.15870581567287445, 0.00823213066905737, 0.03936078026890755, -0.04039270803332329, 0.015188036486506462, -0.0326586551964283, -0.05221923813223839, -0.020290017127990723, 0.06384546309709549, 0.04120425879955292, 0.10912320017814636, 0.011665517464280128, 0.005208355374634266, -0.052152857184410095, 0.024906868115067482, -0.02945270575582981, 0.04567423462867737, 0.00930648110806942, 0.03282826393842697, 0.019164064899086952, 0.032840847969055176, 0.07750628888607025, -0.027557851746678352, 0.10916857421398163, 0.08266039192676544, 0.054058004170656204, 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538,". Even if rover missions determine that microscopic Martian life is the seasonal source of the methane , the life forms probably reside far below the surface , outside of the rover 's reach .Formaldehyde
In February 2005, it was announced that the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (PFS) on the European Space Agency's Mars Express Orbiter had detected traces of formaldehyde in the atmosphere of Mars. Vittorio Formisano, the director of the PFS, has speculated that the formaldehyde could be the byproduct of the oxidation of methane and, according to him, would provide evidence that Mars is either extremely geologically active or harboring colonies of microbial life. NASA scientists consider the preliminary findings well worth a follow-up but have also rejected the claims of life. Viking lander biological experiments
The 1970s Viking program placed two identical landers on the surface of Mars tasked to look for biosignatures of microbial life on the surface. The 'Labeled Release' (LR) experiment gave a positive result for metabolism, while the gas chromatograph–mass spectrometer did not detect organic compounds. The LR was a specific experiment designed to test only a narrowly defined critical aspect of the theory concerning the possibility of life on Mars; therefore, the overall results were declared inconclusive. No Mars lander mission has found meaningful traces of biomolecules or biosignatures. The claim of extant microbial life on Mars is based on old data collected by the Viking landers, currently reinterpreted as sufficient evidence of life, mainly by Gilbert Levin, Joseph D. Miller, Navarro, Giorgio Bianciardi and Patricia Ann Straat. Assessments published in December 2010 by Rafael Navarro-Gonzáles indicate that organic compounds ""could have been present"" in the soil analyzed by both Viking 1 and 2.","[-0.04883487522602081, -0.014382315799593925, -0.0451480969786644, 0.017204059287905693, 0.2241150587797165, -0.07416921108961105, -0.04359447956085205, 0.04494576156139374, 0.03922903165221214, 0.0795358419418335, 0.042368508875370026, -0.04441281408071518, -0.021978694945573807, 0.06928148865699768, -0.025595732033252716, 0.0038771070539951324, -0.09106484055519104, -0.07330730557441711, 0.006329669617116451, 0.09455227106809616, -0.01077236607670784, 0.07050108909606934, 0.0018677156185731292, 0.030246524140238762, 0.0034421291202306747, 0.026744764298200607, -0.035261668264865875, 0.04396078735589981, -0.014593367464840412, 0.04022982716560364, 0.0516820065677166, 0.06851964443922043, 0.015568122267723083, -0.03568686544895172, 0.07632247358560562, 0.11805813759565353, -0.02588530071079731, 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539,"Bianciardi and Patricia Ann Straat . Assessments published in December 2010 by Rafael Navarro-Gonzáles indicate that organic compounds `` could have been present '' in the soil analyzed by both Viking 1 and 2 .The study determined that perchlorate—discovered in 2008 by Phoenix lander—can destroy organic compounds when heated, and produce chloromethane and dichloromethane as a byproduct, the identical chlorine compounds discovered by both Viking landers when they performed the same tests on Mars. Because perchlorate would have broken down any Martian organics, the question of whether or not Viking found organic compounds is still wide open. The Labeled Release evidence was not generally accepted initially, and, to this day lacks the consensus of the scientific community. Meteorites
As of 2018, there are 224 known Martian meteorites (some of which were found in several fragments). These are valuable because they are the only physical samples of Mars available to Earth-bound laboratories. Some researchers have argued that microscopic morphological features found in ALH84001 are biomorphs, however this interpretation has been highly controversial and is not supported by the majority of researchers in the field. Seven criteria have been established for the recognition of past life within terrestrial geologic samples. Those criteria are:

Is the geologic context of the sample compatible with past life? Is the age of the sample and its stratigraphic location compatible with possible life? Does the sample contain evidence of cellular morphology and colonies? Is there any evidence of biominerals showing chemical or mineral disequilibria? Is there any evidence of stable isotope patterns unique to biology? Are there any organic biomarkers present? Are the features indigenous to the sample? For general acceptance of past life in a geologic sample, essentially most or all of these criteria must be met. All seven criteria have not yet been met for any of the Martian samples.","[-0.03638418763875961, 0.026114169508218765, 0.032801687717437744, -0.03158379718661308, 0.155784472823143, -0.06228706240653992, 0.019123734906315804, 0.01278902031481266, 0.04669642075896263, 0.036401573568582535, -0.02722327597439289, -0.07582339644432068, 0.016181666404008865, 0.006365491077303886, -0.0428750216960907, 0.04439517483115196, -0.052798908203840256, -0.048937682062387466, 0.02179926261305809, 0.14089831709861755, -0.03321810066699982, 0.10069303959608078, -0.056869469583034515, 0.06631593406200409, 0.021350177004933357, 0.12456736713647842, -0.0295867919921875, 0.024530043825507164, 0.02751895785331726, -0.011813260614871979, 0.05277780443429947, 0.08196596056222916, 0.0663592591881752, -0.028156206011772156, 0.06122137978672981, 0.09554948657751083, -0.02632850967347622, -0.029037412256002426, 0.01804005727171898, 0.030336841940879822, -0.0008181292796507478, -0.08191077411174774, 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540,"acceptance of past life in a geologic sample , essentially most or all of these criteria must be met . All seven criteria have not yet been met for any of the Martian samples .ALH84001
In 1996, the Martian meteorite ALH84001, a specimen that is much older than the majority of Martian meteorites that have been recovered so far, received considerable attention when a group of NASA scientists led by David S. McKay reported microscopic features and geochemical anomalies that they considered to be best explained by the rock having hosted Martian bacteria in the distant past. Some of these features resembled terrestrial bacteria, aside from their being much smaller than any known form of life. Much controversy arose over this claim, and ultimately all of the evidence McKay's team cited as evidence of life was found to be explainable by non-biological processes. Although the scientific community has largely rejected the claim ALH 84001 contains evidence of ancient Martian life, the controversy associated with it is now seen as a historically significant moment in the development of exobiology. Nakhla
The Nakhla meteorite fell on Earth on June 28, 1911, on the locality of Nakhla, Alexandria, Egypt. In 1998, a team from NASA's Johnson Space Center obtained a small sample for analysis. Researchers found preterrestrial aqueous alteration phases and objects of the size and shape consistent with Earthly fossilized nanobacteria. Analysis with gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-MS) studied its high molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in 2000, and NASA scientists concluded that as much as 75% of the organic compounds in Nakhla ""may not be recent terrestrial contamination"". This caused additional interest in this meteorite, so in 2006, NASA managed to obtain an additional and larger sample from the London Natural History Museum. 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541,"meteorite , so in 2006 , NASA managed to obtain an additional and larger sample from the London Natural History Museum . On this second sample , a large dendritic carbon content was observed .When the results and evidence were published in 2006, some independent researchers claimed that the carbon deposits are of biologic origin. It was remarked that since carbon is the fourth most abundant element in the Universe, finding it in curious patterns is not indicative or suggestive of biological origin. Shergotty
The Shergotty meteorite, a Martian meteorite weighing 4 kilograms (8.8 lb), fell on Earth on Shergotty, India on August 25, 1865, and was retrieved by witnesses almost immediately. It is composed mostly of pyroxene and thought to have undergone preterrestrial aqueous alteration for several centuries. Certain features in its interior suggest remnants of a biofilm and its associated microbial communities. Yamato 000593
Yamato 000593 is the second largest meteorite from Mars found on Earth. Studies suggest the Martian meteorite was formed about 1.3 billion years ago from a lava flow on Mars. An impact occurred on Mars about 12 million years ago and ejected the meteorite from the Martian surface into space. The meteorite landed on Earth in Antarctica about 50,000 years ago. The mass of the meteorite is 13.7 kg (30 lb) and it has been found to contain evidence of past water movement. At a microscopic level, spheres are found in the meteorite that are rich in carbon compared to surrounding areas that lack such spheres. The carbon-rich spheres may have been formed by biotic activity according to NASA scientists. Ichnofossil-like structures
Organism–substrate interactions and their products are important biosignatures on Earth as they represent direct evidence of biological behaviour. It was the recovery of fossilized products of life-substrate interactions (ichnofossils) that has revealed biological activities in the early history of life on the Earth, e.g., Proterozoic burrows, Archean microborings and stromatolites.","[0.0016723420703783631, 0.01909765601158142, 0.05797438696026802, 0.02069753035902977, 0.09064846485853195, -0.0076838210225105286, 0.019958116114139557, 0.07666707038879395, 0.010543178766965866, 0.07388864457607269, -0.019390348345041275, -0.05109984427690506, -0.05902259051799774, 0.02019532211124897, 0.012566136196255684, 0.020385103300213814, 0.030628355219960213, -0.04426418989896774, 0.007155073806643486, 0.06284669786691666, -0.005082091316580772, 0.04959581047296524, -0.021301966160535812, 0.05213566869497299, 0.046881236135959625, 0.07732272148132324, -0.03521142154932022, 0.06265029311180115, 0.015518569387495518, 0.0019445579964667559, 0.018765386193990707, -0.04310642182826996, 0.012617603875696659, 0.029167544096708298, 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542,"recovery of fossilized products of life-substrate interactions ( ichnofossils ) that has revealed biological activities in the early history of life on the Earth , e.g. , Proterozoic burrows , Archean microborings and stromatolites .Two major ichnofossil-like structures have been reported from Mars, i.e. the stick-like structures from Vera Rubin Ridge and the microtunnels from Martian Meteorites. Observations at Vera Rubin Ridge by the Mars Space Laboratory rover Curiosity show millimetric, elongate structures preserved in sedimentary rocks deposited in fluvio-lacustrine environments within Gale Crater. Morphometric and topologic data are unique to the stick-like structures among Martian geological features and show that ichnofossils are among the closest morphological analogues of these unique features. Nevertheless, available data cannot fully disprove two major abiotic hypotheses, that are sedimentary cracking and evaporitic crystal growth as genetic processes for the structures. Microtunnels have been described from Martian meteorites. They consist of straight to curved microtunnels that may contain areas of enhanced carbon abundance. The morphology of the curved microtunnels is consistent with biogenic traces on Earth, including microbioerosion traces observed in basaltic glasses. Further studies are needed to confirm biogenicity. Cheyava Falls
On 10 September 2025, NASA reported that the Perseverance rover had identified a ""potential biosignature"" in a Jezero Crater rock core (""Sapphire Canyon"") from the Bright Angel formation, named the Cheyava Falls rock; features consistent with possible ancient microbial activity. Perseverance's survey of revealed organic-carbon-bearing mudstones with mineral signatures from low-temperature redox reactions; returned samples may be able to clarify the origins of these minerals, organics, and textures. If confirmed, this biosignature would mean that there was microbial life on Mars around 3.5 billion years ago.","[-0.020033979788422585, -0.0243088286370039, 0.019717160612344742, 0.05463002994656563, 0.10661957412958145, -0.04494599625468254, -0.015311308205127716, 0.03421177715063095, 0.019347166642546654, 0.08196257054805756, 0.03775225579738617, -0.10296976566314697, -0.04267166927456856, 0.019045285880565643, -0.009674055501818657, 0.060509003698825836, -0.08138185739517212, 0.00927397795021534, 0.03826761618256569, 0.14129260182380676, 0.05401768162846565, 0.06970520317554474, -0.015459832735359669, 0.03860807791352272, 0.02324160560965538, 0.08164012432098389, -0.08526286482810974, 0.10435651987791061, 0.05144823342561722, -0.025135576725006104, 0.005085069686174393, 0.03263986110687256, 0.09835398197174072, -0.07850886881351471, 0.1368614286184311, 0.09259004145860672, 0.0038514004554599524, 0.022422339767217636, -0.02412857487797737, -0.009000035934150219, 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543,"be able to clarify the origins of these minerals , organics , and textures . If confirmed , this biosignature would mean that there was microbial life on Mars around 3.5 billion years ago .According to geologist Michael Tice:

If the Cheyava Falls results ultimately do lead to the proof of ancient life on Mars ... that means two different planets hosted microbes getting their energy through the same means at about the same time in the distant past. That could suggest that early life learns how to survive in this way regardless of where it originated. The same organic materials can be produced by non-biological processes which require ""hot conditions"" like volcanic activity; the rock location suggests that it was underwater, and there is no detected past volcanic activity in that region. NASA-ESA Mars Sample Return mission was designed to collect the samples collected by Perseverance and deliver them to Earth. The mission was deemed ""financially unsustainable"" and was proposed to be cancelled by the Trump administration. Geysers
The seasonal frosting and defrosting of the southern ice cap results in the formation of spider-like radial channels carved on 1-meter thick ice by sunlight. Then, sublimed CO2 – and probably water – increase pressure in their interior producing geyser-like eruptions of cold fluids often mixed with dark basaltic sand or mud. This process is rapid, observed happening in the space of a few days, weeks or months, a growth rate rather unusual in geology – especially for Mars. A team of Hungarian scientists propose that the geysers' most visible features, dark dune spots and spider channels, may be colonies of photosynthetic Martian microorganisms, which over-winter beneath the ice cap, and as the sunlight returns to the pole during early spring, light penetrates the ice, the microorganisms photosynthesize and heat their immediate surroundings.","[-0.05497801676392555, 0.002990413224324584, 0.025926273316144943, 0.030447714030742645, 0.1279633641242981, -0.033520642668008804, -0.01658848486840725, 0.051107872277498245, 0.04594610631465912, 0.10301771014928818, 0.013251061551272869, -0.06462129950523376, 0.031308677047491074, 0.04188908264040947, -0.017545348033308983, -0.04033149406313896, -0.0655735656619072, -0.08223505318164825, -0.0005647535435855389, 0.08735289424657822, 0.05235275253653526, 0.025179963558912277, -0.038638241589069366, 0.014243966899812222, -0.06895971298217773, 0.06322252750396729, -0.011777173727750778, 0.06543134152889252, 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544,"microorganisms , which over-winter beneath the ice cap , and as the sunlight returns to the pole during early spring , light penetrates the ice , the microorganisms photosynthesize and heat their immediate surroundings .A pocket of liquid water, which would normally evaporate instantly in the thin Martian atmosphere, is trapped around them by the overlying ice. As this ice layer thins, the microorganisms show through grey. When the layer has completely melted, the microorganisms rapidly desiccate and turn black, surrounded by a grey aureole. The Hungarian scientists believe that even a complex sublimation process is insufficient to explain the formation and evolution of the dark dune spots in space and time. Since their discovery, fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke promoted these formations as deserving of study from an astrobiological perspective. A multinational European team suggests that if liquid water is present in the spiders' channels during their annual defrost cycle, they might provide a niche where certain microscopic life forms could have retreated and adapted while sheltered from solar radiation. A British team also considers the possibility that organic matter, microbes, or even simple plants might co-exist with these inorganic formations, especially if the mechanism includes liquid water and a geothermal energy source. They also remark that the majority of geological structures may be accounted for without invoking any organic ""life on Mars"" hypothesis. It has been proposed to develop the Mars Geyser Hopper lander to study the geysers up close. Forward contamination
Planetary protection of Mars aims to prevent biological contamination of the planet. A major goal is to preserve the planetary record of natural processes by preventing human-caused microbial introductions, also called forward contamination. There is abundant evidence as to what can happen when organisms from regions on Earth that have been isolated from one another for significant periods of time are introduced into each other's environment.","[-0.08666550368070602, -0.05036923289299011, 0.017166877165436745, 0.03767157718539238, 0.14545659720897675, -0.061975739896297455, 0.01140076108276844, 0.0026372219435870647, 0.07502955943346024, 0.052836477756500244, 0.028696943074464798, -0.0968996062874794, -0.030743904411792755, 0.06028561294078827, -0.021753208711743355, 0.0100605683401227, -0.12389636039733887, -0.022894369438290596, -0.021946288645267487, 0.023239461705088615, 0.04280361533164978, 0.0324220284819603, -0.054380863904953, 0.017241165041923523, -0.07404017448425293, 0.08655177056789398, -0.018052559345960617, 0.04688161611557007, -0.026832690462470055, 0.041264086961746216, -0.014253348112106323, 0.04618475213646889, 0.010107935406267643, -0.06039885804057121, 0.1533380150794983, 0.07269401103258133, 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545,"There is abundant evidence as to what can happen when organisms from regions on Earth that have been isolated from one another for significant periods of time are introduced into each other 's environment .Species that are constrained in one environment can thrive – often out of control – in another environment much to the detriment of the original species that were present. In some ways, this problem could be compounded if life forms from one planet were introduced into the totally alien ecology of another world. The prime concern of hardware contaminating Mars derives from incomplete spacecraft sterilization of some hardy terrestrial bacteria (extremophiles) despite best efforts. Hardware includes landers, crashed probes, end-of-mission disposal of hardware, and the hard landing of entry, descent, and landing systems. This has prompted research on survival rates of radiation-resistant microorganisms including the species Deinococcus radiodurans and genera Brevundimonas, Rhodococcus, and Pseudomonas under simulated Martian conditions. Results from one of these experimental irradiation experiments, combined with previous radiation modeling, indicate that Brevundimonas sp. MV.7 emplaced only 30 cm deep in Martian dust could survive the cosmic radiation for up to 100,000 years before suffering 106 population reduction. The diurnal Mars-like cycles in temperature and relative humidity affected the viability of Deinococcus radiodurans cells quite severely. In other simulations, Deinococcus radiodurans also failed to grow under low atmospheric pressure, under 0 °C, or in the absence of oxygen. Survival under simulated Martian conditions
Since the 1950s, researchers have used containers that simulate environmental conditions on Mars to determine the viability of a variety of lifeforms on Mars. Such devices, called ""Mars jars"" or ""Mars simulation chambers"", were first described and used in U.S. Air Force research in the 1950s by Hubertus Strughold, and popularized in civilian research by Joshua Lederberg and Carl Sagan.","[0.010487809777259827, -0.03150326386094093, -0.033966466784477234, -0.015169000253081322, 0.10090118646621704, -0.1255195140838623, -0.0009536947472952306, 0.06909632682800293, -0.07924193888902664, 0.07474116235971451, 0.05480268597602844, -0.06380744278430939, 0.07687213271856308, 0.07825041562318802, -0.04087303206324577, -0.024628613144159317, 0.02064732275903225, -0.03205963969230652, -0.05491862818598747, 0.12248039990663528, -0.038497231900691986, 0.10959438979625702, -0.11618798226118088, 0.07484016567468643, -0.0791267678141594, 0.08951320499181747, 0.03404418006539345, 0.04099532961845398, -0.04750334843993187, -0.036957427859306335, -0.021483594551682472, -0.025666644796729088, 0.046101611107587814, -0.02607959695160389, 0.08941413462162018, 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546,"`` Mars simulation chambers '' , were first described and used in U.S. Air Force research in the 1950s by Hubertus Strughold , and popularized in civilian research by Joshua Lederberg and Carl Sagan .On April 26, 2012, scientists reported that an extremophile lichen survived and showed remarkable results on the adaptation capacity of photosynthetic activity within the simulation time of 34 days under Martian conditions in the Mars Simulation Laboratory (MSL) maintained by the German Aerospace Center (DLR). The ability to survive in an environment is not the same as the ability to thrive, reproduce, and evolve in that same environment, necessitating further study. Although numerous studies point to resistance to some of Mars conditions, they do so separately, and none has considered the full range of Martian surface conditions, including temperature, pressure, atmospheric composition, radiation, humidity, oxidizing regolith including perchlorates, and others, all at the same time and in combination. Laboratory simulations show that whenever multiple lethal factors are combined, the survival rates plummet quickly. Water salinity and temperature
Astrobiologists funded by NASA are researching the limits of microbial life in solutions with high salt concentrations at low temperature. Any body of liquid water under the polar ice caps or underground is likely to exist under high hydrostatic pressure and have a significant salt concentration. They know that the landing site of Phoenix lander was found to be regolith cemented with water ice and salts, and the soil samples likely contained magnesium sulfate, magnesium perchlorate, sodium perchlorate, potassium perchlorate, sodium chloride and calcium carbonate. Earth bacteria capable of growth and reproduction in the presence of highly salted solutions, called halophile or ""salt-lover"", were tested for survival using salts commonly found on Mars and at decreasing temperatures. The species tested include Halomonas, Marinococcus, Nesterenkonia, and Virgibacillus.","[-0.05128102004528046, -0.03542972356081009, -0.03336068242788315, 0.010334894061088562, 0.11519218236207962, -0.07630676031112671, -0.06719806790351868, -0.017866559326648712, -0.01774393580853939, 0.07780513912439346, 0.013492058962583542, -0.09316325932741165, 0.05623006448149681, 0.07353885471820831, -0.03676105663180351, -0.0027616159059107304, -0.03522978723049164, 0.005149723496288061, -0.0974574163556099, 0.11691281199455261, -0.014141022227704525, 0.04528079554438591, -0.054012130945920944, 0.01601550541818142, -0.04689246043562889, 0.0423545278608799, -0.04252876341342926, 0.06089034304022789, -0.03539496660232544, 0.001516259741038084, 0.0035449459683150053, 0.0275514367967844, 0.028069134801626205, -0.064849354326725, 0.08366421610116959, 0.11741697043180466, -0.015418031252920628, -0.10726670175790787, -0.014924543909728527, 0.025571033358573914, -0.04212136194109917, 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547,"called halophile or `` salt-lover '' , were tested for survival using salts commonly found on Mars and at decreasing temperatures . The species tested include Halomonas , Marinococcus , Nesterenkonia , and Virgibacillus .Laboratory simulations show that whenever multiple Martian environmental factors are combined, the survival rates plummet quickly, however, halophile bacteria were grown in a lab in water solutions containing more than 25% of salts common on Mars, and starting in 2019, the experiments will incorporate exposure to low temperature, salts, and high pressure. Mars-like regions on Earth
On 21 February 2023, scientists reported the findings of a ""dark microbiome"" of unfamiliar microorganisms in the Atacama Desert in Chile, a Mars-like region of Earth. Missions
Mars-2
Mars-1 was the first spacecraft launched to Mars in 1962, but communication was lost while en route to Mars. With Mars-2 and Mars-3 in 1971–1972, information was obtained on the nature of the surface rocks and altitude profiles of the surface density of the soil, its thermal conductivity, and thermal anomalies detected on the surface of Mars. The program found that its northern polar cap has a temperature below −110 °C (−166 °F) and that the water vapor content in the atmosphere of Mars is five thousand times less than on Earth. No signs of life were found. Signs of life of the Mars space program AMS from orbit were not found. The descent vehicle Mars-2 crashed on landing, the descent vehicle Mars-3 launched 1.5 minutes after landing in the Ptolemaeus crater, but worked for only 14.5 seconds. Mariner 4
Mariner 4 probe performed the first successful flyby of the planet Mars, returning the first pictures of the Martian surface in 1965. The photographs showed an arid Mars without rivers, oceans, or any signs of life.","[0.015642520040273666, -0.08011916279792786, -0.044810984283685684, 0.011512299068272114, 0.11924708634614944, -0.034437332302331924, -0.05104018747806549, 0.050835855305194855, 0.016316916793584824, 0.05000273138284683, 0.03867035359144211, -0.08863162249326706, 0.05498524010181427, 0.10181162506341934, -0.04700737074017525, -0.026631072163581848, 0.0013750811340287328, -0.06746794283390045, 0.0031405906192958355, 0.06289606541395187, -0.036741796880960464, 0.08571449667215347, -0.06878799945116043, -0.008432467468082905, -0.08393565565347672, 0.09930469840765, 0.004972387570887804, 0.014956795610487461, -0.07512381672859192, 0.014796759933233261, -0.03440433368086815, 0.014189601875841618, 0.12753607332706451, -0.022164825350046158, 0.09147769957780838, 0.1026308685541153, 0.0011965865269303322, -0.05022543668746948, 0.028598912060260773, 0.012613417580723763, 0.00676152715459466, 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548,"successful flyby of the planet Mars , returning the first pictures of the Martian surface in 1965 . The photographs showed an arid Mars without rivers , oceans , or any signs of life .Further, it revealed that the surface (at least the parts that it photographed) was covered in craters, indicating a lack of plate tectonics and weathering of any kind for the last 4 billion years. The probe also found that Mars has no global magnetic field that would protect the planet from potentially life-threatening cosmic rays. The probe was able to calculate the atmospheric pressure on the planet to be about 0.6 kPa (compared to Earth's 101.3 kPa), meaning that liquid water could not exist on the planet's surface. After Mariner 4, the search for life on Mars changed to a search for bacteria-like living organisms rather than for multicellular organisms, as the environment was clearly too harsh for these. Viking orbiters
Liquid water is necessary for known life and metabolism, so if water was present on Mars, the chances of it having supported life may have been determinant. The Viking orbiters found evidence of possible river valleys in many areas, erosion and, in the southern hemisphere, branched streams. Viking biological experiments
The primary mission of the Viking probes of the mid-1970s was to carry out experiments designed to detect microorganisms in Martian soil because the favorable conditions for the evolution of multicellular organisms ceased some four billion years ago on Mars. The tests were formulated to look for microbial life similar to that found on Earth. Of the four experiments, only the Labeled Release (LR) experiment returned a positive result, showing increased 14CO2 production on first exposure of soil to water and nutrients. All scientists agree on two points from the Viking missions: that radiolabeled 14CO2 was evolved in the Labeled Release experiment, and that the GCMS detected no organic molecules.","[-0.060241326689720154, 0.025678418576717377, 0.02481093443930149, -0.029437553137540817, 0.13129344582557678, -0.10024956613779068, -0.026652909815311432, -0.0028103517834097147, -0.0031567199621349573, 0.04208648204803467, 0.0026452490128576756, -0.11052258312702179, 0.03422364592552185, 0.04401005804538727, -0.07051395624876022, -0.017312265932559967, -0.08832740783691406, -0.06908370554447174, 0.013643565587699413, 0.09119977802038193, -0.05521386116743088, 0.07107751071453094, -0.04883258789777756, -0.010064109228551388, 0.01434696651995182, 0.060241326689720154, 0.014460154809057713, 0.04785867780447006, 0.006023160647600889, 0.032256580889225006, 0.042967211455106735, 0.052106235176324844, -0.03336628898978233, -0.05076302960515022, 0.03625153377652168, 0.13118566572666168, -0.003088445868343115, 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549,"water and nutrients . All scientists agree on two points from the Viking missions : that radiolabeled 14CO2 was evolved in the Labeled Release experiment , and that the GCMS detected no organic molecules .There are vastly different interpretations of what those results imply: A 2011 astrobiology textbook notes that the GCMS was the decisive factor due to which ""For most of the Viking scientists, the final conclusion was that the Viking missions failed to detect life in the Martian soil."" Norman Horowitz was the head of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory bioscience section for the Mariner and Viking missions from 1965 to 1976. Horowitz considered that the great versatility of the carbon atom makes it the element most likely to provide solutions, even exotic solutions, to the problems of survival of life on other planets. However, he also considered that the conditions found on Mars were incompatible with carbon based life. One of the designers of the Labeled Release experiment, Gilbert Levin, believes his results are a definitive diagnostic for life on Mars. Levin's interpretation is disputed by many scientists. A 2006 astrobiology textbook noted that ""With unsterilized Terrestrial samples, though, the addition of more nutrients after the initial incubation would then produce still more radioactive gas as the dormant bacteria sprang into action to consume the new dose of food. This was not true of the Martian soil; on Mars, the second and third nutrient injections did not produce any further release of labeled gas."" Other scientists argue that superoxides in the soil could have produced this effect without life being present. An almost general consensus discarded the Labeled Release data as evidence of life, because the gas chromatograph and mass spectrometer, designed to identify natural organic matter, did not detect organic molecules.","[-0.06333267688751221, 0.031622789800167084, -0.08720117807388306, 0.01056638453155756, 0.1681133210659027, -0.0357385016977787, -0.021985923871397972, 0.05634499341249466, -0.029628176242113113, 0.03918101638555527, 0.05097527429461479, 0.02243657596409321, 0.02104461006820202, 0.0024442526046186686, -0.03582637012004852, -0.011907263658940792, -0.04206227511167526, -0.06430703401565552, -0.0014849319122731686, 0.0758497416973114, -0.04281146824359894, 0.10166987776756287, -0.02326877973973751, 0.01339981984347105, 0.04308781400322914, 0.06583858281373978, -0.010384819470345974, 0.03372146189212799, 0.013287664391100407, 0.04833628609776497, 0.06946612894535065, 0.025470057502388954, -0.009088962338864803, -0.04145537689328194, 0.03980220481753349, 0.07175643742084503, 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550,"An almost general consensus discarded the Labeled Release data as evidence of life , because the gas chromatograph and mass spectrometer , designed to identify natural organic matter , did not detect organic molecules .More recently, high levels of organic chemicals, particularly chlorobenzene, were detected in powder drilled from one of the rocks, named ""Cumberland"", analyzed by the Curiosity rover. The results of the Viking mission concerning life are considered by the general expert community as inconclusive. In 2007, during a Seminar of the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution (Washington, D.C., US), Gilbert Levin's investigation was assessed once more. Levin still maintains that his original data were correct, as the positive and negative control experiments were in order. Moreover, Levin's team, on April 12, 2012, reported a statistical speculation, based on old data—reinterpreted mathematically through cluster analysis—of the Labeled Release experiments, that may suggest evidence of ""extant microbial life on Mars"". Critics counter that the method has not yet been proven effective for differentiating between biological and non-biological processes on Earth so it is premature to draw any conclusions. A research team from the National Autonomous University of Mexico headed by Rafael Navarro-González concluded that the GCMS equipment (TV-GC-MS) used by the Viking program to search for organic molecules, may not be sensitive enough to detect low levels of organics. Klaus Biemann, the principal investigator of the GCMS experiment on Viking wrote a rebuttal. Because of the simplicity of sample handling, TV–GC–MS is still considered the standard method for organic detection on future Mars missions, so Navarro-González suggests that the design of future organic instruments for Mars should include other methods of detection. After the discovery of perchlorates on Mars by the Phoenix lander, practically the same team of Navarro-González published a paper arguing that the Viking GCMS results were compromised by the presence of perchlorates.","[-0.04528165981173515, 0.01631973497569561, -0.058441709727048874, 0.0508853942155838, 0.17739708721637726, -0.03661280497908592, -0.02411603182554245, 0.039790425449609756, 0.010774199850857258, 0.10331200063228607, 0.02502121962606907, -0.03937876224517822, 0.046238355338573456, 0.05402509495615959, -0.07856012880802155, 0.010870307683944702, -0.025928383693099022, -0.08548343181610107, -0.006458410527557135, 0.08206720650196075, -0.04580751433968544, 0.0662669762969017, 0.038082756102085114, 0.017168162390589714, -0.0028075254522264004, 0.08603646606206894, -0.04766910895705223, 0.015421252697706223, 0.003383505856618285, 0.0368928499519825, 0.03228619322180748, 0.11363555490970612, 0.04854225367307663, -0.05349675193428993, 0.0911242738366127, 0.10943206399679184, 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551,"After the discovery of perchlorates on Mars by the Phoenix lander , practically the same team of Navarro-González published a paper arguing that the Viking GCMS results were compromised by the presence of perchlorates .A 2011 astrobiology textbook notes that ""while perchlorate is too poor an oxidizer to reproduce the LR results (under the conditions of that experiment perchlorate does not oxidize organics), it does oxidize, and thus destroy, organics at the higher temperatures used in the Viking GCMS experiment."" Biemann has written a commentary critical of this Navarro-González paper as well, to which the latter have replied; the exchange was published in December 2011. Phoenix lander, 2008
The Phoenix mission landed a robotic spacecraft in the polar region of Mars on May 25, 2008, and it operated until November 10, 2008. One of the mission's two primary objectives was to search for a ""habitable zone"" in the Martian regolith where microbial life could exist, the other main goal being to study the geological history of water on Mars. The lander has a 2.5 meter robotic arm that was capable of digging shallow trenches in the regolith. There was an electrochemistry experiment which analysed the ions in the regolith and the amount and type of antioxidants on Mars. The Viking program data indicate that oxidants on Mars may vary with latitude, noting that Viking 2 saw fewer oxidants than Viking 1 in its more northerly position. Phoenix landed further north still. Phoenix's preliminary data revealed that Mars soil contains perchlorate, and thus may not be as life-friendly as thought earlier. The pH and salinity level were viewed as benign from the standpoint of biology. The analysers also indicated the presence of bound water and CO2. A recent analysis of Martian meteorite EETA79001 found 0.6 ppm ClO4−, 1.4 ppm ClO3−, and 16 ppm NO3−, most likely of Martian origin.","[-0.0718999132514, -0.015025023370981216, -0.0489838570356369, 0.01602315716445446, 0.0730528011918068, -0.10218263417482376, 0.015007082372903824, 0.00473284674808383, 0.013387897983193398, 0.007674436084926128, -0.020799772813916206, 0.0018701086519286036, 0.08691424876451492, 0.07356199622154236, -0.03624808043241501, 4.115136562177213e-06, -0.014384432695806026, -0.029518280178308487, -0.01191507838666439, 0.021508071571588516, -0.04451999440789223, 0.09173991531133652, -0.0020213047973811626, 0.014605512842535973, -0.04367750510573387, 0.09457387775182724, -0.000655580370221287, 0.014560982584953308, 0.002830588025972247, -0.01608092710375786, 0.04981738701462746, 0.08564214408397675, 0.06627956032752991, -0.0429353341460228, 0.07565322518348694, 0.14192461967468262, -0.03511838614940643, -0.07219897210597992, 0.008981440216302872, 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552,"the presence of bound water and CO2 . A recent analysis of Martian meteorite EETA79001 found 0.6 ppm ClO4− , 1.4 ppm ClO3− , and 16 ppm NO3− , most likely of Martian origin .The ClO3− suggests presence of other highly oxidizing oxychlorines such as ClO2− or ClO, produced both by UV oxidation of Cl and X-ray radiolysis of ClO4−. Thus only highly refractory and/or well-protected (sub-surface) organics are likely to survive. In addition, recent analysis of the Phoenix WCL showed that the Ca(ClO4)2 in the Phoenix soil has not interacted with liquid water of any form, perhaps for as long as 600 Myr. If it had, the highly soluble Ca(ClO4)2 in contact with liquid water would have formed only CaSO4. This suggests a severely arid environment, with minimal or no liquid water interaction. Mars Science Laboratory (Curiosity rover)
The Mars Science Laboratory mission is a NASA project that launched on November 26, 2011, the Curiosity rover, a nuclear-powered robotic vehicle, bearing instruments designed to assess past and present habitability conditions on Mars. The Curiosity rover landed on Mars on Aeolis Palus in Gale Crater, near Aeolis Mons (a.k.a. Mount Sharp), on August 6, 2012. On December 16, 2014, NASA reported the Curiosity rover detected a ""tenfold spike"", likely localized, in the amount of methane in the Martian atmosphere. Sample measurements taken ""a dozen times over 20 months"" showed increases in late 2013 and early 2014, averaging ""7 parts of methane per billion in the atmosphere"". Before and after that, readings averaged around one-tenth that level. In addition, low levels of chlorobenzene (C6H5Cl), were detected in powder drilled from one of the rocks, named ""Cumberland"", analyzed by the Curiosity rover.","[0.006466524209827185, 0.009546829387545586, 0.016600143164396286, 0.019939597696065903, 0.15814687311649323, -0.10935664921998978, 0.020171616226434708, -0.03887489438056946, 0.005637813359498978, 0.08055119961500168, -0.02611216902732849, -0.08929683268070221, 0.0459970161318779, 0.06590130180120468, -0.005950989201664925, 0.018436867743730545, -0.009658602997660637, -0.041386187076568604, -0.0039547705091536045, 0.07265522330999374, -0.026164837181568146, 0.018873117864131927, -0.029212670400738716, 0.04402308166027069, -0.02829664759337902, 0.10871788114309311, 0.017945384606719017, 0.07883381098508835, 0.02111113630235195, 0.0022368920035660267, -0.06145859137177467, 0.059087932109832764, 0.03706945478916168, -0.03426989167928696, 0.0820186510682106, 0.09675914794206619, -0.007693023420870304, -0.06626592576503754, 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553,"level . In addition , low levels of chlorobenzene ( C6H5Cl ) , were detected in powder drilled from one of the rocks , named `` Cumberland '' , analyzed by the Curiosity rover .Mars 2020 (Perseverance rover)
The NASA Mars 2020 mission includes the Perseverance rover. Launched on July 30, 2020 it is intended to investigate an astrobiologically relevant ancient environment on Mars. This includes its surface geological processes and history, and an assessment of its past habitability and the potential for preservation of biosignatures within accessible geological materials. Perseverance has been on Mars for 4 years, 268 days. The Cheyava Falls rock discovered on Mars in June 2024 has been designated by NASA as a ""potential biosignature"" and was core sampled by the Perseverance rover for possible return to Earth and further examination. Although highly intriguing, no definitive final determination on a biological or abiotic origin of this rock can be made with the data currently available. Future astrobiology missions
ExoMars is a European-led multi-spacecraft programme currently under development by the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Roscosmos for launch in 2016 and 2020. Its primary scientific mission will be to search for possible biosignatures on Mars, past or present. A rover with a 2 m (6.6 ft) core drill will be used to sample various depths beneath the surface where liquid water may be found and where microorganisms or organic biosignatures might survive cosmic radiation. The program was suspended in 2022, and is unlikely to launch before 2028. Mars sample-return mission – The best life detection experiment proposed is the examination on Earth of a soil sample from Mars. However, the difficulty of providing and maintaining life support over the months of transit from Mars to Earth remains to be solved.","[-0.016623605042696, -0.010926720686256886, -0.01753729209303856, -0.027922701090574265, 0.047907136380672455, -0.04852558672428131, -0.03774406015872955, 0.045541469007730484, 0.03497600555419922, 0.04453146085143089, -0.012598385103046894, -0.0659545511007309, 0.024724304676055908, 0.040649738162755966, -0.06009487807750702, 0.028739139437675476, -0.05153171345591545, -0.018284611403942108, -0.0114519027993083, 0.036562975496053696, -0.07405200600624084, 0.000931047776248306, 0.01396180409938097, 0.03929639235138893, -0.09876233339309692, 0.0657365545630455, -0.03724290058016777, -0.006752870511263609, -0.031015869230031967, -0.016959769651293755, 0.08795509487390518, -0.0013237032108008862, -0.03271343186497688, -0.012091060169041157, 0.03539077565073967, 0.13950258493423462, -0.10673516988754272, -0.04655669257044792, -0.027408376336097717, 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554,"the examination on Earth of a soil sample from Mars . However , the difficulty of providing and maintaining life support over the months of transit from Mars to Earth remains to be solved .Providing for still unknown environmental and nutritional requirements is daunting, so it was concluded that ""investigating carbon-based organic compounds would be one of the more fruitful approaches for seeking potential signs of life in returned samples as opposed to culture-based approaches."" Habitability of Mars for humans
Mars, with its presence of water, has arguably the most hospitable, but still very inhospitable, surface conditions of the planets in the Solar System, other than Earth. Surface conditions on the Saturnian moon Titan and conditions at altitudes off the ground on Venus, and possibly some gas giants might provide better conditions, such as atmospheric pressure, temperature, radiation and gravity more similar to Earth's surface conditions. Human habitation on Mars would require in situ resource utilization (ISRU); A NASA report states that ""applicable frontier technologies include robotics, machine intelligence, nanotechnology, synthetic biology, 3-D printing/additive manufacturing, and autonomy. These technologies combined with the vast natural resources should enable, pre- and post-human arrival ISRU to greatly increase reliability and safety and reduce cost for human colonization of Mars."" See also
References
External links
Scientist says that life on Mars is likely today
Ancient salty sea on Mars wins as the most important scientific achievement of 2004 – Journal Science
Mars meteor found on Earth provides evidence that suggests microbial life once existed on Mars
Scientific American magazine (November 2005 Issue) ""Did Life Come from Another World?"" Audio interview about ""Dark Dune Spots""","[-0.022481538355350494, -0.03926216810941696, -0.009535416960716248, -6.502553151221946e-05, 0.17190593481063843, -0.05330580472946167, 0.03720860555768013, 0.013897594064474106, -0.10949727147817612, 0.09138679504394531, -0.037797704339027405, -0.04125349223613739, -0.028763016685843468, 0.04307866096496582, 0.006107114255428314, -0.04910581558942795, 0.0510326623916626, -0.0429491251707077, 0.02464708313345909, 0.08325831592082977, -0.0038591017946600914, 0.10046284645795822, 0.009425140917301178, 0.017769716680049896, -0.07192918658256531, 0.08242536336183548, -0.048686668276786804, -0.006681788247078657, 0.02390466071665287, 0.04053129628300667, 0.0007054341840557754, 0.041942108422517776, 0.049708135426044464, -0.0616106241941452, 0.02111191861331463, 0.13666146993637085, 0.01014397107064724, -0.08811771869659424, -0.021952301263809204, -0.04058152064681053, 0.018824025988578796, -0.11252382397651672, 0.032162122428417206, 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555," The Galilean moons (), or Galilean satellites, are the four largest moons of Jupiter. They are, in descending-size order, Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa. They are the most readily visible Solar System objects after Saturn, the dimmest of the classical planets; though their closeness to bright Jupiter makes naked-eye observation very difficult, they are readily seen with common binoculars, even under night sky conditions of high light pollution. The invention of the telescope allowed astronomers to discover the moons in 1610. Through this, they became the first Solar System objects discovered since humans have started tracking the classical planets, and the first objects to be found to orbit any planet beyond Earth. They are planetary-mass moons and among the largest objects in the Solar System. All four, along with Titan, Triton, and Earth's Moon, are larger than any of the Solar System's dwarf planets. The largest, Ganymede, is the largest moon in the Solar System and surpasses the planet Mercury in size (though not mass). Callisto is only slightly smaller than Mercury in size; the smaller ones, Io and Europa, are about the size of the Moon. The three inner moons — Io, Europa, and Ganymede — are in a 4:2:1 orbital resonance with each other. While the Galilean moons are spherical, all of Jupiter's remaining moons have irregular forms because they are too small for their self-gravitation to pull them into spheres. The Galilean moons are named after Galileo Galilei, who observed them in either December 1609 or January 1610, and recognized them as satellites of Jupiter in March 1610; they remained the only known moons of Jupiter until the discovery of the fifth largest moon of Jupiter Amalthea in 1892.","[-0.0026950400788336992, -0.08803391456604004, 0.005135218612849712, -0.019489329308271408, 0.013676753267645836, -0.13421504199504852, 0.005755802150815725, 0.0777442678809166, 0.037066519260406494, 0.002072012983262539, 0.012326442636549473, -0.02283615805208683, -0.029436755925416946, -0.05903039500117302, -0.023037711158394814, -0.01593337394297123, 0.057784803211688995, -0.008946102112531662, 0.017518963664770126, 0.005761131644248962, -0.010186126455664635, -0.024671493098139763, -0.06381268799304962, -0.0012635505991056561, -0.013244928792119026, 0.07017725706100464, -0.04148975759744644, -0.030790507793426514, -0.011086884886026382, -0.02017071656882763, 0.009593878872692585, 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556,"1610 , and recognized them as satellites of Jupiter in March 1610 ; they remained the only known moons of Jupiter until the discovery of the fifth largest moon of Jupiter Amalthea in 1892 .Galileo initially named his discovery the Cosmica Sidera (""Cosimo's stars"") or Medicean Stars, but the names that eventually prevailed were chosen by Simon Marius. Marius discovered the moons independently at nearly the same time as Galileo, 8 January 1610, and gave them their present individual names, after mythological characters that Zeus seduced or abducted, which were suggested by Johannes Kepler in his Mundus Jovialis, published in 1614. Their discovery showed the importance of the telescope as a tool for astronomers by proving that there were objects in space that cannot be seen by the naked eye. The discovery of celestial bodies orbiting something other than Earth dealt a serious blow to the then-accepted (among educated Europeans) Ptolemaic world system, a geocentric theory in which everything orbits around Earth. History
Pre-discovery
Chinese astronomical records report that in 365 BC, Gan De detected what might have been a moon of Jupiter, probably Ganymede, with the naked eye. However, Gan De reported the color of the companion as reddish, which is puzzling since moons are too faint for their color to be perceived with the naked eye. Shi Shen and Gan De together made fairly accurate observations of the five major planets. Discovery
As a result of improvements that Galileo Galilei made to the telescope, with a magnifying capability of 20×, he was able to see celestial bodies more distinctly than was previously possible. This allowed Galileo to observe in January 1610 what came to be known as the Galilean moons. On 7 January 1610, Galileo wrote a letter containing the first mention of Jupiter's moons.","[-0.08661709725856781, -0.005571699235588312, -0.02111387997865677, 0.04804355278611183, 0.00971994549036026, -0.13951076567173004, 0.025749634951353073, 0.05403975024819374, 0.011017825454473495, -0.001957782544195652, 0.0050245425663888454, -0.03570617362856865, 0.0007796079153195024, -0.05760178342461586, -0.0691228061914444, -0.03841281309723854, -0.013148276135325432, -0.02416248619556427, 0.04611840099096298, -0.026276983320713043, -0.046952202916145325, -0.010089082643389702, -0.04400524124503136, -0.002716364338994026, -0.008188019506633282, 0.0522296167910099, 0.02447596751153469, -0.09051528573036194, -0.019022870808839798, 0.029674282297492027, -0.02090555988252163, 0.027566179633140564, -0.0447678416967392, -0.01343408040702343, -0.05036131292581558, 0.014467917382717133, 0.0032428696285933256, -0.06553767621517181, -0.015520067885518074, -0.1419902741909027, 0.042343366891145706, 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557,"allowed Galileo to observe in January 1610 what came to be known as the Galilean moons . On 7 January 1610 , Galileo wrote a letter containing the first mention of Jupiter 's moons .At the time, he saw only three of them, and he believed them to be fixed stars near Jupiter. It turned out to be Ganymede, Callisto, and the combined light from Io and Europa. The next night he noticed that they had moved. On January 13, he saw all four at once for the first time, but had seen each of the moons before this date at least once. By January 15, Galileo concluded that the stars were actually bodies orbiting Jupiter. He continued to observe these celestial orbs to 2 March 1610. Galileo's discovery proved the importance of the telescope as a tool for astronomers by showing that there were objects in space to be discovered that until then had remained unseen by the naked eye. More importantly, the discovery of celestial bodies orbiting something other than Earth dealt a blow to the then-accepted Ptolemaic world system, which held that Earth was at the center of the universe and all other celestial bodies revolved around it. Galileo's 13 March 1610, Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger), which announced celestial observations through his telescope, does not explicitly mention Copernican heliocentrism, a theory that placed the Sun at the center of the universe. Nevertheless, Galileo accepted the Copernican theory. A Chinese historian of astronomy, Xi Zezong, has claimed that a ""small reddish star"" observed near Jupiter in 364 BCE by Chinese astronomer Gan De may have been Ganymede. If true, this might predate Galileo's discovery by around two millennia. Simon Marius claimed another observation, and he later reported observing the moons in November 1609, with a first written record for 29 December 1609.","[-0.03389766812324524, -0.08294117450714111, 0.03519248589873314, 0.04729008302092552, 0.014974573627114296, -0.11093904078006744, 0.00900145061314106, -0.009031708352267742, 0.011660905554890633, -0.047754619270563126, 0.0068181888200342655, -0.024159234017133713, -0.009203068912029266, -0.03597583249211311, -0.06472326070070267, -0.030927931889891624, -0.04535161703824997, -0.01521215494722128, 0.021591104567050934, 0.004476100206375122, -0.0514647550880909, -0.008839910849928856, -0.0550643689930439, 0.038239121437072754, 0.04081997275352478, 0.07807021588087082, 0.007773309014737606, -0.07933077961206436, -0.03344002738595009, 0.012686382979154587, -0.0024396181106567383, 0.0070710559375584126, -0.05347083881497383, 0.012240513227880001, -0.08293763548135757, 0.047036413103342056, 0.027442781254649162, -0.07125253230333328, 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558,"Galileo 's discovery by around two millennia . Simon Marius claimed another observation , and he later reported observing the moons in November 1609 , with a first written record for 29 December 1609 .However, because he did not publish these findings until after Galileo, there is a degree of uncertainty around his records. Later, it turned out that he had used the old style Julian calendar, while Galilei used the modern style Gregorian one. So, in fact, Marius observed the moons first on 8 January 1610, one day after Galilei. Names
In 1605, Galileo had been employed as a mathematics tutor for Cosimo de' Medici. In 1609, Cosimo became Grand Duke Cosimo II of Tuscany. Galileo, seeking patronage from his now-wealthy former student and his powerful family, used the discovery of Jupiter's moons to gain it. On 13 February 1610, Galileo wrote to the Grand Duke's secretary:

God graced me with being able, through such a singular sign, to reveal to my Lord my devotion and the desire I have that his glorious name live as equal among the stars, and since it is up to me, the first discoverer, to name these new planets, I wish, in imitation of the great sages who placed the most excellent heroes of that age among the stars, to inscribe these with the name of the Most Serene Grand Duke. Galileo initially called his discovery the Cosmica Sidera (""Cosimo's stars""), in honour of Cosimo alone. Cosimo's secretary suggested to change the name to Medicea Sidera (""the Medician stars""), honouring all four Medici brothers (Cosimo, Francesco, Carlo, and Lorenzo). The discovery was announced in the Sidereus Nuncius (""Starry Messenger""), published in Venice in March 1610, less than two months after the first observations.","[-0.03848481923341751, -0.02578599937260151, -0.006734269671142101, 0.028123680502176285, -0.08637084811925888, -0.1437729001045227, -0.016169164329767227, 0.02089092694222927, 0.0005152575322426856, -0.04809453338384628, 0.03361746668815613, -0.0016327106859534979, 0.007787385024130344, -0.05155404284596443, -0.08052168786525726, -0.07900671660900116, -0.05295433849096298, 0.028593474999070168, 0.03679639473557472, -0.027908818796277046, -0.029395094141364098, -0.03225419297814369, -0.031064605340361595, 0.035478901118040085, 0.023339688777923584, 0.048095352947711945, -0.011703160591423512, -0.028592370450496674, 0.04796478897333145, 0.057248253375291824, -0.0069361962378025055, 0.017862191423773766, -0.022866329178214073, 0.04315396398305893, -0.08746334165334702, 0.02852664329111576, -0.0029353988356888294, 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559,"and Lorenzo ) . The discovery was announced in the Sidereus Nuncius ( `` Starry Messenger '' ) , published in Venice in March 1610 , less than two months after the first observations .On 12 March 1610, Galileo wrote his dedicatory letter to the Duke of Tuscany, and the next day sent a copy to the Grand Duke, hoping to obtain the Grand Duke's support as quickly as possible. On 19 March, he sent the telescope he had used to first view Jupiter's moons to the Grand Duke, along with an official copy of Sidereus Nuncius (The Starry Messenger) that, following the secretary's advice, named the four moons the Medician Stars. In his dedicatory introduction, Galileo wrote:

Scarcely have the immortal graces of your soul begun to shine forth on earth than bright stars offer themselves in the heavens which, like tongues, will speak of and celebrate your most excellent virtues for all time. Behold, therefore, four stars reserved for your illustrious name ... which ... make their journeys and orbits with a marvelous speed around the star of Jupiter ... like children of the same family ... Indeed, it appears the Maker of the Stars himself, by clear arguments, admonished me to call these new planets by the illustrious name of Your Highness before all others. Other names put forward include:

I. Principharus (for the ""prince"" of Tuscany), II. Victripharus (after Vittoria della Rovere), III. Cosmipharus (after Cosimo de' Medici) and IV. Fernipharus (after Duke Ferdinando de' Medici) – by Giovanni Battista Hodierna, a disciple of Galileo and author of the first ephemerides (Medicaeorum Ephemerides, 1656);
Circulatores Jovis, or Jovis Comites – by Johannes Hevelius;
Gardes, or Satellites (from the Latin satelles, satellitis, meaning ""escorts"") – by Jacques Ozanam.","[-0.08320564031600952, -0.028663309291005135, 0.030945030972361565, 0.07918180525302887, -0.05375869199633598, -0.09305592626333237, 0.017469288781285286, -0.03866517171263695, -0.03929808735847473, -0.07452142983675003, -0.01907450333237648, -0.011687126010656357, 0.059118449687957764, -0.06524530053138733, -0.07808905094861984, -0.017184672877192497, -0.020288093015551567, 0.001982115674763918, -0.0006854360108263791, 0.01722869649529457, -0.04885347560048103, -0.007982666604220867, -0.007598798722028732, 0.10464632511138916, 0.005025222897529602, 0.021749446168541908, -0.0011527880560606718, -0.09626905620098114, -0.02090739645063877, 0.021778445690870285, -0.003389639314264059, 0.06963348388671875, -0.00538192642852664, -0.008438446559011936, -0.05160801112651825, 0.039397530257701874, 0.02182730659842491, -0.020361648872494698, 0.01593620330095291, -0.06650161743164062, 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560,") ; Circulatores Jovis , or Jovis Comites – by Johannes Hevelius ; Gardes , or Satellites ( from the Latin satelles , satellitis , meaning `` escorts '' ) – by Jacques Ozanam .The names that eventually prevailed were chosen by Simon Marius, who had discovered the moons independently at about the same time as Galileo. At the suggestion of Johannes Kepler, he named them after four lovers of the god Zeus (the Greek equivalent of Jupiter) in his Mundus Jovialis (published in 1614):

Jupiter is much blamed by the poets on account of his irregular loves. Three maidens are especially mentioned as having been clandestinely courted by Jupiter with success. Io, daughter of the River Inachus, Callisto of Lycaon, Europa of Agenor. Then there was Ganymede, the handsome son of King Tros, whom Jupiter, having taken the form of an eagle, transported to heaven on his back, as poets fabulously tell ... I think, therefore, that I shall not have done amiss if the First is called by me Io, the Second Europa, the Third, on account of its majesty of light, Ganymede, the Fourth Callisto ... This fancy, and the particular names given, were suggested to me by Kepler, Imperial Astronomer, when we met at Ratisbon fair in October 1613. So if, as a jest, and in memory of our friendship then begun, I hail him as joint father of these four stars, again I shall not be doing wrong. Galileo steadfastly refused to use Marius's names and invented as a result the numbering scheme that is still used nowadays, in parallel with proper moon names. The numbers run from Jupiter outward, thus I, II, III and IV for Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto respectively. Galileo used this system in his notebooks but never actually published it.","[-0.03671572357416153, 0.0013438091846182942, 0.014110780321061611, 0.046880122274160385, 0.016412388533353806, -0.12847520411014557, 0.03329260274767876, 0.02827327512204647, 0.04846574366092682, -0.029943780973553658, -0.04821844398975372, -0.0712643638253212, 0.003205482615157962, -0.10264572501182556, -0.04611954465508461, 0.0040206932462751865, -0.06403885781764984, 0.055705662816762924, -0.01682865619659424, 0.02276645228266716, 0.04086747020483017, -0.045555658638477325, 0.00720914825797081, -0.014273952692747116, -0.03378789871931076, 0.023693887516856194, -0.028225140646100044, -0.04972745478153229, 0.0170162171125412, 0.006603152025490999, -0.017370866611599922, 0.05924607068300247, -0.006807914935052395, -0.019110528752207756, -0.05331065133213997, 0.003883239347487688, -0.003004977712407708, -0.01797349564731121, -0.03327680006623268, -0.0733897015452385, 0.07254525274038315, 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561,"Jupiter outward , thus I , II , III and IV for Io , Europa , Ganymede , and Callisto respectively . Galileo used this system in his notebooks but never actually published it .The numbered names (Jupiter x) were used until the mid-20th century when other inner moons were discovered, and Marius's names became widely used. Determination of longitude
Galileo's discovery had practical applications. Safe navigation required accurately determining a ship's position at sea. While latitude could be measured well enough by local astronomical observations, determining longitude required knowledge of the time of each observation synchronized to the time at a reference longitude. The longitude problem was so important that large prizes were offered for its solution at various times by Spain, The Netherlands, and The United Kingdom. Galileo proposed determining longitude based on the timing of the orbits of the Galilean moons. The times of the eclipses of the moons could be precisely calculated in advance and compared with local observations on land or on ship to determine the local time and hence longitude. Galileo applied in 1616 for the Spanish prize of 6,000 gold ducats with a lifetime pension of 2,000 a year, and almost two decades later for the Dutch prize, but by then he was under house arrest for possible heresy. The main problem with the Jovian moon technique was that it was difficult to observe the Galilean moons through a telescope on a moving ship, a problem that Galileo tried to solve with the invention of the celatone. Others suggested improvements, but without success. Land mapping surveys had the same problem determining longitude, though with less severe observational conditions. The method proved practical and was used by Giovanni Domenico Cassini and Jean Picard to re-map France. Members
Some models predict that there may have been several generations of Galilean satellites in Jupiter's early history.","[-0.020827531814575195, 0.008235452696681023, -0.008350702002644539, -0.026832299306988716, 0.017341306433081627, -0.11233183741569519, -0.032975804060697556, 0.03749506548047066, -0.00628839572891593, -0.03029818832874298, -0.007265973370522261, 0.007907523773610592, 0.015953263267874718, -0.0004380315949674696, -0.05806618556380272, -0.06720680743455887, -0.027360709384083748, 0.05040065944194794, 0.008998440578579903, -0.03944573923945427, -0.026241697371006012, -0.02708621881902218, -0.016206979751586914, 0.045841243118047714, -0.008991501294076443, 0.020751120522618294, 0.020083541050553322, -0.09255725890398026, -0.019001467153429985, 0.013269773684442043, -0.03164844959974289, 0.06750218570232391, -0.03410143032670021, -0.04187934100627899, -0.13409395515918732, -0.02954319305717945, 0.0052832504734396935, -0.04957544803619385, -0.028162559494376183, 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562,"practical and was used by Giovanni Domenico Cassini and Jean Picard to re-map France . Members Some models predict that there may have been several generations of Galilean satellites in Jupiter 's early history .Each generation of moons to have formed would have spiraled into Jupiter and been destroyed, due to tidal interactions with Jupiter's proto-satellite disk, with new moons forming from the remaining debris. By the time the present generation formed, the gas in the proto-satellite disk had thinned out to the point that it no longer greatly interfered with the moons' orbits. Other models suggest that Galilean satellites formed in a proto-satellite disk, in which formation timescales were comparable to or shorter than orbital migration timescales. Io is anhydrous and likely has an interior of rock and metal. Europa is thought to contain 8% ice and water by mass with the remainder rock. These moons are, in increasing order of distance from Jupiter:

Io
Io (Jupiter I) is the innermost of the four Galilean moons of Jupiter; with a diameter of 3642 kilometers, it is the fourth-largest moon in the Solar System, and is only marginally larger than Earth's moon. It was named after Io, a priestess of Hera who became one of the lovers of Zeus. It was referred to as ""Jupiter I"", or ""The first satellite of Jupiter"" until the mid-20th century. With over 400 active volcanos, Io is the most geologically active object in the Solar System. Its surface is dotted with more than 100 mountains, some of which are taller than Earth's Mount Everest. Unlike most satellites in the outer Solar System (which have a thick coating of ice), Io is primarily composed of silicate rock surrounding a molten iron or iron sulfide core. Although not proven, data from the Galileo orbiter indicates that Io might have its own magnetic field.","[-0.05779982730746269, -0.06268052756786346, 0.004942083731293678, 0.031244035810232162, 0.055354565382003784, -0.15648968517780304, 0.011164804920554161, 0.08474299311637878, 0.08218160271644592, -0.022273650392889977, 0.008952443487942219, -0.030187562108039856, 0.014832728542387486, -0.06347024440765381, -0.028893107548356056, -0.07798738777637482, -0.01199231669306755, -0.04873022809624672, -0.060298070311546326, 0.030890507623553276, 0.020090341567993164, -0.030543413013219833, -0.029679611325263977, 0.003582209348678589, 0.0017515331273898482, 0.011067204177379608, 0.0012083806795999408, -0.004772575572133064, 0.025405999273061752, 0.0001751982927089557, 0.040468085557222366, 0.05151813477277756, 0.006574159488081932, -0.020960263907909393, -0.03988343104720116, 0.02502250112593174, 0.01705588772892952, -0.07059323042631149, -0.03932200372219086, -0.08446694165468216, 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563,"Io is primarily composed of silicate rock surrounding a molten iron or iron sulfide core . Although not proven , data from the Galileo orbiter indicates that Io might have its own magnetic field .Io has an extremely thin atmosphere made up mostly of sulfur dioxide (SO2). If a surface data or collection vessel were to land on Io in the future, it would have to be extremely tough (similar to the tank-like bodies of the Soviet Venera landers) to survive the radiation and magnetic fields that originate from Jupiter. Europa
Europa (Jupiter II), the second of the four Galilean moons, is the second closest to Jupiter and the smallest at 3121.6 kilometers in diameter, which is slightly smaller than Earth's Moon. The name comes from a mythical Phoenician noblewoman, Europa, who was courted by Zeus and became the queen of Crete, though the name did not become widely used until the mid-20th century. It has a smooth and bright surface, with a layer of water surrounding the mantle of the planet, thought to be 100 kilometers thick. The smooth surface includes a layer of ice, while the bottom of the ice is theorized to be liquid water. The apparent youth and smoothness of the surface have led to the hypothesis that a water ocean exists beneath it, which could conceivably serve as an abode for extraterrestrial life. Heat energy from tidal flexing ensures that the ocean remains liquid and drives geological activity. Life may exist in Europa's under-ice ocean. So far, there is no evidence that life exists on Europa, but the likely presence of liquid water has spurred calls to send a probe there. The prominent markings that criss-cross the moon seem to be mainly albedo features, which emphasize low topography. There are few craters on Europa because its surface is tectonically active and young.","[-0.02069772034883499, -0.005405080039054155, 0.010432575829327106, 0.0600704587996006, 0.09699367731809616, -0.13715295493602753, 0.013932439498603344, 0.06372515857219696, 0.029288671910762787, -0.07436717301607132, -0.0637798011302948, -0.06917595863342285, 0.024933716282248497, -0.03713570162653923, -0.02607010118663311, -0.019642189145088196, 0.051834430545568466, -0.047550588846206665, -0.04478205740451813, 0.05182769522070885, 0.058312393724918365, -0.003280208446085453, -0.021705392748117447, -0.021887734532356262, -0.045993901789188385, 0.07014590501785278, 0.012877184897661209, -0.0169192086905241, -0.019672472029924393, -0.017602110281586647, 0.01974654570221901, -0.01197000127285719, 0.009300220757722855, -0.04175056517124176, 0.005334646441042423, -0.00983451958745718, 0.035437360405921936, -0.030449621379375458, -0.06814403086900711, -0.048443932086229324, -0.007610407192260027, 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564,". The prominent markings that criss-cross the moon seem to be mainly albedo features , which emphasize low topography . There are few craters on Europa because its surface is tectonically active and young .Some theories suggest that Jupiter's gravity is causing these markings, as one side of Europa is constantly facing Jupiter. Volcanic water eruptions splitting the surface of Europa and even geysers have also been considered as causes. The reddish-brown color of the markings is theorized to be caused by sulfur, but because no data collection devices have been sent to Europa, scientists cannot yet confirm this. Europa is primarily made of silicate rock and likely has an iron core. It has a tenuous atmosphere composed primarily of oxygen. Ganymede
Ganymede (Jupiter III), the third Galilean moon, is named after the mythological Ganymede, cupbearer of the Greek gods and Zeus's beloved. Ganymede is the largest natural satellite in the Solar System at 5262.4 kilometers in diameter, which makes it larger than the planet Mercury – although only at about half of its mass since Ganymede is an icy world. It is the only satellite in the Solar System known to possess a magnetosphere, likely created through convection within the liquid iron core. Ganymede is composed primarily of silicate rock and water ice, and a salt-water ocean is believed to exist nearly 200 km below Ganymede's surface, sandwiched between layers of ice. The metallic core of Ganymede suggests a greater heat at some time in its past than had previously been proposed. The surface is a mix of two types of terrain—highly cratered dark regions and younger, but still ancient, regions with a large array of grooves and ridges. Ganymede has a high number of craters, but many are gone or barely visible due to its icy crust forming over them.","[-0.005565194878727198, -0.0916043296456337, 0.04928208142518997, -0.0007309718057513237, 0.0728897824883461, -0.05653177201747894, 0.02032160386443138, 0.011129037477076054, 0.05589111149311066, -0.08482406288385391, -0.0923924520611763, -0.09953883290290833, -0.028418293222784996, -0.08594932407140732, -0.014017460867762566, -0.03506770730018616, -0.022377735003829002, -0.021529369056224823, 0.03755371645092964, -0.01399578433483839, -0.0180447269231081, -0.06020408496260643, -0.04495139792561531, -0.01903180405497551, -0.03253386914730072, 0.0585242323577404, 0.01859533227980137, -0.05472951754927635, -0.0428006686270237, -0.019644347950816154, 0.020514031872153282, -0.016712820157408714, -0.08217786997556686, 0.030650710687041283, -0.03311892971396446, 0.021644413471221924, -0.0036781474482268095, -0.05535482242703438, -0.0016295281238853931, -0.05453752726316452, 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565,", regions with a large array of grooves and ridges . Ganymede has a high number of craters , but many are gone or barely visible due to its icy crust forming over them .The satellite has a thin oxygen atmosphere that includes O, O2, and possibly O3 (ozone), and some atomic hydrogen. Callisto
Callisto (Jupiter IV) is the fourth and last Galilean moon, and is the second-largest of the four, and at 4820.6 kilometers in diameter, it is the third largest moon in the Solar System, and barely smaller than Mercury, though only a third of the latter's mass. It is named after the Greek mythological nymph Callisto, a lover of Zeus who was a daughter of the Arkadian King Lykaon and a hunting companion of the goddess Artemis. The moon does not form part of the orbital resonance that affects three inner Galilean satellites and thus does not experience appreciable tidal heating. Callisto is composed of approximately equal amounts of rock and ices, which makes it the least dense of the Galilean moons. It is one of the most heavily cratered satellites in the Solar System, and one major feature is a basin around 3000 km wide called Valhalla. Callisto is surrounded by an extremely thin atmosphere composed of carbon dioxide and probably molecular oxygen. Investigation revealed that Callisto may possibly have a subsurface ocean of liquid water at depths less than 300 kilometres. The likely presence of an ocean within Callisto indicates that it can or could harbour life. However, this is less likely than on nearby Europa. Callisto has long been considered the most suitable place for a human base for future exploration of the Jupiter system since it is furthest from the intense radiation of Jupiter's magnetic field. Comparative structure
Fluctuations in the orbits of the moons indicate that their mean density decreases with distance from Jupiter.","[-0.010881530120968819, -0.05032974109053612, 0.04429579898715019, -0.015206602402031422, -0.04745197296142578, -0.14587080478668213, 0.022410735487937927, 0.07178967446088791, 0.05196906626224518, -0.041717708110809326, -0.047931522130966187, -0.09338238090276718, -0.09370121359825134, -0.06391909718513489, -0.0381116084754467, 0.01644035615026951, -0.0008279139292426407, 0.023386994376778603, 0.02698591724038124, 0.037672258913517, 0.006727579049766064, -0.0047136577777564526, -0.018627552315592766, -0.017557278275489807, 0.0003408181364648044, 0.0765669122338295, 0.026482243090867996, 0.06648367643356323, -0.041813697665929794, -0.048603519797325134, 0.016337106004357338, 0.07162394374608994, -0.007631548214703798, 0.02462412230670452, -0.07272979617118835, 0.08198564499616623, 0.01924818381667137, -0.03630249574780464, 0.008746633306145668, -0.0632345974445343, 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566,"system since it is furthest from the intense radiation of Jupiter 's magnetic field . Comparative structure Fluctuations in the orbits of the moons indicate that their mean density decreases with distance from Jupiter .Callisto, the outermost and least dense of the four, has a density intermediate between ice and rock whereas Io, the innermost and densest moon, has a density intermediate between rock and iron. Callisto has an ancient, heavily cratered and unaltered ice surface and the way it rotates indicates that its density is equally distributed, suggesting that it has no rocky or metallic core but consists of a homogeneous mix of rock and ice. This may well have been the original structure of all the moons. The rotation of the three inner moons, in contrast, indicates differentiation of their interiors with denser matter at the core and lighter matter above. They also reveal significant alteration of the surface. Ganymede reveals past tectonic movement of the ice surface which required partial melting of subsurface layers. Europa reveals more dynamic and recent movement of this nature, suggesting a thinner ice crust. Finally, Io, the innermost moon, has a sulfur surface, active volcanism and no sign of ice. All this evidence suggests that the nearer a moon is to Jupiter the hotter its interior. The current model is that the moons experience tidal heating as a result of the gravitational field of Jupiter in inverse proportion to the square of their distance from the giant planet. In all but Callisto this will have melted the interior ice, allowing rock and iron to sink to the interior and water to cover the surface. In Ganymede a thick and solid ice crust then formed. In warmer Europa a thinner more easily broken crust formed. In Io the heating is so extreme that all the rock has melted and water has long ago boiled out into space.","[-0.06234110891819, -0.09076327830553055, 0.055749885737895966, 0.04119327291846275, 0.045612022280693054, -0.10915349423885345, -0.038068052381277084, 0.06832896173000336, 0.056690413504838943, -0.04594123363494873, -0.038467999547719955, -0.11178147047758102, -0.016277974471449852, -0.09913792461156845, 0.00248741009272635, -0.05629470571875572, -0.0019786038901656866, -0.025086451321840286, -0.031066961586475372, 0.05227477848529816, 0.018521592020988464, -0.02738206647336483, -0.047064099460840225, -0.04733135551214218, -0.041500091552734375, 0.103711798787117, 0.013902374543249607, -0.0019265225855633616, -0.002836141036823392, -0.06026246026158333, -0.021541673690080643, 0.07572753727436066, 0.003990216180682182, -0.02050171047449112, -0.028544118627905846, -0.025347305461764336, 0.059736840426921844, -0.01636393368244171, -0.06172822043299675, -0.08179198205471039, 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567,". In warmer Europa a thinner more easily broken crust formed . In Io the heating is so extreme that all the rock has melted and water has long ago boiled out into space .Size
Latest flyby
Origin and evolution
Jupiter's regular satellites are believed to have formed from a circumplanetary disk, a ring of accreting gas and solid debris analogous to a protoplanetary disk. They may be the remnants of a score of Galilean-mass satellites that formed early in Jupiter's history. Simulations suggest that, while the disk had a relatively high mass at any given moment, over time a substantial fraction (several tenths of a percent) of the mass of Jupiter captured from the Solar nebula was processed through it. However, the disk mass of only 2% that of Jupiter is required to explain the existing satellites. Thus there may have been several generations of Galilean-mass satellites in Jupiter's early history. Each generation of moons would have spiraled into Jupiter, due to drag from the disk, with new moons then forming from the new debris captured from the Solar nebula. By the time the present (possibly fifth) generation formed, the disk had thinned out to the point that it no longer greatly interfered with the moons' orbits. The current Galilean moons were still affected, falling into and being partially protected by an orbital resonance which still exists for Io, Europa, and Ganymede. Ganymede's larger mass means that it would have migrated inward at a faster rate than Europa or Io. Tidal dissipation in the Jovian system is still ongoing and Callisto will likely be captured into the resonance in about 1.5 billion years, creating a 1:2:4:8 chain. Visibility
All four Galilean moons are bright enough to be viewed from Earth without a telescope, if only they could appear farther away from Jupiter.","[-0.04026186466217041, -0.05501842126250267, 0.05451750010251999, 0.05740521848201752, 0.08672996610403061, -0.10528324544429779, -0.007655162364244461, 0.044102881103754044, 0.06006191670894623, 0.013017965480685234, -0.0067827533930540085, -0.06244339421391487, 0.03208163008093834, -0.07629057765007019, 0.031267475336790085, -0.07277625054121017, -0.03343717381358147, -0.05352766439318657, -0.02508486807346344, 0.017255665734410286, 0.0371154248714447, -0.006483097095042467, -0.08974999934434891, 0.012551656924188137, -0.008185777813196182, 0.0004946988192386925, -0.023290107026696205, -0.0029944670386612415, 0.009858565405011177, 0.017342478036880493, 0.006348209921270609, 0.01445296686142683, -0.022952398285269737, 0.020179999992251396, -0.040370553731918335, 0.01880318857729435, -0.026712726801633835, -0.057661354541778564, 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568,"billion years , creating a 1:2:4:8 chain . Visibility All four Galilean moons are bright enough to be viewed from Earth without a telescope , if only they could appear farther away from Jupiter .(They are, however, easily distinguished with even low-powered binoculars.) They have apparent magnitudes between 4.6 and 5.6 when Jupiter is in opposition with the Sun, and are about one unit of magnitude dimmer when Jupiter is in conjunction. The main difficulty in observing the moons from Earth is their proximity to Jupiter, since they are obscured by its brightness. The maximum angular separations of the moons are between 2 and 10 arcminutes from Jupiter, which is close to the limit of human visual acuity. Ganymede and Callisto, at their maximum separation, are the likeliest targets for potential naked-eye observation. Orbit animations
GIF animations depicting the Galilean moon orbits and the resonance of Io, Europa, and Ganymede

See also
Jupiter's moons in fiction
Colonization of the Jovian System

Notes
References
External links

Sky & Telescope utility for identifying Galilean moons
Interactive 3D visualisation of Jupiter and the Galilean moons
NASA's Stunning Discoveries on Jupiter's Largest Moons | Our Solar System's Moons
A Beginner's Guide to Jupiter's Moons
Dominic Ford: The Moons of Jupiter. With a chart of the current position of the Galilean moons.","[0.014088591560721397, -0.1078038290143013, -0.0007490391726605594, -0.010683971457183361, 0.041337303817272186, -0.13362091779708862, -0.08050067722797394, 0.06629054248332977, 0.02836609072983265, -0.031063877046108246, -0.0060499259270727634, -0.08086695522069931, -0.021703841164708138, -0.08177079260349274, -0.020088179036974907, 0.0004770469095092267, 0.10266958177089691, -0.0018947345670312643, -0.03790852054953575, -0.018681569024920464, 0.04032030701637268, -0.035396426916122437, -0.02131301909685135, 0.0033648728858679533, -0.01033780723810196, 0.014728306792676449, 0.011634531430900097, -0.0696127787232399, -0.03134570270776749, -0.05908803269267082, 0.034579839557409286, 0.009302123449742794, -0.05783669278025627, -0.007587917614728212, -0.08740530908107758, 0.028550129383802414, 0.0008767442777752876, -0.049868352711200714, -0.01293241698294878, -0.1339835375547409, 0.032056208699941635, 0.008253938518464565, 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569," The rings of Jupiter are a system of faint planetary rings. The Jovian rings were the third ring system to be discovered in the Solar System, after those of Saturn and Uranus. The main ring was discovered in 1979 by the Voyager 1 space probe and the system was more thoroughly investigated in the 1990s by the Galileo orbiter. The main ring has also been observed by the Hubble Space Telescope and from Earth for several years. Ground-based observation of the rings requires the largest available telescopes. The Jovian ring system is faint and consists mainly of dust. It has four main components: a thick inner torus of particles known as the ""halo ring""; a relatively bright, exceptionally thin ""main ring""; and two wide, thick and faint outer ""gossamer rings"", named for the moons of whose material they are composed: Amalthea and Thebe. The main and halo rings consist of dust ejected from the moons Metis, Adrastea and perhaps smaller, unobserved bodies as the result of high-velocity impacts. High-resolution images obtained in February and March 2007 by the New Horizons spacecraft revealed a rich fine structure in the main ring. In visible and near-infrared light, the rings have a reddish color, except the halo ring, which is neutral or blue in color. The size of the dust in the rings varies, but the cross-sectional area is greatest for nonspherical particles of radius about 15 μm in all rings except the halo. The halo ring is probably dominated by submicrometre dust. The total mass of the ring system (including unresolved parent bodies) is poorly constrained, but is probably in the range of 1011 to 1016 kg. The age of the ring system is also not known, but it is possible that it has existed since the formation of Jupiter.","[-0.001171492738649249, -0.08107300847768784, -0.04494359716773033, 0.002070609014481306, 0.10705111175775528, -0.11976085603237152, 0.001528837252408266, 0.08738171309232712, 0.10392729938030243, -0.05210704728960991, -0.04719441011548042, -0.008421160280704498, -0.007826047018170357, -0.0929027795791626, 0.00972195528447628, -0.020042628049850464, 0.03250982612371445, -0.01727113500237465, -0.008844287134706974, 0.008817564696073532, -0.0011525728041306138, 0.07049289345741272, -0.06646789610385895, -3.745527283172123e-05, -0.031979288905858994, 0.11603158712387085, -0.011228065937757492, -0.06297081708908081, -0.07530374825000763, -0.030050843954086304, -0.0003916408459190279, 0.00822371430695057, -0.0015765416901558638, -0.00804376695305109, -0.012830061838030815, -0.018157843500375748, -0.012643278576433659, -0.010812362655997276, -0.056349098682403564, 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570,"probably in the range of 1011 to 1016 kg . The age of the ring system is also not known , but it is possible that it has existed since the formation of Jupiter .A ring or ring arc appears to exist close to the moon Himalia's orbit. One explanation is that a small moon recently crashed into Himalia and the force of the impact ejected the material that forms the ring. Discovery and structure
Jupiter's ring system was the third to be discovered in the Solar System, after those of Saturn and Uranus. It was first observed on 4 March 1979 by the Voyager 1 space probe. It is composed of four main components: a thick inner torus of particles known as the ""halo ring""; a relatively bright, exceptionally thin ""main ring""; and two wide, thick and faint outer ""gossamer rings"", named after the moons of whose material they are composed: Amalthea and Thebe. The principal attributes of the known Jovian Rings are listed in the table. In 2022, dynamical simulations suggested that the relative meagreness of Jupiter's ring system, compared to that of the smaller Saturn, is due to destabilising resonances created by the Galilean satellites. Main ring
Appearance and structure
The narrow and relatively thin main ring is the brightest part of Jupiter's ring system. Its outer edge is located at a radius of about 129,000 km (1.806 RJ;RJ = equatorial radius of Jupiter or 71,398 km) and coincides with the orbit of Jupiter's smallest inner satellite, Adrastea. Its inner edge is not marked by any satellite and is located at about 122,500 km (1.72 RJ). Thus the width of the main ring is around 6,500 km. The appearance of the main ring depends on the viewing geometry.","[-0.02098540961742401, -0.06818945705890656, -0.04869907721877098, 0.031364358961582184, 0.01260934304445982, -0.09129805117845535, -0.002195033710449934, 0.11301754415035248, 0.07890500128269196, -0.03891032189130783, -0.06264924257993698, -0.017243146896362305, 0.003413765924051404, -0.07556775957345963, -0.019019505009055138, -0.030513295903801918, 0.02018606849014759, -0.033155299723148346, 0.0016400283202528954, 0.018750470131635666, 0.0407625287771225, 0.07563325762748718, -0.07701855152845383, 0.011450645513832569, -0.04583254083991051, 0.07992210239171982, 0.006211413536220789, -0.05698436498641968, -0.055221278220415115, -0.04309992119669914, 0.04888039454817772, 0.02734801545739174, -0.03125905990600586, -0.013845590874552727, -0.03757541626691818, -0.034159012138843536, -0.010173674672842026, -0.00020700924505945295, -0.03009321354329586, -0.08517497777938843, -0.022893916815519333, 0.03989117592573166, 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571,"is located at about 122,500 km ( 1.72 RJ ) . Thus the width of the main ring is around 6,500 km . The appearance of the main ring depends on the viewing geometry .In forward-scattered light the brightness of the main ring begins to decrease steeply at 128,600 km (just inward of the Adrastean orbit) and reaches the background level at 129,300 km—just outward of the Adrastean orbit. Therefore, Adrastea at 129,000 km clearly shepherds the ring. The brightness continues to increase in the direction of Jupiter and has a maximum near the ring's center at 126,000 km, although there is a pronounced gap (notch) near the Metidian orbit at 128,000 km. The inner boundary of the main ring, in contrast, appears to fade off slowly from 124,000 to 120,000 km, merging into the halo ring. In forward-scattered light all Jovian rings are especially bright. In back-scattered light the situation is different. The outer boundary of the main ring, located at 129,100 km, or slightly beyond the orbit of Adrastea, is very steep. The orbit of the moon is marked by a gap in the ring so there is a thin ringlet just outside its orbit. There is another ringlet just inside Adrastean orbit followed by a gap of unknown origin located at about 128,500 km. The third ringlet is found inward of the central gap, outside the orbit of Metis. The ring's brightness drops sharply just outward of the Metidian orbit, forming the Metis notch. Inward of the orbit of Metis, the brightness of the ring rises much less than in forward-scattered light.","[0.03115410916507244, -0.03858714923262596, -0.0674295574426651, -0.003630357561632991, 0.03673718869686127, -0.13822738826274872, -0.05446053296327591, 0.1036263033747673, 0.027697373181581497, -0.0684276595711708, -0.021049385890364647, -0.008626662194728851, -0.05791829153895378, -0.11056052893400192, 0.03147886320948601, -0.008646498434245586, 0.036825936287641525, -0.026264259591698647, -0.039890944957733154, -0.002257741754874587, 0.06725893169641495, 0.009534895420074463, -0.017839686945080757, 0.00904533825814724, -0.03478725999593735, 0.03965182229876518, -0.008088262751698494, -0.01069001667201519, -0.05841844901442528, -0.04928494244813919, 0.005157169420272112, -0.01685202680528164, -0.0009804563596844673, 0.0023183166049420834, -0.02096112072467804, 0.004088411573320627, -0.07406912744045258, 0.054569751024246216, 0.028768587857484818, -0.06645260006189346, 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572,"brightness drops sharply just outward of the Metidian orbit , forming the Metis notch . Inward of the orbit of Metis , the brightness of the ring rises much less than in forward-scattered light .So in the back-scattered geometry the main ring appears to consist of two different parts: a narrow outer part extending from 128,000 to 129,000 km, which itself includes three narrow ringlets separated by notches, and a fainter inner part from 122,500 to 128,000 km, which lacks any visible structure like in the forward-scattering geometry. The Metis notch serves as their boundary. The fine structure of the main ring was discovered in data from the Galileo orbiter and is clearly visible in back-scattered images obtained from New Horizons in February–March 2007. The early observations by Hubble Space Telescope (HST), Keck and the Cassini spacecraft failed to detect it, probably due to insufficient spatial resolution. However the fine structure was observed by the Keck telescope using adaptive optics in 2002–2003. Observed in back-scattered light the main ring appears to be razor thin, extending in the vertical direction no more than 30 km. In the side scatter geometry the ring thickness is 80–160 km, increasing somewhat in the direction of Jupiter. The ring appears to be much thicker in the forward-scattered light—about 300 km. One of the discoveries of the Galileo orbiter was the bloom of the main ring—a faint, relatively thick (about 600 km) cloud of material which surrounds its inner part. The bloom grows in thickness towards the inner boundary of the main ring, where it transitions into the halo. Detailed analysis of the Galileo images revealed longitudinal variations of the main ring's brightness unconnected with the viewing geometry. The Galileo images also showed some patchiness in the ring on the scales 500–1000 km. In February–March 2007 New Horizons spacecraft conducted a deep search for new small moons inside the main ring.","[0.005655528511852026, -0.06765449047088623, -0.045070014894008636, -0.004684337414801121, 0.017819073051214218, -0.11793368309736252, -0.00891286414116621, 0.06940650194883347, 0.03462545573711395, 0.01831739768385887, -0.06464967131614685, 0.022487854585051537, -0.09743183106184006, -0.07838357239961624, -0.026588913053274155, -0.053115759044885635, 0.059908196330070496, -0.03459397330880165, 0.0036806969437748194, 0.0040714978240430355, -0.03494967147707939, 0.05118614807724953, -0.0606226921081543, 0.04825961962342262, 0.023476170375943184, 0.08813247084617615, 0.015052875503897667, -0.00955493375658989, 0.006552502512931824, -0.039212845265865326, 0.008687132969498634, 0.025585979223251343, -0.04262885823845863, 0.025888975709676743, -0.021339718252420425, 0.05574896186590195, 0.010811510495841503, 0.02214273065328598, -0.013522488996386528, -0.09304984658956528, 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573,"The Galileo images also showed some patchiness in the ring on the scales 500–1000 km . In February–March 2007 New Horizons spacecraft conducted a deep search for new small moons inside the main ring .While no satellites larger than 0.5 km were found, the cameras of the spacecraft detected seven small clumps of ring particles. They orbit just inside the orbit of Adrastea inside a dense ringlet. The conclusion, that they are clumps and not small moons, is based on their azimuthally extended appearance. They subtend 0.1–0.3° along the ring, which correspond to 1,000–3,000 km. The clumps are divided into two groups of five and two members, respectively. The nature of the clumps is not clear, but their orbits are close to 115:116 and 114:115 resonances with Metis. They may be wavelike structures excited by this interaction. Spectra and particle size distribution
Spectra of the main ring obtained by the HST, Keck, Galileo and Cassini have shown that particles forming it are red, i.e. their albedo is higher at longer wavelengths. The existing spectra span the range 0.5–2.5 μm. No spectral features have been found so far which can be attributed to particular chemical compounds, although the Cassini observations yielded evidence for absorption bands near 0.8 μm and 2.2 μm. The spectra of the main ring are very similar to Adrastea and Amalthea. The properties of the main ring can be explained by the hypothesis that it contains significant amounts of dust with 0.1–10 μm particle sizes. This explains the stronger forward-scattering of light as compared to back-scattering. However, larger bodies are required to explain the strong back-scattering and fine structure in the bright outer part of the main ring.","[0.010458031669259071, -0.13250528275966644, -0.039945393800735474, -0.02184072695672512, 0.05288500711321831, -0.10455985367298126, 0.016942068934440613, 0.05069596320390701, 0.0633709505200386, -0.019743289798498154, -0.019696339964866638, -0.002703625475987792, -0.0751943588256836, -0.08202967792749405, 0.0017137402901425958, 0.00685125170275569, 0.06758987903594971, -0.03396503999829292, -0.04756346717476845, -0.0057715983130037785, -0.04525584727525711, 0.034594908356666565, -0.05224648118019104, 0.07165534049272537, 0.013075028546154499, 0.06767348200082779, -0.013247734867036343, -0.02928626537322998, -0.027663543820381165, -0.03975329548120499, 0.0714232549071312, 0.015033178962767124, -0.004172191955149174, -0.024754934012889862, 0.030111901462078094, 0.03474362939596176, -0.0037987588439136744, 0.024897025898098946, -0.030553799122571945, 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-0.0032396973110735416, -0.0605333186686039, 0.028142303228378296, 0.05513297766447067, 0.06265556812286377, 0.005563732236623764, 0.0013119213981553912, -0.018242688849568367, -0.003234253032132983, -0.04906488209962845, 0.01751743257045746, -0.011388158425688744, -0.0932062566280365, -0.021384889259934425, 0.001433940720744431, -0.038808420300483704, 0.033541567623615265, -0.00720462528988719, -0.03432368114590645, -0.11742915958166122, 0.012911844998598099, -0.02877078577876091, -0.0178927481174469, 0.0052921585738658905, 0.027692021802067757, -0.045142631977796555, 0.01356202457100153, -0.04697345942258835, 0.01609872281551361]",Rings of Jupiter,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.
574,"explains the stronger forward-scattering of light as compared to back-scattering . However , larger bodies are required to explain the strong back-scattering and fine structure in the bright outer part of the main ring .Analysis of available phase and spectral data leads to a conclusion that the size distribution of small particles in the main ring obeys a power law

  
    
      
        n
        (
        r
        )
        =
        A
        ×
        
          r
          
            −
            q
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle n(r)=A\times r^{-q}}
  

where n(r) dr is a number of particles with radii between r and r + dr and 
  
    
      
        A
      
    
    {\displaystyle A}
  
 is a normalizing parameter chosen to match the known total light flux from the ring. The parameter q is 2.0 ± 0.2 for particles with r < 15 ± 0.3 μm and q = 5 ± 1 for those with r > 15 ± 0.3 μm. The distribution of large bodies in the mm–km size range is undetermined presently. The light scattering in this model is dominated by particles with r around 15 μm. The power law mentioned above allows estimation of the optical depth 
  
    
      
        
          τ
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \scriptstyle \tau }
  
 of the main ring: 
  
    
      
        
          
            τ
            
              l
            
          
          
          =
          
          4.7
          ×
          
            10
            
              −
              6
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \scriptstyle \tau _{l}\,=\,4.7\times 10^{-6}}
  
 for the large bodies and 
  
    
      
        
          
            τ
            
              s
            
          
          =
          1.3
          ×
          
            10
            
              −
              6
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \scriptstyle \tau _{s}=1.3\times 10^{-6}}
  
 for the dust. This optical depth means that the total cross section of all particles inside the ring is about 5000 km². The particles in the main ring are expected to have aspherical shapes. The total mass of the dust is estimated to be 107−109 kg. The mass of large bodies, excluding Metis and Adrastea, is 1011−1016 kg. It depends on their maximum size— the upper value corresponds to about 1 km maximum diameter.","[0.0678810104727745, 0.023707525804638863, 0.012078871950507164, 0.04482166841626167, 0.058239683508872986, -0.0947161391377449, -0.016236260533332825, 0.08311253041028976, 0.06426256895065308, 0.013826579786837101, -0.04665840417146683, -0.03790093958377838, 0.0021185430232435465, -0.05678378418087959, 0.07969046384096146, 0.01756385713815689, 0.11912128329277039, 0.06841153651475906, -0.11167260259389877, 0.06569516658782959, 0.02950797602534294, 0.04002286121249199, -0.0019380835583433509, -0.03538188338279724, -0.03323115408420563, -0.01983794756233692, -0.005881842225790024, -0.05622188001871109, -0.04730930179357529, -0.057722412049770355, 0.017857663333415985, 0.026733310893177986, -0.01640605367720127, 0.01986510120332241, 0.015056943520903587, -0.004331478849053383, -0.042647089809179306, -0.00018937715503852814, 0.018633196130394936, 0.04466156288981438, 0.006651127710938454, 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Jupiter,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.
575,"107−109 kg . The mass of large bodies , excluding Metis and Adrastea , is 1011−1016 kg . It depends on their maximum size— the upper value corresponds to about 1 km maximum diameter .These masses can be compared with masses of Adrastea, which is about 2 × 1015 kg, Amalthea, about 2 × 1018 kg, and Earth's Moon, 7.4 × 1022 kg. The presence of two populations of particles in the main ring explains why its appearance depends on the viewing geometry. The dust scatters light preferably in the forward direction and forms a relatively thick homogenous ring bounded by the orbit of Adrastea. In contrast, large particles, which scatter in the back direction, are confined in a number of ringlets between the Metidian and Adrastean orbits. Origin and age
The dust is constantly being removed from the main ring by a combination of Poynting–Robertson drag and electromagnetic forces from the Jovian magnetosphere. Volatile materials such as ices, for example, evaporate quickly. The lifetime of dust particles in the ring is from 100 to 1,000 years, so the dust must be continuously replenished in the collisions between large bodies with sizes from 1 cm to 0.5 km and between the same large bodies and high velocity particles coming from outside the Jovian system. This parent body population is confined to the narrow—about 1,000 km—and bright outer part of the main ring, and includes Metis and Adrastea. The largest parent bodies must be less than 0.5 km in size. The upper limit on their size was obtained by New Horizons spacecraft. The previous upper limit, obtained from HST and Cassini observations, was near 4 km. The dust produced in collisions retains approximately the same orbital elements as the parent bodies and slowly spirals in the direction of Jupiter forming the faint (in back-scattered light) innermost part of the main ring and halo ring.","[0.007935377769172192, -0.0648099035024643, 0.015127288177609444, 0.04708566516637802, 0.06658171117305756, -0.10507794469594955, 0.0660252794623375, 0.04262089729309082, 0.00857608113437891, 0.003109676530584693, -0.019310180097818375, -0.018047237768769264, -0.05711305886507034, -0.05899202823638916, -0.022255541756749153, 0.01318521611392498, 0.06300093233585358, -0.04326603561639786, -0.07392475008964539, 0.06702111661434174, 0.10907252877950668, 0.022319987416267395, -0.09151289612054825, 0.006041135173290968, 0.001904862467199564, 0.018543338403105736, -0.07977468520402908, -0.015556754544377327, -0.04170386493206024, -0.06317751109600067, 0.06365230679512024, -0.017633505165576935, -0.010591492056846619, 0.00621161051094532, 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576,"approximately the same orbital elements as the parent bodies and slowly spirals in the direction of Jupiter forming the faint ( in back-scattered light ) innermost part of the main ring and halo ring .The age of the main ring is currently unknown, but it may be the last remnant of a past population of small bodies near Jupiter. Vertical corrugations
Images from the Galileo and New Horizons space probes show the presence of two sets of spiraling vertical corrugations in the main ring. These waves became more tightly wound over time at the rate expected for differential nodal regression in Jupiter's gravity field. Extrapolating backwards, the more prominent of the two sets of waves appears to have been excited in 1995, around the time of the impact of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with Jupiter, while the smaller set appears to date to the first half of 1990. Galileo's November 1996 observations are consistent with wavelengths of 1920 ± 150 and 630 ± 20 km, and vertical amplitudes of 2.4 ± 0.7 and 0.6 ± 0.2 km, for the larger and smaller sets of waves, respectively. The formation of the larger set of waves can be explained if the ring was impacted by a cloud of particles released by the comet with a total mass on the order of 2–5 trillion kg, which would have tilted the ring out of the equatorial plane by 2 km. A similar spiraling wave pattern that tightens over time has been observed by Cassini in Saturns's C and D rings. Halo ring
Appearance and structure
The halo ring is the innermost and the vertically thickest Jovian ring. Its outer edge coincides with the inner boundary of the main ring approximately at the radius 122500 km (1.72 RJ). From this radius the ring becomes rapidly thicker towards Jupiter.","[-0.06208520755171776, -0.10541915893554688, 0.0014964964939281344, 0.012462222017347813, 0.040581878274679184, -0.08469178527593613, -0.11597546935081482, 0.059218380600214005, 0.015188713558018208, -0.07692854106426239, -0.013842171058058739, 0.010969763621687889, -0.0372435636818409, -0.13010273873806, 0.06688466668128967, -0.028731904923915863, -0.018431877717375755, -0.07916057854890823, -0.018380573019385338, -0.023336973041296005, -0.08119170367717743, -0.012181421741843224, -0.09684531390666962, 0.006617337465286255, 0.013349546119570732, 0.036086298525333405, 0.028249669820070267, -0.06388507038354874, -0.016552433371543884, -0.03095192275941372, 0.032536666840314865, 0.07197863608598709, -0.039611153304576874, 0.013417426496744156, -0.028941432014107704, 0.0031048404052853584, 0.0021187507081776857, 0.006690293084830046, -0.0160733200609684, -0.0078270910307765, 0.033943187445402145, -0.054896749556064606, 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Jupiter,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.
577,". Its outer edge coincides with the inner boundary of the main ring approximately at the radius 122500 km ( 1.72 RJ ) . From this radius the ring becomes rapidly thicker towards Jupiter .The true vertical extent of the halo is not known but the presence of its material was detected as high as 10000 km over the ring plane. The inner boundary of the halo is relatively sharp and located at the radius 100000 km (1.4 RJ), but some material is present further inward to approximately 92000 km. Thus the width of the halo ring is about 30000 km. Its shape resembles a thick torus without clear internal structure. In contrast to the main ring, the halo's appearance depends only slightly on the viewing geometry. The halo ring appears brightest in forward-scattered light, in which it was extensively imaged by Galileo. While its surface brightness is much less than that of the main ring, its vertically (perpendicular to the ring plane) integrated photon flux is comparable due to its much larger thickness. Despite a claimed vertical extent of more than 20000 km, the halo's brightness is strongly concentrated towards the ring plane and follows a power law of the form z−0.6 to z−1.5, where z is altitude over the ring plane. The halo's appearance in the back-scattered light, as observed by Keck and HST, is the same. However its total photon flux is several times lower than that of the main ring and is more strongly concentrated near the ring plane than in the forward-scattered light. The spectral properties of the halo ring are different from the main ring. The flux distribution in the range 0.5–2.5 μm is flatter than in the main ring; the halo is not red and may even be blue.","[0.0005579647840932012, 0.021360555663704872, -0.08214545994997025, 0.05655615031719208, 0.07493288815021515, -0.11743350327014923, -0.0004859433101955801, 0.0915563553571701, 0.0815407782793045, -0.05696307495236397, -0.043629977852106094, 0.015954002737998962, 0.02990558370947838, -0.04719127342104912, 0.015896936878561974, -0.038262419402599335, 0.07831963896751404, -0.03678404539823532, -0.05855891481041908, 0.01925748772919178, 0.030455686151981354, 0.02066497690975666, -0.025882022455334663, 0.040985919535160065, -0.040041349828243256, 0.045751649886369705, 0.04235512390732765, -0.03905416280031204, -0.02438744530081749, -0.038986507803201675, 0.002298965584486723, 0.03271077200770378, -0.001195801654830575, 0.06547567993402481, 0.01930478774011135, -0.06550371646881104, -0.01203353051096201, 0.00439830869436264, 0.012594939209520817, -0.043093375861644745, 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Jupiter,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter.
578,"ring are different from the main ring . The flux distribution in the range 0.5–2.5 μm is flatter than in the main ring ; the halo is not red and may even be blue .Origin of the halo ring
The optical properties of the halo ring can be explained by the hypothesis that it comprises only dust with particle sizes less than 15 μm. Parts of the halo located far from the ring plane may consist of submicrometre dust. This dusty composition explains the much stronger forward-scattering, bluer colors and lack of visible structure in the halo. The dust probably originates in the main ring, a claim supported by the fact that the halo's optical depth 
  
    
      
        
          
            τ
            
              s
            
          
          
          ∼
          
          
            10
            
              −
              6
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \scriptstyle \tau _{s}\,\sim \,10^{-6}}
  
 is comparable with that of the dust in the main ring. The large thickness of the halo can be attributed to the excitation of orbital inclinations and eccentricities of dust particles by the electromagnetic forces in the Jovian magnetosphere. The outer boundary of the halo ring coincides with location of a strong 3:2 Lorentz resonance. As Poynting–Robertson drag causes particles to slowly drift towards Jupiter, their orbital inclinations are excited while passing through it. The bloom of the main ring may be a beginning of the halo. The halo ring's inner boundary is not far from the strongest 2:1 Lorentz resonance. In this resonance the excitation is probably very significant, forcing particles to plunge into the Jovian atmosphere thus defining a sharp inner boundary. Being derived from the main ring, the halo has the same age. Gossamer rings
Amalthea gossamer ring
The Amalthea gossamer ring is a very faint structure with a rectangular cross section, stretching from the orbit of Amalthea at 182000 km (2.54 RJ) to about 129000 km (1.80 RJ).","[0.006954394746571779, -0.05187585577368736, -0.014931276440620422, 0.017912818118929863, 0.12478987127542496, -0.05389898642897606, 0.015917465090751648, 0.0691288560628891, 0.10466962307691574, -0.07825406640768051, -0.06369215250015259, -0.037229862064123154, 0.0384301133453846, -0.08301859349012375, 0.043058134615421295, 0.03732704371213913, 0.06392718851566315, -0.012636459432542324, -0.04797575995326042, 0.035166751593351364, -0.015434733591973782, 0.052420724183321, -0.07796747237443924, 0.05339851230382919, -0.038780078291893005, 0.0458853505551815, 0.0073148999363183975, -0.07750287652015686, -0.07209504395723343, -0.02991625852882862, 0.012284028343856335, 0.039630766957998276, -0.01674393191933632, 0.05868800729513168, 0.016654687002301216, -0.07613120973110199, -0.03152947872877121, 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579,"gossamer ring is a very faint structure with a rectangular cross section , stretching from the orbit of Amalthea at 182000 km ( 2.54 RJ ) to about 129000 km ( 1.80 RJ ) .Its inner boundary is not clearly defined because of the presence of the much brighter main ring and halo. The thickness of the ring is approximately 2300 km near the orbit of Amalthea and slightly decreases in the direction of Jupiter. The Amalthea gossamer ring is actually the brightest near its top and bottom edges and becomes gradually brighter towards Jupiter; one of the edges is often brighter than another. The outer boundary of the ring is relatively steep; the ring's brightness drops abruptly just inward of the orbit of Amalthea, although it may have a small extension beyond the orbit of the satellite ending near 4:3 resonance with Thebe. In forward-scattered light the ring appears to be about 30 times fainter than the main ring. In back-scattered light it has been detected only by the Keck telescope and the ACS (Advanced Camera for Surveys) on HST. Back-scattering images show additional structure in the ring: a peak in the brightness just inside the Amalthean orbit and confined to the top or bottom edge of the ring. In 2002–2003 Galileo spacecraft had two passes through the gossamer rings. During them its dust counter detected dust particles in the size range 0.2–5 μm. In addition, the Galileo spacecraft's star scanner detected small, discrete bodies (< 1 km) near Amalthea. These may represent collisional debris generated from impacts with this satellite. The detection of the Amalthea gossamer ring from the ground, in Galileo images and the direct dust measurements have allowed the determination of the particle size distribution, which appears to follow the same power law as the dust in the main ring with q=2 ± 0.5.","[0.040628522634506226, 0.006259703543037176, -0.06397150456905365, 0.013871844857931137, 0.04267195612192154, -0.13113431632518768, -0.007467056158930063, 0.08062795549631119, 0.08672603219747543, -0.08494935184717178, -0.018730252981185913, -0.0405043326318264, -0.019677283242344856, -0.08102269470691681, 0.009075966663658619, -0.06332337856292725, 0.037604399025440216, -0.04188234359025955, -0.022908296436071396, -0.01132963690906763, 0.03563830628991127, 0.04301702231168747, -0.02307981066405773, -0.009557828307151794, -0.07428572326898575, 0.02732698805630207, -0.007083376869559288, -0.06080371513962746, -0.03466123342514038, -0.05166475474834442, -0.01478914637118578, -0.006754781119525433, -0.05246339365839958, 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580,"and the direct dust measurements have allowed the determination of the particle size distribution , which appears to follow the same power law as the dust in the main ring with q=2 ± 0.5 .The optical depth of this ring is about 10−7, which is an order of magnitude lower than that of the main ring, but the total mass of the dust (107–109 kg) is comparable. Thebe gossamer ring
The Thebe gossamer ring is the faintest Jovian ring. It appears as a very faint structure with a rectangular cross section, stretching from the Thebean orbit at 226000 km (3.11 RJ) to about 129000 km (1.80 RJ;). Its inner boundary is not clearly defined because of the presence of the much brighter main ring and halo. The thickness of the ring is approximately 8400 km near the orbit of Thebe and slightly decreases in the direction of the planet. The Thebe gossamer ring is brightest near its top and bottom edges and gradually becomes brighter towards Jupiter—much like the Amalthea ring. The outer boundary of the ring is not especially steep, stretching over 15000 km. There is a barely visible continuation of the ring beyond the orbit of Thebe, extending up to 280000 km (3.75 RJ) and called the Thebe Extension. In forward-scattered light the ring appears to be about 3 times fainter than the Amalthea gossamer ring. In back-scattered light it has been detected only by the Keck telescope. Back-scattering images show a peak of brightness just inside the orbit of Thebe. In 2002–2003 the dust counter of the Galileo spacecraft detected dust particles in the size range 0.2–5 μm—similar to those in the Amalthea ring—and confirmed the results obtained from imaging. The optical depth of the Thebe gossamer ring is about 3 × 10−8, which is three times lower than the Amalthea gossamer ring, but the total mass of the dust is the same—about 107–109 kg.","[0.013196200132369995, 0.01571507938206196, -0.04334710165858269, -0.003505989210680127, 0.06599351018667221, -0.13230469822883606, -0.008444215171039104, 0.06864820420742035, 0.09061311185359955, -0.07734766602516174, -0.023027995601296425, -0.05290155112743378, -0.016187768429517746, -0.08396363258361816, 0.05815618857741356, -0.06830243021249771, 0.040514424443244934, -0.006171857006847858, -0.029088472947478294, 0.030407341197133064, 0.07639745622873306, 0.09657357633113861, -0.027337174862623215, -0.006846557836979628, -0.07142296433448792, 0.0333138145506382, -0.0038040948566049337, -0.06403929740190506, -0.04938270524144173, -0.05585088953375816, 0.0362047404050827, 0.010272836312651634, -0.05793112888932228, -0.0026688026264309883, -0.03173234686255455, -0.046509645879268646, 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581,"of the Thebe gossamer ring is about 3 × 10−8 , which is three times lower than the Amalthea gossamer ring , but the total mass of the dust is the same—about 107–109 kg .However the particle size distribution of the dust is somewhat shallower than in the Amalthea ring. It follows a power law with q < 2. In the Thebe extension the parameter q may be even smaller. Origin of the gossamer rings
The dust in the gossamer rings originates in essentially the same way as that in the main ring and halo. Its sources are the inner Jovian moons Amalthea and Thebe respectively. High velocity impacts by projectiles coming from outside the Jovian system eject dust particles from their surfaces. These particles initially retain the same orbits as their moons but then gradually spiral inward by Poynting–Robertson drag. The thickness of the gossamer rings is determined by vertical excursions of the moons due to their nonzero orbital inclinations. This hypothesis naturally explains almost all observable properties of the rings: rectangular cross-section, decrease of thickness in the direction of Jupiter and brightening of the top and bottom edges of the rings. However some properties have so far gone unexplained, like the Thebe Extension, which may be due to unseen bodies outside Thebe's orbit, and structures visible in the back-scattered light. One possible explanation of the Thebe Extension is influence of the electromagnetic forces from the Jovian magnetosphere. When the dust enters the shadow behind Jupiter, it loses its electrical charge fairly quickly. Since the small dust particles partially corotate with the planet, they will move outward during the shadow pass creating an outward extension of the Thebe gossamer ring. The same forces can explain a dip in the particle distribution and ring's brightness, which occurs between the orbits of Amalthea and Thebe.","[0.01165484543889761, 0.004373831674456596, -0.024722076952457428, 0.025863956660032272, 0.08103188872337341, -0.08634596318006516, 0.021689467132091522, 0.07203333079814911, 0.11473254859447479, -0.04073496162891388, -0.011997505091130733, -0.04608229547739029, -0.017194753512740135, -0.0899142324924469, 0.03236611187458038, -0.04214402660727501, -0.019566750153899193, 0.02319980412721634, -0.04538766294717789, 0.02433948405086994, 0.04650450870394707, 0.07159159332513809, -0.0403963103890419, 0.013760000467300415, -0.06170690059661865, 0.07181674242019653, -0.03653855249285698, -0.026150662451982498, -0.016957789659500122, -0.07793015241622925, 0.029067106544971466, -0.041112590581178665, -0.0975581482052803, -0.021690640598535538, -0.05056823045015335, -0.053420498967170715, -0.053412627428770065, 0.08187796175479889, -0.011410897597670555, 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582,"an outward extension of the Thebe gossamer ring . The same forces can explain a dip in the particle distribution and ring 's brightness , which occurs between the orbits of Amalthea and Thebe .The peak in the brightness just inside of the Amalthea's orbit and, therefore, the vertical asymmetry the Amalthea gossamer ring may be due to the dust particles trapped at the leading (L4) and trailing (L5) Lagrange points of this moon. The particles may also follow horseshoe orbits between the Lagrangian points. The dust may be present at the leading and trailing Lagrange points of Thebe as well. This discovery implies that there are two particle populations in the gossamer rings: one slowly drifts in the direction of Jupiter as described above, while another remains near a source moon trapped in 1:1 resonance with it. Himalia ring
In September 2006, as NASA's New Horizons mission to Pluto approached Jupiter for a gravity assist, it photographed what appeared to be a faint, previously unknown planetary ring or ring arc, parallel with and slightly inside the orbit of the irregular satellite Himalia. The amount of material in the part of the ring or arc imaged by New Horizons was at least 0.04 km3, assuming it had the same albedo as Himalia. If the ring (arc) is debris from Himalia, it must have formed quite recently, given the century-scale precession of the Himalian orbit. It is possible that the ring could be debris from the impact of a very small undiscovered moon into Himalia, suggesting that Jupiter might continue to gain and lose small moons through collisions. Exploration
The existence of the Jovian rings was inferred from observations of the planetary radiation belts by Pioneer 11 spacecraft in 1975. In 1979 the Voyager 1 spacecraft obtained a single overexposed image of the ring system.","[0.013594374991953373, -0.06417834013700485, -0.0013633305206894875, 0.03499620035290718, 0.05539941042661667, -0.08629396557807922, -0.0027032364159822464, 0.04365266487002373, 0.08717071264982224, -0.04448608309030533, 0.01275072805583477, -0.043404798954725266, -0.03262041509151459, -0.144639790058136, -0.003565483493730426, -0.005866100545972586, -0.015896569937467575, -0.06806864589452744, -0.015091014094650745, 0.0029517519287765026, 0.009381130337715149, 0.07017915695905685, -0.04590227082371712, 0.029061807319521904, -0.07002975791692734, 0.03223321586847305, 0.013705969788134098, -0.08446194976568222, -0.01770375296473503, -0.12635768949985504, 0.016470715403556824, 0.06101113185286522, -0.06372983753681183, 0.002600610489025712, -0.03562901169061661, -0.002778242575004697, -0.008736809715628624, 0.05489597097039223, 0.011239616200327873, -0.06588277220726013, 0.005242564715445042, 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583,"the Jovian rings was inferred from observations of the planetary radiation belts by Pioneer 11 spacecraft in 1975 . In 1979 the Voyager 1 spacecraft obtained a single overexposed image of the ring system .More extensive imaging was conducted by Voyager 2 in the same year, which allowed rough determination of the ring's structure. The superior quality of the images obtained by the Galileo orbiter between 1995 and 2003 greatly extended the existing knowledge about the Jovian rings. Ground-based observation of the rings by the Keck telescope in 1997 and 2002 and the HST in 1999 revealed the rich structure visible in back-scattered light. Images transmitted by the New Horizons spacecraft in February–March 2007 allowed observation of the fine structure in the main ring for the first time. In 2000, the Cassini spacecraft en route to Saturn conducted extensive observations of the Jovian ring system. Future missions to the Jovian system will provide additional information about the rings. Gallery
See also
Moons of Jupiter

Notes
References
External links

Jupiter Rings Fact Sheet
Jupiter's Rings by NASA's Solar System Exploration
NASA Pioneer project page
NASA Voyager project page
NASA Galileo project page
NASA Cassini project space
New Horizons project page
Planetary Ring Node: Jupiter's Ring System
Rings of Jupiter nomenclature from the USGS planetary nomenclature page","[-0.029584767296910286, -0.0608828105032444, -0.05459656938910484, -0.0008189898799173534, 0.08939818292856216, -0.13674624264240265, -0.02869122289121151, 0.09466098248958588, 0.05227939411997795, -0.0581977404654026, -0.04886308312416077, 0.005268897861242294, 0.01529059186577797, -0.0694199949502945, -0.021196871995925903, -0.06467414647340775, 0.00757755758240819, 0.032111093401908875, 0.02868783101439476, -0.0337815135717392, -0.04333844035863876, 0.06865842640399933, -0.013135582208633423, 0.020543884485960007, -0.03066679835319519, 0.09228023141622543, -0.015327073633670807, -0.06407848745584488, -0.06957706063985825, -0.019179122522473335, 0.0005106765893287957, 0.007319241296499968, -0.02841026522219181, -0.01824684627354145, -0.0434391163289547, -0.006366115529090166, 0.017956022173166275, 0.018887342885136604, -0.02589510753750801, -0.05422305315732956, -0.02216118946671486, 0.02832227572798729, 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584," Saturn has the most extensive and complex ring system of any planet in the Solar System. The rings consist of particles in orbit around the planet and are made almost entirely of water ice, with a trace component of rocky material. Particles range from micrometers to meters in size. There is no consensus as to what mechanism facilitated their formation: while investigations using theoretical models suggested they formed early in the Solar System's existence, newer data from Cassini suggests a more recent date of formation. In September 2023, astronomers reported studies suggesting that the rings of Saturn may have resulted from the collision of two moons ""a few hundred million years ago"". Though light reflected from the rings increases Saturn's apparent brightness, they are not themselves visible from Earth with the naked eye. In 1610, the year after his first observations with a telescope, Galileo Galilei became the first person to observe Saturn's rings, though he could not see them well enough to discern their true nature. In 1655, Christiaan Huygens was the first person to describe them as a disk surrounding Saturn. The concept that Saturn's rings are made up of a series of tiny ringlets can be traced to Pierre-Simon Laplace, although true gaps are few – it is more correct to think of the rings as an annular disk with concentric local maxima and minima in density and brightness. The rings have numerous gaps where particle density drops sharply: two opened by known moons embedded within them, and many others at locations of known destabilizing orbital resonances with the moons of Saturn. Other gaps remain unexplained. Stabilizing resonances, on the other hand, are responsible for the longevity of several rings, such as the Titan Ringlet and the G Ring.","[-0.010043964721262455, -0.08933136612176895, -0.03853815793991089, 0.015681302174925804, 0.04621617868542671, -0.08102738112211227, 0.05675056204199791, 0.1067257896065712, 0.10684109479188919, -0.01540557760745287, -0.05945830047130585, 0.020404979586601257, 0.006167580373585224, -0.06446120887994766, -0.05384724959731102, -0.06924594193696976, -0.02462725155055523, -0.011265129782259464, -0.015429314225912094, -0.014423297718167305, 0.014325949363410473, 0.012697046622633934, -0.07754312455654144, 0.003254687413573265, 0.013583979569375515, 0.11711114645004272, 0.021418604999780655, 0.0011691207764670253, -0.030436154454946518, 0.06487461179494858, 0.04652104899287224, -0.010965014807879925, -0.03693263605237007, -0.012339905835688114, -0.04927592724561691, 0.022829163819551468, -0.010816844180226326, 0.006741820368915796, -0.024321800097823143, 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585,"of Saturn . Other gaps remain unexplained . Stabilizing resonances , on the other hand , are responsible for the longevity of several rings , such as the Titan Ringlet and the G Ring .Well beyond the main rings is the Phoebe ring, which is presumed to originate from Phoebe and thus share its retrograde orbital motion. It is aligned with the plane of Saturn's orbit. Saturn has an axial tilt of 27 degrees, so this ring is tilted at an angle of 27 degrees to the more visible rings orbiting above Saturn's equator. History
Early observations
Galileo Galilei was the first to observe the rings of Saturn in 1610 using his telescope, but was unable to identify them as such. He wrote to the Duke of Tuscany that ""The planet Saturn is not alone, but is composed of three, which almost touch one another and never move nor change with respect to one another. They are arranged in a line parallel to the zodiac, and the middle one (Saturn itself) is about three times the size of the lateral ones."" He also described the rings as Saturn's ""ears"". In 1612 the Earth passed through the plane of the rings and they became invisible. Mystified, Galileo remarked ""I do not know what to say in a case so surprising, so unlooked for and so novel."" He mused, ""Has Saturn swallowed his children?"" — referring to the myth of the Titan Saturn devouring his offspring to forestall the prophecy of them overthrowing him. He was further confused when the rings again became visible in 1613. Early astronomers used anagrams as a form of commitment scheme to lay claim to new discoveries before their results were ready for publication.","[-0.03837955370545387, -0.08176837861537933, -0.032374732196331024, -0.014470888301730156, -0.02472563274204731, -0.06794759631156921, 0.07041603326797485, 0.07577435672283173, 0.09032001346349716, -0.06570430845022202, -0.03520440682768822, 0.02119673602283001, -0.035754766315221786, -0.06173628941178322, -0.07773690670728683, -0.10378723591566086, -0.0010342322057113051, 0.015546342357993126, -0.03962256759405136, 0.0011997896945104003, -0.013666222803294659, 0.03349555283784866, -0.014553206972777843, 0.07977595180273056, -0.02064152993261814, 0.09584794193506241, -0.0018087655771523714, -0.026921577751636505, -0.043616101145744324, 0.00860975868999958, -0.010939410887658596, 0.00464464770630002, -0.05418373644351959, 0.03943517059087753, -0.09209639579057693, 0.007310733199119568, -0.03691835328936577, -0.030222415924072266, 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586,"further confused when the rings again became visible in 1613 . Early astronomers used anagrams as a form of commitment scheme to lay claim to new discoveries before their results were ready for publication .Galileo used the anagram ""smaismrmil­mepoeta­leumibu­nenugt­tauiras"" for Altissimum planetam tergeminum observavi (""I have observed the most distant planet to have a triple form"") for discovering the rings of Saturn. In 1657 Christopher Wren became Professor of Astronomy at Gresham College, London. He had been making observations of the planet Saturn from around 1652 with the aim of explaining its appearance. His hypothesis was written up in De corpore saturni, in which he came close to suggesting the planet had a ring. However, Wren was unsure whether the ring was independent of the planet, or physically attached to it. Before Wren's hypothesis was published Christiaan Huygens presented his hypothesis of the rings of Saturn. Immediately Wren recognised this as a better hypothesis than his own and De corpore saturni was never published. Robert Hooke was another early observer of the rings of Saturn, and noted the casting of shadows on the rings. Huygens' ring hypothesis and later developments
Christiaan Huygens began grinding lenses with his father Constantijn Huygens in 1655 and was able to observe Saturn with greater detail using a 43× power refracting telescope that he designed himself. He was the first to suggest that Saturn was surrounded by a ring detached from the planet, and famously published the letter string ""aaaaaaa­ccccc­deeeeeg­hiiiiiii­llllmm­nnnnnnnnn­oooopp­qrrs­tttttuuuuu"". Three years later, he revealed it to mean Annulo cingitur, tenui, plano, nusquam coherente, ad eclipticam inclinato (""[Saturn] is surrounded by a thin, flat, ring, nowhere touching [the body of the planet], inclined to the ecliptic"").","[-0.04798043519258499, -0.05805337801575661, -0.0664714053273201, 0.018884263932704926, -0.00783856026828289, -0.07906563580036163, 0.054483626037836075, 0.06818661838769913, 0.04708025977015495, 0.001984135014936328, -0.04868686944246292, 0.01297017652541399, 0.01119675487279892, -0.05652031674981117, -0.09928904473781586, -0.011275213211774826, -0.05423331633210182, 0.03810661658644676, 0.0045745233073830605, -0.021095938980579376, 0.020474471151828766, 0.030605647712945938, -0.012003021314740181, -0.00992595311254263, 0.0636363998055458, 0.08925352245569229, 0.01663835532963276, 0.00809383299201727, -0.012065467424690723, 0.0503784716129303, 0.0020632341038435698, 0.0010157786309719086, -0.019757576286792755, -0.056474655866622925, 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587,"ad eclipticam inclinato ( `` [ Saturn ] is surrounded by a thin , flat , ring , nowhere touching [ the body of the planet ] , inclined to the ecliptic '' ) .He published his ring hypothesis in Systema Saturnium (1659) which also included his discovery of Saturn's moon, Titan, as well as the first clear outline of the dimensions of the Solar System. In 1675, Giovanni Domenico Cassini determined that Saturn's ring was composed of multiple smaller rings with gaps between them; the largest of these gaps was later named the Cassini Division. This division is a 4,800-kilometre-wide (3,000 mi) region between the A ring and B Ring. In 1787, Pierre-Simon Laplace proved that a uniform solid ring would be unstable and suggested that the rings were composed of a large number of solid ringlets. In 1859, James Clerk Maxwell demonstrated that a nonuniform solid ring, solid ringlets or a continuous fluid ring would also not be stable, indicating that the ring must be composed of numerous small particles, all independently orbiting Saturn. Later, Sofia Kovalevskaya also found that Saturn's rings cannot be liquid ring-shaped bodies. Spectroscopic studies of the rings which were carried out independently in 1895 by James Keeler of the Allegheny Observatory and by Aristarkh Belopolsky of the Pulkovo Observatory showed that Maxwell's analysis was correct. Four robotic spacecraft have observed Saturn's rings from the vicinity of the planet. Pioneer 11's closest approach to Saturn occurred in September 1979 at a distance of 20,900 km (13,000 mi). Pioneer 11 was responsible for the discovery of the F ring. Voyager 1's closest approach occurred in November 1980 at a distance of 64,200 km (39,900 mi).","[-0.023583173751831055, -0.0448007769882679, -0.08585225045681, -0.01593800261616707, 0.034369952976703644, -0.0637609139084816, 0.06736727803945541, 0.10855485498905182, 0.03105311095714569, -0.05456120893359184, -0.06687556207180023, 0.0063076200895011425, -0.01935565657913685, -0.03161308914422989, -0.055260345339775085, -0.08425627648830414, -0.02310888282954693, 0.036328475922346115, -0.017022686079144478, 0.05890188366174698, -0.010142249055206776, 0.03135250136256218, 0.007638841867446899, 0.040835026651620865, 0.02549782395362854, 0.17415852844715118, -0.024169091135263443, -0.04536643251776695, -0.015832139179110527, 0.016271861270070076, 0.03341182321310043, 0.0611373670399189, -0.019662270322442055, -0.031751662492752075, 0.01132726389914751, -0.05057663843035698, 0.020571328699588776, 0.0259776059538126, -0.008486279286444187, -0.04906940460205078, -0.013325347565114498, 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588,"mi ) . Pioneer 11 was responsible for the discovery of the F ring . Voyager 1 's closest approach occurred in November 1980 at a distance of 64,200 km ( 39,900 mi ) .A failed photopolarimeter prevented Voyager 1 from observing Saturn's rings at the planned resolution; nevertheless, images from the spacecraft provided unprecedented detail of the ring system and revealed the existence of the G ring. Voyager 2's closest approach occurred in August 1981 at a distance of 41,000 km (25,000 mi). Voyager 2's working photopolarimeter allowed it to observe the ring system at higher resolution than Voyager 1, and to thereby discover many previously unseen ringlets. Cassini spacecraft entered into orbit around Saturn in July 2004. Cassini's images of the rings are the most detailed to-date, and are responsible for the discovery of yet more ringlets. The rings are named alphabetically in the order they were discovered: A and B in 1675 by Giovanni Domenico Cassini, C in 1850 by William Cranch Bond and his son George Phillips Bond, D in 1933 by Nikolai Barabashov and Boris Semeykin, E in 1967 by Walter A. Feibelman, F in 1979 by Pioneer 11, and G in 1980 by Voyager 1. The main rings are, working outward from the planet, C, B and A, with the Cassini Division, the largest gap, separating Rings B and A. Several fainter rings were discovered more recently. The D Ring is exceedingly faint and closest to the planet. The narrow F Ring is just outside the A Ring. Beyond that are two far fainter rings named G and E. The rings show a tremendous amount of structure on all scales, some related to perturbations by Saturn's moons, but much unexplained.","[-0.05559367313981056, -0.023029085248708725, -0.06171926110982895, -0.0491110198199749, -0.03788329288363457, -0.06712289154529572, -0.0008895195205695927, 0.1183791384100914, 0.030305705964565277, 0.004168445710092783, -0.010557594709098339, 0.054739367216825485, -0.03185809403657913, -0.021847758442163467, -0.11284062266349792, -0.07798594236373901, -0.01441656518727541, -0.00851693656295538, -0.018180755898356438, -0.032709334045648575, -0.036188285797834396, 0.03478427231311798, 0.07019416242837906, -0.04039572551846504, 0.0147390840575099, 0.06898268312215805, -0.024655811488628387, -0.0578225739300251, -0.013581553474068642, -0.005251443944871426, -0.003903969656676054, 0.07316148281097412, 0.018612995743751526, -0.02070569433271885, -0.04464563727378845, 0.00580989383161068, 0.014407064765691757, 0.04226421192288399, 0.002852224512025714, 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589,"that are two far fainter rings named G and E. The rings show a tremendous amount of structure on all scales , some related to perturbations by Saturn 's moons , but much unexplained .In September 2023, astronomers reported studies suggesting that the rings of Saturn may have resulted from the collision of two moons ""a few hundred million years ago"". Saturn's axial inclination
Saturn's axial tilt is 26.7°, meaning that widely varying views of the rings, of which the visible ones occupy its equatorial plane, are obtained from Earth at different times. Earth makes passes through the ring plane every 13 to 15 years, about every half Saturn year, and there are about equal chances of either a single or three crossings occurring in each such occasion. The most recent ring plane crossings were on 22 May 1995, 10 August 1995, 11 February 1996, 4 September 2009 and 23 March 2025; upcoming events will occur on 15 October 2038, 1 April 2039 and 9 July 2039. Favorable ring plane crossing viewing opportunities (with Saturn not close to the Sun) only come during triple crossings. Saturn's equinoxes, when the Sun passes through the ring plane, are not evenly spaced. The sun passes south to north through the ring plane when Saturn's heliocentric longitude is 173.6 degrees (e.g. 11 August 2009), about the time Saturn crosses from Leo to Virgo. 15.7 years later Saturn's longitude reaches 353.6 degrees and the sun passes to the south side of the ring plane. On each orbit the Sun is north of the ring plane for 15.7 Earth years, then south of the plane for 13.7 years. Dates for north-to-south crossings include 19 November 1995 and 6 May 2025, with south-to-north crossings on 11 August 2009 and 23 January 2039.","[0.007046055980026722, -0.08388670533895493, 0.010848778299987316, -0.009513807483017445, 0.04092644527554512, -0.07547181099653244, -0.012043713591992855, 0.07177559286355972, 0.09891402721405029, -0.050895486027002335, -0.07006845623254776, 0.061191003769636154, -0.02088264562189579, -0.03641027584671974, 0.0086109209805727, -0.02365931309759617, -0.05580058693885803, -0.016128363087773323, -0.022757086902856827, -0.015026110224425793, 0.010191044770181179, -0.008390014991164207, -0.02772475592792034, 0.047000642865896225, -0.04736103489995003, 0.0260480847209692, 0.012903512455523014, -0.02228352427482605, -0.058076150715351105, 0.017229408025741577, -0.008462300524115562, 0.043195538222789764, -0.1440833956003189, 0.0521453395485878, -0.08010535687208176, -0.05965556204319, -0.06372544914484024, 0.015371558256447315, 0.01742182858288288, 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590,", then south of the plane for 13.7 years . Dates for north-to-south crossings include 19 November 1995 and 6 May 2025 , with south-to-north crossings on 11 August 2009 and 23 January 2039 .During the period around an equinox the illumination of most of the rings is greatly reduced, making possible unique observations highlighting features that depart from the ring plane. Physical characteristics
The dense main rings extend from 7,000 km (4,300 mi) to 80,000 km (50,000 mi) away from Saturn's equator, whose radius is 60,300 km (37,500 mi) (see Major subdivisions). With an estimated local thickness of as little as 10 meters (32' 10"") and as much as 1 km (1093 yards), they are composed of 99.9% pure water ice with a smattering of impurities that may include tholins or silicates. The main rings are primarily composed of particles smaller than 10 m.
Cassini directly measured the mass of the ring system via their gravitational effect during its final set of orbits that passed between the rings and the cloud tops, yielding a value of 1.54 (± 0.49) × 1019 kg, or 0.41 ± 0.13 Mimas masses. This is around two-thirds the mass of the Earth's entire Antarctic ice sheet, spread across a surface area 80 times larger than that of Earth. The estimate is close to the value of 0.40 Mimas masses derived from Cassini observations of density waves in the A, B and C rings. It is a small fraction of the total mass of Saturn (about 0.25 ppb). Earlier Voyager observations of density waves in the A and B rings and an optical depth profile had yielded a mass of about 0.75 Mimas masses, with later observations and computer modeling suggesting that was an underestimate.","[-0.005452215671539307, -0.06897890567779541, 0.011835773475468159, -0.014734013937413692, 0.08285130560398102, -0.035997532308101654, 0.06118285655975342, 0.1131591722369194, 0.03947716951370239, -0.03732670843601227, -0.14633774757385254, -0.038128964602947235, -0.034449830651283264, -0.016447514295578003, -0.08804161846637726, -0.04286378249526024, -0.019089536741375923, 0.01337836217135191, -0.03527005761861801, -0.006005202420055866, 0.02694481797516346, 0.0014576319372281432, -0.0056540281511843204, 0.08162493258714676, -0.00966679211705923, 0.05092296749353409, -0.028616953641176224, -0.0006070313393138349, -0.050991348922252655, 0.046983059495687485, -0.016537809744477272, 0.023058397695422173, -0.06420628726482391, -0.08023983240127563, 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591,"density waves in the A and B rings and an optical depth profile had yielded a mass of about 0.75 Mimas masses , with later observations and computer modeling suggesting that was an underestimate .Although the largest gaps in the rings, such as the Cassini Division and Encke Gap, can be seen from Earth, the Voyager spacecraft discovered that the rings have an intricate structure of thousands of thin gaps and ringlets. This structure is thought to arise, in several different ways, from the gravitational pull of Saturn's many moons. Some gaps are cleared out by the passage of tiny moonlets such as Pan, many more of which may yet be discovered, and some ringlets seem to be maintained by the gravitational effects of small shepherd satellites (similar to Prometheus and Pandora's maintenance of the F ring). Other gaps arise from resonances between the orbital period of particles in the gap and that of a more massive moon further out; Mimas maintains the Cassini Division in this manner. Still more structure in the rings consists of spiral waves raised by the inner moons' periodic gravitational perturbations at less disruptive resonances. Data from the Cassini space probe indicate that the rings of Saturn possess their own atmosphere, independent of that of the planet itself. The atmosphere is composed of molecular oxygen gas (O2) produced when ultraviolet light from the Sun interacts with water ice in the rings. Chemical reactions between water molecule fragments and further ultraviolet stimulation create and eject, among other things, O2. According to models of this atmosphere, H2 is also present. The O2 and H2 atmospheres are so sparse that if the entire atmosphere were somehow condensed onto the rings, it would be about one atom thick. The rings also have a similarly sparse OH (hydroxide) atmosphere.","[-0.052730459719896317, -0.07651561498641968, -0.01650567166507244, 0.0027337067294865847, -0.0015224975068122149, -0.08288583159446716, 0.03998195007443428, 0.060842547565698624, 0.10627549141645432, -0.0325014553964138, -0.05727002024650574, 0.010353319346904755, -0.054298605769872665, -0.08636151999235153, 0.008841943927109241, -0.01809576526284218, 0.017274420708417892, 0.0023287804797291756, -0.03611628711223602, -0.04994780570268631, -0.026863189414143562, 0.03458535298705101, -0.038294717669487, 0.01717681623995304, -0.006524752825498581, 0.09127142280340195, -0.02091079205274582, -0.004863643553107977, -0.009661738760769367, -0.008546888828277588, 0.03186677768826485, 0.0506298802793026, -0.008932380937039852, -0.04230745509266853, -0.02689419686794281, 0.04478614032268524, 0.024417275562882423, 0.0555800162255764, -0.02704799175262451, -0.09825330972671509, -0.0035585383884608746, 0.08006960898637772, 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592,"so sparse that if the entire atmosphere were somehow condensed onto the rings , it would be about one atom thick . The rings also have a similarly sparse OH ( hydroxide ) atmosphere .Like the O2, this atmosphere is produced by the disintegration of water molecules, though in this case the disintegration is done by energetic ions that bombard water molecules ejected by Saturn's moon Enceladus. This atmosphere, despite being extremely sparse, was detected from Earth by the Hubble Space Telescope. Saturn shows complex patterns in its brightness. Most of the variability is due to the changing aspect of the rings, and this goes through two cycles every orbit. However, superimposed on this is variability due to the eccentricity of the planet's orbit that causes the planet to display brighter oppositions in the northern hemisphere than it does in the southern. In 1980, Voyager 1 made a fly-by of Saturn that showed the F ring to be composed of three narrow rings that appeared to be braided in a complex structure; it is now known that the outer two rings consist of knobs, kinks and lumps that give the illusion of braiding, with the less bright third ring lying inside them. New images of the rings taken around the 11 August 2009 equinox of Saturn by NASA's Cassini spacecraft have shown that the rings extend significantly out of the nominal ring plane in a few places. This displacement reaches as much as 4 km (2.5 mi) at the border of the Keeler Gap, due to the out-of-plane orbit of Daphnis, the moon that creates the gap. Formation and evolution of main rings
Estimates of the age of Saturn's rings vary widely, depending on the approach used. They have been considered to possibly be very old, dating to the formation of Saturn itself.","[-0.016102883964776993, -0.008835939690470695, 0.009753899648785591, 0.03793048486113548, 0.06741750985383987, -0.10393193364143372, 0.037844736129045486, 0.07709962874650955, 0.09152556210756302, -0.056972283869981766, -0.07552038878202438, 0.011234823614358902, 0.010880720801651478, -0.07992232590913773, -0.03248573839664459, -0.007448888849467039, 0.027881041169166565, -0.019602682441473007, -0.04279264062643051, -0.040406763553619385, 0.0639122724533081, 0.05706002190709114, -0.036655426025390625, 0.014133653603494167, -0.005092686973512173, 0.0648343488574028, -0.011972006410360336, 0.025675013661384583, -0.019390925765037537, -0.05765139311552048, 0.030742410570383072, 0.07419641315937042, -0.012641084380447865, -0.03152807801961899, -0.02085675112903118, 0.005586299113929272, 0.014266829006373882, 0.044230230152606964, -0.034401193261146545, -0.031573642045259476, 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593,"Estimates of the age of Saturn 's rings vary widely , depending on the approach used . They have been considered to possibly be very old , dating to the formation of Saturn itself .However, data from Cassini suggest they are much younger, having most likely formed within the last 100 million years, and may thus be between 10 million and 100 million years old. This recent origin scenario is based on a new, low mass estimate modeling of the rings' dynamical evolution, and measurements of the flux of interplanetary dust, which feed into an estimate of the rate of ring darkening over time. Since the rings are continually losing material, they would have been more massive in the past than at present. The mass estimate alone is not very diagnostic, since high mass rings that formed early in the Solar System's history would have evolved by now to a mass close to that measured. Based on current depletion rates, they may disappear in 300 million years. There are two main hypotheses regarding the origin of Saturn's inner rings. A hypothesis originally proposed by Édouard Roche in the 19th century is that the rings were once a moon of Saturn (named Veritas, after a Roman goddess who hid in a well). According to the hypothesis, the moon's orbit decayed until it was close enough to be ripped apart by tidal forces (see Roche limit). Numerical simulations carried out in 2022 support this hypothesis; the authors of that study proposed the name ""Chrysalis"" for the destroyed moon. A variation on this hypothesis is that this moon disintegrated after being struck by a large comet or asteroid. The second hypothesis is that the rings were never part of a moon, but are instead left over from the original nebular material from which Saturn formed.","[-0.011319434270262718, -0.021674837917089462, 0.00991747621446848, 0.012830293737351894, 0.04033360630273819, -0.06929311901330948, 0.01367064006626606, 0.10920659452676773, 0.054570723325014114, -0.006200829986482859, -0.0538799874484539, 0.012653264217078686, -6.303011468844488e-05, -0.027676329016685486, -0.055049553513526917, -0.055688850581645966, -0.0038332140538841486, -0.019536903128027916, 0.00463505182415247, 0.013887112960219383, -0.018249575048685074, 0.03569866716861725, -0.034868642687797546, 0.016419151797890663, 0.0277076568454504, 0.08960679173469543, -0.034666307270526886, -0.029446572065353394, -0.024427052587270737, 0.0545659065246582, 0.00512099452316761, 0.018017461523413658, 0.011897804215550423, 0.008326568640768528, -0.02619912475347519, -0.03229966387152672, -0.04532324895262718, 0.048762742429971695, 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594,"a large comet or asteroid . The second hypothesis is that the rings were never part of a moon , but are instead left over from the original nebular material from which Saturn formed .A more traditional version of the disrupted-moon hypothesis is that the rings are composed of debris from a moon 400 to 600 km (200 to 400 miles) in diameter, slightly larger than Mimas. The last time there were collisions large enough to be likely to disrupt a moon that large was during the Late Heavy Bombardment some four billion years ago. A more recent variant of this type of hypothesis by R. M. Canup is that the rings could represent part of the remains of the icy mantle of a much larger, Titan-sized, differentiated moon that was stripped of its outer layer as it spiraled into the planet during the formative period when Saturn was still surrounded by a gaseous nebula. This would explain the scarcity of rocky material within the rings. The rings would initially have been much more massive (≈1,000 times) and broader than at present; material in the outer portions of the rings would have coalesced into the innermost moons of Saturn (those closest to Saturn), out to Tethys, also explaining the lack of rocky material in the composition of most of these moons. Subsequent collisional or cryovolcanic evolution of Enceladus, which is another of these moons, might then have caused selective loss of ice from this moon, raising its density to its current value of 1.61 g/cm3, compared to values of 1.15 for Mimas and 0.97 for Tethys. The idea of massive early rings was subsequently extended to explain the formation of Saturn's moons out to Rhea.","[-0.03349848464131355, 0.005769074894487858, 0.07934648543596268, 0.003654471132904291, 0.07569277286529541, -0.0740203708410263, 0.0019340298604220152, 0.14460022747516632, 0.04347971826791763, -0.01560464408248663, -0.0798642709851265, 0.01727462001144886, 0.020505670458078384, -0.046676356345415115, -0.03254735469818115, -0.020148267969489098, 0.03160988539457321, -0.034805793315172195, -0.0423230342566967, 0.023375919088721275, 0.00048216863069683313, 0.061739396303892136, -0.04708487540483475, 0.04741527885198593, 0.025314394384622574, 0.11750052869319916, -0.027332700788974762, 0.008305791765451431, -0.00509220827370882, 0.03230298310518265, -0.02641027793288231, 0.016345912590622902, -0.020159855484962463, -0.018876763060688972, 0.008464101701974869, 0.011857735924422741, -0.05725110322237015, 0.017451148480176926, -0.002357152523472905, -0.08347859233617783, 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595,"g/cm3 , compared to values of 1.15 for Mimas and 0.97 for Tethys . The idea of massive early rings was subsequently extended to explain the formation of Saturn 's moons out to Rhea .If the initial massive rings contained chunks of rocky material (>100 km; 60 miles across) as well as ice, these silicate bodies would have accreted more ice and been expelled from the rings, due to gravitational interactions with the rings and tidal interaction with Saturn, into progressively wider orbits. Within the Roche limit, bodies of rocky material are dense enough to accrete additional material, whereas less-dense bodies of ice are not. Once outside the rings, the newly formed moons could have continued to evolve through random mergers. This process may explain the variation in silicate content of Saturn's moons out to Rhea, as well as the trend towards less silicate content closer to Saturn. Rhea would then be the oldest of the moons formed from the primordial rings, with moons closer to Saturn being progressively younger. The brightness and purity of the water ice in Saturn's rings have also been cited as evidence that the rings are much younger than Saturn, as the infall of meteoric dust would have led to a darkening of the rings. However, new research indicates that the B Ring may be massive enough to have diluted infalling material and thus avoided substantial darkening over the age of the Solar System. Ring material may be recycled as clumps from within the rings and are then disrupted by impacts. This would explain the apparent youth of some of the material within the rings. Evidence suggesting a recent origin of the C ring has been gathered by researchers analyzing data from the Cassini Titan Radar Mapper, which focused on analyzing the proportion of rocky silicates within this ring.","[-0.059897281229496, -0.057888757437467575, 0.06058100238442421, 0.0613405667245388, 0.07112521678209305, -0.04979895055294037, 0.03630577400326729, 0.12506091594696045, 0.048822853714227676, -0.002666299929842353, -0.06834252178668976, -0.02999880351126194, -0.002919719321653247, -0.02848394401371479, 0.01928648352622986, -0.05483154579997063, 0.010396584868431091, -0.019687436521053314, -0.03156820312142372, -0.010204972699284554, 0.044016703963279724, -0.016746973618865013, -0.03835390880703926, 0.01798962615430355, -0.023782864212989807, 0.0804995596408844, -0.0401916466653347, 0.00025952141731977463, 0.03850273787975311, 0.025652870535850525, -0.021357035264372826, -0.016438709571957588, 0.0866268202662468, -0.05914515256881714, -0.004521332681179047, 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596,"suggesting a recent origin of the C ring has been gathered by researchers analyzing data from the Cassini Titan Radar Mapper , which focused on analyzing the proportion of rocky silicates within this ring .If much of this material was contributed by a recently disrupted centaur or moon, the age of this ring could be on the order of 100 million years or less. On the other hand, if the material came primarily from micrometeoroid influx, the age would be closer to a billion years. The Cassini UVIS team, led by Larry Esposito, used stellar occultation to discover 13 objects, ranging from 27 meters (89') to 10 km (6 miles) across, within the F ring. They are translucent, suggesting they are temporary aggregates of ice boulders a few meters across. Esposito believes this to be the basic structure of the Saturnian rings, particles clumping together, then being blasted apart. Research based on rates of infall into Saturn favors a younger ring system age of hundreds of millions of years. Ring material is continually spiraling down into Saturn; the faster this infall, the shorter the lifetime of the ring system. One mechanism involves gravity pulling electrically charged water ice grains down from the rings along planetary magnetic field lines, a process termed 'ring rain'. This flow rate was inferred to be 432–2870 kg/s using ground-based Keck telescope observations; as a consequence of this process alone, the rings will be gone in ~292+818−124 million years. While traversing the gap between the rings and planet in September 2017, the Cassini spacecraft detected an equatorial flow of charge-neutral material from the rings to the planet of 4,800–44,000 kg/s. Assuming this influx rate is stable, adding it to the continuous 'ring rain' process implies the rings may be gone in under 100 million years.","[-0.04913859814405441, 0.0015722039388492703, 0.0014080038527026772, 0.011027260683476925, 0.07963837683200836, -0.11072754859924316, 0.024616122245788574, 0.10989557951688766, 0.05681328475475311, 0.003960138186812401, -0.07951366901397705, -0.04725997522473335, 0.0053791082464158535, -0.037549447268247604, -0.07650507986545563, -0.04385824501514435, -0.025704065337777138, -0.007283526472747326, -0.027195235714316368, 0.014585881493985653, 0.01612318679690361, -0.0007394939311780035, -0.06317335367202759, 0.00580641720443964, -0.004904201254248619, 0.07817179709672928, -0.0550185926258564, -0.06299518793821335, -0.028801308944821358, 0.004045396111905575, 0.028940895572304726, 0.08538520336151123, -0.024822326377034187, 0.021036552265286446, -0.01965026557445526, 0.04269032180309296, 0.01889936812222004, 0.0012349789030849934, 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597,"to the planet of 4,800–44,000 kg/s . Assuming this influx rate is stable , adding it to the continuous 'ring rain ' process implies the rings may be gone in under 100 million years .Subdivisions and structures within the rings
The densest parts of the Saturnian ring system are the A and B Rings, which are separated by the Cassini Division (discovered in 1675 by Giovanni Domenico Cassini). Along with the C Ring, which was discovered in 1850 and is similar in character to the Cassini Division, these regions constitute the main rings. The main rings are denser and contain larger particles than the tenuous dusty rings. The latter include the D Ring, extending inward to Saturn's cloud tops, the G and E Rings and others beyond the main ring system. These diffuse rings are characterised as ""dusty"" because of the small size of their particles (often about a μm); their chemical composition is, like the main rings, almost entirely water ice. The narrow F Ring, just off the outer edge of the A Ring, is more difficult to categorize; parts of it are very dense, but it also contains a great deal of dust-size particles. Physical parameters of the rings
Major subdivisions
C Ring structures
Cassini Division structures
Source:

A Ring structures
D Ring
The D Ring is the innermost ring, and is very faint. In 1980, Voyager 1 detected within this ring three ringlets designated D73, D72 and D68, with D68 being the discrete ringlet nearest to Saturn. Some 25 years later, Cassini images showed that D72 had become significantly broader and more diffuse, and had moved planetward by 200 km (100 miles). Present in the D Ring is a finescale structure with waves 30 km (20 miles) apart.","[-0.05310729518532753, -0.06225593388080597, 0.011766732670366764, -0.007035313174128532, 0.06289411336183548, -0.06300600618124008, 0.0689314529299736, 0.07320640236139297, 0.05382215976715088, -0.02503257617354393, -0.08565981686115265, -0.045609764754772186, 0.007697473280131817, -0.042442891746759415, -0.07136248052120209, -0.038383129984140396, -0.028827663511037827, 0.02027272805571556, -0.09026829153299332, 0.004646779503673315, -0.0069956532679498196, 0.06339646875858307, -0.042227890342473984, 0.04630453139543533, 0.00452630128711462, 0.07877551019191742, -0.046570684760808945, -0.029407188296318054, -0.048995789140462875, -0.013429515063762665, 0.005737836007028818, 0.0912487581372261, 0.054690416902303696, -0.008579147048294544, -0.007185028400272131, -0.021625887602567673, -0.05490897223353386, 0.001931100501678884, -0.005706202704459429, -0.07206027954816818, -0.047293588519096375, 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598,"and more diffuse , and had moved planetward by 200 km ( 100 miles ) . Present in the D Ring is a finescale structure with waves 30 km ( 20 miles ) apart .First seen in the gap between the C Ring and D73, the structure was found during Saturn's 2009 equinox to extend a radial distance of 19,000 km (12,000 miles) from the D Ring to the inner edge of the B Ring. The waves are interpreted as a spiral pattern of vertical corrugations of 2 to 20 m amplitude; the fact that the period of the waves is decreasing over time (from 60 km; 40 miles in 1995 to 30 km; 20 miles by 2006) allows a deduction that the pattern may have originated in late 1983 with the impact of a cloud of debris (with a mass of ≈1012 kg) from a disrupted comet that tilted the rings out of the equatorial plane. A similar spiral pattern in Jupiter's main ring has been attributed to a perturbation caused by impact of material from Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 in 1994. C Ring
The C Ring is a wide but faint ring located inward of the B Ring. It was discovered in 1850 by William and George Bond, though William R. Dawes and Johann Galle also saw it independently. William Lassell termed it the ""Crepe Ring"" because it seemed to be composed of darker material than the brighter A and B Rings. Its vertical thickness is estimated at 5 meters (16'), its mass at around 1.1 × 1018 kg, and its optical depth varies from 0.05 to 0.12. That is, between 5 and 12 percent of light shining perpendicularly through the ring is blocked, so that when seen from above, the ring is close to transparent.","[-0.10162907838821411, -0.02782394178211689, -0.03585830330848694, -0.053602054715156555, -0.020300088450312614, -0.060929108411073685, -0.04144146293401718, 0.12038354575634003, 0.03978431969881058, -0.046938639134168625, -0.02581699937582016, 0.030619872733950615, -0.06001289561390877, -0.08197981119155884, 0.005524201784282923, -0.020276429131627083, -0.03492989018559456, -0.027569813653826714, -0.05086677521467209, 0.00035692472010850906, -0.026028113439679146, 0.053651534020900726, -0.03752688691020012, 0.038630079478025436, -0.0011454563355073333, 0.07642917335033417, 0.06045190989971161, -0.02076166495680809, -0.027408378198742867, -0.02276025526225567, 0.011698927730321884, 0.04493330419063568, -0.0265099685639143, 0.028593357652425766, 0.01942390948534012, -0.019774984568357468, -0.04554272070527077, 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599,"to 0.12 . That is , between 5 and 12 percent of light shining perpendicularly through the ring is blocked , so that when seen from above , the ring is close to transparent .The 30-km wavelength spiral corrugations first seen in the D Ring were observed during Saturn's equinox of 2009 to extend throughout the C Ring (see above). Colombo Gap and Titan Ringlet
The Colombo Gap lies in the inner C Ring. Within the gap lies the bright but narrow Colombo Ringlet, centered at 77,883 km (48,394 miles) from Saturn's center, which is slightly elliptical rather than circular. This ringlet is also called the Titan Ringlet as it is governed by an orbital resonance with the moon Titan. At this location within the rings, the length of a ring particle's apsidal precession is equal to the length of Titan's orbital motion, so that the outer end of this eccentric ringlet always points towards Titan. Maxwell Gap and Ringlet
The Maxwell Gap lies within the outer part of the C Ring. It also contains a dense non-circular ringlet, the Maxwell Ringlet. In many respects this ringlet is similar to the ε ring of Uranus. There are wave-like structures in the middle of both rings. While the wave in the ε ring is thought to be caused by Uranian moon Cordelia, no moon has been discovered in the Maxwell gap as of July 2008. B Ring
The B Ring is the largest, brightest, and most massive of the rings. Its thickness is estimated as 5 to 15 m and its optical depth varies from 0.4 to greater than 5, meaning that >99% of the light passing through some parts of the B Ring is blocked. The B Ring contains a great deal of variation in its density and brightness, nearly all of it unexplained.","[-0.012360175140202045, -0.05505455657839775, -0.06848469376564026, -0.049339622259140015, 0.04146876186132431, -0.02553614042699337, 0.012411278672516346, 0.08045154809951782, 0.06248889118432999, -0.06602829694747925, 0.0034649723675101995, 0.01895158179104328, -0.08010006695985794, -0.06251567602157593, 0.04067406803369522, -0.019223826006054878, 1.123626407206757e-05, -0.0633862242102623, 0.009278595447540283, -0.051155269145965576, 0.056018196046352386, 0.031140560284256935, 0.012460832484066486, 0.00010741230653366074, -0.05946392938494682, 0.0784488245844841, 0.013500983826816082, -0.0003708347212523222, 0.0427263118326664, 0.012886702083051205, 0.013431921601295471, -0.0007280651479959488, -0.07786068320274353, 0.019621407613158226, -0.025304170325398445, -0.027279486879706383, -0.02318696677684784, 0.05122474953532219, 0.025591840967535973, -0.02684808522462845, 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600,"of the light passing through some parts of the B Ring is blocked . The B Ring contains a great deal of variation in its density and brightness , nearly all of it unexplained .These are concentric, appearing as narrow ringlets, though the B Ring does not contain any gaps. In places, the outer edge of the B Ring contains vertical structures deviating up to 2.5 km (1½ miles) from the main ring plane, a significant deviation from the vertical thickness of the main A, B and C rings, which is generally only about 10 meters (about 30 feet). Vertical structures can be created by unseen embedded moonlets. A 2016 study of spiral density waves using stellar occultations indicated that the B Ring's surface density is in the range of 40 to 140 g/cm2, lower than previously believed, and that the ring's optical depth has little correlation with its mass density (a finding previously reported for the A and C rings). The total mass of the B Ring was estimated to be somewhere in the range of 7 to 24×1018 kg. This compares to a mass for Mimas of 37.5×1018 kg. Spokes
Until 1980, the structure of the rings of Saturn was explained as being caused exclusively by the action of gravitational forces. Then images from the Voyager spacecraft showed radial features in the B Ring, known as spokes, which could not be explained in this manner, as their persistence and rotation around the rings was not consistent with gravitational orbital mechanics. The spokes appear dark in backscattered light, and bright in forward-scattered light; the transition occurs at a phase angle near 60°. The leading hypothesis regarding the spokes' composition is that they consist of microscopic dust particles suspended away from the main ring by electrostatic repulsion, as they rotate almost synchronously with the magnetosphere of Saturn.","[-0.01574460230767727, -0.050193823873996735, -0.04680156707763672, -0.0042818342335522175, -0.04966315999627113, -0.10632571578025818, 0.008478066883981228, 0.07633572816848755, 0.09163025766611099, -0.08272144943475723, -0.07004912942647934, 0.00395176699385047, -0.02248482033610344, -0.08146782219409943, 0.0067003448493778706, 0.04013039171695709, 0.04206368699669838, 0.030750583857297897, -0.04259203001856804, 0.03553472086787224, 0.0068885562941432, 0.005011120345443487, 0.00011401152005419135, 0.011009282432496548, -0.018008660525083542, 0.05235520377755165, -0.012757881544530392, 0.007724613416939974, -0.043917037546634674, -0.024623246863484383, 0.027027085423469543, 0.038156818598508835, -0.0012105318019166589, 0.005217656027525663, 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601,"hypothesis regarding the spokes ' composition is that they consist of microscopic dust particles suspended away from the main ring by electrostatic repulsion , as they rotate almost synchronously with the magnetosphere of Saturn .The precise mechanism generating the spokes is still unknown. It has been suggested that the electrical disturbances might be caused by either lightning bolts in Saturn's atmosphere or micrometeoroid impacts on the rings. Alternatively, it is proposed that the spokes are very similar to a phenomenon known as lunar horizon glow or dust levitation, and caused by intense electric fields across the terminator of ring particles, not electrical disturbances. The spokes were not observed again until some twenty-five years later, this time by the Cassini space probe. The spokes were not visible when Cassini arrived at Saturn in early 2004. Some scientists speculated that the spokes would not be visible again until 2007, based on models attempting to describe their formation. Nevertheless, the Cassini imaging team kept looking for spokes in images of the rings, and they were next seen in images taken on 5 September 2005. The spokes appear to be a seasonal phenomenon, disappearing in the Saturnian midwinter and midsummer and reappearing as Saturn comes closer to equinox. Suggestions that the spokes may be a seasonal effect, varying with Saturn's 29.7-year orbit, were supported by their gradual reappearance in the later years of the Cassini mission. Moonlet
In 2009, during equinox, a moonlet embedded in the B ring was discovered from the shadow it cast. It is estimated to be 400 m (1,300 ft) in diameter. The moonlet was given the provisional designation S/2009 S 1. Cassini Division
The Cassini Division is a region 4,800 km (3,000 mi) in width between Saturn's A Ring and B Ring.","[-0.0759575217962265, -0.055809590965509415, 0.07677832245826721, 0.027682678773999214, 0.045235197991132736, -0.026012349873781204, 0.07345356047153473, 0.02073170617222786, 0.08725646138191223, 0.033457476645708084, -0.04098762571811676, 0.01435029599815607, -0.008690191432833672, 0.00682027917355299, -0.084523506462574, -0.048237696290016174, 0.006926367059350014, -0.041106920689344406, -0.02814449928700924, 0.0438382588326931, 0.0017764626536518335, 0.0814364105463028, -0.020102880895137787, 0.04505293443799019, 0.06494463235139847, 0.08985436707735062, -0.04757732152938843, -0.003665490774437785, -0.011708991602063179, 0.054382484406232834, 0.022766567766666412, 0.06187201291322708, -0.015155846253037453, -0.015269641764461994, -0.032298631966114044, 0.016463013365864754, 0.029103245586156845, 0.031124183908104897, -0.02129095233976841, -0.010692962445318699, -0.027073143050074577, 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602,"moonlet was given the provisional designation S/2009 S 1 . Cassini Division The Cassini Division is a region 4,800 km ( 3,000 mi ) in width between Saturn 's A Ring and B Ring .It was discovered in 1675 by Giovanni Cassini at the Paris Observatory using a refracting telescope that had a 2.5-inch objective lens with a 20-foot-long focal length and a 90x magnification. From Earth it appears as a thin black gap in the rings. However, Voyager discovered that the gap is itself populated by ring material bearing much similarity to the C Ring. The division may appear bright in views of the unlit side of the rings, since the relatively low density of material allows more light to be transmitted through the thickness of the rings. The inner edge of the Cassini Division is governed by a strong orbital resonance. Ring particles at this location orbit twice for every orbit of the moon Mimas. The resonance causes Mimas' pulls on these ring particles to accumulate, destabilizing their orbits and leading to a sharp cutoff in ring density. Many of the other gaps between ringlets within the Cassini Division, however, are unexplained. Huygens Gap
Discovered in 1981 through images sent back by Voyager 2, the Huygens Gap is located at the inner edge of the Cassini Division. It contains the dense, eccentric Huygens Ringlet in the middle. This ringlet exhibits irregular azimuthal variations of geometrical width and optical depth, which may be caused by the nearby 2:1 resonance with Mimas and the influence of the eccentric outer edge of the B-ring. There is an additional narrow ringlet just outside the Huygens Ringlet. A Ring
The A Ring is the outermost of the large, bright rings. Its inner boundary is the Cassini Division and its sharp outer boundary is close to the orbit of the small moon Atlas.","[-0.03960582613945007, -0.046748366206884384, -0.04223981872200966, -0.010600103996694088, 0.036614254117012024, -0.09363782405853271, 0.037310272455215454, 0.04464590921998024, 0.011065009981393814, -0.05071408301591873, -0.015356468968093395, 0.019233597442507744, -0.05898779258131981, -0.06889526546001434, -0.056590061634778976, -0.015498300082981586, -0.019811248406767845, 0.004130718298256397, -0.04417731240391731, -0.03681759163737297, 0.0052108680829405785, 0.023094696924090385, -0.008143704384565353, 0.018120743334293365, 0.021460430696606636, 0.11203692853450775, -0.05236387997865677, -0.00866268202662468, -0.016014397144317627, -0.018520571291446686, 0.04634524881839752, 0.0937286913394928, -0.029803184792399406, -0.06177210807800293, -0.0008456464856863022, -0.034204669296741486, 0.010782146826386452, 0.02666933462023735, 0.013526564463973045, 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603,"A Ring is the outermost of the large , bright rings . Its inner boundary is the Cassini Division and its sharp outer boundary is close to the orbit of the small moon Atlas .The A Ring is interrupted at a location 22% of the ring width from its outer edge by the Encke Gap. A narrower gap 2% of the ring width from the outer edge is called the Keeler Gap. The thickness of the A Ring is estimated to be 10 to 30 m, its surface density from 35 to 40 g/cm2 and its total mass as 4 to 5×1018 kg (just under the mass of Hyperion). Its optical depth varies from 0.4 to 0.9. Similarly to the B Ring, the A Ring's outer edge is maintained by orbital resonances, albeit in this case a more complicated set. It is primarily acted on by the 7:6 resonance with Janus and Epimetheus, with other contributions from the 5:3 resonance with Mimas and various resonances with Prometheus and Pandora. Other orbital resonances also excite many spiral density waves in the A Ring (and, to a lesser extent, other rings as well), which account for most of its structure. These waves are described by the same physics that describes the spiral arms of galaxies. Spiral bending waves, also present in the A Ring and also described by the same theory, are vertical corrugations in the ring rather than compression waves. In April 2014, NASA scientists reported observing the possible formative stage of a new moon near the outer edge of the A Ring. Encke Gap
The Encke Gap is a 325-km (200 mile) wide gap within the A ring, centered at a distance of 133,590 km (83,000 miles) from Saturn's center. It is caused by the presence of the small moon Pan, which orbits within it.","[-0.03883257135748863, -0.020853165537118912, -0.07782105356454849, -0.01981521211564541, -0.047155797481536865, -0.0936068743467331, 0.031644392758607864, 0.056875817477703094, 0.07200251519680023, -0.076396144926548, -0.07720723003149033, -0.03576670214533806, -0.04541699215769768, -0.09346841275691986, -0.0020950865000486374, -0.03159898519515991, 0.01954633928835392, -0.022597433999180794, -0.07806360721588135, 0.020809292793273926, 0.010593508370220661, 0.05213093385100365, 0.006081582047045231, 0.029135974124073982, -0.042047277092933655, 0.03945952281355858, 0.03919936344027519, 0.035655196756124496, -0.007107485085725784, -0.06302304565906525, 0.012189513072371483, 0.03130020573735237, -0.010871605947613716, -0.022488368675112724, -0.031977877020835876, -0.011784704402089119, -0.04674764350056648, 0.07344812154769897, -0.012372943572700024, -0.08089389652013779, 0.020190799608826637, 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604,"ring , centered at a distance of 133,590 km ( 83,000 miles ) from Saturn 's center . It is caused by the presence of the small moon Pan , which orbits within it .Images from the Cassini probe have shown that there are at least three thin, knotted ringlets within the gap. Spiral density waves visible on both sides of it are induced by resonances with nearby moons exterior to the rings, while Pan induces an additional set of spiralling wakes. Johann Encke himself did not observe this gap; it was named in honour of his ring observations. The gap itself was discovered by James Edward Keeler in 1888. The second major gap in the A ring, discovered by Voyager, was named the Keeler Gap in his honor. The Encke Gap is a gap because it is entirely within the A Ring. There was some ambiguity between the terms gap and division until the IAU clarified the definitions in 2008; before that, the separation was sometimes called the ""Encke Division"". Keeler Gap
The Keeler Gap is a 42-km (26 mile) wide gap in the A ring, approximately 250 km (150 miles) from the ring's outer edge. The small moon Daphnis, discovered 1 May 2005, orbits within it, keeping it clear. The moon's passage induces waves in the edges of the gap (this is also influenced by its slight orbital eccentricity). Because the orbit of Daphnis is slightly inclined to the ring plane, the waves have a component that is perpendicular to the ring plane, reaching a distance of 1500 m ""above"" the plane. The Keeler gap was discovered by Voyager, and named in honor of the astronomer James Edward Keeler. Keeler had in turn discovered and named the Encke Gap in honor of Johann Encke.","[-0.045969996601343155, 0.004254715517163277, -0.04853169247508049, -0.017558280378580093, -0.021894004195928574, -0.07386515289545059, -0.03950231894850731, 0.08755531907081604, 0.050694193691015244, -0.06051776930689812, 0.00132203777320683, -0.023249493911862373, -0.05588824674487114, -0.11223490536212921, -0.038473378866910934, -0.024836178869009018, -0.037456389516592026, -0.008752298541367054, -0.047301117330789566, -0.056551024317741394, -0.029790176078677177, 0.03023376315832138, 0.007162163499742746, 0.01568068005144596, 0.028777752071619034, 0.05084017664194107, 0.02806716226041317, -0.011125138029456139, -0.0371294729411602, -0.01973210647702217, 0.002949028741568327, -0.02678593061864376, -0.046054158359766006, -0.03054983541369438, -0.022297045215964317, 0.005571173969656229, -0.03062315285205841, 0.13257817924022675, 0.015477664768695831, -0.08983220160007477, 0.04872122406959534, 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605,"The Keeler gap was discovered by Voyager , and named in honor of the astronomer James Edward Keeler . Keeler had in turn discovered and named the Encke Gap in honor of Johann Encke .Propeller moonlets
In 2006, four tiny ""moonlets"" were found in Cassini images of the A Ring. The moonlets themselves are only about a hundred meters in diameter, too small to be seen directly; what Cassini sees are the ""propeller""-shaped disturbances the moonlets create, which are several km (miles) across. It is estimated that the A Ring contains thousands of such objects. In 2007, the discovery of eight more moonlets revealed that they are largely confined to a 3,000 km (2000 mile) belt, about 130,000 km (80,000 miles) from Saturn's center, and by 2008 over 150 propeller moonlets had been detected. One that has been tracked for several years has been nicknamed Bleriot. Roche Division
The separation between the A ring and the F Ring has been named the Roche Division in honor of the French physicist Édouard Roche. The Roche Division should not be confused with the Roche limit which is the distance at which a large object is so close to a planet (such as Saturn) that the planet's tidal forces will pull it apart. Lying at the outer edge of the main ring system, the Roche Division is in fact close to Saturn's Roche limit, which is why the rings have been unable to accrete into a moon. Like the Cassini Division, the Roche Division is not empty but contains a sheet of material. The character of this material is similar to the tenuous and dusty D, E, and G Rings. Two locations in the Roche Division have a higher concentration of dust than the rest of the region.","[0.005466654431074858, -0.020883195102214813, -0.0725301131606102, -0.06237209960818291, 0.03214266896247864, -0.045792676508426666, -0.06429239362478256, 0.11445574462413788, 0.017384126782417297, -0.023102696985006332, 0.04338858276605606, -0.02202078513801098, -0.02360692247748375, -0.06688106805086136, -0.07667922973632812, -0.013115212321281433, -0.018030356615781784, 0.025171536952257156, -0.08707118034362793, -0.06842198967933655, -0.05790114775300026, 0.09031464904546738, 0.038507092744112015, 0.07788603007793427, -0.030707094818353653, 0.050588253885507584, -0.04081494361162186, -0.007815712131559849, 0.009505379013717175, -0.010971708223223686, 0.001704599242657423, 0.02382800169289112, -0.03931887447834015, -0.04735509678721428, -0.014440578408539295, -0.005057904869318008, -0.00472666323184967, 0.08325804024934769, 0.021173618733882904, -0.0778333991765976, 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606,"material is similar to the tenuous and dusty D , E , and G Rings . Two locations in the Roche Division have a higher concentration of dust than the rest of the region .These were discovered by the Cassini probe imaging team and were given temporary designations: R/2004 S 1, which lies along the orbit of the moon Atlas; and R/2004 S 2, centered at 138,900 km (86,300 miles) from Saturn's center, inward of the orbit of Prometheus. F Ring
The F Ring is the outermost discrete ring of Saturn and perhaps the most active ring in the Solar System, with features changing on a timescale of hours. It is located 3,000 km (2000 miles) beyond the outer edge of the A ring. The ring was discovered in 1979 by the Pioneer 11 imaging team. It is very thin, just a few hundred km in radial extent. While the traditional view has been that it is held together by two shepherd moons, Prometheus and Pandora, which orbit inside and outside it, recent studies indicate that only Prometheus contributes to the confinement. Numerical simulations suggest the ring was formed when Prometheus and Pandora collided with each other and were partially disrupted. More recent closeup images from the Cassini probe show that the F Ring consists of one core ring and a spiral strand around it. They also show that when Prometheus encounters the ring at its apoapsis, its gravitational attraction creates kinks and knots in the F Ring as the moon 'steals' material from it, leaving a dark channel in the inner part of the ring. Since Prometheus orbits Saturn more rapidly than the material in the F ring, each new channel is carved about 3.2 degrees in front of the previous one.","[-0.02214382030069828, 0.015940213575959206, -0.04969253018498421, -0.03276364877820015, 0.06691091507673264, -0.10120733082294464, 0.05504969134926796, 0.08877965807914734, 0.10066619515419006, 0.007190783508121967, -0.06902600824832916, 0.026685727760195732, 0.0017407732084393501, -0.048728566616773605, -0.03158053383231163, -0.08373399078845978, 0.029234370216727257, -0.044514331966638565, -0.03601153567433357, -0.0011030155001208186, 0.0156715027987957, 0.06959033757448196, 0.039225149899721146, 0.01708839274942875, -0.035486772656440735, 0.06198092922568321, -0.015402352437376976, -0.03940002992749214, -0.04190075024962425, -0.05894549563527107, 0.005039763171225786, 0.03849553316831589, -0.018029849976301193, 0.012519129551947117, -0.08015760034322739, 0.04730415344238281, -0.05818507820367813, 0.028923915699124336, 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607,"inner part of the ring . Since Prometheus orbits Saturn more rapidly than the material in the F ring , each new channel is carved about 3.2 degrees in front of the previous one .In 2008, further dynamism was detected, suggesting that small unseen moons orbiting within the F Ring are continually passing through its narrow core because of perturbations from Prometheus. One of the small moons was tentatively identified as S/2004 S 6. As of 2023, the clumpy structure of the ring ""is thought to be caused by the presence of thousands of small parent bodies (1.0 to 0.1 km in size) that collide and produce dense strands of micrometer- to centimeter-sized particles that re-accrete over a few months onto the parent bodies in a steady-state regime."" Outer rings
Janus/Epimetheus Ring
A faint dust ring is present around the region occupied by the orbits of Janus and Epimetheus, as revealed by images taken in forward-scattered light by the Cassini spacecraft in 2006. The ring has a radial extent of about 5,000 km (3000 miles). Its source is particles blasted off the moons' surfaces by meteoroid impacts, which then form a diffuse ring around their orbital paths. G Ring
The G Ring is a very thin, faint ring about halfway between the F Ring and the beginning of the E Ring, with its inner edge about 15,000 km (10,000 miles) inside the orbit of Mimas. It contains a single distinctly brighter arc near its inner edge (similar to the arcs in the rings of Neptune) that extends about one-sixth of its circumference, centered on the half-km (500 yard) diameter moonlet Aegaeon, which is held in place by a 7:6 orbital resonance with Mimas. The arc is believed to be composed of icy particles up to a few m in diameter, with the rest of the G Ring consisting of dust released from within the arc.","[0.01538016740232706, -0.016350306570529938, 0.0001345434138784185, -0.009456132538616657, 0.12755663692951202, -0.07485666126012802, 0.030151326209306717, 0.09970097988843918, 0.06924528628587723, -0.0014821388758718967, -0.06364315748214722, 0.010569227859377861, -0.029116682708263397, -0.08673779666423798, -0.026051951572299004, -0.05203349515795708, 0.02196500077843666, -0.03724028915166855, -0.06266962736845016, 0.03388100117444992, 0.02516339346766472, 0.03735004737973213, -0.04819959029555321, 0.028747446835041046, 0.0136828338727355, 0.03822534531354904, 0.0005400749505497515, -0.011730857193470001, -0.03378383442759514, -0.035914096981287, 0.02964715287089348, 0.04480454698204994, -0.05244004726409912, 0.02781500294804573, -0.0005150200449861586, 0.013564431108534336, -0.015899663791060448, 0.03949020057916641, 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608,". The arc is believed to be composed of icy particles up to a few m in diameter , with the rest of the G Ring consisting of dust released from within the arc .The radial width of the arc is about 250 km (150 miles), compared to a width of 9,000 km (6000 miles) for the G Ring as a whole. The arc is thought to contain matter equivalent to a small icy moonlet about a hundred m in diameter. Dust released from Aegaeon and other source bodies within the arc by micrometeoroid impacts drifts outward from the arc because of interaction with Saturn's magnetosphere (whose plasma corotates with Saturn's magnetic field, which rotates much more rapidly than the orbital motion of the G Ring). These tiny particles are steadily eroded away by further impacts and dispersed by plasma drag. Over the course of thousands of years the ring gradually loses mass, which is replenished by further impacts on Aegaeon. Methone Ring Arc
A faint ring arc, first detected in September 2006, covering a longitudinal extent of about 10 degrees is associated with the moon Methone. The material in the arc is believed to represent dust ejected from Methone by micrometeoroid impacts. The confinement of the dust within the arc is attributable to a 14:15 resonance with Mimas (similar to the mechanism of confinement of the arc within the G ring). Under the influence of the same resonance, Methone librates back and forth in its orbit with an amplitude of 5° of longitude. Anthe Ring Arc
A faint ring arc, first detected in June 2007, covering a longitudinal extent of about 20 degrees is associated with the moon Anthe. The material in the arc is believed to represent dust knocked off Anthe by micrometeoroid impacts. The confinement of the dust within the arc is attributable to a 10:11 resonance with Mimas.","[-0.02803073078393936, -0.05035528168082237, 0.05120548978447914, 0.04771728813648224, 0.005191142670810223, -0.06796614825725555, 0.07348239421844482, 0.10524952411651611, 0.049197155982255936, -0.033946745097637177, -0.07301126420497894, -0.025217317044734955, -0.05290259048342705, -0.046636927872896194, -0.05159895122051239, 0.0042101070284843445, 0.1031595766544342, -0.002479401882737875, -0.09162379056215286, 0.032167959958314896, 0.11082915961742401, 0.03368055075407028, -0.06710714101791382, 0.019825542345643044, -0.01801026053726673, 0.04981638491153717, -0.01598815992474556, -0.02796432189643383, -0.08828341215848923, -0.046351395547389984, 0.012254761531949043, 0.07187657803297043, -0.01695401780307293, 0.028015991672873497, -0.039198584854602814, 0.007990271784365177, -0.06301486492156982, 0.03642488270998001, 0.028547372668981552, -0.029031218960881233, -0.03069019876420498, 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609,". The material in the arc is believed to represent dust knocked off Anthe by micrometeoroid impacts . The confinement of the dust within the arc is attributable to a 10:11 resonance with Mimas .Under the influence of the same resonance, Anthe drifts back and forth in its orbit over 14° of longitude. Pallene Ring
A faint dust ring shares Pallene's orbit, as revealed by images taken in forward-scattered light by the Cassini spacecraft in 2006. The ring has a radial extent of about 2,500 km (1500 miles). Its source is particles blasted off Pallene's surface by meteoroid impacts, which then form a diffuse ring around its orbital path. E Ring
Unconfirmed until 1980, the existence of the E ring was a subject of debate among astronomers at least as far back as 1908. In a narrative timeline of Saturn observations, Arthur Francis O'Donel Alexander attributes the first observation of what would come to be called the E Ring to Georges Fournier, who on 5 September 1907 at Mont Revard observed a ""luminous zone"" ""surrounding the outer bright ring."" The next year, on 7 October 1908, E. Schaer independently observed ""a new dusky ring...surrounding the bright rings of Saturn"" at the Geneva Observatory. Following up on Schaer's discovery, W. Boyer, T. Lewis, and Arthur Eddington found signs of a discontinuous ring matching Schaer's description, but described their observations as ""uncertain."" After Edward Barnard, using the what was at the time the world's best telescope, failed to find signs of a ring.","[0.00532434182241559, 0.029102975502610207, 0.03398941457271576, 0.03699284419417381, 0.03968486934900284, -0.07136985659599304, 0.08102371543645859, 0.13236354291439056, 0.08821176737546921, -0.019662141799926758, -0.06118473783135414, -0.004473949782550335, -0.060251496732234955, -0.04551860690116882, -0.01685771532356739, -0.033269450068473816, 0.0602925606071949, -0.020312035456299782, -0.05162001773715019, 0.003605849342420697, 0.08583687245845795, 0.008635084144771099, -0.0100985337048769, -0.0053117163479328156, -0.030650364235043526, 0.01291376631706953, -0.029506387189030647, 0.007297367323189974, -0.08847818523645401, -0.08782197535037994, 0.04787873104214668, 0.01887461543083191, -0.03185286372900009, 0.01876968704164028, -0.02976609580218792, -0.043968889862298965, 0.0374319851398468, 0.04185054078698158, 0.005291207227855921, -0.030062783509492874, 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610,", but described their observations as `` uncertain . '' After Edward Barnard , using the what was at the time the world 's best telescope , failed to find signs of a ring .E. M. Antoniadi argued for the ring's existence in a 1909 publication, recalling a observations by William Wray on 26 December 1861 of a ""very faint light...so as to give the impression that it was the dusky ring,"" but after Barnard's negative result most astronomers became skeptical of the E Ring's existence. Unlike the A, B, and C rings, the E Ring's small optical depth and large vertical extent mean it is best viewed edge-on, which is only possible once every 14–15 years, so perhaps for this reason, it was not until the 1960s that the E Ring was again the subject of observations. Although some sources credit Walter Feibelman with the E Ring's discovery in 1966, his paper published the following year announcing the observations begins by acknowledging the existing controversy and the long record of observations both supporting and disputing the ring's existence, and carefully stresses his interpretation of the data as a new ring as ""tentative only."" A reanalysis of Feibelman's original observations, conducted in anticipation of the coming Saturn flyby by Pioneer 11, once again called the evidence for this outer ring ""shaky."" Even polarimetric observations by Pioneer 11 failed to conclusively identify E Ring during its 1979 flyby, though ""its existence was inferred from [particle, radiation, and magnetic field measurements]."" Only after a digital reanalysis of the 1966 observations as well as several independent observations using ground- and space-based telescopes existence was finally confirmed in a 1980 paper by Feibelman and Klinglesmith.","[-0.03595123067498207, 0.04516611248254776, -0.0331173799932003, 0.05689483880996704, -0.022633938118815422, -0.08089511096477509, -0.00497541343793273, 0.09737351536750793, 0.050790976732969284, -0.010955787263810635, -0.0576755665242672, -0.019860366359353065, 0.015443351119756699, -0.07686077803373337, 0.010384565219283104, -0.011520748026669025, 0.04298553615808487, -0.04136720299720764, -0.02565574087202549, -0.006514499895274639, -0.0451979860663414, -0.0034229119773954153, 0.009020185098052025, -0.00587531179189682, -0.013670732267200947, 0.005130676552653313, 0.03228693827986717, -0.022994108498096466, -0.09258732944726944, -0.043814290314912796, -0.02172229066491127, 0.05465605854988098, 0.0005506838788278401, 0.017077958211302757, 0.014208757318556309, 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611,". '' Only after a digital reanalysis of the 1966 observations as well as several independent observations using ground- and space-based telescopes existence was finally confirmed in a 1980 paper by Feibelman and Klinglesmith .The E Ring is the second outermost ring and is extremely wide; it consists of many tiny (micron and sub-micron) particles of water ice with silicates, carbon dioxide and ammonia. The E Ring is distributed between the orbits of Mimas and Titan. Unlike the other rings, it is composed of microscopic particles rather than macroscopic ice chunks. In 2005, the source of the E Ring's material was determined to be cryovolcanic plumes emanating from the ""tiger stripes"" of the south polar region of the moon Enceladus. Unlike the main rings, the E Ring is more than 2,000 km (1000 miles) thick and increases with its distance from Enceladus. Tendril-like structures observed within the E Ring can be related to the emissions of the most active south polar jets of Enceladus. Particles of the E Ring tend to accumulate on moons that orbit within it. The equator of the leading hemisphere of Tethys is tinted slightly blue due to infalling material. The trojan moons Telesto, Calypso, Helene and Polydeuces are particularly affected as their orbits move up and down the ring plane. This results in their surfaces being coated with bright material that smooths out features. Phoebe ring
In October 2009, the discovery of a tenuous disk of material just interior to the orbit of Phoebe was reported. The disk was aligned edge-on to Earth at the time of discovery. This disk can be loosely described as another ring. Although very large (as seen from Earth, the apparent size of two full moons), the ring is virtually invisible.","[-0.06650757789611816, 0.0038838430773466825, -0.0049913921393454075, 0.0036793197505176067, 0.06095694750547409, -0.06495276093482971, 0.060383185744285583, 0.10188262909650803, 0.10507237166166306, -0.009718160144984722, -0.03253793343901634, -0.04970710352063179, -0.017943888902664185, -0.05256476625800133, 0.02287421189248562, -0.006696014199405909, 0.009630216285586357, -0.05692895129323006, -0.03137592598795891, -0.054867856204509735, 0.08253919333219528, 0.003969799727201462, -0.029795216396450996, 0.03423333168029785, -0.059035275131464005, 0.0756596177816391, -0.030973469838500023, 0.07207221537828445, -0.0774119570851326, -0.013681890442967415, 0.012684935703873634, 0.014917271211743355, -0.03356019780039787, -7.247074245242402e-05, -0.015272683463990688, -0.008463124744594097, 0.006660571321845055, -0.000155406873091124, -0.026105573400855064, 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612,". This disk can be loosely described as another ring . Although very large ( as seen from Earth , the apparent size of two full moons ) , the ring is virtually invisible .It was discovered using NASA's infrared Spitzer Space Telescope, and was seen over the entire range of the observations, which extended from 128 to 207 times the radius of Saturn, with calculations indicating that it may extend outward up to 300 Saturn radii and inward to the orbit of Iapetus at 59 Saturn radii. The ring was subsequently studied using the WISE, Herschel and Cassini spacecraft; WISE observations show that it extends from at least between 50 and 100 to 270 Saturn radii (the inner edge is lost in the planet's glare). Data obtained with WISE indicate the ring particles are small; those with radii greater than 10 cm comprise 10% or less of the cross-sectional area. Phoebe orbits the planet at a distance ranging from 180 to 250 radii. The ring has a thickness of about 40 radii. Because the ring's particles are presumed to have originated from impacts (micrometeoroid and larger) on Phoebe, they should share its retrograde orbit, which is opposite to the orbital motion of the next inner moon, Iapetus. This ring lies in the plane of Saturn's orbit, or roughly the ecliptic, and thus is tilted 27 degrees from Saturn's equatorial plane and the other rings. Phoebe is inclined by 5° with respect to Saturn's orbit plane (often written as 175°, due to Phoebe's retrograde orbital motion), and its resulting vertical excursions above and below the ring plane agree closely with the ring's observed thickness of 40 Saturn radii. The existence of the ring was proposed in the 1970s by Steven Soter.","[-0.02755775861442089, -0.01772279664874077, -0.021842218935489655, -0.003966132644563913, -0.024062948301434517, -0.08565934747457504, 0.04795411601662636, 0.0903095006942749, 0.08466506004333496, -0.008600511588156223, 0.0009981697658076882, -0.02191813662648201, -0.019584359601140022, -0.0628569945693016, -0.08765247464179993, -0.085086889564991, 0.04702863469719887, -0.01589903235435486, -0.04066459462046623, 0.0029507470317184925, 0.022863762453198433, 0.014142723754048347, -0.02826341800391674, 0.026525933295488358, -0.015614139847457409, 0.045708067715168, -0.03514482080936432, 0.028230922296643257, -0.034225959330797195, -0.04569095000624657, 0.017736809328198433, 0.02957182750105858, -0.018458351492881775, 0.017846571281552315, -0.014678609557449818, -0.019160032272338867, -0.042231302708387375, 0.01228028628975153, 0.022164832800626755, -0.07651098817586899, 0.05725908651947975, 0.08974596858024597, 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613,"vertical excursions above and below the ring plane agree closely with the ring 's observed thickness of 40 Saturn radii . The existence of the ring was proposed in the 1970s by Steven Soter .The discovery was made by Anne J. Verbiscer and Michael F. Skrutskie (of the University of Virginia) and Douglas P. Hamilton (of the University of Maryland, College Park). The three had studied together at Cornell University as graduate students. Ring material migrates inward due to reemission of solar radiation, with a speed inversely proportional to particle size; a 3 cm particle would migrate from the vicinity of Phoebe to that of Iapetus over the age of the Solar System. The material would thus strike the leading hemisphere of Iapetus. Infall of this material causes a slight darkening and reddening of the leading hemisphere of Iapetus (similar to what is seen on the Uranian moons Oberon and Titania) but does not directly create the dramatic two-tone coloration of that moon. Rather, the infalling material initiates a positive feedback thermal self-segregation process of ice sublimation from warmer regions, followed by vapor condensation onto cooler regions. This leaves a dark residue of ""lag"" material covering most of the equatorial region of Iapetus's leading hemisphere, which contrasts with the bright ice deposits covering the polar regions and most of the trailing hemisphere.","[-0.03094562515616417, 0.027410762384533882, 0.034142497926950455, 0.07106409221887589, 0.03115580603480339, -0.1028839722275734, 0.02898608334362507, 0.08091554045677185, 0.06952197849750519, 0.025351431220769882, -0.05757704749703407, -0.07315950095653534, -0.007149158976972103, -0.060273077338933945, -0.026121530681848526, -0.0266871340572834, -0.006332676857709885, 0.02130228653550148, -0.050229527056217194, -0.02271069586277008, 0.034837059676647186, -0.030519114807248116, -0.03991222754120827, 0.02029440551996231, -0.01773669198155403, 0.0743715763092041, -0.04713595658540726, 0.0012093224795535207, -0.014972719363868237, -0.021936263889074326, -0.0625469982624054, 0.03766100853681564, -0.050256889313459396, 0.017014818266034126, 0.026535632088780403, 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614,"of `` lag '' material covering most of the equatorial region of Iapetus 's leading hemisphere , which contrasts with the bright ice deposits covering the polar regions and most of the trailing hemisphere .See also
Galileo Galilei – the first person to observe Saturn's rings, in 1610
Christiaan Huygens – the first to propose that there was a ring surrounding Saturn, in 1655
Giovanni Cassini – discovered the separation between the A and B rings (the Cassini Division), in 1675
Édouard Roche – French astronomer who described how a satellite that comes within the Roche limit of Saturn could break up and form the rings

Notes
References
External links

Planetary Rings Node: Saturn's Ring System
Saturn's Rings by NASA's Solar System Exploration
Rings of Saturn nomenclature from the USGS planetary nomenclature page
Biggest Ring Around Saturn Just Got Supersized (retrieved 2017-12-20 from Space.com)
Everything a Curious Mind Should Know About Planetary Ring Systems with Dr Mark Showalter (Waseem Akhtar podcast with Mark Showalter)
High-resolution animation by Seán Doran of the backlit rings
High-resolution animation by Kevin M. Gill of a flyover of the outer B Ring at equinox (it starts getting less uniform after the first minute); see Rings album for more
High-resolution animation by Nick Stevens of Saturn and its rings from an equatorial and a polar orbit, and from a dive below the rings; see listing for more","[-0.030332287773489952, -0.037471432238817215, -0.018486661836504936, -0.04743363708257675, 0.04394398629665375, -0.08538056910037994, 0.026204554364085197, 0.1384027749300003, 0.05891036242246628, -0.02653367817401886, -0.09314916282892227, 0.015947088599205017, -0.013012243434786797, -0.06655893474817276, -0.030847933143377304, -0.055875513702631, -0.053375374525785446, -0.026646489277482033, 0.008494765497744083, -0.04511965811252594, 0.031767070293426514, 0.020493872463703156, -0.012599083594977856, 0.06246153637766838, 0.015871595591306686, 0.08641481399536133, -0.024665025994181633, -0.02597169578075409, -0.0174679234623909, 0.010022523812949657, -0.05445307120680809, 0.025238534435629845, -0.04353561997413635, -0.03680430352687836, -0.046924423426389694, -0.012785952538251877, -0.02259243279695511, -0.013750473037362099, 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615," Pluto (minor-planet designation: 134340 Pluto) is a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt, a ring of bodies beyond the orbit of Neptune. It is the ninth-largest and tenth-most-massive known object to directly orbit the Sun. It is the largest known trans-Neptunian object by volume by a small margin, but is less massive than Eris. Like other Kuiper belt objects, Pluto is made primarily of ice and rock and is much smaller than the inner planets. Pluto has roughly one-sixth the mass of the Moon and one-third of its volume. Originally considered a planet, its status was changed when astronomers adopted a new definition of the word with new criteria. Pluto has a moderately eccentric and inclined orbit, ranging from 30 to 49 astronomical units (4.5 to 7.3 billion kilometres; 2.8 to 4.6 billion miles) from the Sun. Light from the Sun takes 5.5 hours to reach Pluto at its orbital distance of 39.5 AU (5.91 billion km; 3.67 billion mi). Pluto's eccentric orbit periodically brings it closer to the Sun than Neptune, but a stable orbital resonance prevents them from colliding. Pluto has five known moons: Charon, the largest, whose diameter is just over half that of Pluto; Styx; Nix; Kerberos; and Hydra. Pluto and Charon are sometimes considered a binary system because the barycenter of their orbits does not lie within either body, and they are tidally locked. New Horizons was the first spacecraft to visit Pluto and its moons, making a flyby on July 14, 2015, and taking detailed measurements and observations. Pluto was discovered in 1930 by Clyde W. Tombaugh, making it the first known object in the Kuiper belt. It was immediately hailed as the ninth planet. However, its planetary status was questioned when it was found to be much smaller than expected.","[0.10101833939552307, -0.025146113708615303, 0.022851118817925453, -0.02158045582473278, -0.0005767338443547487, -0.1000572070479393, -0.023038234561681747, 0.0737307071685791, 0.040373146533966064, 0.05679390951991081, 0.0009933674009516835, -0.05393211171030998, -0.011514456011354923, -0.056417226791381836, 0.04385988786816597, -0.039119165390729904, 0.08776001632213593, -0.003885445650666952, 0.01929490454494953, 0.015817854553461075, -0.008066433481872082, 0.027844594791531563, 0.026120970025658607, 0.02453581616282463, -0.04962459206581116, -0.03851001709699631, -0.02328627184033394, -0.0744752287864685, -0.058724723756313324, -0.04169817641377449, -0.06131376326084137, 0.023411912843585014, 0.040601011365652084, -0.014977971091866493, 0.029085207730531693, 0.05784035846590996, 0.010808905586600304, 0.009378806687891483, -0.01980331726372242, -0.054451826959848404, 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616,"first known object in the Kuiper belt . It was immediately hailed as the ninth planet . However , its planetary status was questioned when it was found to be much smaller than expected .These doubts increased following the discovery of additional objects in the Kuiper belt starting in the 1990s, particularly the more massive scattered disk object Eris in 2005. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) formally redefined the term planet to exclude dwarf planets such as Pluto. Many planetary astronomers, however, continue to consider Pluto and other dwarf planets to be planets. History
Discovery
In the 1840s, Urbain Le Verrier used Newtonian mechanics to predict the position of the then-undiscovered planet Neptune after analyzing perturbations in the orbit of Uranus. Subsequent observations of Neptune in the late 19th century led astronomers to speculate that Uranus's orbit was being disturbed by another planet besides Neptune. In 1906, Percival Lowell—a wealthy Bostonian who had founded Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona, in 1894—started an extensive project in search of a possible ninth planet, which he termed ""Planet X"". In 1909, Lowell and William H. Pickering suggested several possible celestial coordinates for such a planet. Lowell and his observatory conducted his search, using mathematical calculations made by Elizabeth Williams, until his death in 1916, but to no avail. Unknown to Lowell, his surveys had captured two faint images of Pluto on March 19 and April 7, 1915, but they were not recognized for what they were. There are fourteen other known precovery observations, with the earliest made by the Yerkes Observatory on August 20, 1909. Percival's widow, Constance Lowell, entered into a ten-year legal battle with the Lowell Observatory over her husband's legacy, and the search for Planet X did not resume until 1929.","[0.008854854851961136, -0.047749534249305725, 0.004561228211969137, -0.04289791360497475, -0.008821874856948853, -0.0928444117307663, -0.025525320321321487, -0.0007914924062788486, 0.000849962409120053, 0.06348185241222382, 0.02038690820336342, -0.035162005573511124, 0.006614633370190859, 0.015116257593035698, -0.09220565110445023, -0.008397744968533516, -0.01951693370938301, 0.007123153191059828, 0.07195877283811569, 0.0806310698390007, -0.043642234057188034, 0.06965740770101547, -0.022910956293344498, -0.01779117062687874, 0.03380996361374855, 0.004078957252204418, -0.013752921484410763, -0.08091944456100464, -0.0024762351531535387, 0.028283394873142242, -0.003396157408133149, 0.007705585099756718, 0.023867866024374962, 0.034408070147037506, 0.020170968025922775, 0.023379826918244362, 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-0.013423400931060314]",Pluto,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.
617,"Percival 's widow , Constance Lowell , entered into a ten-year legal battle with the Lowell Observatory over her husband 's legacy , and the search for Planet X did not resume until 1929 .Vesto Melvin Slipher, the observatory director, gave the job of locating Planet X to 23-year-old Clyde Tombaugh, who had just arrived at the observatory after Slipher had been impressed by a sample of his astronomical drawings. Tombaugh's task was to systematically image the night sky in pairs of photographs, then examine each pair and determine whether any objects had shifted position. Using a blink comparator, he rapidly shifted back and forth between views of each of the plates to create the illusion of movement of any objects that had changed position or appearance between photographs. On February 18, 1930, after nearly a year of searching, Tombaugh discovered a possible moving object on photographic plates taken on January 23 and 29. A lesser-quality photograph taken on January 21 helped confirm the movement. After the observatory obtained further confirmatory photographs, news of the discovery was telegraphed to the Harvard College Observatory on March 13, 1930. One Plutonian year corresponds to 247.94 Earth years; thus, in 2178, Pluto will complete its first orbit since its discovery. Name
The name Pluto came from the Roman god of the underworld; and it is also an epithet for Hades (the Greek equivalent of Pluto). Upon the announcement of the discovery, Lowell Observatory received over a thousand suggestions for names. Three names topped the list: Minerva, Pluto and Cronus. 'Minerva' was the Lowell staff's first choice but was rejected because it had already been used for an asteroid; Cronus was disfavored because it was promoted by an unpopular and egocentric astronomer, Thomas Jefferson Jackson See. A vote was then taken and 'Pluto' was the unanimous choice.","[0.00770297646522522, -0.04055768996477127, 0.02430424652993679, -0.05168018490076065, 0.05142048001289368, -0.08100643008947372, -0.047682467848062515, -0.026922572404146194, -0.020103013142943382, 0.021707281470298767, 0.07770579308271408, -0.029490500688552856, 0.0399942472577095, -0.0287467110902071, -0.04630179703235626, -0.07353832572698593, -0.05072512477636337, 0.0037517885211855173, 0.04515661671757698, 0.11349222809076309, -0.04273339733481407, -0.011652089655399323, -0.003033881774172187, -0.02124723605811596, 0.02032560110092163, 0.013846752233803272, -0.01792093925178051, -0.16266770660877228, -0.035306166857481, -0.026118768379092216, -0.01732238568365574, 0.05673320218920708, -0.04367247223854065, 0.013798533007502556, 0.0329466238617897, 0.06705352663993835, 0.051659125834703445, 0.016023891046643257, 0.0118026128038764, -0.025828439742326736, -0.010915993712842464, -0.08148445934057236, 0.06410988420248032, 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618,"an asteroid ; Cronus was disfavored because it was promoted by an unpopular and egocentric astronomer , Thomas Jefferson Jackson See . A vote was then taken and 'Pluto ' was the unanimous choice .To make sure the name stuck, and that the planet would not suffer changes in its name as Uranus had, Lowell Observatory proposed the name to the American Astronomical Society and the Royal Astronomical Society; both approved it unanimously. The name was published on May 1, 1930. The name Pluto had received some 150 nominations among the letters and telegrams sent to Lowell. The first had been from Venetia Burney (1918–2009), an eleven-year-old schoolgirl in Oxford, England, who was interested in classical mythology. She had suggested it to her grandfather Falconer Madan when he read the news of Pluto's discovery to his family over breakfast; Madan passed the suggestion to astronomy professor Herbert Hall Turner, who cabled it to colleagues at Lowell on March 16, three days after the announcement. The name 'Pluto' was mythologically appropriate: the god Pluto was one of six surviving children of Saturn, and the others had already all been chosen as names of major or minor planets (his brothers Jupiter and Neptune, and his sisters Ceres, Juno and Vesta). Both the god and the planet inhabited ""gloomy"" regions, and the god was able to make himself invisible, as the planet had been for so long. The choice was further helped by the fact that the first two letters of Pluto were the initials of Percival Lowell; indeed, 'Percival' had been one of the more popular suggestions for a name for the new planet. Symbol
Once named, Pluto's planetary symbol ⟨⟩ was then created as a monogram of the letters ""PL"". This symbol is rarely used in astronomy anymore, though it is still common in astrology.","[0.0009124309290200472, -0.054772328585386276, 0.014605104923248291, -0.02910037338733673, -0.004965535830706358, -0.06321776658296585, 0.031254835426807404, 0.0022360458970069885, 0.017092794179916382, 0.06673043221235275, 0.018645938485860825, 0.017324602231383324, 0.03899652883410454, -0.03788188472390175, -0.06508418917655945, 0.02813699096441269, -0.027475522831082344, -0.008501922711730003, 0.08233688026666641, 0.009323489852249622, -0.021172383800148964, 0.0920058935880661, -0.016970723867416382, 0.0001806446525733918, 0.05200881138443947, -0.0033223177306354046, -0.019916636869311333, -0.03081195242702961, -0.03614361956715584, 0.040989868342876434, -0.00615977868437767, -0.020225470885634422, 0.030954856425523758, 0.014435192570090294, 0.04003984108567238, 0.006996968761086464, 0.013164607807993889, 0.028296194970607758, -0.04894712194800377, -0.046956583857536316, 0.014656385406851768, 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619,"Pluto 's planetary symbol ⟨⟩ was then created as a monogram of the letters `` PL '' . This symbol is rarely used in astronomy anymore , though it is still common in astrology .However, the most common astrological symbol for Pluto, occasionally used in astronomy as well, is an orb (possibly representing Pluto's invisibility cap) over Pluto's bident ⟨⟩, which dates to the early 1930s. The name 'Pluto' was soon embraced by wider culture. In 1930, Walt Disney was apparently inspired by it when he introduced for Mickey Mouse a canine companion named Pluto, although Disney animator Ben Sharpsteen could not confirm why the name was given. In 1941, Glenn T. Seaborg named the newly created element plutonium after Pluto, in keeping with the tradition of naming elements after newly discovered planets, following uranium, which was named after Uranus, and neptunium, which was named after Neptune. Most languages use the name ""Pluto"" in various transliterations. In Japanese, Houei Nojiri suggested the calque Meiōsei (冥王星, ""Star of the King (God) of the Underworld""), and this was borrowed into Chinese and Korean. Some languages of India use the name Pluto, but others, such as Hindi, use the name of Yama, the God of Death in Hinduism. Polynesian languages also tend to use the indigenous god of the underworld, as in Māori Whiro. Vietnamese does not follow the Chinese usage due to a phonological constraint: the Sino-Vietnamese word 冥 minh ""dark"" is homophonous with 明 minh ""bright"". Instead, Vietnamese uses Yama, which is also a Buddhist deity, in the form of Sao Diêm Vương 星閻王 ""Yama's Star"", derived from Chinese 閻王 Yán Wáng / Yìhm Wòhng ""King Yama"".","[-0.01730506308376789, -0.004388539120554924, 0.018457908183336258, -0.009153783321380615, -0.06553829461336136, -0.08129207789897919, 0.09465228021144867, 0.014492029324173927, 0.08761489391326904, -0.017561644315719604, 0.10930648446083069, -0.031060321256518364, 0.04558734968304634, -0.02408914640545845, 0.022640148177742958, -0.03883412107825279, -0.02552495151758194, 0.01718849129974842, 0.05762616544961929, 0.0007151385652832687, 0.05371802672743797, -0.00822420697659254, 0.016568249091506004, 0.006530866492539644, -0.03494671732187271, 0.036850377917289734, 0.007485086563974619, -0.06004353240132332, 0.03171415999531746, 0.019376737996935844, -0.04064814746379852, 0.027191540226340294, 0.009178275242447853, 0.00848805159330368, 0.030308041721582413, 0.02590085193514824, -0.0035302324686199427, 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620,"which is also a Buddhist deity , in the form of Sao Diêm Vương 星閻王 `` Yama 's Star '' , derived from Chinese 閻王 Yán Wáng / Yìhm Wòhng `` King Yama '' .Planet X disproved
Once Pluto was found, its faintness and lack of a viewable disc cast doubt on the idea that it was Lowell's Planet X. Estimates of Pluto's mass were revised downward throughout the 20th century. Astronomers initially calculated its mass based on its presumed effect on Neptune and Uranus. In 1931, Pluto was calculated to be roughly the mass of Earth, with further calculations in 1948 bringing the mass down to roughly that of Mars. In 1976, Dale Cruikshank, Carl Pilcher and David Morrison of the University of Hawaiʻi calculated Pluto's albedo for the first time, finding that it matched that for methane ice; this meant Pluto had to be exceptionally luminous for its size and therefore could not be more than 1 percent the mass of Earth. (Pluto's albedo is 1.4–1.9 times that of Earth.) In 1978, the discovery of Pluto's moon Charon allowed the measurement of Pluto's mass for the first time: roughly 0.2% that of Earth, and far too small to account for the discrepancies in the orbit of Uranus. Subsequent searches for an alternative Planet X, notably by Robert Sutton Harrington, failed. In 1992, Myles Standish used data from Voyager 2's flyby of Neptune in 1989, which had revised the estimates of Neptune's mass downward by 0.5%—an amount comparable to the mass of Mars—to recalculate its gravitational effect on Uranus. With the new figures added in, the discrepancies, and with them the need for a Planet X, vanished. As of 2000 the majority of scientists agree that Planet X, as Lowell defined it, does not exist.","[0.007247447036206722, 0.027880540117621422, 0.05045190081000328, 0.06802643090486526, 0.02620502933859825, -0.10776960849761963, 0.056160710752010345, 0.044511377811431885, 0.01840364746749401, 0.07128295302391052, 0.055123470723629, -0.07507173717021942, 0.02292497828602791, -0.027023114264011383, 0.004822083283215761, -0.007532759569585323, -0.02438720501959324, 0.0339784175157547, 0.029440240934491158, 0.05075524374842644, 0.00519033195450902, 0.017937494441866875, -0.009020691737532616, 0.023689277470111847, 0.04648302122950554, 0.007967974059283733, -0.03262748196721077, -0.05130665749311447, -0.013277239166200161, 0.004733171779662371, -0.05284205824136734, -0.0010366305941715837, 0.05234099179506302, 0.019229525700211525, 0.028666667640209198, 0.024597570300102234, 0.09814095497131348, -0.05531535670161247, -0.07091604918241501, 0.002640770748257637, 0.02247413992881775, 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621,"discrepancies , and with them the need for a Planet X , vanished . As of 2000 the majority of scientists agree that Planet X , as Lowell defined it , does not exist .Lowell had made a prediction of Planet X's orbit and position in 1915 that was fairly close to Pluto's actual orbit and its position at that time. Ernest W. Brown concluded soon after Pluto's discovery that this was a coincidence. Classification
From 1992 onward, many bodies were discovered orbiting in the same volume as Pluto, showing that Pluto is part of a population of objects called the Kuiper belt. This made its official status as a planet controversial, with many questioning whether Pluto should be considered together with or separately from its surrounding population. Museum and planetarium directors occasionally created controversy by omitting Pluto from planetary models of the Solar System. In February 2000 the Hayden Planetarium in New York City displayed a Solar System model of only eight planets, which made headlines almost a year later. Ceres, Pallas, Juno and Vesta lost their planet status among most astronomers after the discovery of many other asteroids in the 1840s. On the other hand, planetary geologists often regarded Ceres, and less often Pallas and Vesta, as being different from smaller asteroids because they were large enough to have undergone geological evolution. Although the first Kuiper belt objects discovered were quite small, objects increasingly closer in size to Pluto were soon discovered, some large enough (like Pluto itself) to satisfy geological but not dynamical ideas of planethood. In 1998, Brian G. Marsden of Harvard University's Minor Planet Center suggested that Pluto be given the minor planet number 10000 while still retaining its official position as a planet.","[0.05861736088991165, -0.05922677740454674, 0.03085734136402607, -0.03703397512435913, 0.04136623069643974, -0.0733475461602211, -0.021722130477428436, 0.010958191007375717, 0.06931596994400024, 0.039438214153051376, 0.06341481953859329, -0.015074565075337887, 0.0169421024620533, 0.0003330995386932045, -0.03766803815960884, -0.0642964318394661, 0.030907027423381805, -0.0354640930891037, 0.025183621793985367, 0.09205950051546097, -0.038870301097631454, 0.06185007840394974, -0.015548419207334518, 0.06232775002717972, -0.023664284497499466, -0.016728108748793602, -0.012581567279994488, -0.1171717494726181, -0.03425066918134689, 0.0015357609372586012, -0.0310150608420372, 0.0661667212843895, 0.01693262718617916, -0.024136053398251534, 0.0466446653008461, 0.04275594279170036, 0.07939118146896362, -0.0023889923468232155, 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622,"planethood . In 1998 , Brian G. Marsden of Harvard University 's Minor Planet Center suggested that Pluto be given the minor planet number 10000 while still retaining its official position as a planet .The prospect of Pluto's ""demotion"" created a public outcry, and in response the International Astronomical Union clarified that it was not at that time proposing to remove Pluto from the planet list. In the early 2000's, astronomers at Caltech led by Michael E. Brown undertook a wide survey of the skies using digital detection technology, finding numerous Trans-Neptunian objects. Many of these objects were initially measured as larger than or equal in size to Pluto, igniting a debate over whether or not to consider them planets. Later, estimates were revised down due to higher than expected albedos. The debate became unavoidable when, in July 2005, these astronomers announced the discovery of a new object, Eris, which was substantially more massive than Pluto and the most massive object discovered in the Solar System since Triton in 1846. The press initially called it the tenth planet, although there was no official consensus at the time on whether to call it a planet. Others in the astronomical community considered the discovery the strongest argument for reclassifying Pluto as a minor planet. IAU classification
The debate came to a head in August 2006 during the triennial meeting of the IAU, when Uruguayan astronomers Julio Ángel Fernández and Gonzalo Tancredi first proposed the new definition for the term ""planet"". According to their proposal, there are three conditions for an object in the Solar System to be considered a planet:

The object must be in orbit around the Sun. The object must be massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity. More specifically, its own gravity should pull it into a shape defined by hydrostatic equilibrium. It must have cleared the neighborhood around its orbit.","[0.005682964343577623, -0.015154831111431122, 0.007023397833108902, 0.01225964818149805, 0.11812340468168259, -0.10116978734731674, 0.025319779291749, 0.08952359110116959, 0.01684456877410412, 0.11121806502342224, 0.031123772263526917, 0.024969331920146942, -0.01786797307431698, -0.014878781512379646, -0.009398313239216805, -0.04635049030184746, 0.03162024915218353, -0.018112223595380783, -0.00941234640777111, 0.016818629577755928, -0.009656156413257122, 0.06058049201965332, -3.749765164684504e-05, 0.005841182079166174, 0.035586878657341, -0.060346707701683044, -0.015696804970502853, -0.08805934339761734, -0.044858064502477646, -0.020302603021264076, 0.008902732282876968, 0.08466272056102753, 0.033930450677871704, -0.0013494939776137471, 0.032459091395139694, 0.015450564213097095, 0.037906959652900696, 0.0017679048469290137, -0.032410189509391785, -0.024943459779024124, 0.02528475970029831, -0.09342966973781586, 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623,"to be rounded by its own gravity . More specifically , its own gravity should pull it into a shape defined by hydrostatic equilibrium . It must have cleared the neighborhood around its orbit .Pluto fails to meet the third condition. Its mass is substantially less than the combined mass of the other objects in its orbit: 0.07 times, in contrast to Earth, which is 1.7 million times the remaining mass in its orbit (excluding the moon). The IAU further decided that bodies that, like Pluto, meet criteria 1 and 2, but do not meet criterion 3 would be called dwarf planets. In September 2006, the IAU included Pluto, and Eris and its moon Dysnomia, in their Minor Planet Catalogue, giving them the official minor-planet designations ""(134340) Pluto"", ""(136199) Eris"", and ""(136199) Eris I Dysnomia"". Had Pluto been included upon its discovery in 1930, it would have likely been designated 1164, following 1163 Saga, which was discovered a month earlier. There has been some resistance within the astronomical community toward the reclassification, and in particular planetary scientists often continue to reject it, considering Pluto, Charon, and Eris to be planets for the same reason they do so for Ceres. In effect, this amounts to accepting only the second clause of the IAU definition. Alan Stern, principal investigator with NASA's New Horizons mission to Pluto, derided the IAU resolution. He also stated that because less than five percent of astronomers voted for it, the decision was not representative of the entire astronomical community. Marc W. Buie, then at the Lowell Observatory, petitioned against the definition. Others have supported the IAU, for example Mike Brown, the astronomer who discovered Eris. Public reception to the IAU decision was mixed.","[0.020289741456508636, -0.036239996552467346, 0.028356283903121948, 0.02831578068435192, 0.03996698558330536, -0.11065816879272461, -0.008860697038471699, 0.055994775146245956, 0.0012120952596887946, 0.06322214007377625, 0.05678025260567665, -0.03171771392226219, 0.0016741836443543434, -0.07019956409931183, 0.008247721008956432, -0.08623120933771133, -0.020378470420837402, -0.014796264469623566, 0.03821767494082451, 0.055005576461553574, -0.016575193032622337, 0.05614524334669113, -0.009928770363330841, 0.03397547826170921, 0.019469523802399635, -0.05737213417887688, 0.0016506812535226345, -0.03761955350637436, -0.0323592945933342, -0.07154446095228195, -0.031952060759067535, 0.07115370035171509, 0.10687865316867828, -0.03277088701725006, 0.04676046967506409, 0.04237078130245209, 0.03215550631284714, -0.03256365284323692, -0.06148579344153404, -0.0678037703037262, 0.03516102582216263, -0.03127078711986542, 0.07659593224525452, 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624,"the Lowell Observatory , petitioned against the definition . Others have supported the IAU , for example Mike Brown , the astronomer who discovered Eris . Public reception to the IAU decision was mixed .A resolution introduced in the California State Assembly facetiously called the IAU decision a ""scientific heresy"". The New Mexico House of Representatives passed a resolution in honor of Clyde Tombaugh, the discoverer of Pluto and a longtime resident of that state, that declared that Pluto will always be considered a planet while in New Mexican skies and that March 13, 2007, was Pluto Planet Day. The Illinois Senate passed a similar resolution in 2009 on the basis that Tombaugh was born in Illinois. The resolution asserted that Pluto was ""unfairly downgraded to a 'dwarf' planet"" by the IAU."" Some members of the public have also rejected the change, citing the disagreement within the scientific community on the issue, or for sentimental reasons, maintaining that they have always known Pluto as a planet and will continue to do so regardless of the IAU decision. In 2006, in its 17th annual words-of-the-year vote, the American Dialect Society voted plutoed as the word of the year. To ""pluto"" is to ""demote or devalue someone or something"". In April 2024, Arizona (where Pluto was first discovered in 1930) passed a law naming Pluto as the official state planet. Researchers on both sides of the debate gathered in August 2008, at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory for a conference that included back-to-back talks on the IAU definition of a planet. Entitled ""The Great Planet Debate"", the conference published a post-conference press release indicating that scientists could not come to a consensus about the definition of planet.","[0.03529345989227295, -0.006478051654994488, 0.07191780209541321, -0.02876535803079605, -0.012057293206453323, -0.07511348277330399, -0.01990732178092003, -0.020007915794849396, -0.04795920476317406, 0.08247990161180496, 0.0409419871866703, 0.007107769139111042, 0.030534064397215843, -0.05676141381263733, -0.0160900317132473, 0.0015390659682452679, -0.038971565663814545, -0.014674070291221142, 0.021247774362564087, 0.06983682513237, -0.010469767265021801, 0.07874014973640442, -0.043472349643707275, 0.011404277756810188, 0.06326472014188766, -0.04956042021512985, 0.023478049784898758, -0.09086527675390244, -0.019920457154512405, 0.011812202632427216, -0.006723242811858654, 0.08512628823518753, 0.010953008197247982, 0.0022825878113508224, 0.020257271826267242, -0.016881810501217842, 0.11425483226776123, 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0.0008399731596000493]",Pluto,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.
625,"definition of a planet . Entitled `` The Great Planet Debate '' , the conference published a post-conference press release indicating that scientists could not come to a consensus about the definition of planet .In June 2008, the IAU had announced in a press release that the term ""plutoid"" would henceforth be used to refer to Pluto and other planetary-mass objects that have an orbital semi-major axis greater than that of Neptune, though the term has not seen significant use. Orbit
Pluto's orbital period is about 248 years. Its orbital characteristics are substantially different from those of the planets, which follow nearly circular orbits around the Sun close to a flat reference plane called the ecliptic. In contrast, Pluto's orbit is moderately inclined relative to the ecliptic (over 17°) and moderately eccentric (elliptical). This eccentricity means a small region of Pluto's orbit lies closer to the Sun than Neptune's. The Pluto–Charon barycenter came to perihelion on September 5, 1989, and was last closer to the Sun than Neptune between February 7, 1979, and February 11, 1999. Although the 3:2 resonance with Neptune (see below) is maintained, Pluto's inclination and eccentricity behave in a chaotic manner. Computer simulations can be used to predict its position for several million years (both forward and backward in time), but after intervals much longer than the Lyapunov time of 10–20 million years, calculations become unreliable: Pluto is sensitive to immeasurably small details of the Solar System, hard-to-predict factors that will gradually change Pluto's position in its orbit. The semi-major axis of Pluto's orbit varies between about 39.3 and 39.6 AU with a period of about 19,951 years, corresponding to an orbital period varying between 246 and 249 years. The semi-major axis and period are presently getting longer.","[0.05363204702734947, -0.0232158824801445, -0.014497010968625546, -0.036637723445892334, -0.008400297723710537, -0.04633267968893051, -0.04316152259707451, 0.06652463227510452, 0.06614308059215546, 0.02826484479010105, 0.04150792211294174, 0.008875027298927307, 0.014283327385783195, -0.07248030602931976, 0.06226493418216705, -0.034524302929639816, 0.030521657317876816, -0.04192917048931122, 0.05886855348944664, 0.08815088123083115, -0.007890149019658566, 0.015314689837396145, 0.024057559669017792, 0.07595127820968628, -0.07648880779743195, -0.045226652175188065, 0.025530165061354637, -0.0383027158677578, -0.0404914915561676, 0.028362303972244263, -0.017793871462345123, 0.06627592444419861, 0.024576805531978607, 0.002370950300246477, 0.0048015001229941845, 0.04272055625915527, 0.046205271035432816, 0.0034630296286195517, -0.04875984415411949, -0.04669904708862305, 0.04191940650343895, -0.029079174622893333, 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0.025059808045625687]",Pluto,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.
626,"about 39.3 and 39.6 AU with a period of about 19,951 years , corresponding to an orbital period varying between 246 and 249 years . The semi-major axis and period are presently getting longer .Relationship with Neptune
Despite Pluto's orbit appearing to cross that of Neptune when viewed from north or south of the Solar System, the two objects' orbits do not intersect. When Pluto is closest to the Sun, and close to Neptune's orbit as viewed from such a position, it is also the farthest north of Neptune's path. Pluto's orbit passes about 8 AU north of that of Neptune, preventing a collision. This alone is not enough to protect Pluto; perturbations from the planets (especially Neptune) could alter Pluto's orbit (such as its orbital precession) over millions of years so that a collision could happen. However, Pluto is also protected by its 2:3 orbital resonance with Neptune: for every two orbits that Pluto makes around the Sun, Neptune makes three, in a frame of reference that rotates at the rate that Pluto's perihelion precesses (about 0.97×10−4 degrees per year). Each cycle lasts about 495 years. There are many other objects in this same resonance, called plutinos. At present, in each 495-year cycle, the first time Pluto is at perihelion (such as in 1989), Neptune is 57° ahead of Pluto. By Pluto's second passage through perihelion, Neptune will have completed a further one and a half of its own orbits, and will be 123° behind Pluto. Pluto and Neptune's minimum separation is over 17 AU, which is greater than Pluto's minimum separation from Uranus (11 AU). The minimum separation between Pluto and Neptune actually occurs near the time of Pluto's aphelion. The 2:3 resonance between the two bodies is highly stable and has been preserved over millions of years.","[0.060483433306217194, -0.016286706551909447, 0.040045130997896194, -0.054841864854097366, 0.032610710710287094, -0.013074954971671104, -0.05701551213860512, 0.0159936361014843, 0.028283752501010895, 0.05644664540886879, -0.032008569687604904, -0.008962057530879974, 0.06205432862043381, -0.1014629453420639, 0.06165149062871933, -0.03756661340594292, -0.020285220816731453, -0.0629030168056488, 0.04370453581213951, 0.05648740381002426, 0.002935510128736496, -0.01804894395172596, 0.02536740154027939, 0.041412632912397385, -0.1156640276312828, -0.06241608038544655, 0.011959141120314598, -0.08148415386676788, -0.023373251780867577, -0.010371310636401176, -0.042418017983436584, -0.025584712624549866, -0.03306892141699791, 0.013850178569555283, -0.03730819374322891, 0.016815517097711563, 0.0026550358161330223, 0.032037485390901566, -0.05733048543334007, -0.08568461239337921, 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627,"minimum separation between Pluto and Neptune actually occurs near the time of Pluto 's aphelion . The 2:3 resonance between the two bodies is highly stable and has been preserved over millions of years .This prevents their orbits from changing relative to one another, so the two bodies can never pass near each other. Even if Pluto's orbit were not inclined, the two bodies could never collide. When Pluto's period is slightly different from 3/2 of Neptune's, the pattern of its distance from Neptune will drift. Near perihelion Pluto moves interior to Neptune's orbit and is therefore moving faster, so during the first of two orbits in the 495-year cycle, it is approaching Neptune from behind. At present it remains between 50° and 65° behind Neptune for 100 years (e.g. 1937–2036). The gravitational pull between the two causes angular momentum to be transferred to Pluto. This situation moves Pluto into a slightly larger orbit, where it has a slightly longer period, according to Kepler's third law. After several such repetitions, Pluto is sufficiently delayed that at the second perihelion of each cycle it will not be far ahead of Neptune coming behind it, and Neptune will start to decrease Pluto's period again. The whole cycle takes about 20,000 years to complete. Other factors
Numerical studies have shown that over millions of years, the general nature of the alignment between the orbits of Pluto and Neptune does not change. There are several other resonances and interactions that enhance Pluto's stability. These arise principally from two additional mechanisms (besides the 2:3 mean-motion resonance). First, Pluto's argument of perihelion, the angle between the point where it crosses the ecliptic (or the invariant plane) and the point where it is closest to the Sun, librates around 90°.","[0.022427601739764214, -0.02372206747531891, 0.04555633291602135, -0.06601908057928085, 0.016665203496813774, -0.04305253177881241, -0.07011963427066803, 0.008892579935491085, 0.06266916543245316, 0.007940183393657207, 0.019859924912452698, -0.017865417525172234, 0.07680700719356537, -0.09287016093730927, 0.0559639036655426, -0.0323246605694294, 0.010784571059048176, -0.035137806087732315, 0.023253459483385086, 0.052179038524627686, 0.00844717025756836, -0.014733157120645046, 0.0018913020612671971, 0.03618469089269638, -0.11052118986845016, -0.04233105853199959, -0.013813283294439316, -0.06771141290664673, 0.02094079554080963, -0.003246125066652894, -0.03846794739365578, -0.03407469019293785, -0.03726787865161896, -0.017421690747141838, -0.016236765310168266, 0.09172455966472626, 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628,"argument of perihelion , the angle between the point where it crosses the ecliptic ( or the invariant plane ) and the point where it is closest to the Sun , librates around 90° .This means that when Pluto is closest to the Sun, it is at its farthest north of the plane of the Solar System, preventing encounters with Neptune. This is a consequence of the Kozai mechanism, which relates the eccentricity of an orbit to its inclination to a larger perturbing body—in this case, Neptune. Relative to Neptune, the amplitude of libration is 38°, and so the angular separation of Pluto's perihelion to the orbit of Neptune is always greater than 52° (90°–38°). The closest such angular separation occurs every 10,000 years. Second, the longitudes of ascending nodes of the two bodies—the points where they cross the invariant plane—are in near-resonance with the above libration. When the two longitudes are the same—that is, when one could draw a straight line through both nodes and the Sun—Pluto's perihelion lies exactly at 90°, and hence it comes closest to the Sun when it is furthest north of Neptune's orbit. This is known as the 1:1 superresonance. All the Jovian planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) play a role in the creation of the superresonance. Rotation
Pluto's rotation period, its day, is equal to 6.387 Earth days. Like Uranus and 2 Pallas, Pluto rotates on its ""side"" in its orbital plane, with an axial tilt of 120°, and so its seasonal variation is extreme; at its solstices, one-fourth of its surface is in continuous daylight, whereas another fourth is in continuous darkness. The reason for this unusual orientation has been debated. Research from the University of Arizona has suggested that it may be due to the way that a body's spin will always adjust to minimize energy.","[0.006566264200955629, 0.01650998741388321, 0.01206115446984768, -0.0779334306716919, 0.02796258218586445, -0.012781232595443726, -0.026146242395043373, 0.027312245219945908, 0.09742336720228195, -0.01617482118308544, 0.06016568839550018, -0.009956099092960358, 0.03945528343319893, -0.09265825152397156, 0.054467424750328064, -0.019077375531196594, 0.006128781475126743, -0.030052924528717995, 0.03104146383702755, 0.0523589551448822, 0.0010020670015364885, -0.016623415052890778, 0.011552716605365276, 0.05920310318470001, -0.06937485188245773, -0.06109337881207466, 0.054859232157468796, -0.04863990470767021, 0.016338061541318893, -0.009114098735153675, -0.024274909868836403, -0.018635272979736328, -0.08060310035943985, -0.0016307260375469923, 0.0016979313222691417, 0.037189267575740814, 0.01915578357875347, 0.007230269722640514, 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629,"this unusual orientation has been debated . Research from the University of Arizona has suggested that it may be due to the way that a body 's spin will always adjust to minimize energy .This could mean a body reorienting itself to put extraneous mass near the equator and regions lacking mass tend towards the poles. This is called polar wander. According to a paper released from the University of Arizona, this could be caused by masses of frozen nitrogen building up in shadowed areas of the dwarf planet. These masses would cause the body to reorient itself, leading to its unusual axial tilt of 120°. The buildup of nitrogen is due to Pluto's vast distance from the Sun. At the equator, temperatures can drop to −240 °C (−400.0 °F; 33.1 K), causing nitrogen to freeze as water would freeze on Earth. The same polar wandering effect seen on Pluto would be observed on Earth were the Antarctic ice sheet several times larger. Geology
Surface
The plains on Pluto's surface are composed of more than 98 percent nitrogen ice, with traces of methane and carbon monoxide. Nitrogen and carbon monoxide are most abundant on the anti-Charon face of Pluto (around 180° longitude, where Tombaugh Regio's western lobe, Sputnik Planitia, is located), whereas methane is most abundant near 300° east. The mountains are made of water ice. Pluto's surface is quite varied, with large differences in both brightness and color. Pluto is one of the most contrastive bodies in the Solar System, with as much contrast as Saturn's moon Iapetus. The color varies from charcoal black, to dark orange and white. Pluto's color is more similar to that of Io with slightly more orange and significantly less red than Mars.","[-0.01889289915561676, -0.032095812261104584, 0.05350962653756142, 0.021906718611717224, 0.05776907876133919, -0.020803939551115036, 0.006790841463953257, 0.017748551443219185, 0.07201981544494629, 0.07156254351139069, -0.02523551881313324, 0.028234874829649925, -0.009945512749254704, -0.08624649792909622, 0.07924571633338928, -0.09700586646795273, -0.026946954429149628, -0.011186279356479645, 0.0531967394053936, 0.04972297325730324, -0.034523673355579376, 0.03505587577819824, -0.016359275206923485, 0.06059893220663071, -0.07407188415527344, -0.01933453232049942, 0.0002038193924818188, -0.02761983312666416, -0.011685162782669067, -0.039572715759277344, -0.07324297726154327, 0.08066819608211517, -0.04401577264070511, -0.015669535845518112, 0.04261111840605736, 0.05590352788567543, 0.08763211965560913, 0.01487413514405489, -0.0966113731265068, -0.00796335469931364, 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-0.02366633154451847]",Pluto,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto.
630,". The color varies from charcoal black , to dark orange and white . Pluto 's color is more similar to that of Io with slightly more orange and significantly less red than Mars .Notable geographical features include Tombaugh Regio, or the ""Heart"" (a large bright area on the side opposite Charon), Belton Regio, or the ""Whale"" (a large dark area on the trailing hemisphere), and the ""Brass Knuckles"" (a series of equatorial dark areas on the leading hemisphere). Sputnik Planitia, the western lobe of the ""Heart"", is a 1,000 km-wide basin of frozen nitrogen and carbon monoxide ices, divided into polygonal cells, which are interpreted as convection cells that carry floating blocks of water ice crust and sublimation pits towards their margins; there are obvious signs of glacial flows both into and out of the basin. It has no craters that were visible to New Horizons, indicating that its surface is less than 10 million years old. Latest studies have shown that the surface has an age of 180000+90000−40000 years. The New Horizons science team summarized initial findings as ""Pluto displays a surprisingly wide variety of geological landforms, including those resulting from glaciological and surface–atmosphere interactions as well as impact, tectonic, possible cryovolcanic, and mass-wasting processes."" In Western parts of Sputnik Planitia there are fields of transverse dunes formed by the winds blowing from the center of Sputnik Planitia in the direction of surrounding mountains. The dune wavelengths are in the range of 0.4–1 km and likely consist of methane particles 200–300 μm in size. Internal structure
Pluto's density is 1.853±0.004 g/cm3.","[0.009593036025762558, 0.019395358860492706, 0.04850544035434723, 0.002776120789349079, 0.018518468365073204, -0.0894949659705162, -0.0776636004447937, 0.03453446924686432, 0.035337191075086594, 0.012229638174176216, -0.0456617996096611, -0.0369848906993866, -0.02219337411224842, -0.04119196534156799, 0.021349340677261353, -0.030736170709133148, -0.03438184782862663, -0.08118418604135513, 0.016446709632873535, 0.06000446528196335, -0.02348928712308407, 0.04710100218653679, -0.016587331891059875, 0.008967566303908825, -0.0566122829914093, 0.006404948886483908, 0.04367560148239136, -0.05755544453859329, -0.0256384015083313, 0.0394456721842289, -0.019754206761717796, 0.018214073032140732, 0.07264569401741028, 0.008807837963104248, 0.07647447288036346, 0.03972445800900459, 0.10495754331350327, 0.04247955605387688, -0.04657759517431259, 0.05642220377922058, 0.03628372400999069, -0.04332522302865982, 0.055919840931892395, 0.07663260400295258, 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631,"direction of surrounding mountains . The dune wavelengths are in the range of 0.4–1 km and likely consist of methane particles 200–300 μm in size . Internal structure Pluto 's density is 1.853±0.004 g/cm3 .Because the decay of radioactive elements would eventually heat the ices enough for the rock to separate from them, scientists expect that Pluto's internal structure is differentiated, with the rocky material having settled into a dense core surrounded by a mantle of water ice. The pre–New Horizons estimate for the diameter of the core is 1700 km, 70% of Pluto's diameter. It is possible that such heating continues, creating a subsurface ocean of liquid water 100 to 180 km thick at the core–mantle boundary. In September 2016, scientists at Brown University simulated the impact thought to have formed Sputnik Planitia, and showed that it might have been the result of liquid water upweling from below after the collision, implying the existence of a subsurface ocean at least 100 km deep. In June 2020, astronomers reported evidence that Pluto may have had a subsurface ocean, and consequently may have been habitable, when it was first formed. In March 2022, a team of researchers proposed that the mountains Wright Mons and Piccard Mons are actually a merger of many smaller cryovolcanic domes, suggesting a source of heat on the body at levels previously thought not possible. Mass and size
Pluto's diameter is 2,376.6±3.2 km and its mass is (1.303±0.003)×1022 kg, 17.7% that of the Moon (0.22% that of Earth). Its surface area is 1.774443×107 km2, or just slightly bigger than Russia or Antarctica (particularly including the Antarctic sea ice during winter). Its surface gravity is 0.063 g (compared to 1 g for Earth and 0.17 g for the Moon).","[-0.017556140199303627, -0.019240837544202805, 0.09127650409936905, -0.03845687955617905, 0.07164409011602402, -0.0664217546582222, -0.0615340955555439, 0.13065698742866516, -0.0114451227709651, 0.04982135072350502, -0.03769828751683235, -0.054870717227458954, -0.0011189223732799292, -0.036798395216464996, 0.07015949487686157, -0.04341369494795799, -0.019990038126707077, -0.08017626404762268, 0.005607233848422766, 0.03624245524406433, -0.023994384333491325, 0.0750780776143074, -0.02929498255252838, 0.0056357476860284805, -0.008758957497775555, 0.01794019527733326, 0.029947428032755852, -0.05895518884062767, -0.010020792484283447, 0.052639156579971313, 0.0028423334006220102, -0.01507047563791275, 0.036268334835767746, -0.024940624833106995, 0.09189385175704956, 0.06305743008852005, 0.033418744802474976, 0.03053193725645542, -0.046630993485450745, -0.015239991247653961, -0.036578916013240814, 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632,"Russia or Antarctica ( particularly including the Antarctic sea ice during winter ) . Its surface gravity is 0.063 g ( compared to 1 g for Earth and 0.17 g for the Moon ) .This gives Pluto an escape velocity of 4,363.2 km per hour / 2,711.167 miles per hour (as compared to Earth's 40,270 km per hour / 25,020 miles per hour). Pluto is more than twice the diameter and a dozen times the mass of Ceres, the largest object in the asteroid belt. It is less massive than the dwarf planet Eris, a trans-Neptunian object discovered in 2005, though Pluto has a larger diameter of 2,376.6 km compared to Eris's approximate diameter of 2,326 km. With less than 0.2 lunar masses, Pluto is much less massive than the terrestrial planets, and also less massive than seven moons: Ganymede, Titan, Callisto, Io, the Moon, Europa, and Triton. The mass is much less than thought before Charon was discovered. The discovery of Pluto's satellite Charon in 1978 enabled a determination of the mass of the Pluto–Charon system by application of Newton's formulation of Kepler's third law. Observations of Pluto in occultation with Charon allowed scientists to establish Pluto's diameter more accurately, whereas the invention of adaptive optics allowed them to determine its shape more accurately. Determinations of Pluto's size have been complicated by its atmosphere and hydrocarbon haze. In March 2014, Lellouch, de Bergh et al. published findings regarding methane mixing ratios in Pluto's atmosphere consistent with a Plutonian diameter greater than 2,360 km, with a ""best guess"" of 2,368 km.","[0.03922552615404129, -0.033627159893512726, 0.015493086539208889, -0.012807169929146767, 0.012507691979408264, -0.0973634421825409, 0.0005079798283986747, 0.11596111953258514, 0.014250881038606167, 0.02483362704515457, 0.015940308570861816, -0.0764157772064209, -0.030199596658349037, -0.026843713596463203, 0.007697592489421368, -0.058565404266119, 0.06635112315416336, 0.029589200392365456, -0.010755988769233227, 0.024252714589238167, -0.01144515722990036, 0.04329601675271988, 0.012254779227077961, 0.03350028395652771, -0.05115079507231712, -0.04567979276180267, -0.0017308908281847835, -0.07596614956855774, -0.05795517563819885, -0.03901198133826256, -0.040408674627542496, -0.045384157449007034, 0.07131803780794144, -0.01031896285712719, 0.06522748619318008, 0.04018634185194969, 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633,"de Bergh et al . published findings regarding methane mixing ratios in Pluto 's atmosphere consistent with a Plutonian diameter greater than 2,360 km , with a `` best guess '' of 2,368 km .On July 13, 2015, images from NASA's New Horizons mission Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI), along with data from the other instruments, determined Pluto's diameter to be 2,370 km (1,473 mi), which was later revised to be 2,372 km (1,474 mi) on July 24, and later to 2374±8 km. Using radio occultation data from the New Horizons Radio Science Experiment (REX), the diameter was found to be 2,376.6±3.2 km. Atmosphere
Pluto has a tenuous atmosphere consisting of nitrogen (N2), methane (CH4), and carbon monoxide (CO), which are in equilibrium with their ices on Pluto's surface. According to the measurements by New Horizons, the surface pressure is about 1 Pa (10 μbar), roughly one million to 100,000 times less than Earth's atmospheric pressure. It was initially thought that, as Pluto moves away from the Sun, its atmosphere should gradually freeze onto the surface; studies of New Horizons data and ground-based occultations show that Pluto's atmospheric density increases, and that it likely remains gaseous throughout Pluto's orbit. New Horizons observations showed that atmospheric escape of nitrogen to be 10,000 times less than expected. Alan Stern has contended that even a small increase in Pluto's surface temperature can lead to exponential increases in Pluto's atmospheric density; from 18 hPa to as much as 280 hPa (three times that of Mars to a quarter that of the Earth). At such densities, nitrogen could flow across the surface as liquid. Just like sweat cools the body as it evaporates from the skin, the sublimation of Pluto's atmosphere cools its surface.","[0.008103649131953716, 0.0017308794194832444, 0.0477890782058239, -0.03665436804294586, 0.10488597303628922, -0.08953043073415756, 0.023726359009742737, 0.07819648087024689, 0.022793997079133987, 0.01589377224445343, -0.05193017050623894, -0.07473885267972946, 0.0025490408297628164, -0.0731106847524643, 0.01685323752462864, -0.027776101604104042, 0.004250301048159599, -0.07991790026426315, -1.2195189810881857e-05, 0.05101082846522331, -0.03903793916106224, 0.08664318919181824, 0.04448223486542702, 0.023481495678424835, -0.027401817962527275, 0.013333671726286411, -0.041090045124292374, -0.09464172273874283, 0.00818179827183485, -0.024155549705028534, -0.07737518846988678, -0.0022076056338846684, 0.0442829467356205, 0.014698805287480354, 0.040312960743904114, 4.331070158514194e-05, 0.12391579151153564, 0.04580031335353851, -0.054940883070230484, 0.052179574966430664, 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634,"such densities , nitrogen could flow across the surface as liquid . Just like sweat cools the body as it evaporates from the skin , the sublimation of Pluto 's atmosphere cools its surface .Pluto has no or almost no troposphere; observations by New Horizons suggest only a thin tropospheric boundary layer. Its thickness in the place of measurement was 4 km, and the temperature was 37±3 K. The layer is not continuous. In July 2019, an occultation by Pluto showed that its atmospheric pressure, against expectations, had fallen by 20% since 2016. In 2021, astronomers at the Southwest Research Institute confirmed the result using data from an occultation in 2018, which showed that light was appearing less gradually from behind Pluto's disc, indicating a thinning atmosphere. The presence of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas, in Pluto's atmosphere creates a temperature inversion, with the average temperature of its atmosphere tens of degrees warmer than its surface, though observations by New Horizons have revealed Pluto's upper atmosphere to be far colder than expected (70 K, as opposed to about 100 K). Pluto's atmosphere is divided into roughly 20 regularly spaced haze layers up to 150 km high, thought to be the result of pressure waves created by airflow across Pluto's mountains. Natural satellites
Pluto has five known natural satellites. The largest and closest to Pluto is Charon. First identified in 1978 by astronomer James Christy, Charon is the only moon of Pluto that may be in hydrostatic equilibrium. Charon's mass is sufficient to cause the barycenter of the Pluto–Charon system to be outside Pluto. Beyond Charon there are four much smaller circumbinary moons. In order of distance from Pluto they are Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra. Nix and Hydra were both discovered in 2005, Kerberos was discovered in 2011, and Styx was discovered in 2012.","[0.004671544302254915, -0.008639153093099594, 0.09465771168470383, 0.04381060227751732, 0.11907948553562164, -0.11035537719726562, 0.041738759726285934, 0.01626492105424404, 0.05384638160467148, 0.07407114654779434, -0.0029714370612055063, -0.057654235512018204, 0.01857886090874672, -0.07122785598039627, 0.056481558829545975, -0.02703331969678402, 0.03865483030676842, -0.0808737650513649, 0.02541879564523697, 0.0018388043390586972, -0.04269269108772278, 0.07279013097286224, -0.05303383246064186, 0.0010943167144432664, -0.032518547028303146, -0.012637531384825706, -0.023917164653539658, -0.09220995008945465, -0.03467660769820213, 0.045998722314834595, -0.05958148464560509, 0.015492871403694153, -0.019582638517022133, 0.038803551346063614, 0.048064976930618286, 0.04856216534972191, 0.12622255086898804, 0.013896586373448372, -0.09973654896020889, 0.00489556510001421, 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635,"from Pluto they are Styx , Nix , Kerberos , and Hydra . Nix and Hydra were both discovered in 2005 , Kerberos was discovered in 2011 , and Styx was discovered in 2012 .The satellites' orbits are circular (eccentricity < 0.006) and coplanar with Pluto's equator (inclination < 1°), and therefore tilted approximately 120° relative to Pluto's orbit. The Plutonian system is highly compact: the five known satellites orbit within the inner 3% of the region where prograde orbits would be stable. The orbital periods of all Pluto's moons are linked in a system of orbital resonances and near-resonances. When precession is accounted for, the orbital periods of Styx, Nix, and Hydra are in an exact 18:22:33 ratio. There is a sequence of approximate ratios, 3:4:5:6, between the periods of Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra with that of Charon; the ratios become closer to being exact the further out the moons are. The Pluto–Charon system is one of the few in the Solar System whose barycenter lies outside the primary body; the Patroclus–Menoetius system is a smaller example, and the Sun–Jupiter system is the only larger one. The similarity in size of Charon and Pluto has prompted some astronomers to call it a double dwarf planet. The system is also unusual among planetary systems in that each is tidally locked to the other, which means that Pluto and Charon always have the same hemisphere facing each other — a property shared by only one other known system, Eris and Dysnomia. From any position on either body, the other is always at the same position in the sky, or always obscured. This also means that the rotation period of each is equal to the time it takes the entire system to rotate around its barycenter.","[0.0073005324229598045, -0.025807255879044533, -0.02374655194580555, -0.07620205730199814, -0.03973322734236717, -0.08081358671188354, -0.037114210426807404, 0.06830669939517975, 0.10274273157119751, 0.004876935854554176, 0.018673310056328773, -0.007151813246309757, 0.011198054999113083, -0.08806342631578445, 0.015615838579833508, -0.07169190049171448, -0.005822855979204178, 0.0010719532147049904, 0.037092942744493484, 0.04374965652823448, -0.03558110445737839, -0.034811463207006454, -0.0303305983543396, 0.05816992372274399, -0.09021709114313126, 0.028107820078730583, 0.02906304970383644, -0.09604544192552567, -0.038902826607227325, -0.04305748641490936, -0.03358084335923195, 0.02103426679968834, -0.05258488655090332, -0.057153671979904175, 0.00930483266711235, 0.046822842210531235, 0.05215702950954437, -0.006615213584154844, -0.04021795839071274, 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636,"same position in the sky , or always obscured . This also means that the rotation period of each is equal to the time it takes the entire system to rotate around its barycenter .Pluto's moons are hypothesized to have been formed by a collision between Pluto and a similar-sized body, early in the history of the Solar System. The collision released material that consolidated into the moons around Pluto. Quasi-satellite
In 2012, it was calculated that 15810 Arawn could be a quasi-satellite of Pluto, a specific type of co-orbital configuration. According to the calculations, the object would be a quasi-satellite of Pluto for about 350,000 years out of every two-million-year period. Measurements made by the New Horizons spacecraft in 2015 made it possible to calculate the orbit of Arawn more accurately, and confirmed the earlier ones. However, it is not agreed upon among astronomers whether Arawn should be classified as a quasi-satellite of Pluto based on its orbital dynamics, since its orbit is primarily controlled by Neptune with only occasional perturbations by Pluto. Origin
Pluto's origin and identity had long puzzled astronomers. One early hypothesis was that Pluto was an escaped moon of Neptune knocked out of orbit by Neptune's largest moon, Triton. This idea was eventually rejected after dynamical studies showed it to be impossible because Pluto never approaches Neptune in its orbit. Pluto's true place in the Solar System began to reveal itself only in 1992, when astronomers began to find small icy objects beyond Neptune that were similar to Pluto not only in orbit but also in size and composition. This trans-Neptunian population is thought to be the source of many short-period comets. Pluto is the largest member of the Kuiper belt, a stable belt of objects located between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun.","[-0.014671617187559605, -0.05280029773712158, 0.01636497862637043, -0.024536635726690292, 0.003929050639271736, -0.13455860316753387, -0.060108352452516556, 0.011208808049559593, 0.0455743744969368, 0.05640580132603645, -0.007686031982302666, 0.0381452739238739, -0.03589055314660072, -0.11148935556411743, 0.025068428367376328, -0.10533236712217331, 0.011259188875555992, -0.010904691182076931, 0.060312289744615555, 0.020433925092220306, -0.017013709992170334, -0.0513833686709404, -0.00086958147585392, -0.017833217978477478, -0.018526367843151093, 0.010405709967017174, 0.01010845322161913, -0.04226314276456833, 0.01943349651992321, -0.026580501347780228, -0.006624699104577303, 0.09380649775266647, -0.05158147215843201, -0.039122212678194046, -0.06241698935627937, 0.04508700221776962, 0.05582034960389137, 0.005931194871664047, -0.06044941768050194, -0.021253962069749832, 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637,"thought to be the source of many short-period comets . Pluto is the largest member of the Kuiper belt , a stable belt of objects located between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun .As of 2011, surveys of the Kuiper belt to magnitude 21 were nearly complete and any remaining Pluto-sized objects are expected to be beyond 100 AU from the Sun. Like other Kuiper-belt objects (KBOs), Pluto shares features with comets; for example, the solar wind is gradually blowing Pluto's surface into space. It has been claimed that if Pluto were placed as near to the Sun as Earth, it would develop a tail, as comets do. This claim has been disputed with the argument that Pluto's escape velocity is too high for this to happen. It has been proposed that Pluto may have formed as a result of the agglomeration of numerous comets and Kuiper-belt objects. Though Pluto is the largest Kuiper belt object discovered, Neptune's moon Triton, which is larger than Pluto, is similar to it both geologically and atmospherically, and is thought to be a captured Kuiper belt object. Eris (see above) is about the same size as Pluto (though more massive) but is not strictly considered a member of the Kuiper belt population. Rather, it is considered a member of a linked population called the scattered disc. Like other members of the Kuiper belt, Pluto is thought to be a residual planetesimal; a component of the original protoplanetary disc around the Sun that failed to fully coalesce into a full-fledged planet. Most astronomers agree that Pluto owes its position to a sudden migration undergone by Neptune early in the Solar System's formation. As Neptune migrated outward, it approached the objects in the proto-Kuiper belt, setting one in orbit around itself (Triton), locking others into resonances, and knocking others into chaotic orbits.","[0.015688790008425713, 0.0006324435817077756, 0.04959658905863762, -0.04795609787106514, 0.030224082991480827, -0.09035705775022507, 0.0039064884185791016, 0.032769110053777695, 0.03884119540452957, 0.04594235494732857, 0.009871921502053738, -0.06949185580015182, -0.01741071045398712, -0.07000596076250076, 0.06884608417749405, -0.029208755120635033, 0.0718870684504509, 0.026944559067487717, -0.01828274130821228, 0.03410327062010765, -0.03281954303383827, 0.021489137783646584, 0.006028123665601015, 0.04664192721247673, -0.06693245470523834, 0.004803576041013002, -0.022388434037566185, -0.10084857791662216, -0.024141818284988403, -0.06879520416259766, -0.07997564971446991, -0.06324107199907303, 0.012506656348705292, 0.02535652369260788, 0.06459259986877441, 0.03913689777255058, 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638,"Neptune migrated outward , it approached the objects in the proto-Kuiper belt , setting one in orbit around itself ( Triton ) , locking others into resonances , and knocking others into chaotic orbits .The objects in the scattered disc, a dynamically unstable region overlapping the Kuiper belt, are thought to have been placed in their positions by interactions with Neptune's migrating resonances. A 2004 computer model by Alessandro Morbidelli of the Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur in Nice suggested that the migration of Neptune into the Kuiper belt may have been triggered by the formation of a 1:2 resonance between Jupiter and Saturn, which created a gravitational push that propelled both Uranus and Neptune into higher orbits and caused them to switch places, ultimately doubling Neptune's distance from the Sun. The resultant expulsion of objects from the proto-Kuiper belt could also explain the Late Heavy Bombardment 600 million years after the Solar System's formation and the origin of the Jupiter trojans. It is possible that Pluto had a near-circular orbit about 33 AU from the Sun before Neptune's migration perturbed it into a resonant capture. The Nice model requires that there were about a thousand Pluto-sized bodies in the original planetesimal disk, which included Triton and Eris. Observation and exploration
Observation
Pluto's distance from Earth makes its in-depth study and exploration difficult. Pluto's visual apparent magnitude averages 15.1, brightening to 13.65 at perihelion. To see it, a telescope is required; around 30 cm (12 in) aperture being desirable. It looks star-like and without a visible disk even in large telescopes, because its angular diameter is maximum 0.11"". The earliest maps of Pluto, made in the late 1980s, were brightness maps created from close observations of eclipses by its largest moon, Charon. Observations were made of the change in the total average brightness of the Pluto–Charon system during the eclipses.","[0.005263425875455141, -0.030965011566877365, 0.07268082350492477, -0.022353781387209892, 0.0032757308799773455, -0.11806627362966537, -0.0352742075920105, 0.03489895537495613, 0.07355677336454391, 0.04572803154587746, -0.00338683370500803, -0.04371000826358795, 0.0631781741976738, -0.08140301704406738, 0.0017195075051859021, -0.006781387608498335, 0.04581111669540405, -0.04375435411930084, -0.014158602803945541, 0.01891310140490532, -0.04300405830144882, 0.017305513843894005, -0.011141936294734478, 0.014349529519677162, -0.08396412432193756, -0.013091041706502438, -0.03283807635307312, -0.05477980896830559, 0.009507597424089909, -0.026732290163636208, -0.03479484096169472, -0.047645747661590576, -0.11490923911333084, 0.002483559539541602, -0.003124757669866085, 0.03626104071736336, 0.0029605466406792402, 0.050784166902303696, -0.02802937477827072, 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639,"were brightness maps created from close observations of eclipses by its largest moon , Charon . Observations were made of the change in the total average brightness of the Pluto–Charon system during the eclipses .For example, eclipsing a bright spot on Pluto makes a bigger total brightness change than eclipsing a dark spot. Computer processing of many such observations can be used to create a brightness map. This method can also track changes in brightness over time. Better maps were produced from images taken by the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), which offered higher resolution, and showed considerably more detail, resolving variations several hundred kilometers across, including polar regions and large bright spots. These maps were produced by complex computer processing, which finds the best-fit projected maps for the few pixels of the Hubble images. These remained the most detailed maps of Pluto until the flyby of New Horizons in July 2015, because the two cameras on the HST used for these maps were no longer in service. Exploration
The New Horizons spacecraft, which flew by Pluto in July 2015, is the first and so far only attempt to explore Pluto directly. Launched in 2006, it captured its first (distant) images of Pluto in late September 2006 during a test of the Long Range Reconnaissance Imager. The images, taken from a distance of approximately 4.2 billion kilometers, confirmed the spacecraft's ability to track distant targets, critical for maneuvering toward Pluto and other Kuiper belt objects. In early 2007 the craft made use of a gravity assist from Jupiter. New Horizons made its closest approach to Pluto on July 14, 2015, after a 3,462-day journey across the Solar System. Scientific observations of Pluto began five months before the closest approach and continued for at least a month after the encounter.","[0.05177320912480354, -0.040234167128801346, 0.029227619990706444, 0.00603729160502553, 0.11090020835399628, -0.09025592356920242, -0.0694206953048706, 0.054036542773246765, 0.019587060436606407, 0.02258189022541046, 0.04517064616084099, 0.042982637882232666, -0.01101593766361475, -0.07538639008998871, -0.02207065373659134, -0.04202483221888542, 0.038044460117816925, -0.020344579592347145, 0.012348266318440437, -0.07789772748947144, -0.06586148589849472, -0.044268157333135605, -0.029933525249361992, 0.0044596134684979916, 0.03418838605284691, 0.016303973272442818, 0.02645181491971016, -0.07329149544239044, -0.04041988402605057, -0.02451249584555626, -0.012907247990369797, -0.020659765228629112, 0.025002259761095047, 0.021465301513671875, -0.0006476534763351083, 0.07998380810022354, 0.07300381362438202, -0.0294734388589859, -0.020895803347229958, 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640,"14 , 2015 , after a 3,462-day journey across the Solar System . Scientific observations of Pluto began five months before the closest approach and continued for at least a month after the encounter .Observations were conducted using a remote sensing package that included imaging instruments and a radio science investigation tool, as well as spectroscopic and other experiments. The scientific goals of New Horizons were to characterize the global geology and morphology of Pluto and its moon Charon, map their surface composition, and analyze Pluto's neutral atmosphere and its escape rate. On October 25, 2016, at 05:48 pm ET, the last bit of data (of a total of 50 billion bits of data; or 6.25 gigabytes) was received from New Horizons from its close encounter with Pluto. Since the New Horizons flyby, scientists have advocated for an orbiter mission that would return to Pluto to fulfill new science objectives. They include mapping the surface at 9.1 m (30 ft) per pixel, observations of Pluto's smaller satellites, observations of how Pluto changes as it rotates on its axis, investigations of a possible subsurface ocean, and topographic mapping of Pluto's regions that are covered in long-term darkness due to its axial tilt. The last objective could be accomplished using laser pulses to generate a complete topographic map of Pluto. New Horizons principal investigator Alan Stern has advocated for a Cassini-style orbiter that would launch around 2030 (the 100th anniversary of Pluto's discovery) and use Charon's gravity to adjust its orbit as needed to fulfill science objectives after arriving at the Pluto system. The orbiter could then use Charon's gravity to leave the Pluto system and study more KBOs after all Pluto science objectives are completed. A conceptual study funded by the NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts (NIAC) program describes a fusion-enabled Pluto orbiter and lander based on the Princeton field-reversed configuration reactor.","[0.04670048877596855, -0.03644692897796631, 0.07257979363203049, -0.008839758113026619, 0.08869635313749313, -0.09500710666179657, -0.06954552978277206, 0.01691913977265358, 0.014992979355156422, 0.09219446778297424, 0.03653060272336006, -0.016847142949700356, -0.033746637403964996, -0.06204037368297577, -0.02224273793399334, -0.004080767743289471, 0.01940908282995224, -0.0380285419523716, -0.0023220793809741735, 0.00582820363342762, -0.08747656643390656, 0.026263171806931496, -0.004969211295247078, -0.008953086100518703, -0.02712935209274292, 0.052146848291158676, 0.0022754580713808537, -0.14892590045928955, -0.06630091369152069, -0.020988481119275093, -0.011624295264482498, 0.06484903395175934, 0.015891196206212044, -0.016345810145139694, 0.04992879927158356, 0.10601890087127686, 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641,"Pluto science objectives are completed . A conceptual study funded by the NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts ( NIAC ) program describes a fusion-enabled Pluto orbiter and lander based on the Princeton field-reversed configuration reactor .New Horizons imaged all of Pluto's northern hemisphere, and the equatorial regions down to about 30° South. Higher southern latitudes have only been observed, at very low resolution, from Earth. Images from the Hubble Space Telescope in 1996 cover 85% of Pluto and show large albedo features down to about 75° South. This is enough to show the extent of the temperate-zone maculae. Later images had slightly better resolution, due to minor improvements in Hubble instrumentation. The equatorial region of the sub-Charon hemisphere of Pluto has only been imaged at low resolution, as New Horizons made its closest approach to the anti-Charon hemisphere. Some albedo variations in the higher southern latitudes could be detected by New Horizons using Charon-shine (light reflected off Charon). The south polar region seems to be darker than the north polar region, but there is a high-albedo region in the southern hemisphere that may be a regional nitrogen or methane ice deposit. See also
Notes
References
Further reading


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642," Halley's Comet is the only known short-period comet that is consistently visible to the naked eye from Earth, appearing every 72–80 years, though with the majority of recorded apparitions (25 of 30) occurring after 75–77 years. It last appeared in the inner parts of the Solar System in 1986 and will next appear in mid-2061. Officially designated 1P/Halley, it is also commonly called Comet Halley, or sometimes simply Halley. Halley's periodic returns to the inner Solar System have been observed and recorded by astronomers around the world since at least 240 BC, but it was not until 1705 that the English astronomer Edmond Halley understood that these appearances were re-appearances of the same comet. As a result of this discovery, the comet is named after Halley. In March 1986, during its latest visit to the inner Solar System, Halley's Comet became the first comet to be observed in detail by a spacecraft, ESA's Giotto mission, providing the first observational data on the structure of a comet nucleus and the mechanism of coma and tail formation. These observations supported several longstanding hypotheses about comet construction, particularly Fred Whipple's ""dirty snowball"" model, which correctly predicted that Halley would be composed of a mixture of volatile ices—such as water, carbon dioxide, ammonia—and dust. The missions also provided data that substantially reformed and reconfigured these ideas; for instance, it is now understood that the surface of Halley is largely composed of dusty, non-volatile materials, and that only a small portion of it is icy. It was also visited by the two spacecrafts of the Vega program, Vega 1 & 2, on March 6 and March 9, respectively. They went as close as 8,890 km (5,520 mi), and 8,030 km (4,990 mi), providing data on Halley's dimensions, shape, temperature, and surface properties.","[-0.08211007714271545, -0.03850366175174713, 0.05929090082645416, 0.04162668436765671, 0.0009944670600816607, -0.019396629184484482, -0.05945573374629021, 0.09246470034122467, -0.005517212208360434, 0.03777451068162918, -0.0068374983966350555, -0.011130595579743385, 0.036980755627155304, -0.030295804142951965, 0.05349225178360939, -0.06737203896045685, -0.00915513839572668, -0.061725322157144547, 0.0031023912597447634, -0.05016135424375534, 0.0035574075300246477, 0.03856375068426132, -0.09822315722703934, 0.007781359367072582, 0.0500996895134449, 0.054438043385744095, 0.017353596165776253, -0.04015078395605087, -0.02670462615787983, -0.07092612981796265, 0.012587638571858406, -0.003136142622679472, 0.015773311257362366, -0.012233763933181763, 0.08260571211576462, 0.04684082418680191, 0.04940392076969147, -0.0857987329363823, 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643,"They went as close as 8,890 km ( 5,520 mi ) , and 8,030 km ( 4,990 mi ) , providing data on Halley 's dimensions , shape , temperature , and surface properties .Pronunciation
Comet Halley is usually pronounced , rhyming with valley, or sometimes , rhyming with daily. As to the surname Halley, Colin Ronan, one of Edmond Halley's biographers, preferred , rhyming with crawly. Spellings of Halley's name during his lifetime included Hailey, Haley, Hayley, Halley, Haly, Hawley, and Hawly, so its contemporary pronunciation is uncertain, but the version rhyming with valley seems to be preferred by modern bearers of the surname. Computation of orbit
Halley was the first comet to be recognised as periodic. Until the Renaissance, the philosophical consensus on the nature of comets, promoted by Aristotle, was that they were disturbances in Earth's atmosphere. This idea was disproven in 1577 by Tycho Brahe, who used parallax measurements to show that comets must lie beyond the Moon. Many were still unconvinced that comets orbited the Sun, and assumed instead that they must follow straight paths through the Solar System. In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton published his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, in which he outlined his laws of gravity and motion. His work on comets was decidedly incomplete. Although he had suspected that two comets that had appeared in succession in 1680 and 1681 were the same comet before and after passing behind the Sun (he was later found to be correct; see Newton's Comet), he was initially unable to completely reconcile comets into his model. Ultimately, it was Newton's friend, editor and publisher, Edmond Halley, who, in his 1705 Synopsis of the Astronomy of Comets, used Newton's new laws to calculate the gravitational effects of Jupiter and Saturn on cometary orbits.","[-0.019996000453829765, -0.05593791604042053, 0.00934592168778181, 0.014982745051383972, -0.09706800431013107, -0.0001962655660463497, 0.02338467165827751, 0.05178238824009895, -0.07505347579717636, -0.005924778524786234, -0.008435948751866817, -0.029642995446920395, 0.09509029984474182, -0.031469497829675674, 0.00734269293025136, 0.004797409288585186, -0.023995686322450638, 0.025027630850672722, -0.020392851904034615, -0.09707515686750412, -0.022439243271946907, 0.08182428032159805, -0.022400526329874992, 0.033709414303302765, 0.1249399483203888, 0.027070369571447372, -0.03625530004501343, -0.012124240398406982, -0.061696723103523254, -0.0047820452600717545, 0.023266490548849106, 0.03091353550553322, 0.046345196664333344, -0.10495085269212723, 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644,"publisher , Edmond Halley , who , in his 1705 Synopsis of the Astronomy of Comets , used Newton 's new laws to calculate the gravitational effects of Jupiter and Saturn on cometary orbits .Having compiled a list of 24 comet observations, he calculated that the orbital elements of a second comet that had appeared in 1682 were nearly the same as those of two comets that had appeared in 1531 (observed by Petrus Apianus) and 1607 (observed by Johannes Kepler). Halley thus concluded that all three comets were the same object returning about every 76 years, a period that has since been found to vary between 72 and 80 years. After a rough estimate of the perturbations the comet would sustain from the gravitational attraction of the planets, he predicted its return for 1758. He personally observed the comet around perihelion in September 1682, but died in 1742 before he could observe its predicted return. Halley's prediction of the comet's return proved to be correct, although it was not seen until 25 December 1758, by Johann Georg Palitzsch, a German farmer and amateur astronomer. Other observers from throughout Europe and its colonies sent confirmations to Paris after the comet brightened early the following year. In the Americas, John Winthrop lectured at Harvard University to explain the implications of the comet's reappearance for Newtonian mechanics and natural theology. Another independent recognition that the comet had returned was made by the Jamaican astronomer Francis Williams, but his observations did not reach Europe. A unique portrait commissioned by Williams demonstrates the impact of the comet's return on period astronomers. Williams' hand rests on page 521 of the third edition of Newton's Principia with procedures to predict comet sightings.","[-0.04954686388373375, -0.049327049404382706, 0.052094366401433945, 0.030808648094534874, -0.009179724380373955, -0.04189665615558624, -0.07983974367380142, 0.08471094071865082, -0.05835765227675438, 0.057506922632455826, -0.04365239664912224, 0.02962324395775795, 0.03616920858621597, -0.04387935623526573, -0.024890687316656113, -0.015342500060796738, -0.02637462690472603, -0.01663355343043804, 0.048363424837589264, -0.025263020768761635, -0.027558065950870514, -0.01669241674244404, -0.03567783534526825, -0.003068329533562064, 0.0832466185092926, 0.06846525520086288, -0.051647499203681946, -0.08275206387042999, -0.035338617861270905, -0.050052106380462646, -0.003116167848929763, -0.03819479048252106, -0.00029308872763067484, -0.04321925714612007, -0.007716367021203041, -0.0008313972502946854, 0.049108896404504776, -0.05891801416873932, -0.00658880639821291, 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645,"Williams demonstrates the impact of the comet 's return on period astronomers . Williams ' hand rests on page 521 of the third edition of Newton 's Principia with procedures to predict comet sightings .The white smudge in the sky is probably a depiction of Halley's comet relative to the constellations in March 1759, and the chord hanging above the book likely represents the comet's orbit. In 2024, using X-ray imaging, the painting was shown to depict the field of stars in which the comet would have been visible in 1759. Williams likely commissioned the portrait to commemorate his observations. The comet did not pass through its perihelion until 13 March 1759, the attraction of Jupiter and Saturn having caused a delay of 618 days. This effect was computed before its return (with a one-month error to 13 April) by a team of three French mathematicians, Alexis Clairaut, Joseph Lalande, and Nicole-Reine Lepaute. The confirmation of the comet's return was the first time anything other than planets had been shown to orbit the Sun. It was also one of the earliest successful tests of Newtonian physics, and a clear demonstration of its explanatory power. The comet was first named in Halley's honour by French astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille in 1759. Some scholars have proposed that first-century Mesopotamian astronomers already had recognised Halley's Comet as periodic. This theory notes a passage in the Babylonian Talmud, tractate Horayot that refers to ""a star which appears once in seventy years that makes the captains of the ships err"". It has also been suggested that the passage may have referred to the variable star Mira, whose brightness oscillates with a period of sixty years.","[-0.07776504755020142, -0.0023035306949168444, 0.07256380468606949, 0.0672193318605423, 0.057147081941366196, -0.031500160694122314, -0.06702661514282227, 0.06940963119268417, -0.0028410220984369516, 0.044132355600595474, -0.07153977453708649, 0.052686840295791626, 0.032410964369773865, -0.06138857454061508, -0.0825781598687172, -0.0052065374329686165, -0.02584865130484104, -0.028804557397961617, -0.013091372326016426, 0.014190123416483402, -0.022712480276823044, -0.01566549949347973, -0.05691571906208992, 0.01440589502453804, 0.1120247095823288, 0.04990377649664879, -0.027865570038557053, -0.01848631538450718, 0.020581839606165886, 0.0033854797948151827, 0.051413219422101974, 0.012164830230176449, -0.012957320548593998, 0.008136921562254429, -0.03451137617230415, 0.011504731141030788, 0.08347645401954651, -0.01460828073322773, 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646,"the captains of the ships err '' . It has also been suggested that the passage may have referred to the variable star Mira , whose brightness oscillates with a period of sixty years .Researchers in 1981 attempting to calculate the past orbits of Halley by numerical integration starting from accurate observations in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries could not produce accurate results further back than 837 owing to a close approach to Earth in that year. It was necessary to use ancient Chinese comet observations to constrain their calculations. Orbit and origin
Halley's orbital period has varied between 74 and 80 years since 240 BC. Its orbit around the Sun is highly elliptical, with an orbital eccentricity of 0.967 (with 0 being a circle and 1 being a parabolic trajectory). The perihelion, the point in the comet's orbit when it is nearest the Sun, is 0.59 au (88 million km). This is between the orbits of Mercury and Venus. Its aphelion, or farthest distance from the Sun, is 35 au (5.2 billion km), roughly the orbital distance of Pluto. Unlike the overwhelming majority of objects in the Solar System, Halley's orbit is retrograde; it orbits the Sun in the opposite direction to the planets, or, clockwise from above the Sun's north pole. The orbit is inclined by 18° to the ecliptic, with much of it lying south of the ecliptic. This is usually represented as 162°, to account for Halley's retrograde orbit. The 1910 passage was at a relative velocity of 70.56 km/s (157,800 mph). Because its orbit comes close to Earth's in two places, Halley is associated with two meteor showers: the Eta Aquariids in early May, and the Orionids in late October. Halley is classified as a periodic or short-period comet: one with an orbit lasting 200 years or less.","[0.023606672883033752, 0.021501122042536736, 0.04018143564462662, -0.002899392507970333, -0.05586029589176178, -0.02486737072467804, -0.07151354849338531, 0.06913013756275177, 0.0005661497125402093, 0.015302199870347977, 0.05722067505121231, -0.017080513760447502, 0.05294472351670265, -0.03597024828195572, 0.04172368720173836, -0.03404730185866356, 0.030371589586138725, -0.06501179188489914, 0.034556660801172256, -0.009716094471514225, 0.013675660826265812, 0.025199368596076965, -0.013210060074925423, 0.049813706427812576, 0.04378044605255127, -0.02591250091791153, 0.03628334775567055, -0.043537747114896774, -0.050503622740507126, -0.05684586241841316, -0.021402165293693542, -0.009833551943302155, 0.02403067611157894, -0.013548234477639198, 0.015332348644733429, 0.028487510979175568, 0.07762309163808823, -0.09339705854654312, 0.006869099102914333, -0.04260745644569397, 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647,": the Eta Aquariids in early May , and the Orionids in late October . Halley is classified as a periodic or short-period comet : one with an orbit lasting 200 years or less .This contrasts it with long-period comets, whose orbits last for thousands of years. Periodic comets have an average inclination to the ecliptic of only ten degrees, and an orbital period of just 6.5 years, so Halley's orbit is atypical. Most short-period comets (those with orbital periods shorter than 20 years and inclinations of 30 degrees or less) are called Jupiter-family comets. Those resembling Halley, with orbital periods of between 20 and 200 years and inclinations extending from zero to more than 90 degrees, are called Halley-type comets. As of 2024, 105 Halley-type comets have been observed, compared with 816 identified Jupiter-family comets. The orbits of the Halley-type comets suggest that they were originally long-period comets whose orbits were perturbed by the gravity of the giant planets and directed into the inner Solar System. If Halley was once a long-period comet, it is likely to have originated in the Oort cloud, a sphere of cometary bodies around 20,000–50,000 au from the Sun. Conversely the Jupiter-family comets are generally believed to originate in the Kuiper belt, a flat disc of icy debris between 30 au (Neptune's orbit) and 50 au from the Sun (in the scattered disc). Another point of origin for the Halley-type comets was proposed in 2008, when a trans-Neptunian object with a retrograde orbit similar to Halley's was discovered, 2008 KV42, whose orbit takes it from just outside that of Uranus to twice the distance of Pluto. It may be a member of a new population of small Solar System bodies that serves as the source of Halley-type comets.","[-0.05010969191789627, -0.017421578988432884, 0.05815422534942627, -0.007238282356411219, 0.002140291966497898, -0.028141841292381287, -0.08281451463699341, 0.03798280656337738, -0.00032500011730007827, -0.010515608824789524, 0.005065085366368294, -0.017710654065012932, 0.012549194507300854, -0.06817276030778885, 0.08865860849618912, -0.03633001074194908, -0.03531165421009064, -0.08048877120018005, 0.024650827050209045, 0.004672214854508638, 0.03292166814208031, 0.05913875624537468, -0.08430686593055725, 0.03833254799246788, -0.030114691704511642, 0.02227364294230938, 0.005987371783703566, -0.043829161673784256, -0.018751133233308792, -0.04187288135290146, 0.02719486504793167, 0.07979024201631546, 0.02875642292201519, -0.02720370702445507, 0.023785300552845, 0.01953674852848053, 0.009529486298561096, -0.043353527784347534, 0.018089534714818, -0.030247937887907028, 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648,"just outside that of Uranus to twice the distance of Pluto . It may be a member of a new population of small Solar System bodies that serves as the source of Halley-type comets .Halley has probably been in its current orbit for 16,000–200,000 years, although it is not possible to numerically integrate its orbit for more than a few tens of apparitions, and close approaches before 837 AD can only be verified from recorded observations. The non-gravitational effects can be crucial; as Halley approaches the Sun, it expels jets of sublimating gas from its surface, which knock it very slightly off its orbital path. These orbital changes cause delays in its perihelion passage of four days on average. In 1989, Boris Chirikov and Vitold Vecheslavov performed an analysis of 46 apparitions of Halley's Comet taken from historical records and computer simulations, which showed that its dynamics were chaotic and unpredictable on long timescales. Halley's projected dynamical lifetime is estimated to be about 10 million years. The dynamics of its orbit can be approximately described by a two-dimensional symplectic map, known as the Kepler map, a solution to the restricted three-body problem for highly eccentric orbits. Based on records from the 1910 apparition, David Hughes calculated in 1985 that Halley's nucleus has been reduced in mass by 80 to 90% over the last 2,000 to 3,000 revolutions, and that it will most likely disappear completely after another 2,300 perihelion passages. More recent work suggests that Halley will evaporate, or split in two, within the next few tens of thousands of years, or will be ejected from the Solar System within a few hundred thousand years. Structure and composition
The Giotto and Vega missions gave planetary scientists their first view of Halley's surface and structure. The nucleus is a conglomerate of ices and dust, often referred to as a ""dirty snowball"".","[-0.03909489884972572, -0.027964714914560318, 0.025310248136520386, -0.02746998518705368, -0.007291444111615419, -0.05190210044384003, -0.10241450369358063, 0.11936222016811371, -0.024888942018151283, 0.03842640668153763, -0.0026377011090517044, -0.00250325258821249, 0.03040239028632641, -0.030906034633517265, 0.005079120397567749, -0.04195145145058632, -0.0020873025059700012, -0.03630349040031433, -0.0009611211717128754, -0.013121693395078182, -0.008222551085054874, 0.046987295150756836, -0.04071851447224617, 0.04194052144885063, 0.05260573700070381, 0.006815309636294842, 0.00827916618436575, -0.02696600742638111, -0.05469207465648651, -0.03633326292037964, 0.0005146752810105681, -0.03429898992180824, -0.041873347014188766, -0.01661468669772148, 0.08464154601097107, 0.05866897478699684, 0.07049181312322617, -0.04932473227381706, 0.00176497723441571, -0.01001123245805502, 0.009066015481948853, 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649,"Vega missions gave planetary scientists their first view of Halley 's surface and structure . The nucleus is a conglomerate of ices and dust , often referred to as a `` dirty snowball '' .Like all comets, as Halley nears the Sun, its volatile compounds (those with low boiling points, such as water, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and other ices) begin to sublimate from the surface. This causes the comet to develop a coma, or atmosphere, at distances up to 230,000 kilometres (140,000 mi) from the nucleus. Sublimation of this dirty ice releases dust particles, which travel with the gas away from the nucleus. Gas molecules in the coma absorb solar light and then re-radiate it at different wavelengths, a phenomenon known as fluorescence, whereas dust particles scatter the solar light. Both processes are responsible for making the coma visible. As a fraction of the gas molecules in the coma are ionised by the solar ultraviolet radiation, pressure from the solar wind, a stream of charged particles emitted by the Sun, pulls the coma's ions out into a long tail, which may extend more than 100 million kilometres into space. Changes in the flow of the solar wind can cause disconnection events, in which the tail completely breaks off from the nucleus. Despite the vast size of its coma, Halley's nucleus is relatively small: barely 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) long, 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) wide and perhaps 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) thick. Based on a reanalysis of images taken by the Giotto and Vega spacecraft, Lamy et al. determined an effective diameter of 11 kilometres (6.8 mi). Its shape has been variously compared to that of a peanut, a potato, or an avocado.","[-0.018039081245660782, -0.028485799208283424, 0.058249350637197495, 0.02704033814370632, 0.08665429055690765, -0.042641300708055496, 0.038743820041418076, 0.10019572824239731, 0.08011472225189209, 0.04184691235423088, -0.015606529079377651, -0.03208547830581665, -0.035194169729948044, -0.015572594478726387, 0.03627948835492134, -0.020818041637539864, 0.04722508788108826, -0.008658460341393948, -0.05518780276179314, 0.004377659410238266, 0.07126672565937042, 0.05355902388691902, -0.05227847769856453, 0.022202560678124428, 0.01221937034279108, 0.08293140679597855, 0.009124810807406902, -0.045604974031448364, 0.0040253205224871635, -0.02250727452337742, 0.010479625314474106, 0.0028701231349259615, -0.024938710033893585, 0.008508710190653801, 0.1258372962474823, 0.07459037005901337, 0.019758470356464386, -0.02794048935174942, -0.03010905534029007, -0.005833981093019247, -0.025366539135575294, 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650,"Lamy et al . determined an effective diameter of 11 kilometres ( 6.8 mi ) . Its shape has been variously compared to that of a peanut , a potato , or an avocado .Its mass is roughly 2.2 × 1014 kg, with an average density of about 0.55 grams per cubic centimetre (0.32 oz/cu in). The low density indicates that it is made of a large number of small pieces, held together very loosely, forming a structure known as a rubble pile. Ground-based observations of coma brightness suggested that Halley's rotation period was about 7.4 days. Images taken by the various spacecraft, along with observations of the jets and shell, suggested a period of 52 hours. Given the irregular shape of the nucleus, Halley's rotation is likely to be complex. The flyby images revealed an extremely varied topography, with hills, mountains, ridges, depressions, and at least one crater. Halley's day side (the side facing the Sun) is far more active than the night side. Spacecraft observations showed that the gases ejected from the nucleus were 80% water vapour, 17% carbon monoxide and 3–4% carbon dioxide, with traces of hydrocarbons although more recent sources give a value of 10% for carbon monoxide and also include traces of methane and ammonia. The dust particles were found to be primarily a mixture of carbon–hydrogen–oxygen–nitrogen (CHON) compounds common in the outer Solar System, and silicates, such as are found in terrestrial rocks. The dust particles ranged in size down to the limits of detection (≈0.001 μm). The ratio of deuterium to hydrogen in the water released by Halley was initially thought to be similar to that found in Earth's ocean water, suggesting that Halley-type comets may have delivered water to Earth in the distant past.","[-0.00031945129740051925, -0.00021013779041823, 0.02311168797314167, 0.007908892817795277, -0.04037220776081085, -0.03387744724750519, -0.06088557466864586, 0.09163597226142883, 0.02635378949344158, 0.006627640221267939, -0.0018049738137051463, -0.04551403969526291, 0.0005381800001487136, -0.012207801453769207, 0.008173804730176926, -0.06755441427230835, -0.011225733906030655, -0.011909030377864838, -0.03825591504573822, 0.03948985040187836, -0.00529738562181592, 0.09618128836154938, -0.05903271213173866, 0.08531346917152405, 0.043221019208431244, 0.0823526680469513, -0.011519878171384335, -0.044359128922224045, -0.010294601321220398, -0.12469840049743652, 0.008052810095250607, 0.044441476464271545, 0.011891274712979794, -0.02461167983710766, 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651,"the water released by Halley was initially thought to be similar to that found in Earth 's ocean water , suggesting that Halley-type comets may have delivered water to Earth in the distant past .Subsequent observations showed Halley's deuterium ratio to be far higher than that found in Earth's oceans, making such comets unlikely sources for Earth's water. Giotto provided the first evidence in support of Fred Whipple's ""dirty snowball"" hypothesis for comet construction; Whipple postulated that comets are icy objects warmed by the Sun as they approach the inner Solar System, causing ices on their surfaces to sublime (change directly from a solid to a gas), and jets of volatile material to burst outward, creating the coma. Giotto showed that this model was broadly correct, though with modifications. Halley's albedo, for instance, is about 0.04, meaning that it reflects only 4% of the sunlight hitting it – about what one would expect for coal. Thus, despite astronomers predicting that Halley would have an albedo of about 0.17 (roughly equivalent to bare soil), Halley's Comet is in fact pitch black. The ""dirty ices"" on the surface sublime at temperatures between 170 K (−103 °C) in sections of higher albedo to 220 K (−53 °C) at low albedo; Vega 1 found Halley's surface temperature to be in the range 300–400 K (27–127 °C). This suggested that only 10% of Halley's surface was active, and that large portions of it were coated in a layer of dark dust that retained heat. Together, these observations suggested that Halley was in fact predominantly composed of non-volatile materials, and thus more closely resembled a ""snowy dirtball"" than a ""dirty snowball"".","[-0.08261124044656754, 0.006167812272906303, 0.08025432378053665, 0.04332512617111206, 0.05157288908958435, -0.026222068816423416, 0.004451379179954529, 0.08449695259332657, -0.03127310425043106, 0.06317346543073654, -0.06734412908554077, -0.05729460343718529, 0.03577866405248642, -0.0243309885263443, 0.02638288028538227, -0.03994053602218628, 0.05282481387257576, -0.04274561256170273, -0.04452824592590332, -0.023014646023511887, 0.040453799068927765, 0.06024840846657753, -0.032354146242141724, -0.0144661795347929, 0.02283727377653122, 0.06461229175329208, -0.005797525402158499, 0.00808233767747879, -0.025734281167387962, -0.030725911259651184, -0.04899446293711662, -0.008467195555567741, -0.03558017313480377, -0.07175376266241074, 0.10154972970485687, 0.04632183536887169, 0.03128509968519211, 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652,"heat . Together , these observations suggested that Halley was in fact predominantly composed of non-volatile materials , and thus more closely resembled a `` snowy dirtball '' than a `` dirty snowball '' .History
Before 1066
Due to its intrinsic brightness, about one eighth of all comet sightings mentioned in historic records belong to Halley's Comet. The first certain appearance of Halley's Comet in the historical record is a description from 240 BC, in the Chinese chronicle Records of the Grand Historian or Shiji, which describes a comet that appeared in the east and moved north. The only surviving record of the 164 BC apparition is found on two fragmentary Babylonian tablets, which were rediscovered in August 1984 in the collection of the British Museum. The apparition of 87 BC was recorded in Babylonian tablets which state that the comet was seen ""day beyond day"" for a month. This appearance may be recalled in the representation of Tigranes the Great, an Armenian king who is depicted on coins with a crown that features, according to Vahe Gurzadyan and R. Vardanyan, ""a star with a curved tail [that] may represent the passage of Halley's Comet in 87 BC."" Gurzadyan and Vardanyan argue that ""Tigranes could have seen Halley's Comet when it passed closest to the Sun on August 6 in 87 BC"" as the comet would have been a ""most recordable event"". The apparition of 12 BC was recorded in the Book of Han by Chinese astronomers of the Han dynasty who tracked it from August through October. It passed within 0.16 au of Earth. According to the Roman historian Cassius Dio, a comet appeared suspended over Rome for several days portending the death of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa in that year.","[-0.08928035944700241, 0.06430515646934509, 0.03370581567287445, -0.02673805132508278, -0.10889413207769394, -0.026266207918524742, -0.00755504984408617, 0.11736006289720535, -0.012858142144978046, -0.011423126794397831, -0.059776149690151215, -0.0474395714700222, 0.057729315012693405, -0.027016455307602882, -0.026116594672203064, -0.08487913757562637, -0.02364041842520237, -0.032811909914016724, -0.02025497332215309, -0.06380955874919891, -0.00830850936472416, 0.02912621758878231, -0.003120330162346363, -0.003829576075077057, 0.08134962618350983, 0.08441514521837234, 0.01499734167009592, -0.06135576590895653, 0.06303105503320694, -0.038123056292533875, -0.012938429601490498, -0.012190913781523705, -0.02892317995429039, 0.009236754849553108, 0.04962762072682381, 0.019498605281114578, 0.07251200824975967, 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653,"passed within 0.16 au of Earth . According to the Roman historian Cassius Dio , a comet appeared suspended over Rome for several days portending the death of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa in that year .Halley's appearance in 12 BC, only a few years distant from the conventionally assigned date of the birth of Jesus Christ, has led some theologians and astronomers to suggest that it might explain the biblical story of the Star of Bethlehem. There are other explanations for the phenomenon, such as planetary conjunctions, and there are also records of other comets that appeared closer to the date of Jesus's birth. If Yehoshua ben Hananiah's reference in the Talmud to ""a star which arises once in seventy years and misleads the sailors"" refers to Halley's Comet, he can only have witnessed the 66 AD appearance. Another possible reference to the same apparition is also found in the writings of the Jewish historian Josephus, who described several portents visible over Jerusalem shortly before the outbreak of the First Jewish–Roman War. He reported that ""there was a star resembling a sword, which stood over the city, and a comet, that continued a whole year,"" events that were interpreted as omens of the city's destruction in 70 AD. The 141 AD apparition was recorded in Chinese chronicles, with observations of a bluish white comet on 27 March and 16, 22 and 23 April. The early Tamil bards of southern India (c. 1st - 4th century CE) also describe a certain relatable event. The 374 AD and 607 approaches each came within 0.09 au of Earth. The 451 AD apparition was said to herald the defeat of Attila the Hun at the Battle of Chalons. The 684 AD apparition was reported in Chinese records as the ""broom star"".","[-0.05575309693813324, 0.06534900516271591, 0.022077666595578194, 0.029270213097333908, -0.022464627400040627, -0.027055921033024788, 0.0012619436020031571, 0.07773956656455994, -0.04544795677065849, 0.024761179462075233, -0.02481895498931408, -0.0367448553442955, 0.022741593420505524, -0.0058018602430820465, 0.005539569538086653, -0.03407682478427887, -0.06352278590202332, -0.01460608746856451, 0.005344858858734369, 0.02051631361246109, -0.012882322072982788, -0.009022054262459278, -0.03131493180990219, 0.02729775570333004, 0.1351473182439804, 0.04123266413807869, 0.059647370129823685, -0.015516869723796844, 0.007234832737594843, 0.0056743137538433075, -0.013028349727392197, -0.0002338271151529625, -0.022249484434723854, -0.06402446329593658, 0.0395757295191288, 0.016360443085432053, 0.08531840890645981, 0.011607537977397442, 0.03615017607808113, -0.02140211872756481, 0.02779250591993332, 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654,"451 AD apparition was said to herald the defeat of Attila the Hun at the Battle of Chalons . The 684 AD apparition was reported in Chinese records as the `` broom star '' .The 760 AD apparition was recorded in the Zuqnin Chronicle's entry for iyyōr 1071 SE (May 760 AD), calling it a ""white sign"":

The year [SE] one thousand seventy one (AD 759/760). In the month of iyyōr (May) a white sign was seen in the sky,
before early twilight, in the north-east [quarter],
in the Zodiac [sign] which is called Aries, to the north from these three stars in it, which are very shining. And it resembled in its shape a broom [...]

And the sign itself remained for fifteen nights, until dawn of the feast of Pentecost. In 837 AD, Halley's Comet may have passed as close as 0.03 astronomical units (2.8 million miles; 4.5 million kilometres) from Earth, by far its closest approach. Its tail may have stretched 60 degrees across the sky. It was recorded by astronomers in China, Japan, Germany, the Byzantine Empire, and the Middle East; Emperor Louis the Pious observed this appearance and devoted himself to prayer and penance, fearing that ""by this token a change in the realm and the death of a prince are made known."" In 912 AD, Halley is recorded in the Annals of Ulster, which states ""A dark and rainy year. A comet appeared."" 1066
In 1066, the comet was seen in England and thought to be an omen: later that year Harold II of England died at the Battle of Hastings and William the Conqueror claimed the throne. The comet is represented on the Bayeux Tapestry and described in the tituli as a star.","[-0.060077764093875885, 0.05848439037799835, 0.005632595159113407, 0.06927689909934998, -0.010609608143568039, -0.08638709038496017, 0.013609989546239376, 0.04034896567463875, -0.02940196543931961, -0.03945638984441757, -0.014868306927382946, -0.009839767590165138, 0.035800933837890625, -0.026208799332380295, -0.004872126039117575, -0.005714132450520992, -0.07505892217159271, -0.06409962475299835, 0.015045665204524994, 0.013674896210432053, -0.024201247841119766, 0.06716150790452957, -0.03619622439146042, 0.044830795377492905, 0.12170194089412689, -0.033382490277290344, -0.0164664164185524, 0.0008285567746497691, -0.0005175074329599738, -0.037557315081357956, -0.02302793599665165, 0.020648567005991936, -0.005981287453323603, 0.013504469767212868, 0.044235922396183014, -0.014183681458234787, 0.13042089343070984, -0.06991616636514664, 0.03431113064289093, -0.051656633615493774, 0.09182624518871307, 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655,"Harold II of England died at the Battle of Hastings and William the Conqueror claimed the throne . The comet is represented on the Bayeux Tapestry and described in the tituli as a star .Surviving accounts from the period describe it as appearing to be four times the size of Venus, and shining with a light equal to a quarter of that of the Moon. Halley came within 0.10 au of Earth at that time. This appearance of the comet is also noted in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Eilmer of Malmesbury may have seen Halley in 989 and 1066, as recorded by William of Malmesbury:

Not long after, a comet, portending (they say) a change in governments, appeared, trailing its long flaming hair through the empty sky: concerning which there was a fine saying of a monk of our monastery called Æthelmær. Crouching in terror at the sight of the gleaming star, ""You've come, have you? "", he said. ""You've come, you source of tears to many mothers. It is long since I saw you; but as I see you now you are much more terrible, for I see you brandishing the downfall of my country."" The Irish Annals of the Four Masters recorded the comet as ""A star [that] appeared on the seventh of the Calends of May, on Tuesday after Little Easter, than whose light the brilliance or light of The Moon was not greater; and it was visible to all in this manner till the end of four nights afterwards."" Chaco Native Americans in New Mexico may have recorded the 1066 apparition in their petroglyphs. The Italo-Byzantine chronicle of Lupus the Protospatharios mentions that a ""comet-star"" appeared in the sky in the year 1067 (the chronicle is erroneous, as the event occurred in 1066, and by Robert he means William).","[0.02064952813088894, 0.04821034148335457, 0.09545338153839111, -0.04615040123462677, 0.01917690970003605, 0.015432345680892467, -0.061849385499954224, 0.04349524527788162, -0.0741618424654007, -0.03418527916073799, -0.026089107617735863, 0.0007740215514786541, 0.019465722143650055, -0.06132008507847786, 0.01884019747376442, 0.01449239905923605, -0.015270868316292763, -0.004447867628186941, -0.02940192259848118, -0.02625366486608982, 0.0271710567176342, 0.06667732447385788, -0.014445344917476177, 0.0520683228969574, 0.03602271154522896, -0.022398801520466805, 0.04976864904165268, 0.046291250735521317, 0.0002686888910830021, -0.033194705843925476, 0.009262572042644024, -0.10897218436002731, -0.03499551862478256, -0.03773670271039009, -0.0007707472541369498, 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656,"mentions that a `` comet-star '' appeared in the sky in the year 1067 ( the chronicle is erroneous , as the event occurred in 1066 , and by Robert he means William ) .The Emperor Constantine Ducas died in the month of May, and his son Michael received the Empire. And in this year there appeared a comet star, and the Norman count Robert [sic] fought a battle with Harold, King of the English, and Robert was victorious and became king over the people of the English. The Armenian chronicler, Matthew of Edessa also noted the appearance of the comet, and its coincidence with a Turkic invasion saying:

 ""At the beginning of the year 515 of the Armenian  era [March 5, 1066-March 4, 1067] a comet appeared out of the  eastern portion of the sky and traveled in a westerly direction. It appeared for one month and then disappeared. A  number of days after this, it reappeared for one month and  then disappeared. A number of days after this, it reappeared  in the western portion of the sky at night; many who saw it  said that it was the same comet which had appeared in the  eastern portion before. During these times, the infidels  marched forth and ravaged all of Armenia, consuming all the  faithful by the sword and enslavement."" 1145–1378
The 1145 apparition may have been recorded by the monk Eadwine. According to legend, Genghis Khan was inspired to turn his conquests toward Europe by the westward-seeming trajectory of the 1222 apparition. In Korea, the comet was reportedly visible during the daylight on 9 September 1222. In Vietnam, the comet was recorded visible in the south-west direction in August (September in solar calendar). The 1301 apparition was visually spectacular, and may be the first that resulted in convincing portraits of a particular comet.","[-0.08681130409240723, 0.02090764418244362, -0.008349793031811714, 0.008398585021495819, -0.030487511307001114, -0.019369550049304962, -0.032313983887434006, 0.030286218971014023, -0.02071559987962246, 0.006377396173775196, -0.06100902706384659, 0.010026780888438225, -0.028991593047976494, -0.05278439447283745, 0.022220633924007416, -0.02192113734781742, 0.005330327898263931, -0.055823054164648056, -0.0606372132897377, -0.06400024145841599, -0.061448801308870316, -0.0006308740703389049, -0.0006298779626376927, 0.05648329108953476, 0.09550835192203522, 0.06852131336927414, 0.02726789377629757, -0.003525717183947563, 0.05058551952242851, 0.003095604246482253, 0.011038885451853275, 0.0024874815717339516, -0.06509228050708771, 0.026594139635562897, 0.045429881662130356, -0.02418484166264534, 0.026131197810173035, -0.06615784764289856, 0.06395407021045685, 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657,"in the south-west direction in August ( September in solar calendar ) . The 1301 apparition was visually spectacular , and may be the first that resulted in convincing portraits of a particular comet .The Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani wrote that the comet left ""great trails of fumes behind"", and that it remained visible from September 1301 until January 1302. It was seen by the artist Giotto di Bondone, who represented the Star of Bethlehem as a fire-coloured comet in the Nativity section of his Arena Chapel cycle, completed in 1305. Giotto's depiction includes details of the coma, a sweeping tail, and the central condensation. According to the art historian Roberta Olson, it is much more accurate than other contemporary descriptions, and was not equaled in painting until the 19th century. Olson's identification of Halley's Comet in Giotto's Adoration of the Magi is what inspired the European Space Agency to name their mission to the comet Giotto, after the artist. Halley's 1378 appearance is recorded in the Annales Mediolanenses as well as in East Asian sources. 1456
In 1456, the year of Halley's next apparition, the Ottoman Empire invaded the Kingdom of Hungary, culminating in the siege of Belgrade in July of that year. In a papal bull, Pope Callixtus III ordered special prayers be said for the city's protection. In 1470, the humanist scholar Bartolomeo Platina wrote in his Lives of the Popes that,

A hairy and fiery star having then made its appearance for several days, the mathematicians declared that there would follow grievous pestilence, dearth and some great calamity. Calixtus, to avert the wrath of God, ordered supplications that if evils were impending for the human race He would turn all upon the Turks, the enemies of the Christian name.","[-0.04956104978919029, 0.045960742980241776, 0.005741951521486044, -0.0036729522980749607, 0.00015885435277596116, -0.028124738484621048, -0.0015555766876786947, 0.06382358819246292, -0.05597420781850815, -0.00908773485571146, -0.06934161484241486, -0.028989572077989578, 0.027562705799937248, 0.01707169972360134, -0.010198362171649933, -0.02749769203364849, 0.05050056055188179, -0.0031943873036652803, 0.035297952592372894, -0.010836558416485786, -0.008160223253071308, -0.007355705834925175, -0.05646902695298195, 0.041470278054475784, 0.0811057984828949, 0.07766680419445038, -0.04238016530871391, -0.04624507948756218, -0.0037799852434545755, -0.005241047125309706, -0.003176092868670821, -0.014846368692815304, -0.027712833136320114, -0.04626377299427986, 0.09647324681282043, 0.06661825627088547, 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658,"Calixtus , to avert the wrath of God , ordered supplications that if evils were impending for the human race He would turn all upon the Turks , the enemies of the Christian name .He likewise ordered, to move God by continual entreaty, that notice should be given by the bells to call the faithful at midday to aid by their prayers those engaged in battle with the Turk. Platina's account is not mentioned in official records. In the 18th century, a Frenchman further embellished the story, in anger at the Church, by claiming that the Pope had ""excommunicated"" the comet, though this story was most likely his own invention. Halley's apparition of 1456 was also witnessed in Kashmir and depicted in great detail by Śrīvara, a Sanskrit poet and biographer to the Sultans of Kashmir. He read the apparition as a cometary portent of doom foreshadowing the imminent fall of Sultan Zayn al-Abidin (AD 1418/1420–1470). After witnessing a bright light in the sky which most historians have identified as Halley's Comet, Zara Yaqob, Emperor of Ethiopia from 1434 to 1468, founded the city of Debre Berhan (tr. City of Light) and made it his capital for the remainder of his reign. 1531–1759
In the Sikh scriptures of the Guru Granth Sahib, the founder of the faith Guru Nanak makes reference to ""a long star that has risen"" at Ang 1110, and it is believed by some Sikh scholars to be a reference to Halley's appearance in 1531. Halley's periodic returns have been subject to scientific investigation since the 16th century. Petrus Apianus and Girolamo Fracastoro described the comet's visit in 1531, with the former even including graphics in his publication. Through his observations, Apianus was able to prove that a comet's tail always points away from the Sun.","[-0.026272257789969444, 0.06148436293005943, -0.04368945583701134, 0.010057277046144009, -0.10220519453287125, -0.02143789827823639, 0.04374409466981888, 0.04197140783071518, 0.07209791243076324, 0.014227919280529022, -0.03472185134887695, -0.011511255986988544, 0.07425601780414581, -0.03210996836423874, 0.013616901822388172, -0.03431804105639458, -0.04495354741811752, 0.01680648699402809, -0.04241396486759186, -0.036131519824266434, 0.0177528765052557, 0.033286966383457184, 0.07378610968589783, 0.03315209969878197, 0.017062364146113396, 0.054117828607559204, 0.040682774037122726, 0.008706800639629364, -0.012181393802165985, -0.011040451005101204, 0.04016585275530815, -0.03500225394964218, -0.09265617281198502, -0.030007770285010338, -0.03261011093854904, 0.06385897099971771, 0.09615719318389893, 0.003582752076908946, 0.027410071343183517, -0.03765072301030159, 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659,"visit in 1531 , with the former even including graphics in his publication . Through his observations , Apianus was able to prove that a comet 's tail always points away from the Sun .The three apparitions from 1531 to 1682 were noted by Edmond Halley, enabling him to predict it would return. One key breakthrough occurred when Halley talked with Newton about his ideas of the laws of motion. Newton also helped Halley get John Flamsteed's data on the 1682 apparition. By studying data on the 1531, 1607, and 1682 comets, he came to the conclusion these were the same comet, and presented his findings in 1696. One difficulty was accounting for variations in the comet's orbital period, which was over a year longer between 1531 and 1607 than it was between 1607 and 1682. Newton had theorised that such delays were caused by the gravity of other comets, but Halley found that Jupiter and Saturn would cause the appropriate delays. In the decades that followed, more refined mathematics would be worked on, notable by Paris Observatory; the work on Halley also provided a boost to Newton and Kepler's rules for celestial motions. (See also computation of orbit.) 1835
At Markree Observatory in Ireland, Edward Joshua Cooper used a Cauchoix of Paris lens telescope with an aperture of 340 millimetres (13.3 in) to sketch Halley's comet in 1835. The same apparition was sketched by German astronomer Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel. Observations of streams of vapour prompted Bessel to propose that the jet forces of evaporating material could be great enough to significantly alter a comet's orbit.","[-0.06569814682006836, -0.03274962306022644, 0.048999350517988205, -0.008377501741051674, 0.024498706683516502, -0.012354466132819653, -0.08877082914113998, 0.09510109573602676, -0.08490672707557678, 0.06411679089069366, -0.008130112662911415, 0.04729726165533066, 0.01907966658473015, -0.030444784089922905, -0.01384337805211544, -0.023840419948101044, -0.01371320802718401, 0.00895837601274252, 0.030911261215806007, -0.031472329050302505, -0.024773135781288147, 0.02659570425748825, -0.02456412836909294, 0.004155296832323074, 0.05101858824491501, 0.04136064276099205, -0.049292001873254776, -0.117610402405262, -0.04238679260015488, -0.04001619666814804, -0.01816815324127674, -0.03635960817337036, 0.01771625690162182, -0.0400674045085907, -0.009194977581501007, 0.0021985210478305817, 0.09512044489383698, 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660,"by German astronomer Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel . Observations of streams of vapour prompted Bessel to propose that the jet forces of evaporating material could be great enough to significantly alter a comet 's orbit .An interview in 1910, of someone who was a teenager at the time of the 1835 apparition had this to say:

When the comet was first seen, it appeared in the western sky, its head toward the north and tail towards the south, about horizontal and considerably above the horizon and quite a distance south of the Sun. It could be plainly seen directly after sunset every day, and was visible for a long time, perhaps a month ... They go on to describe the comet's tail as being more broad and not as long as the comet of 1843 they had also witnessed. Famous astronomers across the world made observations starting August 1835, including Struve at Dorpat observatory, and Sir John Herschel, who made of observations from the Cape of Good Hope. In the United States telescopic observations were made from Yale College. The new observations helped confirm early appearances of this comet including its 1456 and 1378 apparitions. At Yale College in Connecticut, the comet was first reported on 31 August 1835 by astronomers D. Olmstead and E. Loomis. In Canada reports were made from Newfoundland and also Quebec. Reports came in from all over by later 1835, and often reported in newspapers of this time in Canada. Several accounts of the 1835 apparition were made by observers who survived until the 1910 return, where increased interest in the comet led to them being interviewed. The time to Halley's return in 1910 would be only 74.42 years, one of the shortest known periods of its return, which is calculated to be as long as 79 years owing to the effects of the planets.","[-0.04279562458395958, 0.04809239134192467, 0.02682112157344818, 0.03015056625008583, 0.02230951003730297, -0.026837071403861046, -0.0015778655651956797, 0.12248045951128006, -0.03353108838200569, 0.07440340518951416, -0.02582339383661747, 0.032406650483608246, 0.009515892714262009, -0.005899808369576931, -0.037358518689870834, -0.012295813299715519, 0.09047114104032516, -0.03971019387245178, 0.02711915411055088, -0.03955547884106636, -0.051446616649627686, -0.003191533498466015, 0.0015575301367789507, -0.012292159721255302, 0.12860693037509918, 0.07248543947935104, -0.007565831765532494, -0.04947945475578308, -0.024705057963728905, 0.0011908081360161304, -0.04665399715304375, -0.049585260450839996, -0.038270480930805206, -0.03400855138897896, 0.07712148129940033, -0.012704472988843918, 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661,"1910 would be only 74.42 years , one of the shortest known periods of its return , which is calculated to be as long as 79 years owing to the effects of the planets .At Paris Observatory Halley's Comet 1835 apparition was observed with a Lerebours telescope of 24.4 cm (9.6 in) aperture by the astronomer François Arago. Arago recorded polarimetric observations of Halley, and suggested that the tail might be sunlight reflecting off a sparsely distributed material; he had earlier made similar observations of Comet Tralles of 1819. 1910
The 1910 approach, which came into naked-eye view around 10 April and came to perihelion on 20 April, was notable for several reasons: it was the first approach of which photographs exist, and the first for which spectroscopic data were obtained. Furthermore, the comet made a relatively close approach of 0.15 au, making it a spectacular sight. Indeed, on 19 May, Earth actually passed through the tail of the comet. One of the substances discovered in the tail by spectroscopic analysis was the toxic gas cyanogen, which led press to misquote the astronomer Camille Flammarion by stating he claimed that, when Earth passed through the tail, the gas ""would impregnate the atmosphere and possibly snuff out all life on the planet"". Despite reassurances from scientists that the gas would not inflict harm on Earth, the damage had already been done with members of the public panic buying gas masks and quack ""anti-comet pills"". The comet added to the unrest in China on the eve of the Xinhai Revolution that would end the last dynasty in 1911. As James Hutson, a missionary in Sichuan Province at the time, recorded:

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662,"Hutson , a missionary in Sichuan Province at the time , recorded : '' The people believe that it indicates calamity such as war , fire , pestilence , and a change of dynasty .In some places on certain days the doors were unopened for half a day, no water was carried and many did not even drink water as it was rumoured that pestilential vapour was being poured down upon the earth from the comet."" The 1910 visitation coincided with a visit from Hedley Churchward, the first known English Muslim to make the Haj pilgrimage to Mecca. The comet was used in an advertising campaign of Le Bon Marché, a well-known department store in Paris. The comet was also fertile ground for hoaxes. One that reached major newspapers claimed that the Sacred Followers, a supposed Oklahoma religious group, attempted to sacrifice a virgin to ward off the impending disaster, but were stopped by the police. American satirist and writer Mark Twain was born on 30 November 1835, exactly two weeks after the comet's perihelion. In his autobiography, published in 1909, he said,

I came in with Halley's comet in 1835. It is coming again next year, and I expect to go out with it. It will be the greatest disappointment of my life if I don't go out with Halley's comet. The Almighty has said, no doubt: ""Now here are these two unaccountable freaks; they came in together, they must go out together."" Twain died on 21 April 1910, the day following the comet's subsequent perihelion. The 1985 fantasy film The Adventures of Mark Twain was inspired by the quotation. Halley's 1910 apparition is distinct from the Great Daylight Comet of 1910, which surpassed Halley in brilliance and was visible in broad daylight for a short period, approximately four months before Halley made its appearance.","[-0.02335960604250431, 0.04370364919304848, -0.040637675672769547, 0.05279352143406868, -0.0016258343821391463, -0.005323256365954876, -0.01146392896771431, 0.0323883555829525, -0.015542842447757721, 0.01002808753401041, 0.05169030651450157, 0.016279086470603943, 0.03478825092315674, -0.007607429288327694, 0.039279043674468994, -0.022487765178084373, 0.031805310398340225, 0.00998810213059187, 0.00905220303684473, -0.021263791248202324, -0.09944576025009155, 0.034222304821014404, -0.01883646845817566, -0.019400831311941147, 0.12374968081712723, -1.11090066639008e-05, 0.06388309597969055, -0.05753503367304802, -0.004535438027232885, 0.046712905168533325, 0.014870724640786648, -0.07398965209722519, -0.03407760336995125, -0.03578291833400726, 0.07031351327896118, 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663,"is distinct from the Great Daylight Comet of 1910 , which surpassed Halley in brilliance and was visible in broad daylight for a short period , approximately four months before Halley made its appearance .1986
The 1986 apparition of Halley's Comet was the least favourable on record. In February 1986, the comet and the Earth were on opposite sides of the Sun, creating the worst possible viewing circumstances for Earth observers during the previous 2,000 years. Halley's closest approach was 0.42 au. Additionally, increased light pollution from urbanisation caused many people to fail in attempts to see the comet. With the help of binoculars, observation from areas outside cities was more successful. Further, the comet appeared brightest when it was almost invisible from the northern hemisphere in March and April 1986, with best opportunities occurring when the comet could be sighted close to the horizon at dawn and dusk, if not obscured by clouds. The approach of the comet was first detected by astronomers David C. Jewitt and G. Edward Danielson on 16 October 1982 using the 5.1 m Hale Telescope at Mount Palomar and a CCD camera. The first visual observation of the comet on its 1986 return was by an amateur astronomer, Stephen James O'Meara, on 24 January 1985. O'Meara used a home-built 610-millimetre (24 in) telescope on top of Mauna Kea to detect the magnitude 19.6 comet. The first to observe Halley's Comet with the naked eye during its 1986 apparition were Stephen Edberg (then serving as the coordinator for amateur observations at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory) and Charles Morris on 8 November 1985. The 1986 apparition gave scientists the opportunity to study the comet closely, and several probes were launched to do so. The Soviet Vega 1 probe began returning images of Halley on 4 March 1986, captured the first-ever image of its nucleus, and made its flyby on 6 March.","[-0.019340626895427704, 0.053811945021152496, 0.05299371853470802, 0.03060923144221306, 0.03250254690647125, -0.020498983561992645, -0.07524995505809784, 0.13387930393218994, -0.04623233899474144, 0.03891813009977341, 0.00026451749727129936, -0.008234618231654167, 0.06264336407184601, -0.04132482409477234, 0.016285892575979233, -0.013304286636412144, 0.07598366588354111, -0.060482751578092575, -0.03014073148369789, -0.10833537578582764, -0.014609212055802345, 0.04462824761867523, -0.059917159378528595, 0.006906845606863499, 0.03708338737487793, 0.0009165198425762355, 0.019115280359983444, -0.06080517917871475, -0.028058459982275963, -0.01656121201813221, -0.020105361938476562, -0.017545975744724274, -0.027925660833716393, -0.011722223833203316, 0.032766833901405334, 0.0016381453024223447, 0.09840207546949387, -0.05550757795572281, 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664,"to do so . The Soviet Vega 1 probe began returning images of Halley on 4 March 1986 , captured the first-ever image of its nucleus , and made its flyby on 6 March .It was followed by the Vega 2 probe, making its flyby on 9 March. On 14 March, the Giotto space probe, launched by the European Space Agency, made the closest pass of the comet's nucleus. There also were two Japanese probes, Suisei and Sakigake. Unofficially, the numerous probes became known as the Halley Armada. Based on data retrieved by the largest ultraviolet space telescope of the time, Astron, in December 1985, a group of Soviet scientists developed a model of the comet's coma. The comet also was observed from space by the International Cometary Explorer (ICE). Originally launched as the International Sun-Earth Explorer 3, the spacecraft was renamed, and departed the Sun-Earth L1 Lagrangian point in 1982 in order to intercept the comets 21P/Giacobini-Zinner and Halley. ICE flew through the tail of Halley's Comet, coming within about 40.2 million km (25.0 million mi) of the nucleus on 28 March 1986. Two U.S. Space Shuttle missions—STS-51-L and STS-61-E—had been scheduled to observe Halley's Comet from low Earth orbit. The STS-51-L mission carried the Shuttle-Pointed Tool for Astronomy (Spartan Halley) satellite, also called the Halley's Comet Experiment Deployable (HCED). The mission to capture the ultraviolet spectrum of the comet ended in disaster when the Space Shuttle Challenger disintegrated in flight, killing all seven astronauts onboard. Scheduled for March 1986, STS-61-E was a Columbia mission carrying the ASTRO-1 platform to study the comet, but the mission was cancelled following the Challenger disaster and ASTRO-1 would not fly until late 1990 on STS-35. In Japan, the comet was observed by Emperor Hirohito, who was 84.","[-0.08127804845571518, -0.0052640545181930065, -0.024319592863321304, 0.05843564122915268, 0.016460098326206207, -0.029098322615027428, -0.05507737770676613, 0.09156520664691925, -0.022110607475042343, 0.013988056220114231, 0.036467328667640686, -0.02423524670302868, -0.01591956615447998, 0.001910095801576972, 0.024969903752207756, -0.029467327520251274, -0.01799114979803562, -0.059131160378456116, 0.022768843919038773, -0.07208839058876038, -0.0420621894299984, -0.010453449562191963, -0.0034317972604185343, 0.02710488997399807, 0.058262042701244354, 0.019671756774187088, 0.007638652343302965, -0.07085683196783066, 0.0061509860679507256, -0.0017694837879389524, 0.014873487874865532, -0.04819982498884201, -0.026517802849411964, -0.006447633728384972, 0.07012290507555008, 0.0484277606010437, 0.05701453238725662, -0.12055841088294983, 0.025580670684576035, -0.029229408130049706, 0.02163592539727688, -0.03972243517637253, 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665,"but the mission was cancelled following the Challenger disaster and ASTRO-1 would not fly until late 1990 on STS-35 . In Japan , the comet was observed by Emperor Hirohito , who was 84 .He had already seen it in 1910 when he was 8. After 1986
On 12 February 1991, at a distance of 14.3 au (2,140 million km) from the Sun, Halley displayed an outburst that lasted for several months. The comet released dust with a total mass of about 108 kg, which spread into an elongated cloud roughly 374,000 km (232,000 mi) by 269,000 km (167,000 mi) in size. The outburst likely started in December 1990, and then the comet brightened from about magnitude 25 to magnitude 19. Comets rarely show outburst activity at distances beyond 5 au from the Sun. Different mechanisms have been proposed for the outburst, ranging from interaction with the solar wind to a collision with an undiscovered asteroid. The most likely explanation is a combination of two effects, the polymerisation of hydrogen cyanide and a phase transition of amorphous water ice, which raised the temperature of the nucleus enough for some of the more volatile compounds on its surface to sublime. Halley was most recently observed in 2003 by three of the Very Large Telescopes at Paranal, Chile, when Halley's magnitude was 28.2. The telescopes observed Halley, at the faintest and farthest any comet had ever been imaged, in order to verify a method for finding very faint trans-Neptunian objects. Astronomers are now able to observe the comet at any point in its orbit. On 9 December 2023, Halley's Comet reached the farthest and slowest point in its orbit from the Sun when it was travelling at 0.91 km/s (2,000 mph) with respect to the Sun.","[-0.03403262421488762, 0.03671107068657875, 0.09912409633398056, 0.03825976699590683, 0.01614711433649063, 0.007934496738016605, -0.03991466015577316, 0.1327511966228485, -0.04386718198657036, 0.014543269760906696, 0.003267064690589905, -0.04582633823156357, 0.014641482383012772, -0.008981137536466122, 0.0743890032172203, -0.020115124061703682, 0.04606413468718529, -0.025615202262997627, -0.04291762784123421, -0.045256536453962326, -0.004593541380017996, 0.04024364426732063, -0.09820110350847244, 0.04587800055742264, 0.06502726674079895, 0.09594382345676422, 0.019868116825819016, -0.02221669629216194, -0.023272989317774773, -0.033867061138153076, 0.014184649102389812, -0.058993857353925705, 0.00887826643884182, -0.02805846743285656, 0.10010083764791489, 0.001255523762665689, 0.016447480767965317, 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666,"December 2023 , Halley 's Comet reached the farthest and slowest point in its orbit from the Sun when it was travelling at 0.91 km/s ( 2,000 mph ) with respect to the Sun .2061
The next perihelion of Halley's Comet is predicted for 28 July 2061, when it will be better positioned for observation than during the 1985–1986 apparition, as it will be on the same side of the Sun as Earth. The closest approach to Earth will be one day after perihelion. It is expected to have an apparent magnitude of −0.3, compared with only +2.1 for the 1986 apparition. On 9 September 2060, Halley will pass within 0.98 au (147,000,000 km) of Jupiter, and then on 20 August 2061 will pass within 0.0543 au (8,120,000 km) of Venus. 2134
Halley will come to perihelion on 27 March 2134. Then on 7 May 2134, Halley will pass within 0.092 au (13,800,000 km) of Earth. Its apparent magnitude is expected to be −2.0. List of apparitions
Halley's calculations enabled the comet's earlier appearances to be found in the historical record. The following table sets out the astronomical designations for every apparition of Halley's Comet from 240 BC, the earliest documented sighting. In the designations, ""1P/"" refers to Halley's Comet; the first periodic comet discovered. The number represents the year, with negatives representing BC. The letter-number combination indicates which it was of the comets observed for a given segment of the year, divided into 24 equal parts. The Roman numeral indicates which comet past perihelion it was for a given year, while the lower-case letter indicates which comet it was for a given year overall. The perihelion dates farther from the present are approximate, mainly because of uncertainties in the modelling of non-gravitational effects.","[0.014159874990582466, -0.03048325888812542, 0.040029458701610565, -0.003925609402358532, 0.024720624089241028, -0.038377225399017334, -0.13463202118873596, 0.0953233391046524, -0.002214267384260893, 0.003273295471444726, -0.014231660403311253, -0.049191877245903015, 0.03682965412735939, -0.05394195020198822, 0.019328918308019638, -0.030258027836680412, 0.0009558153687976301, -0.06775666028261185, -0.057211488485336304, -0.01458656694740057, -0.003995068836957216, 0.06287041306495667, -0.055306658148765564, 0.06810648739337921, -0.0027339307125657797, 0.0012732002651318908, -0.005702921189367771, -0.045691195875406265, -0.017340965569019318, -0.030310090631246567, -0.018792584538459778, -0.0422980859875679, -0.02820349670946598, 0.0025865600910037756, -0.03522035479545593, 0.012445724569261074, 0.06502535939216614, -0.0457255095243454, 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Comet,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley's_Comet.
667,"the lower-case letter indicates which comet it was for a given year overall . The perihelion dates farther from the present are approximate , mainly because of uncertainties in the modelling of non-gravitational effects .Perihelion dates of 1531 and earlier are in the Julian calendar, while perihelion dates 1607 and after are in the Gregorian calendar. The perihelion dates for some of the early apparitions (particularly before 837 AD) are uncertain by a couple of days. While Halley's Comet usually peaks at around 0th magnitude, there are indications that the comet got considerably brighter than that in the past. See also
Kepler orbit – Celestial orbit whose trajectory is a conic section in the orbital plane
List of Halley-type comets

Notes
References
Bibliography
Goodrich, Richard J. (2023). Comet Madness. How the 1910 Return of Halley's Comet (Almost) Destroyed Civilization. Prometheus Books. p. 188. ISBN 978-1-63388-857-9. Grier, David Alan (2005). ""The First Anticipated Return: Halley's Comet 1758"". When Computers Were Human. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09157-9. Kronk, Gary W. (1999). Cometography, vol. 1: Ancient-1799. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-58504-0. Lancaster-Brown, Peter (1985). Halley & His Comet. Blandford Press. ISBN 0-7137-1447-6. Lequeux, James (2015). François Arago: A 19th Century French Humanist and Pioneer in Astrophysics. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-20723-0. Milbrath, Susan (1999). Star Gods of the Maya: Astronomy in Art, Folklore, and Calendars. The Linda Schele Series in Maya and Pre-Columbian Studies. University of Texas Press. doi:10.7560/752252. ISBN 978-0-292-79793-2. Needham, Joseph (1959). ""Comets, meteors, and meteorites"". Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Cambridge University Press.","[-0.04097015783190727, 0.03734956309199333, 0.08258099108934402, -0.033187322318553925, -0.04999468848109245, -0.013015186414122581, -0.09875041991472244, 0.14046207070350647, -0.0005340753123164177, 0.037831541150808334, 0.015041714534163475, 0.05504566431045532, 0.041097693145275116, -0.05146373435854912, -0.023381492123007774, 0.00420604832470417, -0.01787121593952179, -0.057720594108104706, 0.054467152804136276, -0.012891052290797234, -0.0203506201505661, 0.02934257499873638, -0.04602065682411194, 0.009839258156716824, 0.04687826707959175, 0.033266399055719376, 0.005248543340712786, -0.06161465868353844, -0.019177719950675964, 0.030207470059394836, -0.026536406949162483, -0.017352716997265816, 0.06301101297140121, -0.04479212686419487, 0.05022989585995674, 0.0010307299671694636, 0.06886373460292816, -0.03192068636417389, 0.02285979688167572, -0.008581181056797504, -0.005888999905437231, -0.046569742262363434, 0.015277676284313202, 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668,") . `` Comets , meteors , and meteorites '' . Science and Civilisation in China : Volume 3 , Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth . Cambridge University Press .pp. 430–433. ISBN 978-0-521-05801-8. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
Rayner, John D. (1998). A Jewish Understanding of the World. Berghahn Books. pp. 108–111. ISBN 1-57181-973-8. Sagan, Carl; Druyan, Ann (1985). Comet. Random House. ISBN 0-394-54908-2. Schmude, Richard M. (2010). Comets and How to Observe Them. Springer. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-4419-5790-0. Shayler, David J.; Burgess, Colin (2007). ""Ending of Eras"". NASA's Scientist-Astronauts. Praxis. ISBN 978-0-387-21897-7. Retrieved 7 January 2009. Siddiqi, Asif A. (2018). Beyond Earth: A Chronicle of Deep Space Exploration. United States: NASA History Program Office. pp. 149–150. ISBN 978-1-62683-042-4. Yeomans, Donald Keith (1991). Comets: A Chronological History of Observation, Science, Myth, and Folklore. Wiley and Sons. pp. 260–261. ISBN 0-471-61011-9. External links

1P/Halley at the JPL Small-Body Database
Synopsis of the Astronomy of Comets (1706 reprint of Halley's 1705 paper)
Image of Halley's Comet by the Giotto spacecraft
seds.org, links to images and further information about Halley's Comet
Photographs of 1910 approach from the Lick Observatory Records Digital Archive
HDR Astrophotography: Simulations Atlas of Past Comets (Antiquity to 1699) by Nicolas Lefaudeux
HDR Astrophotography: Simulations Atlas of Past Comets (1900 to 1999) by Nicolas Lefaudeux","[-0.06782074272632599, 0.06650703400373459, 0.10322728008031845, 0.04731997847557068, -0.02967531979084015, -0.019532235339283943, -0.044868361204862595, 0.005726800300180912, -0.004577547777444124, 0.05339530110359192, -0.037018634378910065, -0.05579974874854088, 0.02939448691904545, -0.021844711154699326, -0.01390919741243124, -0.026870405301451683, -0.018151015043258667, -0.03079851157963276, -0.005265279673039913, -0.01984742283821106, -0.058561280369758606, -0.0009209323907271028, 0.004168801475316286, 0.021354462951421738, 0.030938658863306046, 0.03266632556915283, 0.015003557316958904, -0.04333939403295517, -0.013381967321038246, 0.013009898364543915, -0.03141675144433975, 0.020875100046396255, 0.004594777245074511, -0.021339895203709602, 0.08937421441078186, 0.10116534680128098, 0.01617860049009323, -0.03173716738820076, -0.0010293102823197842, 0.0004123502585571259, 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669," A dwarf planet is a small planetary-mass object that is in direct orbit around the Sun, massive enough to be gravitationally rounded, but insufficient to achieve orbital dominance like the eight classical planets of the Solar System. The prototypical dwarf planet is Pluto, which for decades was regarded as a planet before the ""dwarf"" concept was adopted in 2006. Many planetary geologists consider dwarf planets and planetary-mass moons to be planets, but since 2006 the IAU and many astronomers have excluded them from the roster of planets. Dwarf planets are capable of being geologically active, an expectation that was borne out in 2015 by the Dawn mission to Ceres and the New Horizons mission to Pluto. Planetary geologists are therefore particularly interested in them. Astronomers are in general agreement that at least the nine largest candidates are dwarf planets – in rough order of decreasing diameter, Pluto, Eris, Haumea, Makemake, Gonggong, Quaoar, Sedna, Ceres, and Orcus. A considerable uncertainty remains over the tenth largest candidate Salacia, which may thus be considered a borderline case. Of these ten, two have been visited by spacecraft (Pluto and Ceres) and seven others have at least one known moon (Eris, Haumea, Makemake, Gonggong, Quaoar, Orcus, and Salacia), which allows their masses and thus an estimate of their densities to be determined. Mass and density in turn can be fit into geophysical models in an attempt to determine the nature of these worlds. Only one, Sedna, has neither been visited nor has any known moons, making an accurate estimate of mass difficult. Some astronomers include many smaller bodies as well, but there is no consensus that these are likely to be dwarf planets. History of the concept
Starting in 1801, astronomers discovered Ceres and other bodies between Mars and Jupiter that for decades were considered to be planets.","[0.04707645624876022, -0.03931596130132675, 0.062092412263154984, 0.0236813984811306, 0.04394456371665001, -0.05988979712128639, -0.037050917744636536, 0.0020008611027151346, 0.022638224065303802, 0.08644245564937592, -0.02659495361149311, -0.08978548645973206, 0.0034338384866714478, -0.06582928448915482, 0.05180654674768448, -0.010887227021157742, 0.002891732379794121, -0.02133283205330372, 0.05968416854739189, 0.01957484520971775, -0.022402523085474968, 0.029745951294898987, -0.005571057088673115, 0.030512113124132156, 0.008486075326800346, -0.0600070022046566, -0.027958402410149574, -0.049512509256601334, -0.08184154331684113, -0.06005486100912094, -0.03383790701627731, 0.08810760825872421, 0.03850318491458893, 0.01267178449779749, 0.03682583570480347, 0.08316853642463684, -0.03240283578634262, -0.06611893326044083, -0.07048123329877853, 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670,"these are likely to be dwarf planets . History of the concept Starting in 1801 , astronomers discovered Ceres and other bodies between Mars and Jupiter that for decades were considered to be planets .Between then and around 1851, when the number of planets had reached 23, astronomers started using the word asteroid (from Greek, meaning 'star-like' or 'star-shaped') for the smaller bodies and began to distinguish them as minor planets rather than major planets. With the discovery of Pluto in 1930, most astronomers considered the Solar System to have nine major planets, along with thousands of significantly smaller bodies (asteroids and comets). For almost 50 years, Pluto was thought to be larger than Mercury, but with the discovery in 1978 of Pluto's moon Charon, it became possible to measure Pluto's mass accurately and to determine that it was much smaller than initial estimates. It was roughly one-twentieth the mass of Mercury, which made Pluto by far the smallest planet. Although it was still more than ten times as massive as the largest object in the asteroid belt, Ceres, it had only one-fifth the mass of Earth's Moon. Furthermore, having some unusual characteristics, such as large orbital eccentricity and a high orbital inclination, it became evident that it was a different kind of body from any of the other planets. In the 1990s, astronomers began to find objects in the same region of space as Pluto (now known as the Kuiper belt), and some even farther away. Many of these shared several of Pluto's key orbital characteristics, and Pluto started being seen as the largest member of a new class of objects, the plutinos.","[0.058829449117183685, -0.020939424633979797, 0.038730982691049576, 0.016802776604890823, 0.04392166808247566, -0.07553602010011673, -0.0206924919039011, 0.09520987421274185, -0.008964317850768566, 0.07462871074676514, 0.044993434101343155, -0.016234783455729485, 0.030089108273386955, -0.038270726799964905, 0.0007618407253175974, -0.053839560598134995, -0.04378938302397728, -0.02161942608654499, 0.03887718543410301, 0.08293859660625458, -0.04594425857067108, 0.030443880707025528, -0.02047383226454258, 0.01469286996871233, -0.004163993522524834, 0.030648259446024895, -0.04738519340753555, -0.08392537385225296, -0.042451269924640656, 0.006289409473538399, 0.004542499780654907, 0.05322078987956047, 0.0714264065027237, 0.0034090299159288406, 0.016626831144094467, -0.0024808342568576336, 0.03070184215903282, -0.01968417316675186, 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671,"even farther away . Many of these shared several of Pluto 's key orbital characteristics , and Pluto started being seen as the largest member of a new class of objects , the plutinos .It became clear that either the larger of these bodies would also have to be classified as planets, or Pluto would have to be reclassified, much as Ceres had been reclassified after the discovery of additional asteroids. This led some astronomers to stop referring to Pluto as a planet. Several terms, including subplanet and planetoid, started to be used for the bodies now known as dwarf planets. Astronomers were also confident that more objects as large as Pluto would be discovered, and the number of planets would start growing quickly if Pluto were to remain classified as a planet. Eris (then known as 2003 UB313), a trans-Neptunian object, was discovered in January 2005; it was thought to be slightly larger than Pluto, and some reports informally referred to it as the tenth planet. As a consequence, the issue became a matter of intense debate during the IAU General Assembly in August 2006. The IAU's initial draft proposal included Charon, Eris, and Ceres in the list of planets. After many astronomers objected to this proposal, an alternative was drawn up by the Uruguayan astronomers Julio Ángel Fernández and Gonzalo Tancredi: They proposed an intermediate category for objects large enough to be round but that had not cleared their orbits of planetesimals. Beside dropping Charon from the list, the new proposal also removed Pluto, Ceres, and Eris, because they have not cleared their orbits. Although concerns were raised about the classification of planets orbiting other stars, the issue was not resolved; it was proposed instead to decide this only when dwarf-planet-size objects start to be observed.","[-0.025504814460873604, -0.057232584804296494, -0.02292667143046856, -0.019969429820775986, 0.03633321821689606, -0.08345331996679306, 0.006086441222578287, 0.056634727865457535, 0.01711449958384037, 0.08297312259674072, 0.05281509831547737, 0.01323728822171688, -0.03062407486140728, -0.034534845501184464, 0.016227493062615395, -0.0815705806016922, 0.02264348417520523, -0.018322357907891273, -0.009349268861114979, 0.08740232139825821, 0.010799449868500233, 0.055308129638433456, -0.01048349030315876, 0.028887836262583733, -0.014489562250673771, -0.07424839586019516, 0.03135545551776886, -0.04995974153280258, -0.04184296727180481, -0.09673389792442322, 0.0019986643455922604, 0.02161010168492794, 0.06679759919643402, -0.012712905183434486, 0.04721151292324066, 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672,"Although concerns were raised about the classification of planets orbiting other stars , the issue was not resolved ; it was proposed instead to decide this only when dwarf-planet-size objects start to be observed .In the immediate aftermath of the IAU definition of dwarf planet, some scientists expressed their disagreement with the IAU resolution. Campaigns included car bumper stickers and T-shirts. Mike Brown (the discoverer of Eris) agrees with the reduction of the number of planets to eight. NASA announced in 2006 that it would use the new guidelines established by the IAU. Alan Stern, the director of NASA's mission to Pluto, rejects the current IAU definition of planet, both in terms of defining dwarf planets as something other than a type of planet, and in using orbital characteristics (rather than intrinsic characteristics) of objects to define them as dwarf planets. Thus, in 2011, he still referred to Pluto as a planet, and accepted other likely dwarf planets such as Ceres and Eris, as well as the larger moons, as additional planets. Several years before the IAU definition, he used orbital characteristics to separate ""überplanets"" (the dominant eight) from ""unterplanets"" (the dwarf planets), considering both types ""planets"". Name
Names for large subplanetary bodies include dwarf planet, planetoid (more general term), meso-planet (narrowly used for sizes between Mercury and Ceres), quasi-planet, and (in the transneptunian region) plutoid. Dwarf planet, however, was originally coined as a term for the smallest planets, not the largest sub-planets, and is still used that way by many planetary astronomers. The term dwarf planet, used as a synonym for asteroid, dates back at least to 1838.","[0.044103167951107025, -0.03319394588470459, 0.027147836983203888, -0.02294214628636837, 0.030429447069764137, -0.07636815309524536, 0.036565620452165604, -0.01268023531883955, 0.018863791599869728, 0.07588943839073181, -0.00559995137155056, -0.00777864595875144, 0.02220463752746582, -0.05369610711932182, 0.02951035462319851, -0.02817162685096264, -0.0027984532061964273, -0.055367812514305115, -0.002830836921930313, 0.05183432996273041, 0.01999458484351635, 0.051238398998975754, 0.010368854738771915, 0.030278734862804413, -0.025755709037184715, -0.07213485240936279, -0.0032942977268248796, -0.03592263534665108, -0.025075530633330345, -0.0446629673242569, 0.01539662852883339, 0.09285961836576462, 0.08518727868795395, -0.0011421433882787824, 0.012966778129339218, 0.01644963212311268, -0.010799401439726353, 0.007671424653381109, -0.07597577571868896, -0.08305692672729492, 0.07209726423025131, 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673,"not the largest sub-planets , and is still used that way by many planetary astronomers . The term dwarf planet , used as a synonym for asteroid , dates back at least to 1838 .It has also been used as an antonym for giant planet, including the terrestrial planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, as well as the Moon. In their 2006 codification, the IAU decided that dwarf planets are not to be considered planets. Other terms for the IAU definition of the largest subplanetary bodies that do not have such conflicting connotations or usage include quasi-planet and the older term planetoid (""having the form of a planet""). Michael E. Brown stated that planetoid is ""a perfectly good word"" that has been used for these bodies for years, and that the use of the term dwarf planet for a non-planet is ""dumb"", but that it was motivated by an attempt by the IAU division III plenary session to reinstate Pluto as a planet in a second resolution. Indeed, the draft of Resolution 5A had called these median bodies planetoids, but the plenary session voted unanimously to change the name to dwarf planet. The second resolution, 5B, defined dwarf planets as a subtype of planet, as Stern had originally intended, distinguished from the other eight that were to be called ""classical planets"". Under this arrangement, the twelve planets of the rejected proposal were to be preserved in a distinction between eight classical planets and four dwarf planets. Resolution 5B was defeated in the same session that 5A was passed. Because of the semantic inconsistency of a dwarf planet not being a planet due to the failure of Resolution 5B, alternative terms such as nanoplanet and subplanet were discussed, but there was no consensus among the CSBN to change it.","[0.014617698267102242, -0.06206251680850983, 0.05848276987671852, -0.04106647148728371, -0.012990141287446022, -0.11785748600959778, -0.029287682846188545, 0.05475836992263794, -0.029574140906333923, 0.0777457132935524, -0.01735498197376728, 0.00814258772879839, 0.01733001135289669, -0.06333685666322708, 0.0027399722021073103, 0.03785857558250427, 0.04620669409632683, -0.03664591535925865, 0.04412728175520897, 0.07932919263839722, 0.02584146521985531, 0.08303724974393845, -0.002916318364441395, 0.024535181000828743, 0.019984586164355278, -0.035468269139528275, -0.09411975741386414, 0.04518575593829155, -0.01940597966313362, 0.0014187690103426576, -0.017694860696792603, 0.1616489291191101, 0.0747557207942009, 0.017691755667328835, -0.021187489852309227, 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674,"planet not being a planet due to the failure of Resolution 5B , alternative terms such as nanoplanet and subplanet were discussed , but there was no consensus among the CSBN to change it .In most languages equivalent terms have been created by translating dwarf planet more-or-less literally: French planète naine, Spanish planeta enano, German Zwergplanet, Russian karlikovaya planeta (карликовая планета), Arabic kaukab qazm (كوكب قزم), Chinese ǎixíngxīng (矮行星), Korean waesohangseong (왜소행성 / 矮小行星) or waehangseong (왜행성 / 矮行星), but in Japanese they are called junwakusei (準惑星), meaning ""quasi-planets"" or ""peneplanets"" (pene- meaning ""almost""). IAU Resolution 6a of 2006 recognizes Pluto as ""the prototype of a new category of trans-Neptunian objects"". The name and precise nature of this category were not specified but left for the IAU to establish at a later date; in the debate leading up to the resolution, the members of the category were variously referred to as plutons and plutonian objects but neither name was carried forward, perhaps due to objections from geologists that this would create confusion with their pluton. On June 11, 2008, the IAU Executive Committee announced a new term, plutoid, and a definition: all trans-Neptunian dwarf planets are plutoids. Other departments of the IAU have rejected the term: ...in part because of an email miscommunication, the WG-PSN [Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature] was not involved in choosing the word plutoid. ...","[-0.05360257625579834, -0.021702108904719353, 0.006834125611931086, 0.006912022363394499, -0.02961602620780468, -0.07120414823293686, -0.002038749633356929, 0.010821232572197914, 0.053769756108522415, 0.07037309557199478, 0.054390400648117065, -0.07425769418478012, 0.018344132229685783, -0.00685420585796237, 0.012213733978569508, -0.055225808173418045, -0.012387752532958984, 0.01345541886985302, 0.07063541561365128, 0.0681176632642746, 0.06293252855539322, 0.046343930065631866, 0.040893759578466415, 0.01768946647644043, -0.00045280481572262943, -0.012998492456972599, -0.04070994630455971, 0.00334918312728405, 0.030429204925894737, -0.017412152141332626, -0.07525037974119186, 0.1877995878458023, -0.04057173803448677, 0.021028004586696625, 0.03543132543563843, 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675,"IAU have rejected the term : ... in part because of an email miscommunication , the WG-PSN [ Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature ] was not involved in choosing the word plutoid . ...In fact, a vote taken by the WG-PSN subsequent to the Executive Committee meeting has rejected the use of that specific term...""
The category of 'plutoid' captured an earlier distinction between the 'terrestrial dwarf' Ceres and the 'ice dwarfs' of the outer Solar system, part of a conception of a threefold division of the Solar System into inner terrestrial planets, central giant planets, and outer ice dwarfs, of which Pluto was the principal member. 'Ice dwarf' also saw some use as an umbrella term for all trans-Neptunian minor planets, or for the ice asteroids of the outer Solar System; one attempted definition was that an ice dwarf ""is larger than the nucleus of a normal comet and icier than a typical asteroid."" Since the Dawn mission, it has been recognized that Ceres is a geologically icy body that may have originated from the outer Solar System. Ceres has since been called an ice dwarf as well. Criteria
The category dwarf planet arose from a conflict between dynamical and geophysical ideas of what a useful conception of a planet would be. In terms of the dynamics of the Solar System, the major distinction is between bodies that gravitationally dominate their neighbourhood (Mercury through Neptune) and those that do not (such as the asteroids and Kuiper belt objects). A celestial body may have a dynamic (planetary) geology at approximately the mass required for its mantle to become plastic under its own weight, which results in the body acquiring a round shape.","[-0.08284692466259003, -0.021058034151792526, 0.02065073698759079, 0.035233091562986374, 0.03339230641722679, -0.07503129541873932, -0.0002176886482629925, 0.06663845479488373, 0.061383411288261414, 0.05764205381274223, 0.007958490401506424, -0.0879763662815094, 0.011792803183197975, -0.06644470244646072, 0.037678904831409454, -0.07566384971141815, -0.030772896483540535, -0.04861917719244957, 0.013882914558053017, 0.026838431134819984, 0.026517469435930252, 0.07978371530771255, -0.0455268919467926, -0.00706186518073082, 0.0005136938998475671, -0.05264108628034592, -0.03824273496866226, 0.005319674499332905, 0.011817307211458683, 0.03596073016524315, 0.04329795762896538, 0.07336783409118652, 0.0586378276348114, 0.04476793855428696, 0.06270837038755417, 0.00275732995942235, 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676,"body may have a dynamic ( planetary ) geology at approximately the mass required for its mantle to become plastic under its own weight , which results in the body acquiring a round shape .Because this requires a much lower mass than gravitationally dominating the region of space near their orbit, there are a population of objects that are massive enough to have a world-like appearance and planetary geology, but not massive enough to clear their neighborhood. Examples are Ceres in the asteroid belt and Pluto in the Kuiper belt. Dynamicists usually prefer using gravitational dominance as the threshold for planethood, because from their perspective smaller bodies are better grouped with their neighbours, e.g. Ceres as simply a large asteroid and Pluto as a large Kuiper belt object. Geoscientists usually prefer roundness as the threshold, because from their perspective the internally driven geology of a body like Ceres makes it more similar to a classical planet like Mars, than to a small asteroid that lacks internally driven geology. This necessitated the creation of the category of dwarf planets to describe this intermediate class. Orbital dominance
Alan Stern and Harold F. Levison introduced a parameter Λ (upper case lambda) in 2000, expressing the likelihood of an encounter resulting in a given deflection of orbit. The value of this parameter in Stern's model is proportional to the square of the mass and inversely proportional to the period. This value can be used to estimate the capacity of a body to clear the neighbourhood of its orbit, where  Λ > 1  will eventually clear it. A gap of five orders of magnitude in Λ was found between the smallest terrestrial planets and the largest asteroids and Kuiper belt objects.","[0.02807319350540638, -0.009408189915120602, 0.058729469776153564, -0.003206011140719056, -0.0311879962682724, -0.0931628942489624, -0.04657105728983879, 0.0812460333108902, 0.05257576331496239, 0.07440441101789474, -0.029466727748513222, -0.11487534642219543, 0.00529033737257123, 0.007800927385687828, 0.07780115306377411, -0.0934116542339325, 0.06719143688678741, -0.027908841148018837, -0.01444294210523367, 0.10083681344985962, -0.007635332178324461, 0.0503263846039772, -0.023224253207445145, 0.055386994034051895, -0.11243803799152374, -0.11337017267942429, -0.030656088143587112, -0.032211437821388245, 0.019278597086668015, -0.0619082897901535, 0.009159932844340801, 0.035113684833049774, 0.02720705233514309, -0.0004523602547124028, -0.02255098894238472, 0.08036939054727554, -0.006070507690310478, -0.006912613287568092, -0.04651676118373871, 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677,", where Λ > 1 will eventually clear it . A gap of five orders of magnitude in Λ was found between the smallest terrestrial planets and the largest asteroids and Kuiper belt objects .Using this parameter, Steven Soter and other astronomers argued for a distinction between planets and dwarf planets based on the inability of the latter to ""clear the neighbourhood around their orbits"": planets are able to remove smaller bodies near their orbits by collision, capture, or gravitational disturbance (or establish orbital resonances that prevent collisions), whereas dwarf planets lack the mass to do so. Soter went on to propose a parameter he called the planetary discriminant, designated with the symbol µ (mu), that represents an experimental measure of the actual degree of cleanliness of the orbital zone (where µ is calculated by dividing the mass of the candidate body by the total mass of the other objects that share its orbital zone), where   µ > 100   is deemed to be cleared. Jean-Luc Margot refined Stern and Levison's concept to produce a similar parameter Π (upper case Pi). It is based on theory, avoiding the empirical data used by Λ . Π > 1   indicates a planet, and there is again a gap of several orders of magnitude between planets and dwarf planets. There are several other schemes that try to differentiate between planets and dwarf planets, but the 2006 definition uses this concept. Hydrostatic equilibrium
Enough internal pressure, caused by the body's gravitation, will turn a body plastic, and enough plasticity will allow high elevations to sink and hollows to fill in, a process known as gravitational relaxation. Bodies smaller than a few kilometers are dominated by non-gravitational forces and tend to have an irregular shape and may be rubble piles.","[0.028202151879668236, -0.004230806604027748, 0.012443233281373978, 0.006678697653114796, 0.02618825063109398, -0.061960216611623764, 0.0224063228815794, 0.011256113648414612, 0.07809006422758102, 0.04700210690498352, 0.05452505126595497, -0.023609809577465057, 0.0333716981112957, -0.06056203693151474, 0.004543282091617584, -0.04569206014275551, 0.0004430651315487921, -0.008298508822917938, -0.05876237526535988, 0.09278398007154465, 0.0415186882019043, 0.09285944700241089, -0.029219867661595345, 0.05904041975736618, -0.02958044782280922, -0.09948983043432236, -0.03130651265382767, -0.05685792118310928, 0.05028724670410156, -0.014127855189144611, 0.03824087232351303, 0.14197121560573578, 0.06431414932012558, -0.01123584620654583, -0.0016988103743642569, 0.0047632548958063126, 0.010150102898478508, -0.0246137585490942, -0.054148897528648376, 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678,"to fill in , a process known as gravitational relaxation . Bodies smaller than a few kilometers are dominated by non-gravitational forces and tend to have an irregular shape and may be rubble piles .Larger objects, where gravity is significant but not dominant, are potato-shaped; the more massive the body, the higher its internal pressure, the more solid it is and the more rounded its shape, until the pressure is enough to overcome its compressive strength and it achieves hydrostatic equilibrium. Then, a body is as round as it is possible to be, given its rotation and tidal effects, and is an ellipsoid in shape. This is the defining limit of a dwarf planet. If an object is in hydrostatic equilibrium, a global layer of liquid on its surface would form a surface of the same shape as the body, apart from small-scale surface features such as craters and fissures. The body will have a spherical shape if it does not rotate and an ellipsoidal one if it does. The faster it rotates, the more oblate or even scalene it becomes. If such a rotating body were heated until it melts, its shape would not change. The extreme example of a body that may be scalene due to rapid rotation is Haumea, which is twice as long on its major axis as it is at the poles. If the body has a massive nearby companion, then tidal forces gradually slow its rotation until it is tidally locked; that is, it always presents the same face to its companion. Tidally locked bodies are also scalene, though sometimes only slightly so. Earth's Moon is tidally locked, as are all the rounded satellites of the gas giants. Pluto and Charon are tidally locked to each other, as are Eris and Dysnomia, and probably also Orcus and Vanth.","[0.028276877477765083, -0.03678419068455696, 0.04193048179149628, -0.005710063502192497, 0.024824006482958794, -0.0904570147395134, -0.03933615982532501, 0.022329095751047134, 0.08042188733816147, 0.05231070891022682, -0.06606367230415344, -0.02878706529736519, 0.0010726755717769265, -0.045194026082754135, 0.09632478654384613, -0.12884268164634705, -0.02608230710029602, 0.014179536141455173, -0.020604008808732033, 0.05752641707658768, 0.042206060141325, 0.02287473902106285, -0.08626951277256012, 0.07461695373058319, -0.05086648091673851, -0.060781799256801605, -0.0036406945437192917, 0.0023871937301009893, -0.013326318003237247, -0.057510558515787125, -0.04330684617161751, 0.05501912161707878, -0.03751355782151222, 0.02006877399981022, -0.004779675044119358, 0.0796886682510376, 0.00291649391874671, 0.021201008930802345, -0.10928262025117874, -0.02171674743294716, 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679,", as are all the rounded satellites of the gas giants . Pluto and Charon are tidally locked to each other , as are Eris and Dysnomia , and probably also Orcus and Vanth .There are no specific size or mass limits of dwarf planets, as those are not defining features. There is no clear upper limit: an object very far out in the Solar System that is more massive than Mercury might not have had time to clear its neighbourhood, and such a body would fit the definition of dwarf planet rather than planet. Indeed, Mike Brown set out to find such an object. The lower limit is determined by the requirements of achieving and retaining hydrostatic equilibrium, but the size or mass at which an object attains and retains equilibrium depends on its composition and thermal history, not simply its mass. An IAU 2006 press release question-and-answer section estimated that objects with mass above 0.5×1021 kg and radius greater than 400 km would ""normally"" be in hydrostatic equilibrium (the shape ... would normally be determined by self-gravity), but that all borderline cases would need to be determined by observation. This is close to what as of 2019 is believed to be roughly the limit for objects beyond Neptune that are fully compact, solid bodies, with Salacia ( r = 423±11 km ,  m = (0.492±0.007)×1021 kg ) being a borderline case both for the 2006 Q&A expectations and in more recent evaluations, and with Orcus being just above the expected limit. No other body with a measured mass is close to the expected mass limit, though several without a measured mass approach the expected size limit. Population of dwarf planets
Though the definition of a dwarf planet is clear, evidence about whether a given trans-Neptunian object is large and malleable enough to be shaped by its own gravitational field is often inconclusive.","[0.057826533913612366, -0.029764389619231224, 0.04241935908794403, -0.022663051262497902, 0.029791835695505142, -0.05684598162770271, -0.01852436177432537, 0.06590105593204498, -0.012912376783788204, 0.01828216202557087, -0.08585801720619202, -0.026000728830695152, 0.017138106748461723, -0.07441826164722443, 0.06687401980161667, -0.045054372400045395, -0.005555845331400633, 0.017135662958025932, 0.022007469087839127, 0.10981485247612, 0.034767214208841324, 0.06312114000320435, -0.0358809269964695, 0.06399646401405334, -0.08945459127426147, -0.05606359243392944, 0.004838588181883097, -0.028363805264234543, -0.037826716899871826, -0.016731292009353638, -0.04899635910987854, -0.012379578314721584, 0.03526667505502701, 0.027367202565073967, 0.023849179968237877, 0.045449987053871155, 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680,"planets Though the definition of a dwarf planet is clear , evidence about whether a given trans-Neptunian object is large and malleable enough to be shaped by its own gravitational field is often inconclusive .There are also outstanding questions relating to the interpretation of the IAU criterion in certain instances. Consequently the number of currently conformed TNOs which meet the hydrostatic equilibrium criterion is uncertain. The three objects under consideration during the debates leading up to the 2006 IAU acceptance of the category of dwarf planet – Ceres, Pluto and Eris – are generally accepted as dwarf planets, including by those astronomers who continue to classify dwarf planets as planets. Only one of them – Pluto – has been observed in enough detail to verify that its current shape fits what would be expected from hydrostatic equilibrium. Ceres is close to equilibrium, but some gravitational anomalies remain unexplained. Eris is generally assumed to be a dwarf planet because it is more massive than Pluto. In order of discovery, these three bodies are:

Ceres – discovered January 1, 1801, and announced January 24, 45 years before Neptune. Considered a planet for half a century before reclassification as an asteroid. Considered a dwarf planet by the IAU since the adoption of Resolution 5A on August 24, 2006. Pluto – discovered February 18, 1930, and announced March 13. Considered a planet for 76 years. Explicitly reclassified as a dwarf planet by the IAU with Resolution 6A on August 24, 2006. Five known moons. Eris (2003 UB313) – discovered January 5, 2005, and announced July 29. Called the ""tenth planet"" in media reports. Considered a dwarf planet by the IAU since the adoption of Resolution 5A on August 24, 2006, and named by the IAU dwarf-planet naming committee on September 13 of that year. One known moon.","[-0.042022060602903366, -0.02072768099606037, 0.024497520178556442, -2.582628803793341e-05, 0.04806112125515938, -0.08366052806377411, -0.024714909493923187, 0.034730855375528336, 0.013377792201936245, 0.07272249460220337, -0.012234398163855076, -0.10668531805276871, 0.014773692935705185, -0.03801857680082321, -0.005298387724906206, -0.09772386401891708, -0.029538054019212723, -0.05137721821665764, 0.03340441733598709, 0.09597521275281906, 0.022651225328445435, 0.05722728744149208, -0.0399189218878746, 0.002363783773034811, -0.018487825989723206, -0.08703172951936722, 0.008295303210616112, -0.026273023337125778, -0.03339068591594696, -0.07712192088365555, -0.012748688459396362, 0.05432629957795143, 0.02929230034351349, 0.009108403697609901, 0.017250316217541695, 0.014614669606089592, 0.019470151513814926, -0.05718936771154404, -0.08358338475227356, -0.03967719152569771, 0.0015501611633226275, -0.042659517377614975, 0.03818945586681366, -0.04071743041276932, 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681,"planet by the IAU since the adoption of Resolution 5A on August 24 , 2006 , and named by the IAU dwarf-planet naming committee on September 13 of that year . One known moon .The IAU only established guidelines for which committee would oversee the naming of likely dwarf planets: any unnamed trans-Neptunian object with an absolute magnitude brighter than +1 (and hence a minimum diameter of 838 km at the maximum geometric albedo of 1) was to be named by a joint committee consisting of the Minor Planet Center and the planetary working group of the IAU. At the time (and still as of 2023), the only bodies to meet this threshold were Haumea and Makemake. These bodies are generally assumed to be dwarf planets, although they have not yet been demonstrated to be in hydrostatic equilibrium, and there is some disagreement for Haumea:

These five bodies – the three under consideration in 2006 (Pluto, Ceres and Eris) plus the two named in 2008 (Haumea and Makemake) – are commonly presented as the dwarf planets of the Solar System, though the limiting factor (albedo) is not what defines an object as a dwarf planet. The astronomical community commonly refers to other larger TNOs as dwarf planets as well. At least four additional bodies meet the preliminary criteria of Brown, of Tancredi et al., of Grundy et al., and of Emery et al. for identifying dwarf planets, and are generally called dwarf planets by astronomers as well:

For instance, JPL/NASA called Gonggong a dwarf planet after observations in 2016, and Simon Porter of the Southwest Research Institute spoke of ""the big eight [TNO] dwarf planets"" in 2018, referring to Pluto, Eris, Haumea, Makemake, Gonggong, Quaoar, Sedna and Orcus. The IAU itself has called Quaoar a dwarf planet in a 2022–2023 annual report.","[0.006866263225674629, -0.02885892055928707, 0.0024291840381920338, 0.015646230429410934, 0.0012527033686637878, -0.11486318707466125, -0.03163536265492439, 0.002737886505201459, -0.0018690325086936355, 0.08848606795072556, 0.006475217640399933, -0.10208624601364136, 0.006418957374989986, -0.10261444747447968, 0.004175721202045679, -0.01621057279407978, 0.022318964824080467, -0.07834398746490479, 0.019618570804595947, 0.04055096209049225, 0.06029556319117546, 0.08295135200023651, -0.02945510484278202, 0.012376166880130768, 0.01753184199333191, -0.09895496070384979, -0.05383975803852081, -0.02710934728384018, -0.04160348325967789, -0.07677402347326279, -0.018562382087111473, 0.04099664464592934, 0.05100536346435547, 0.007613406050950289, 0.03708922117948532, 0.027048172429203987, -0.0626193955540657, -0.0611967071890831, -0.07022734731435776, -0.0469348169863224, 0.022599978372454643, -0.05130497366189957, 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682,"2018 , referring to Pluto , Eris , Haumea , Makemake , Gonggong , Quaoar , Sedna and Orcus . The IAU itself has called Quaoar a dwarf planet in a 2022–2023 annual report .More bodies have been proposed, such as Salacia and Máni by Brown; Varuna and Ixion by Tancredi et al., and Chiminigagua by Sheppard et al. Most of the larger bodies have moons, which enables a determination of their mass and thus their density, which inform estimates of whether they could be dwarf planets. The largest TNOs that are not known to have moons are Sedna, Máni, Aya, and Ixion. In particular, Salacia has a known mass and diameter, putting it as a borderline case by the IAU's 2006 Q&A. At the time Makemake and Haumea were named, it was thought that trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs) with icy cores would require a diameter of only about 400 km (250 mi), or 3% the size of Earth – the size of the moons Mimas, the smallest moon that is round, and Proteus, the largest that is not – to relax into gravitational equilibrium. Researchers thought that the number of such bodies could prove to be around 200 in the Kuiper belt, with thousands more beyond. This was one of the reasons (keeping the roster of 'planets' to a reasonable number) that Pluto was reclassified in the first place. Research since then has cast doubt on the idea that bodies that small could have achieved or maintained equilibrium under the typical conditions of the Kuiper belt and beyond. Individual astronomers have recognized a number of objects as dwarf planets or as likely to prove to be dwarf planets. 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683,"of the Kuiper belt and beyond . Individual astronomers have recognized a number of objects as dwarf planets or as likely to prove to be dwarf planets . In 2008 , Tancredi et al .advised the IAU to officially accept Orcus, Sedna and Quaoar as dwarf planets (Gonggong was not yet known), though the IAU did not address the issue then and has not since. Tancredi also considered the five TNOs Varuna, Ixion, Achlys, Goibniu, and Aya to most likely be dwarf planets as well. Since 2011, Brown has maintained a list of hundreds of candidate objects, ranging from ""nearly certain"" to ""possible"" dwarf planets, based solely on estimated size. As of September 13, 2019, Brown's list identifies ten trans-Neptunian objects with diameters then thought to be greater than 900 km (the four named by the IAU plus Gonggong, Quaoar, Sedna, Orcus, Máni, and Salacia) as ""near certain"" to be dwarf planets, and another 16, with diameter greater than 600 km, as ""highly likely"". Notably, Gonggong may have a larger diameter (1230±50 km) than Pluto's round moon Charon (1212 km). But in 2019 Grundy et al. proposed, based on their studies of Gǃkúnǁʼhòmdímà, that dark, low-density bodies smaller than about 900–1000 km in diameter, such as Salacia and Varda, never fully collapsed into solid planetary bodies and retain internal porosity from their formation (in which case they could not be dwarf planets). They accept that brighter (albedo > ≈0.2) or denser (> ≈1.4 g/cc) Orcus and Quaoar probably were fully solid:

Orcus and Charon probably melted and differentiated, considering their higher densities and spectra indicating surfaces made of relatively clean H2O ice.","[0.011903930455446243, -0.019292078912258148, -0.0011965733719989657, 0.0025375557597726583, 0.006757576484233141, -0.048272039741277695, 0.02609996870160103, 0.012033638544380665, 0.018462220206856728, 0.09139059484004974, -0.005476640071719885, -0.1055518165230751, 0.03484342619776726, 0.033759262412786484, 0.015196201391518116, -0.00581717025488615, 0.05463089793920517, -0.05465361103415489, 0.0031288464087992907, -0.011257592588663101, -0.01990603096783161, 0.07119756191968918, 0.008259667083621025, -0.016088517382740974, -0.025612106546759605, -0.0990537628531456, -0.04909185320138931, -0.08371086418628693, -0.040101729333400726, -0.02486858144402504, -0.10432788729667664, 0.07650814950466156, 0.011495186947286129, 0.013476205058395863, 0.034975484013557434, -0.03694818913936615, -0.05148397758603096, -0.006417149677872658, 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684,"> ≈1.4 g/cc ) Orcus and Quaoar probably were fully solid : Orcus and Charon probably melted and differentiated , considering their higher densities and spectra indicating surfaces made of relatively clean H2O ice .But the lower albedos and densities of Gǃkúnǁʼhòmdímà, 55637 (Uni), Varda, and Salacia suggest that they never did differentiate, or if they did, it was only in their deep interiors, not a complete melting and overturning that involved the surface. Their surfaces could remain quite cold and uncompressed even as the interior becomes warm and collapses. The liberation of volatiles could further help transport heat out of their interiors, limiting the extent of their internal collapse. An object with a cold, relatively pristine surface and a partially collapsed interior should exhibit very distinctive surface geology, with abundant thrust faults indicative of the reduction in total surface area as the interior compresses and shrinks. Salacia was later found to have a somewhat higher density, comparable within uncertainties to that of Orcus, though still with a very dark surface. Despite this determination, Grundy et al. call it ""dwarf-planet sized"", while calling Orcus a dwarf planet. Later studies on Varda suggest that its density may also be high, though a low density could not be excluded. In 2023, Emery et al. wrote that near-infrared spectroscopy by the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) in 2022 suggests that Sedna, Gonggong, and Quaoar underwent internal melting, differentiation, and chemical evolution, like the larger dwarf planets Pluto, Eris, Haumea, and Makemake, but unlike ""all smaller KBOs"". This is because light hydrocarbons are present on their surfaces (e.g. ethane, acetylene, and ethylene), which implies that methane is continuously being resupplied, and that methane would likely come from internal geochemistry.","[-0.06105850636959076, 0.01871095784008503, 0.0822860449552536, 0.08628030866384506, 0.07704059779644012, -0.07545305043458939, 0.022523730993270874, 0.043574586510658264, 0.07054606080055237, 0.06354700028896332, -0.06808400899171829, -0.07604623585939407, 0.038922447711229324, -0.01675018109381199, 0.046396926045417786, -0.03686909005045891, 0.017374204471707344, -0.022461414337158203, -0.023846063762903214, 0.11165779829025269, 0.10573254525661469, 0.1017252579331398, -0.0560104176402092, -0.010257583111524582, 0.011744462884962559, -0.0067701744846999645, -0.05814765766263008, 0.05799946188926697, 0.031110545620322227, -0.041309867054224014, -0.0026936549693346024, 0.05854460597038269, -0.0017306016525253654, 0.01885325089097023, 0.09219478070735931, 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685,"are present on their surfaces ( e.g . ethane , acetylene , and ethylene ) , which implies that methane is continuously being resupplied , and that methane would likely come from internal geochemistry .On the other hand, the surfaces of Sedna, Gonggong, and Quaoar have low abundances of CO and CO2, similar to Pluto, Eris, and Makemake, but in contrast to smaller bodies. This suggests that the threshold for dwarf planethood in the trans-Neptunian region is a diameter of ~900 km (thus including only Pluto, Eris, Haumea, Makemake, Gonggong, Quaoar, Orcus, and Sedna), and that even Salacia may not be a dwarf planet. A 2023 study of Máni shows that it probably has an extremely large crater, whose depth takes up 5.7% of its diameter: this is proportionally larger than the Rheasilvia crater on Vesta, which is the reason Vesta is not usually considered a dwarf planet today. In 2024, Kiss et al. found that Quaoar has an ellipsoidal shape incompatible with hydrostatic equilibrium for its current spin. They hypothesized that Quaoar originally had a rapid rotation and was in hydrostatic equilibrium, but that its shape became ""frozen in"" and did not change as it spun down due to tidal forces from its moon Weywot. If so, this would resemble the situation of Saturn's moon Iapetus, which is too oblate for its current spin. Iapetus is generally still considered a planetary-mass moon nonetheless, though not always. Most likely dwarf planets
The trans-Neptunian objects in the following tables, except Salacia, are agreed by Brown, Tancredi et al., Grundy et al., and Emery et al. to be probable dwarf planets, or close to it. Salacia has been included as the largest TNO not generally agreed to be a dwarf planet; it is a borderline body by many criteria, and is therefore italicized.","[-0.05954607203602791, 0.0004605259746313095, 0.001680091954767704, 0.002613937482237816, -0.007920053787529469, -0.08204500377178192, -0.055079616606235504, 0.03865811973810196, 0.07100651413202286, 0.0386698916554451, 0.020023168995976448, -0.15564027428627014, -0.002671336755156517, -0.027098894119262695, 0.05465729907155037, -0.005099233705550432, -0.02130233123898506, -0.08833015710115433, 0.0461886003613472, 0.03437245264649391, 0.042763397097587585, 0.06172223016619682, 0.02580195851624012, -0.016945356503129005, -0.046407632529735565, -0.05722535029053688, -0.07195977121591568, -0.0320899598300457, -0.04210331290960312, -0.04643721133470535, -0.04299616813659668, 0.08977658301591873, 0.009464748203754425, -0.010562494397163391, 0.04566909000277519, 0.058665018528699875, 0.000715603877324611, 0.023249829187989235, 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686,"close to it . Salacia has been included as the largest TNO not generally agreed to be a dwarf planet ; it is a borderline body by many criteria , and is therefore italicized .Charon, a moon of Pluto that was proposed as a dwarf planet by the IAU in 2006, is included for comparison. Those objects that have absolute magnitude greater than +1, and so meet the threshold of the joint planet–minor planet naming committee of the IAU, are highlighted, as is Ceres, which the IAU has assumed is a dwarf planet since they first debated the concept. The masses of given dwarf planets are listed for their systems (if they have satellites) with exceptions for Pluto and Orcus. Symbols
Ceres  and Pluto  received planetary symbols, as they were considered to be planets when they were discovered. By the time the others were discovered, planetary symbols had mostly fallen out of use among astronomers. Unicode includes symbols for Quaoar , Sedna , Orcus , Haumea , Eris , Makemake , and Gonggong , that are primarily used by astrologers: they were devised by Denis Moskowitz, a software engineer in Massachusetts. NASA has used his Haumea, Eris, and Makemake symbols, as well as the traditional astrological symbol for Pluto  when referring to it as a dwarf planet. Symbols for smaller objects are less established; a Unicode proposal notes the Moskowitz symbol  for Salacia. Moskowitz additionally devised a symbol for Charon . Exploration
As of 2025, only two missions have targeted and explored dwarf planets up close. On March 6, 2015, the Dawn spacecraft entered orbit around Ceres, becoming the first spacecraft to visit a dwarf planet. On July 14, 2015, the New Horizons space probe flew by Pluto and its five moons.","[-0.014435802586376667, -0.012340642511844635, 0.011988237500190735, -0.00447270181030035, -0.03004268743097782, -0.0659446120262146, -0.016320988535881042, 0.02864418923854828, 0.0546182356774807, 0.053542785346508026, 0.051066022366285324, -0.05842314660549164, 0.039909813553094864, -0.05157095193862915, -0.019536450505256653, -0.01934771053493023, 0.001688151154667139, 0.005481989588588476, 0.02475326508283615, 0.05380532518029213, 0.04369668662548065, 0.0474788099527359, -0.04830395057797432, 0.053771164268255234, 0.03948964551091194, -0.02751028537750244, -0.035754475742578506, 0.005888835992664099, 0.009859634563326836, -0.03700896352529526, -0.03340522572398186, 0.06246352568268776, 0.0963006243109703, 0.024271661415696144, 0.031914953142404556, 0.03741665184497833, 0.027797773480415344, -0.07033823430538177, -0.06967002898454666, -0.03599326312541962, 0.01826201006770134, -0.04419390484690666, 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687,"spacecraft entered orbit around Ceres , becoming the first spacecraft to visit a dwarf planet . On July 14 , 2015 , the New Horizons space probe flew by Pluto and its five moons .Ceres displays such evidence of an active geology as salt deposits and cryovolcanos, while Pluto has water-ice mountains drifting in nitrogen-ice glaciers, as well as a significant atmosphere. Ceres evidently has brine percolating through its subsurface, while there is evidence that Pluto has an actual subsurface ocean. Dawn had previously orbited the asteroid Vesta. Saturn's moon Phoebe has been imaged by Cassini and before that by Voyager 2, which also encountered Neptune's moon Triton. All three bodies show evidence of once being dwarf planets, and their exploration helps clarify the evolution of dwarf planets. New Horizons has captured distant images of Triton, Quaoar, Haumea, Eris, and Makemake, as well as the smaller candidates Ixion, Máni, and 2014 OE394. Quaoar has been proposed as a potential flyby target of the China National Space Administration's two Shensuo probes. Similar objects
A number of bodies physically resemble dwarf planets. These include former dwarf planets, which may still have equilibrium shape or evidence of active geology; planetary-mass moons, which meet the physical but not the orbital definition for dwarf planet; and Charon in the Pluto–Charon system, which is arguably a binary dwarf planet. The categories may overlap: Triton, for example, is both a former dwarf planet and a planetary-mass moon. Former dwarf planets
Vesta, the next-most-massive body in the asteroid belt after Ceres, was once in hydrostatic equilibrium and is roughly spheroidal, deviating mainly due to massive impacts that formed the Rheasilvia and Veneneia craters after it solidified. Its dimensions are not consistent with it currently being in hydrostatic equilibrium.","[-0.0761817917227745, -0.047012753784656525, 0.045740317553281784, -0.025642534717917442, 0.06995023041963577, -0.06877490878105164, 0.004034646786749363, -0.009570728056132793, 0.03779900446534157, 0.06215861439704895, 0.031260568648576736, -0.16730010509490967, -0.023750001564621925, -0.04755696654319763, -0.005026361905038357, -0.03626091778278351, 0.022588178515434265, -0.03919621556997299, 0.06362345069646835, -0.005773507058620453, -0.03693173825740814, 0.015406162478029728, -0.0124624939635396, -0.01592925935983658, -0.029790125787258148, -0.038638293743133545, 0.007340979762375355, -0.03712659329175949, -0.03517846018075943, -0.04028000310063362, -0.028601258993148804, 0.06416477262973785, -0.09347237646579742, 0.02108101174235344, 0.0697302371263504, 0.08228471875190735, 0.0562824048101902, -0.07303857803344727, -0.0552932433784008, -0.028653163462877274, 0.02144654467701912, 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688,"and is roughly spheroidal , deviating mainly due to massive impacts that formed the Rheasilvia and Veneneia craters after it solidified . Its dimensions are not consistent with it currently being in hydrostatic equilibrium .Triton is more massive than Eris or Pluto, has an equilibrium shape, and is thought to be a captured dwarf planet (likely a member of a binary system), but no longer directly orbits the sun. Phoebe is a captured centaur that, like Vesta, is no longer in hydrostatic equilibrium, but is thought to have been so early in its history due to radiogenic heating. Planetary-mass moons
At least nineteen moons have equilibrium shapes from having collapsed into a solid body (or in a few cases into a nearly solid body) or even relaxed under self-gravity at some point, though some of the latter have since frozen solid and are no longer in equilibrium. Seven are more massive than either Eris or Pluto. These larger moons are not physically distinct from the dwarf planets, but do not fit the IAU definition because they do not directly orbit the Sun. (Indeed, Neptune's moon Triton is a captured dwarf planet, and Ceres formed in the same region of the Solar System as the moons of Jupiter and Saturn.) Alan Stern calls planetary-mass moons ""satellite planets"", one of three categories of planet, together with dwarf planets and classical planets. The term planemo (""planetary-mass object"") also covers all three populations. Charon
There has been some debate as to whether the Pluto–Charon system should be considered a double dwarf planet. In a draft resolution for the IAU definition of planet, both Pluto and Charon were considered planets in a binary system.","[-0.008816512301564217, -0.06976283341646194, 0.044846080243587494, -0.019852176308631897, 0.009778456762433052, -0.04000656679272652, 0.02156974747776985, 0.04251065477728844, -0.030288849025964737, 0.04483557492494583, 0.019878938794136047, -0.133872851729393, -0.011813169345259666, -0.0629810094833374, 0.024362435564398766, -0.09865197539329529, 0.016764270141720772, -0.003273125272244215, 0.029124878346920013, 0.06959570199251175, -0.003694533836096525, 0.049858108162879944, -0.06290485709905624, 0.05848389118909836, -0.04720984771847725, -0.011763796210289001, -0.016545502468943596, 0.024922285228967667, -0.013118480332195759, -0.07340199500322342, -0.0760282427072525, 0.03703448921442032, 0.009576961398124695, 0.020925937220454216, 0.0325535386800766, 0.04432496801018715, 0.010268720798194408, -0.048479579389095306, -0.04941566288471222, 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689,"whether the Pluto–Charon system should be considered a double dwarf planet . In a draft resolution for the IAU definition of planet , both Pluto and Charon were considered planets in a binary system .The IAU currently says Charon is not considered a dwarf planet but rather a satellite of Pluto, though the idea that Charon might qualify as a dwarf planet may be considered at a later date. Nonetheless, it is no longer clear that Charon is in hydrostatic equilibrium. Also, the location of the barycentre depends not only on the relative masses of the bodies, but also on the distance between them; the barycentre of the Sun–Jupiter orbit, for example, lies outside the Sun, but they are not considered a binary object. Thus, a formal definition of what constitutes a binary (dwarf) planet must be established before Pluto and Charon are formally defined as binary dwarf planets. See also
Notes
References
External links

A Visual Introduction to the Dwarf Planets in our Solar System (Anshool Deshmukh, Visual Capitalist, October 8, 2021, graphics by Mark Belan)
NPR: Dwarf Planets May Finally Get Respect (David Kestenbaum, Morning Edition)
BBC News: Q&A New planets proposal, August 16, 2006
Ottawa Citizen: The case against Pluto (P. Surdas Mohit) August 24, 2006
James L. Hilton: When Did the Asteroids Become Minor Planets? 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690," A comet is an icy, small Solar System body or interstellar object that warms and begins to release gases when passing close to the Sun, a process called outgassing. This produces an extended, gravitationally unbound atmosphere or coma surrounding the nucleus, and sometimes a tail of gas and dust gas blown out from the coma. These phenomena are due to the effects of solar radiation and the outstreaming solar wind plasma acting upon the nucleus of the comet. Comet nuclei range from a few hundred meters to tens of kilometers across and are composed of loose collections of ice, dust, and small rocky particles. The coma may be up to 15 times Earth's diameter, while the tail may stretch beyond one astronomical unit. If sufficiently close and bright, a comet may be seen from Earth without the aid of a telescope and can subtend an arc of up to 30° (60 Moons) across the sky. Comets have been observed and recorded since ancient times by many cultures and religions. Comets usually have highly eccentric elliptical orbits, and they have a wide range of orbital periods, ranging from several years to potentially several millions of years. Short-period comets originate in the Kuiper belt or its associated scattered disc, which lie beyond the orbit of Neptune. Long-period comets are thought to originate in the Oort cloud, a spherical cloud of icy bodies extending from outside the Kuiper belt to halfway to the nearest star. Long-period comets are set in motion towards the Sun by gravitational perturbations from passing stars and the galactic tide. Hyperbolic comets may pass once through the inner Solar System before being flung to interstellar space. The appearance of a comet is called an apparition. Extinct comets that have passed close to the Sun many times have lost nearly all of their volatile ices and dust and may come to resemble small asteroids.","[0.010489658452570438, 0.019663717597723007, 0.02936159446835518, 0.0012062768219038844, 0.04854854196310043, -0.030616547912359238, 0.0011216482380405068, 0.1173504889011383, 0.04103115573525429, 0.06645435839891434, -0.021832093596458435, -0.01549510471522808, 0.009429317899048328, -0.0919184535741806, 0.06555692106485367, -0.04205631837248802, 0.1011548712849617, -0.08776155859231949, -0.021807074546813965, -0.009343660436570644, 0.05554962903261185, 0.05094365030527115, -0.05983016639947891, 0.031742267310619354, 0.0206061489880085, 0.022797295823693275, 0.004496134351938963, -0.09002433717250824, -0.024801189079880714, -0.0010154888732358813, -0.006399736739695072, 0.01926051452755928, -0.021850477904081345, -0.029226157814264297, 0.11330181360244751, 0.03256043791770935, 0.0030074375681579113, 0.03821556270122528, 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-0.027186904102563858]",Comet,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
691,"comet is called an apparition . Extinct comets that have passed close to the Sun many times have lost nearly all of their volatile ices and dust and may come to resemble small asteroids .Asteroids are thought to have a different origin from comets, having formed inside the orbit of Jupiter rather than in the outer Solar System. However, the discovery of main-belt comets and active centaur minor planets has blurred the distinction between asteroids and comets. In the early 21st century, the discovery of some minor bodies with long-period comet orbits, but characteristics of inner solar system asteroids, were called Manx comets. They are still classified as comets, such as C/2014 S3 (PANSTARRS). Twenty-seven Manx comets were found from 2013 to 2017. As of November 2021, there are 4,584 known comets. However, this represents a very small fraction of the total potential comet population, as the reservoir of comet-like bodies in the outer Solar System (in the Oort cloud) is about one trillion. Roughly one comet per year is visible to the naked eye, though many of those are faint and unspectacular. Particularly bright examples are called ""great comets"". Comets have been visited by uncrewed probes such as NASA's Deep Impact, which blasted a crater on Comet Tempel 1 to study its interior, and the European Space Agency's Rosetta, which became the first to land a robotic spacecraft on a comet. Etymology
The word comet derives from the Old English cometa from the Latin comēta or comētēs. That, in turn, is a romanization of the Greek κομήτης 'wearing long hair', and the Oxford English Dictionary notes that the term (ἀστὴρ) κομήτης already meant 'long-haired star, comet' in Greek.","[-0.0002951755013782531, -0.03544767573475838, 0.04425676912069321, -0.02979208715260029, 0.04222479090094566, -0.021194608882069588, -0.0020567497704178095, 0.07204148173332214, 0.02200123481452465, 0.07227952033281326, -0.021674159914255142, -0.007991854101419449, 0.05052554979920387, -0.0497574508190155, 0.051977984607219696, -0.041622474789619446, 0.06861373037099838, -0.1399972289800644, 0.05399216711521149, -2.262410635012202e-05, -0.008559459820389748, 0.04920632019639015, -0.08269539475440979, -0.03538725525140762, -0.0030980592127889395, 0.03633832186460495, -0.04297534003853798, -0.07148313522338867, -0.03837542235851288, -0.002399210585281253, 0.0090976282954216, 0.06939254701137543, 0.028439486399292946, -0.08040174841880798, 0.07380187511444092, -0.021662533283233643, 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692,"is a romanization of the Greek κομήτης 'wearing long hair ' , and the Oxford English Dictionary notes that the term ( ἀστὴρ ) κομήτης already meant 'long-haired star , comet ' in Greek .Κομήτης was derived from κομᾶν (koman) 'to wear the hair long', which was itself derived from κόμη (komē) 'the hair of the head' and was used to mean 'the tail of a comet'. The astronomical symbol for comets (represented in Unicode) is U+2604 ☄ COMET, consisting of a small disc with three hairlike extensions. Physical characteristics
Nucleus
The solid, core structure of a comet is known as the nucleus. Cometary nuclei are composed of an amalgamation of rock, dust, water ice, and frozen carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, and ammonia. As such, they are popularly described as ""dirty snowballs"" after Fred Whipple's model. Comets with a higher dust content have been called ""icy dirtballs"". The term ""icy dirtballs"" arose after observation of Comet 9P/Tempel 1 collision with an ""impactor"" probe sent by NASA Deep Impact mission in July 2005. Research conducted in 2014 suggests that comets are like ""deep fried ice cream"", in that their surfaces are formed of dense crystalline ice mixed with organic compounds, while the interior ice is colder and less dense. The surface of the nucleus is generally dry, dusty or rocky, suggesting that the ices are hidden beneath a surface crust several metres thick. Nuclei contain a variety of organic compounds, which may include methanol, hydrogen cyanide, formaldehyde, ethanol, ethane, and perhaps more complex molecules such as long-chain hydrocarbons and amino acids. In 2009, it was confirmed that the amino acid glycine had been found in the comet dust recovered by NASA's Stardust mission.","[-0.037926219403743744, -0.03140656277537346, 0.11324535310268402, 0.006176103372126818, 0.009255757555365562, -0.04559457674622536, 0.05430721491575241, 0.07772484421730042, -0.006885771173983812, 0.038032520562410355, -0.00478174677118659, -0.01695393957197666, -0.02901320345699787, -0.04187050461769104, 0.03120073862373829, -0.02441854029893875, 0.02032923512160778, -0.023168545216321945, -0.049309372901916504, 0.04016183689236641, 0.08784245699644089, -0.002990677719935775, -0.02185811661183834, 0.03897498920559883, 0.06215110048651695, 0.11405085772275925, 0.0032956518698483706, -0.054195091128349304, 0.01617744192481041, -0.046429622918367386, 0.05151961371302605, -0.004970187321305275, 0.024002956226468086, -0.037556566298007965, 0.08538370579481125, -0.03832591697573662, -0.024769388139247894, 0.004533026833087206, -0.00886495504528284, 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693,"complex molecules such as long-chain hydrocarbons and amino acids . In 2009 , it was confirmed that the amino acid glycine had been found in the comet dust recovered by NASA 's Stardust mission .In August 2011, a report, based on NASA studies of meteorites found on Earth, was published suggesting DNA and RNA components (adenine, guanine, and related organic molecules) may have been formed on asteroids and comets. The outer surfaces of cometary nuclei have a very low albedo, making them among the least reflective objects found in the Solar System. The Giotto space probe found that the nucleus of Halley's Comet (1P/Halley) reflects about four percent of the light that falls on it, and Deep Space 1 discovered that Comet Borrelly's surface reflects less than 3.0%; by comparison, asphalt reflects seven percent. The dark surface material of the nucleus may consist of complex organic compounds. Solar heating drives off lighter volatile compounds, leaving behind larger organic compounds that tend to be very dark, like tar or crude oil. The low reflectivity of cometary surfaces causes them to absorb the heat that drives their outgassing processes. Comet nuclei with radii of up to 30 kilometers (19 mi) have been observed, but ascertaining their exact size is difficult. The nucleus of 322P/SOHO is probably only 100–200 meters (330–660 ft) in diameter. A lack of smaller comets being detected despite the increased sensitivity of instruments has led some to suggest that there is a real lack of comets smaller than 100 meters (330 ft) across. Known comets have been estimated to have an average density of 0.6 g/cm3 (0.35 oz/cu in). Because of their low mass, comet nuclei do not become spherical under their own gravity and therefore have irregular shapes.","[-0.030914491042494774, -0.04846241697669029, 0.1158708706498146, 0.0017544059082865715, 0.0876564010977745, -0.03920568525791168, 0.034580640494823456, 0.07954376190900803, -0.017191678285598755, 0.09913310408592224, -0.04314921423792839, -0.04784807562828064, -0.0223383828997612, -0.05025217682123184, 0.061745721846818924, 0.024775736033916473, 0.11463963985443115, -0.012115740217268467, -0.0046622478403151035, -0.0034065505024045706, -0.00211515836417675, 0.03927839174866676, -0.022888552397489548, -0.035540662705898285, 0.02969578094780445, 0.07254296541213989, -0.016623595729470253, -0.06289214640855789, -0.0034184420946985483, -0.05527624115347862, 0.03189678490161896, -0.031252019107341766, -0.028808487579226494, -0.021466566249728203, 0.12320773303508759, 0.05902909114956856, -0.03635939955711365, -0.03754347935318947, 0.027868812903761864, 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694,"have an average density of 0.6 g/cm3 ( 0.35 oz/cu in ) . Because of their low mass , comet nuclei do not become spherical under their own gravity and therefore have irregular shapes .Roughly six percent of the near-Earth asteroids are thought to be the extinct nuclei of comets that no longer experience outgassing, including 14827 Hypnos and 3552 Don Quixote. Results from the Rosetta and Philae spacecraft show that the nucleus of 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko has no magnetic field, which suggests that magnetism may not have played a role in the early formation of planetesimals. Further, the ALICE spectrograph on Rosetta determined that electrons (within 1 km (0.62 mi) above the comet nucleus) produced from photoionization of water molecules by solar radiation, and not photons from the Sun as thought earlier, are responsible for the degradation of water and carbon dioxide molecules released from the comet nucleus into its coma. Instruments on the Philae lander found at least sixteen organic compounds at the comet's surface, four of which (acetamide, acetone, methyl isocyanate and propionaldehyde) have been detected for the first time on a comet. Coma
The streams of dust and gas thus released form a huge and extremely thin atmosphere around the comet called the ""coma"". The force exerted on the coma by the Sun's radiation pressure and solar wind cause an enormous ""tail"" to form pointing away from the Sun. The coma is generally made of water and dust, with water making up to 90% of the volatiles that outflow from the nucleus when the comet is within 3 to 4 AU (450 to 600 million km; 280 to 370 million mi) of the Sun. The H2O parent molecule is destroyed primarily through photodissociation and to a much smaller extent photoionization, with the solar wind playing a minor role in the destruction of water compared to photochemistry.","[-0.011605330742895603, 0.02203953079879284, -0.028907790780067444, -0.011656975373625755, 0.10399742424488068, -0.042383693158626556, 0.034227095544338226, 0.1181040033698082, -0.028330225497484207, 0.07908712327480316, -0.05303357541561127, -0.033818043768405914, 0.02274305187165737, -0.06268572807312012, 0.036630142480134964, 0.010666622780263424, 0.009003248997032642, -0.09212017804384232, 0.013959601521492004, 0.04708307981491089, -0.06476633995771408, 0.005375658627599478, 0.007336083333939314, -0.024658720940351486, 0.0136710274964571, 0.07310552150011063, 0.0037247049622237682, -0.046691641211509705, -0.049838483333587646, -0.04574008285999298, 0.01938958466053009, 0.037529926747083664, 0.002881933469325304, -0.0832073986530304, 0.10464843362569809, 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695,". The H2O parent molecule is destroyed primarily through photodissociation and to a much smaller extent photoionization , with the solar wind playing a minor role in the destruction of water compared to photochemistry .Larger dust particles are left along the comet's orbital path whereas smaller particles are pushed away from the Sun into the comet's tail by light pressure. Although the solid nucleus of comets is generally less than 60 kilometers (37 mi) across, the coma may be thousands or millions of kilometers across, sometimes becoming larger than the Sun. For example, about a month after an outburst in October 2007, comet 17P/Holmes briefly had a tenuous dust atmosphere larger than the Sun. The Great Comet of 1811 had a coma roughly the diameter of the Sun. Even though the coma can become quite large, its size can decrease about the time it crosses the orbit of Mars around 1.5 AU (220 million km; 140 million mi) from the Sun. At this distance the solar wind becomes strong enough to blow the gas and dust away from the coma, and in doing so enlarging the tail. Ion tails have been observed to extend one astronomical unit (150 million km) or more. Both the coma and tail are illuminated by the Sun and may become visible when a comet passes through the inner Solar System, the dust reflects sunlight directly while the gases glow from ionisation. Most comets are too faint to be visible without the aid of a telescope, but a few each decade become bright enough to be visible to the naked eye. Occasionally a comet may experience a huge and sudden outburst of gas and dust, during which the size of the coma greatly increases for a period of time. This happened in 2007 to Comet Holmes. In 1996, comets were found to emit X-rays.","[0.04240076243877411, 0.05781639367341995, 0.09455019980669022, -0.0024275854229927063, 0.04400143399834633, -0.058580826967954636, 0.007179525215178728, 0.1342172473669052, -0.022040192037820816, 0.09145686775445938, 0.05238877236843109, 0.05316007882356644, 0.0022823349572718143, -0.028934814035892487, 0.032803356647491455, 0.009252083487808704, 0.07096114009618759, -0.0454031266272068, -0.06589248031377792, 0.004221475683152676, 0.02077038586139679, -0.0001323851029155776, -0.014323936775326729, 0.01705835945904255, 0.010393866337835789, 0.06956847012042999, -0.03879895061254501, -0.013961032032966614, -0.022780003026127815, -0.058024317026138306, -0.02152155339717865, -0.00047038457705639303, -0.009208006784319878, -0.06122862920165062, 0.08799826353788376, 0.020344747230410576, 0.021182773634791374, 0.014573481865227222, 0.04471731558442116, -0.06451611965894699, 0.043797142803668976, -0.02062375284731388, 0.00020332499116193503, 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696,"dust , during which the size of the coma greatly increases for a period of time . This happened in 2007 to Comet Holmes . In 1996 , comets were found to emit X-rays .This greatly surprised astronomers because X-ray emission is usually associated with very high-temperature bodies. Thomas E. Cravens was the first to propose an explanation in early 1997. The X-rays are generated by the interaction between comets and the solar wind: when highly charged solar wind ions fly through a cometary atmosphere, they collide with cometary atoms and molecules, ""stealing"" one or more electrons from the atom in a process called ""charge exchange"". This exchange or transfer of an electron to the solar wind ion is followed by its de-excitation into the ground state of the ion by the emission of X-rays and far ultraviolet photons. Bow shock
Bow shocks form as a result of the interaction between the solar wind and the cometary ionosphere, which is created by the ionization of gases in the coma. As the comet approaches the Sun, increasing outgassing rates cause the coma to expand, and the sunlight ionizes gases in the coma. When the solar wind passes through this ion coma, the bow shock appears. The first observations were made in the 1980s and 1990s as several spacecraft flew by comets 21P/Giacobini–Zinner, 1P/Halley, and 26P/Grigg–Skjellerup. It was then found that the bow shocks at comets are wider and more gradual than the sharp planetary bow shocks seen at, for example, Earth. These observations were all made near perihelion when the bow shocks already were fully developed. The Rosetta spacecraft observed the bow shock at comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko at an early stage of bow shock development when the outgassing increased during the comet's journey toward the Sun. This young bow shock was called the ""infant bow shock"".","[-0.013523791916668415, -0.0015877803089097142, 0.048949286341667175, 0.09050502628087997, 0.08611054718494415, -0.046329982578754425, 0.10075510293245316, 0.099491186439991, 0.04965732619166374, 0.048754800111055374, 0.039698559790849686, 0.007175662089139223, 0.004691127687692642, 0.00010124133405042812, 0.01271838042885065, 0.042107436805963516, 0.01631268858909607, -0.07500636577606201, -0.05890791863203049, 0.04516485333442688, -0.017300482839345932, 0.008254031650722027, -0.054061274975538254, -0.04297371953725815, 0.059479229152202606, 0.060367535799741745, -0.00803458970040083, -0.018620867282152176, -0.04014773666858673, -0.012200359255075455, 0.019035441800951958, -0.03874659910798073, -0.04068275913596153, 0.011437634006142616, -0.01321050338447094, 0.06126958504319191, 0.0544656403362751, 0.025174768641591072, -0.05485168471932411, 0.02032381296157837, -0.037534162402153015, -0.06447625160217285, 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697,"67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko at an early stage of bow shock development when the outgassing increased during the comet 's journey toward the Sun . This young bow shock was called the `` infant bow shock '' .The infant bow shock is asymmetric and, relative to the distance to the nucleus, wider than fully developed bow shocks. Tails
In the outer Solar System, comets remain frozen and inactive and are extremely difficult or impossible to detect from Earth due to their small size. Statistical detections of inactive comet nuclei in the Kuiper belt have been reported from observations by the Hubble Space Telescope but these detections have been questioned. As a comet approaches the inner Solar System, solar radiation causes the volatile materials within the comet to vaporize and stream out of the nucleus, carrying dust away with them. The streams of dust and gas each form their own distinct tail, pointing in slightly different directions. The tail of dust is left behind in the comet's orbit in such a manner that it often forms a curved tail called the type II or dust tail. At the same time, the ion or type I tail, made of gases, always points directly away from the Sun because this gas is more strongly affected by the solar wind than is dust, following magnetic field lines rather than an orbital trajectory. On occasions—such as when Earth passes through a comet's orbital plane, the antitail, pointing in the opposite direction to the ion and dust tails, may be seen. The observation of antitails contributed significantly to the discovery of solar wind. The ion tail is formed as a result of the ionization by solar ultra-violet radiation of particles in the coma. Once the particles have been ionized, they attain a net positive electrical charge, which in turn gives rise to an ""induced magnetosphere"" around the comet.","[0.012206987477838993, -0.032034050673246384, 0.05513972043991089, 0.003919538110494614, 0.09379879385232925, -0.021688785403966904, 0.07239239662885666, 0.11952690035104752, 0.030158285051584244, 0.04450174793601036, 0.022421978414058685, -0.042229484766721725, -0.04631196707487106, -0.013816455379128456, -0.0027303160168230534, -0.03918379172682762, 0.08941837400197983, -0.06579168140888214, 0.004650773014873266, -0.02005232498049736, -0.06848093122243881, 0.028315339237451553, -0.008169843815267086, -0.008386891335248947, 0.02360711246728897, 0.06196662783622742, -0.010280516929924488, -0.026891544461250305, -0.006495508830994368, -0.05954034626483917, -0.0191053356975317, -0.04066668450832367, 0.00023737590527161956, -0.018888389691710472, 0.08979762345552444, -0.01318657398223877, 0.05468127131462097, 0.032507672905921936, 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698,"particles in the coma . Once the particles have been ionized , they attain a net positive electrical charge , which in turn gives rise to an `` induced magnetosphere '' around the comet .The comet and its induced magnetic field form an obstacle to outward flowing solar wind particles. Because the relative orbital speed of the comet and the solar wind is supersonic, a bow shock is formed upstream of the comet in the flow direction of the solar wind. In this bow shock, large concentrations of cometary ions (called ""pick-up ions"") congregate and act to ""load"" the solar magnetic field with plasma, such that the field lines ""drape"" around the comet forming the ion tail. If the ion tail loading is sufficient, the magnetic field lines are squeezed together to the point where, at some distance along the ion tail, magnetic reconnection occurs. This leads to a ""tail disconnection event"". This has been observed on a number of occasions, one notable event being recorded on 20 April 2007, when the ion tail of Encke's Comet was completely severed while the comet passed through a coronal mass ejection. This event was observed by the STEREO space probe. In 2013, ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions."" Jets
Uneven heating can cause newly generated gases to break out of a weak spot on the surface of comet's nucleus, like a geyser. These streams of gas and dust can cause the nucleus to spin, and even split apart. In 2010 it was revealed that sublimation of dry ice (frozen carbon dioxide) can power jets of material flowing out of a comet nucleus. Infrared imaging of Hartley 2 shows such jets exiting and carrying with it dust grains into the coma.","[-0.038967955857515335, 0.004945679102092981, 0.08441004157066345, 0.04381345212459564, 0.019392866641283035, 0.0019133727764710784, 0.05402982607483864, 0.070048026740551, 0.04676298424601555, 0.05304320156574249, -0.00759704876691103, 0.03758515790104866, -0.0019061545608565211, -0.02821100689470768, 0.026389487087726593, 0.005194841884076595, 0.06693639606237411, -0.0586743988096714, -0.03942808136343956, 0.04193798080086708, -0.022669754922389984, -0.0464625284075737, -0.033649347722530365, 0.009432224556803703, 0.05489244684576988, 0.07703279703855515, 0.015964942052960396, -0.04248503968119621, -0.09280803054571152, -0.04853731021285057, -0.015875665470957756, -0.028853412717580795, -0.10391291230916977, -0.014755181968212128, -0.012093889527022839, 0.03509369492530823, 0.0025885466020554304, 0.023276539519429207, 0.008678712882101536, 0.04712164029479027, 0.017468435689806938, 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699,"frozen carbon dioxide ) can power jets of material flowing out of a comet nucleus . Infrared imaging of Hartley 2 shows such jets exiting and carrying with it dust grains into the coma .Orbital characteristics
Most comets are small Solar System bodies with elongated elliptical orbits that take them close to the Sun for a part of their orbit and then out into the further reaches of the Solar System for the remainder. Comets are often classified according to the length of their orbital periods: The longer the period the more elongated the ellipse. Short period
Periodic comets or short-period comets are generally defined as those having orbital periods of less than 200 years. They usually orbit more-or-less in the ecliptic plane in the same direction as the planets. Their orbits typically take them out to the region of the outer planets (Jupiter and beyond) at aphelion; for example, the aphelion of Halley's Comet is a little beyond the orbit of Neptune. Comets whose aphelia are near a major planet's orbit are called its ""family"". Such families are thought to arise from the planet capturing formerly long-period comets into shorter orbits. At the shorter orbital period extreme, Encke's Comet has an orbit that does not reach the orbit of Jupiter, and is known as an Encke-type comet. Short-period comets with orbital periods less than 20 years and low inclinations (up to 30 degrees) to the ecliptic are called traditional Jupiter-family comets (JFCs). Those like Halley, with orbital periods of between 20 and 200 years and inclinations extending from zero to more than 90 degrees, are called Halley-type comets (HTCs). As of July 2025 there are 74 known Encke-type comets (six of which are classified as near-earth objects (NEOs)), 109 HTCs (36 of which are NEOs), and 815 JFCs (153 of which are NEOs).","[-0.01708390563726425, -0.01436541136354208, -0.0018038565758615732, 0.006711215246468782, 0.02851187251508236, -0.02210203930735588, -0.033425405621528625, 0.07615770399570465, 0.02952738292515278, 0.04476214945316315, 0.0270566213876009, 0.03278790041804314, 0.021558718755841255, -0.11985105276107788, 0.0869554951786995, -0.033485300838947296, 0.0641666129231453, -0.08114993572235107, 0.021842345595359802, -0.005690655205398798, 0.06377018988132477, -0.018659507855772972, -0.045507222414016724, 0.03698453679680824, -0.027346735820174217, 0.04324034973978996, -0.04174424335360527, -0.02664392627775669, -0.03451545909047127, -0.06458625942468643, -0.003962434828281403, 0.021081294864416122, -0.04182175546884537, -0.028004251420497894, 0.08135121315717697, 0.052174728363752365, 0.005558325443416834, 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-0.039617735892534256]",Comet,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
700,"( six of which are classified as near-earth objects ( NEOs ) ) , 109 HTCs ( 36 of which are NEOs ) , and 815 JFCs ( 153 of which are NEOs ) .Recently discovered main-belt comets form a distinct class, orbiting in more circular orbits within the asteroid belt. Because their elliptical orbits frequently take them close to the giant planets, comets are subject to further gravitational perturbations. Short-period comets have a tendency for their aphelia to coincide with a giant planet's semi-major axis, with the JFCs being the largest group. It is clear that comets coming in from the Oort cloud often have their orbits strongly influenced by the gravity of giant planets as a result of a close encounter. Jupiter is the source of the greatest perturbations, being more than twice as massive as all the other planets combined. These perturbations can deflect long-period comets into shorter orbital periods. Based on their orbital characteristics, short-period comets are thought to originate from the centaurs and the Kuiper belt/scattered disc —a disk of objects in the trans-Neptunian region—whereas the source of long-period comets is thought to be the far more distant spherical Oort cloud (after the Dutch astronomer Jan Hendrik Oort who hypothesized its existence). Vast swarms of comet-like bodies are thought to orbit the Sun in these distant regions in roughly circular orbits. Occasionally the gravitational influence of the outer planets (in the case of Kuiper belt objects) or nearby stars (in the case of Oort cloud objects) may throw one of these bodies into an elliptical orbit that takes it inwards toward the Sun to form a visible comet. Unlike the return of periodic comets, whose orbits have been established by previous observations, the appearance of new comets by this mechanism is unpredictable.","[0.01643962413072586, -0.01126702781766653, 0.013605411164462566, -0.016240984201431274, 0.08225248008966446, -0.040330663323402405, -0.03969708830118179, 0.09843199700117111, 0.02636544406414032, 0.016757724806666374, -0.04228636249899864, 0.014146587811410427, 0.028172405436635017, -0.09904618561267853, 0.03823389858007431, -0.042781103402376175, 0.08441238850355148, -0.029604874551296234, 0.013214698992669582, 0.001558086834847927, -0.025570664554834366, 0.013864400796592236, -0.006332000717520714, 0.04054958000779152, -0.06382840126752853, 0.010812485590577126, -0.04952303320169449, -0.01591050624847412, -0.04118422046303749, -0.08800599724054337, -0.022871946915984154, 0.033598095178604126, 0.005693418905138969, -0.013511118479073048, 0.019022280350327492, 0.024071265012025833, 0.0007517527556046844, 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701,"the Sun to form a visible comet . Unlike the return of periodic comets , whose orbits have been established by previous observations , the appearance of new comets by this mechanism is unpredictable .When flung into the orbit of the sun, and being continuously dragged towards it, tons of matter are stripped from the comets which greatly influence their lifetime; the more stripped, the shorter they live and vice versa. Long period
Long-period comets have highly eccentric orbits and periods ranging from 200 years to thousands or even millions of years. An eccentricity greater than 1 when near perihelion does not necessarily mean that a comet will leave the Solar System. For example, Comet McNaught had a heliocentric osculating eccentricity of 1.000019 near its perihelion passage epoch in January 2007 but is bound to the Sun with roughly a 92,600-year orbit because the eccentricity drops below 1 as it moves farther from the Sun. The future orbit of a long-period comet is properly obtained when the osculating orbit is computed at an epoch after leaving the planetary region and is calculated with respect to the center of mass of the Solar System. By definition long-period comets remain gravitationally bound to the Sun; those comets that are ejected from the Solar System due to close passes by major planets are no longer properly considered as having ""periods"". The orbits of long-period comets take them far beyond the outer planets at aphelia, and the plane of their orbits need not lie near the ecliptic. Long-period comets such as C/1999 F1 and C/2017 T2 (PANSTARRS) can have aphelion distances of nearly 70,000 AU (0.34 pc; 1.1 ly) with orbital periods estimated around 6 million years. Single-apparition or non-periodic comets are similar to long-period comets because they have parabolic or slightly hyperbolic trajectories when near perihelion in the inner Solar System. However, gravitational perturbations from giant planets cause their orbits to change.","[-0.0008926201262511313, 0.013890516944229603, 0.06307119876146317, 0.029718762263655663, 0.034513212740421295, -0.03627032786607742, -0.046993888914585114, 0.05310070514678955, 0.02000396139919758, 0.03286342695355415, 0.03808210790157318, 0.05121153965592384, 0.04252791777253151, -0.0762028694152832, 0.05588025227189064, -0.01191024947911501, 0.023410458117723465, -0.059711117297410965, 0.018226386979222298, 0.03213740885257721, 0.0033453567884862423, -0.051494255661964417, -0.05032247304916382, 0.030633335933089256, 0.007583719678223133, 0.01535290852189064, 0.009065680205821991, -0.04284503310918808, -0.03672642633318901, -0.016917357221245766, -0.007336187642067671, 0.025983555242419243, -0.006414539180696011, -0.025036873295903206, 0.03186868503689766, 0.040163904428482056, -0.025844568386673927, -0.03590242192149162, -0.0069422852247953415, -0.06814880669116974, 0.03405119478702545, 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-0.03441758453845978]",Comet,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
702,"are similar to long-period comets because they have parabolic or slightly hyperbolic trajectories when near perihelion in the inner Solar System . However , gravitational perturbations from giant planets cause their orbits to change .Single-apparition comets have a hyperbolic or parabolic osculating orbit which allows them to permanently exit the Solar System after a single pass of the Sun. The Sun's Hill sphere has an unstable maximum boundary of 230,000 AU (1.1 pc; 3.6 ly). Only a few hundred comets have been seen to reach a hyperbolic orbit (e > 1) when near perihelion that using a heliocentric unperturbed two-body best-fit suggests they may escape the Solar System. As of 2025, three objects have been discovered with an eccentricity significantly greater than one: 1I/ʻOumuamua, 2I/Borisov, and 3I/ATLAS, indicating an origin outside the Solar System. While ʻOumuamua, with an eccentricity of about 1.2, showed no optical signs of cometary activity during its passage through the inner Solar System in October 2017, changes to its trajectory—which suggests outgassing—indicate that it is probably a comet. On the other hand, 2I/Borisov, with an estimated eccentricity of about 3.36, has been observed to have the coma feature of comets, and is considered the first detected interstellar comet. 3I/ATLAS has an eccentricity of about 6.1, and also has a coma, indicating that it is also a comet. Comet C/1980 E1 had an orbital period of roughly 7.1 million years before the 1982 perihelion passage, but a 1980 encounter with Jupiter accelerated the comet giving it the largest eccentricity (1.057) of any known solar comet with a reasonable observation arc. Comets not expected to return to the inner Solar System include C/1980 E1, C/2000 U5, C/2001 Q4 (NEAT), C/2009 R1, C/1956 R1, and C/2007 F1 (LONEOS).","[0.025973498821258545, -0.019609427079558372, 0.005038948729634285, -0.02567107044160366, 0.03961946442723274, -0.09579911828041077, -0.055816955864429474, 0.06130978837609291, 0.02149125188589096, 0.07183530926704407, 0.021573133766651154, -0.024952368810772896, 0.007435590028762817, -0.07863838225603104, 0.10452938079833984, 0.025616085156798363, 0.057082075625658035, -0.07208597660064697, -0.0003553825954440981, 0.07598933577537537, -0.01243426464498043, -0.014001366682350636, -0.04237914830446243, 0.07421916723251343, -0.039577025920152664, 0.022457180544734, -0.058400850743055344, -0.01563824526965618, -0.07471521943807602, -0.05974653735756874, -0.014970676973462105, -0.010852577164769173, -0.10516710579395294, -0.02887294813990593, 0.12592759728431702, 0.036456651985645294, 0.021490901708602905, 0.01172600593417883, 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703,"not expected to return to the inner Solar System include C/1980 E1 , C/2000 U5 , C/2001 Q4 ( NEAT ) , C/2009 R1 , C/1956 R1 , and C/2007 F1 ( LONEOS ) .Some authorities use the term ""periodic comet"" to refer to any comet with a periodic orbit (that is, all short-period comets plus all long-period comets), whereas others use it to mean exclusively short-period comets. Similarly, although the literal meaning of ""non-periodic comet"" is the same as ""single-apparition comet"", some use it to mean all comets that are not ""periodic"" in the second sense (that is, to include all comets with a period greater than 200 years). Early observations have revealed a few genuinely hyperbolic (i.e. non-periodic) trajectories, but no more than could be accounted for by perturbations from Jupiter. Comets from interstellar space are moving with velocities of the same order as the relative velocities of stars near the Sun (a few tens of km per second). When such objects enter the Solar System, they have a positive specific orbital energy resulting in a positive velocity at infinity (
  
    
      
        
          v
          
            ∞
          
        
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle v_{\infty }\!} ) and have notably hyperbolic trajectories. A rough calculation shows that there might be four hyperbolic comets per century within Jupiter's orbit, give or take one and perhaps two orders of magnitude. Oort cloud and Hills cloud
The Oort cloud is thought to occupy a vast space starting from between 2,000 and 5,000 AU (0.03 and 0.08 ly) to as far as 50,000 AU (0.79 ly) from the Sun. This cloud encases the celestial bodies that start at the middle of the Solar System—the Sun, all the way to outer limits of the Kuiper Belt. The Oort cloud consists of viable materials necessary for the creation of celestial bodies.","[-0.047033049166202545, -0.04925581067800522, 0.02554905414581299, 0.01819603145122528, 0.02194221504032612, -0.04321321099996567, -0.04729611426591873, 0.039128437638282776, 0.06369651108980179, 0.00020316254813224077, 0.05977611988782883, -0.05982844531536102, 0.021069761365652084, -0.08897629380226135, 0.11086404323577881, -0.047942955046892166, 0.04727349057793617, -0.08657748997211456, 0.09332546591758728, 0.003995272796601057, -0.005624879617244005, 0.01572553813457489, -0.07110121101140976, 0.03341309353709221, 0.023769326508045197, 0.03157234936952591, -0.08795609325170517, -0.054693836718797684, -0.010553399100899696, 0.00975832063704729, -0.01164570264518261, 0.10228019207715988, -0.07530011981725693, -0.007922637276351452, 0.08051559329032898, 0.01551512535661459, 0.008196381852030754, 0.0029297044966369867, -0.002170130843296647, -0.023236209526658058, -0.018469851464033127, 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704,"at the middle of the Solar System—the Sun , all the way to outer limits of the Kuiper Belt . The Oort cloud consists of viable materials necessary for the creation of celestial bodies .The Solar System's planets exist only because of the planetesimals (chunks of leftover space that assisted in the creation of planets) that were condensed and formed by the gravity of the Sun. The eccentric made from these trapped planetesimals is why the Oort Cloud even exists. Some estimates place the outer edge at between 100,000 and 200,000 AU (1.58 and 3.16 ly). The region can be subdivided into a spherical outer Oort cloud of 20,000–50,000 AU (0.32–0.79 ly), and a doughnut-shaped inner cloud, the Hills cloud, of 2,000–20,000 AU (0.03–0.32 ly). The outer cloud is only weakly bound to the Sun and supplies the long-period (and possibly Halley-type) comets that fall to inside the orbit of Neptune. The inner Oort cloud is also known as the Hills cloud, named after Jack G. Hills, who proposed its existence in 1981. Models predict that the inner cloud should have tens or hundreds of times as many cometary nuclei as the outer halo; it is seen as a possible source of new comets that resupply the relatively tenuous outer cloud as the latter's numbers are gradually depleted. The Hills cloud explains the continued existence of the Oort cloud after billions of years. Exocomets
Exocomets beyond the Solar System have been detected and may be common in the Milky Way. The first exocomet system detected was around Beta Pictoris, a very young A-type main-sequence star, in 1987. A total of 11 such exocomet systems have been identified as of 2013, using the absorption spectrum caused by the large clouds of gas emitted by comets when passing close to their star.","[-0.04808669909834862, 0.015507347881793976, 0.032074570655822754, 0.028112351894378662, 0.07737769186496735, -0.10599321871995926, -0.010393772274255753, 0.03681737557053566, 0.12461892515420914, 0.016830315813422203, -0.020233821123838425, -0.05603631213307381, 0.009627072140574455, -0.08363664150238037, 0.018455512821674347, 0.018220892176032066, 0.051558978855609894, -0.04807775095105171, -0.0165861789137125, -0.005467325448989868, 0.04191623255610466, 0.03065372258424759, -0.02022545598447323, 0.051193464547395706, -0.039411891251802444, -0.020838383585214615, -0.08672235161066055, 0.00845104455947876, 0.011830320581793785, -0.09899627417325974, 0.08414366841316223, -0.004173911176621914, -0.020476097241044044, 0.056321896612644196, 0.09656032174825668, 0.003025426995009184, 0.026099570095539093, 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705,"A total of 11 such exocomet systems have been identified as of 2013 , using the absorption spectrum caused by the large clouds of gas emitted by comets when passing close to their star .For ten years the Kepler space telescope was responsible for searching for planets and other forms outside of the solar system. The first transiting exocomets were found in February 2018 by a group consisting of professional astronomers and citizen scientists in light curves recorded by the Kepler Space Telescope. After Kepler Space Telescope retired in October 2018, a new telescope called TESS Telescope has taken over Kepler's mission. Since the launch of TESS, astronomers have discovered the transits of comets around the star Beta Pictoris using a light curve from TESS. Since TESS has taken over, astronomers have since been able to better distinguish exocomets with the spectroscopic method. New planets are detected by the white light curve method which is viewed as a symmetrical dip in the charts readings when a planet overshadows its parent star. However, after further evaluation of these light curves, it has been discovered that the asymmetrical patterns of the dips presented are caused by the tail of a comet or of hundreds of comets. Effects of comets
Connection to meteor showers
As a comet is heated during close passes to the Sun, outgassing of its icy components releases solid debris too large to be swept away by radiation pressure and the solar wind. If Earth's orbit sends it through that trail of debris, which is composed mostly of fine grains of rocky material, there is likely to be a meteor shower as Earth passes through. Denser trails of debris produce quick but intense meteor showers and less dense trails create longer but less intense showers. Typically, the density of the debris trail is related to how long ago the parent comet released the material.","[-0.03786635771393776, -0.0751940980553627, 0.009783496148884296, 0.05958067253232002, 0.02606855146586895, -0.08775672316551208, -0.033535998314619064, 0.03824387863278389, 0.05302751436829567, 0.05179813131690025, 0.027481580153107643, -0.00947503186762333, 0.009389770217239857, -0.014688626863062382, 0.02144794352352619, -0.005376962013542652, 0.07799990475177765, -0.07730086892843246, 0.011531377211213112, 0.045519933104515076, -0.040754083544015884, -0.02674461342394352, -0.06252633780241013, -0.012424521148204803, 0.035630542784929276, 0.011506197042763233, -0.05857668071985245, -0.07755672186613083, -0.03462791442871094, -0.02550685964524746, 0.01641259156167507, 0.028694095090031624, -0.06957808136940002, 0.029966963455080986, 0.02518167905509472, -0.024515122175216675, 0.04542664811015129, -0.05103062838315964, 0.02925935946404934, -0.039112407714128494, 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706,"intense meteor showers and less dense trails create longer but less intense showers . Typically , the density of the debris trail is related to how long ago the parent comet released the material .The Perseid meteor shower, for example, occurs every year between 9 and 13 August, when Earth passes through the orbit of Comet Swift–Tuttle. Halley's Comet is the source of the Orionid shower in October. Comets and impact on life
Many comets and asteroids collided with Earth in its early stages. Many scientists think that comets bombarding the young Earth about 4 billion years ago brought the vast quantities of water that now fill Earth's oceans, or at least a significant portion of it. Others have cast doubt on this idea. The detection of organic molecules, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, in significant quantities in comets has led to speculation that comets or meteorites may have brought the precursors of life—or even life itself—to Earth. In 2013 it was suggested that impacts between rocky and icy surfaces, such as comets, had the potential to create the amino acids that make up proteins through shock synthesis. The speed at which the comets entered the atmosphere, combined with the magnitude of energy created after initial contact, allowed smaller molecules to condense into the larger macro-molecules that served as the foundation for life. In 2015, scientists found significant amounts of molecular oxygen in the outgassings of comet 67P, suggesting that the molecule may occur more often than had been thought, and thus less an indicator of life as has been supposed. It is suspected that comet impacts have, over long timescales, delivered significant quantities of water to Earth's Moon, some of which may have survived as lunar ice. Comet and meteoroid impacts are thought to be responsible for the existence of tektites and australites.","[-0.03592078015208244, -0.02258020080626011, 0.14769071340560913, 0.006876264698803425, 0.09534794092178345, 0.007197572384029627, 0.024610599502921104, 0.07511544972658157, 0.007240494713187218, 0.01971680112183094, -0.05486585572361946, -0.01740802265703678, -0.01473657600581646, 0.018123595044016838, 0.04385259747505188, 0.07414603233337402, 0.015582927502691746, -0.04805693402886391, -0.0345124714076519, -0.024129604920744896, -0.012018775567412376, 0.025634614750742912, -0.08266204595565796, -0.02390645444393158, 0.005766810849308968, 0.08369269967079163, 0.027959750965237617, -0.0379452221095562, -0.015191560611128807, 0.016129057854413986, 0.05279870331287384, -0.03213634714484215, 0.0049862489104270935, -0.08312368392944336, 0.053465500473976135, 0.07659601420164108, 0.013691580854356289, -0.036804892122745514, -0.010789508000016212, -0.012673269957304, 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-0.012223759666085243]",Comet,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
707,"quantities of water to Earth 's Moon , some of which may have survived as lunar ice . Comet and meteoroid impacts are thought to be responsible for the existence of tektites and australites .Fear of comets
Fear of comets as acts of God and signs of impending doom was highest in Europe from 1200 to 1650 CE. The year after the Great Comet of 1618, for example, Gotthard Arthusius published a pamphlet stating that it was a sign that the Day of Judgment was near. He listed ten pages of comet-related disasters, including ""earthquakes, floods, changes in river courses, hail storms, hot and dry weather, poor harvests, epidemics, war and treason and high prices"". By 1700 most scholars concluded that such events occurred whether a comet was seen or not. Using Edmond Halley's records of comet sightings, however, William Whiston in 1711 wrote that the Great Comet of 1680 had a periodicity of 574 years and was responsible for the worldwide flood in the Book of Genesis, by pouring water on Earth. His announcement revived for another century fear of comets, now as direct threats to the world instead of signs of disasters. Spectroscopic analysis in 1910 found the toxic gas cyanogen in the tail of Halley's Comet, causing panicked buying of gas masks and quack ""anti-comet pills"" and ""anti-comet umbrellas"" by the public. Fate of comets
Departure (ejection) from Solar System
If a comet is traveling fast enough, it may leave the Solar System. Such comets follow the open path of a hyperbola, and as such, they are called hyperbolic comets. Solar comets are only known to be ejected by interacting with another object in the Solar System, such as Jupiter.","[-0.05291004478931427, 0.035533357411623, 0.032574184238910675, 0.029969610273838043, 0.08183380961418152, 0.03257682919502258, 0.03149216249585152, 0.158113032579422, -0.0559115894138813, 0.04895760864019394, -0.042447205632925034, -0.05182033032178879, 0.05210055410861969, -0.014734223484992981, -0.0769355446100235, -0.02247648313641548, -0.035330578684806824, -0.017777403816580772, 0.037783149629831314, 0.010809369385242462, -0.007725383620709181, 0.02859152853488922, -0.024189069867134094, -0.02752884291112423, 0.026835227385163307, 0.0830356702208519, -0.0019636861979961395, -0.04358931630849838, -0.0008157651755027473, 0.06790411472320557, -0.004142002202570438, -0.0192110575735569, -0.017716890200972557, -0.07328978180885315, 0.056942690163850784, 0.004756322130560875, 0.026572031900286674, -0.028703879565000534, 0.004606242757290602, -0.08984371274709702, 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708,"a hyperbola , and as such , they are called hyperbolic comets . Solar comets are only known to be ejected by interacting with another object in the Solar System , such as Jupiter .An example of this is Comet C/1980 E1, which was shifted from an orbit of 7.1 million years around the Sun, to a hyperbolic trajectory, after a 1980 close pass by the planet Jupiter. Interstellar comets such as 1I/ʻOumuamua, 2I/Borisov and 3I/ATLAS never orbited the Sun and therefore do not require a 3rd-body interaction to be ejected from the Solar System. Extinction
Jupiter-family comets and long-period comets appear to follow very different fading laws. The JFCs are active over a lifetime of about 10,000 years or ~1,000 orbits whereas long-period comets fade much faster. Only 10% of the long-period comets survive more than 50 passages to small perihelion and only 1% of them survive more than 2,000 passages. Eventually most of the volatile material contained in a comet nucleus evaporates, and the comet becomes a small, dark, inert lump of rock or rubble that can resemble an asteroid. Some asteroids in elliptical orbits are now identified as extinct comets. Roughly six percent of the near-Earth asteroids are thought to be extinct comet nuclei. Breakup and collisions
The nucleus of some comets may be fragile, a conclusion supported by the observation of comets splitting apart. A significant cometary disruption was that of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9, which was discovered in 1993. A close encounter in July 1992 had broken it into pieces, and over a period of six days in July 1994, these pieces fell into Jupiter's atmosphere—the first time astronomers had observed a collision between two objects in the Solar System. Other splitting comets include 3D/Biela in 1846 and 73P/Schwassmann–Wachmann from 1995 to 2006. Greek historian Ephorus reported that a comet split apart as far back as the winter of 372–373 BCE.","[-0.008823560550808907, -0.05210759490728378, 0.02263469062745571, -0.00828014500439167, 0.06665245443582535, -0.06086413562297821, -0.0452926866710186, 0.05093693733215332, 0.025221707299351692, 0.04524494335055351, 0.042623121291399, 0.00534415477886796, 0.007481146138161421, -0.03962180018424988, 0.09572144597768784, -0.003281298326328397, 0.11751875281333923, -0.056546520441770554, -0.00897908117622137, 0.037014808505773544, 0.036500077694654465, -0.0030871708877384663, -0.0563509427011013, -0.020971527323126793, -0.0013769313227385283, 0.04029851034283638, -0.023074807599186897, -0.042918331921100616, -0.05362319573760033, -0.047326378524303436, -0.02518889680504799, -0.019072817638516426, -0.08556041121482849, -0.04019448533654213, 0.05909661576151848, 0.018489588052034378, 0.01784696616232395, -0.013362064026296139, 0.03556728735566139, -0.03377366065979004, 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709,"System . Other splitting comets include 3D/Biela in 1846 and 73P/Schwassmann–Wachmann from 1995 to 2006 . Greek historian Ephorus reported that a comet split apart as far back as the winter of 372–373 BCE .Comets are suspected of splitting due to thermal stress, internal gas pressure, or impact. Comets 42P/Neujmin and 53P/Van Biesbroeck appear to be fragments of a parent comet. Numerical integrations have shown that both comets had a rather close approach to Jupiter in January 1850, and that, before 1850, the two orbits were nearly identical. Another group of comets that is the result of fragmentation episodes is the Liller comet family made of C/1988 A1 (Liller), C/1996 Q1 (Tabur), C/2015 F3 (SWAN), C/2019 Y1 (ATLAS), and C/2023 V5 (Leonard). Some comets have been observed to break up during their perihelion passage, including great comets West and Ikeya–Seki. Biela's Comet was one significant example when it broke into two pieces during its passage through the perihelion in 1846. These two comets were seen separately in 1852, but never again afterward. Instead, spectacular meteor showers were seen in 1872 and 1885 when the comet should have been visible. A minor meteor shower, the Andromedids, occurs annually in November, and it is caused when Earth crosses the orbit of Biela's Comet. Some comets meet a more spectacular end – either falling into the Sun or colliding with a planet or other body. Collisions between comets and planets or moons were common in the early Solar System: some of the many craters on the Moon, for example, may have been caused by comets. A recent collision of a comet with a planet occurred in July 1994 when Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 broke up into pieces and collided with Jupiter. Nomenclature
The names given to comets have followed several different conventions over the past two centuries.","[-0.14745183289051056, -0.04853320121765137, 0.0779285803437233, -0.05251524969935417, 0.04085669293999672, -0.06719627976417542, -0.08308520913124084, 0.13016904890537262, -0.03224029392004013, -0.00028697625384666026, -0.006890654563903809, -0.035480476915836334, -0.007609974127262831, -0.08330758661031723, 0.081227608025074, 0.019475972279906273, -0.053515683859586716, -0.051741015166044235, -0.003191453404724598, 0.0534537136554718, -0.03701186180114746, -0.03792405128479004, -0.10801675170660019, 0.03149213269352913, 0.09799329191446304, 0.10073836147785187, -0.0014436810743063688, -0.05711092799901962, -0.026687152683734894, -0.030017077922821045, 0.04642023891210556, -0.013077986426651478, -0.030646415427327156, -0.026519082486629486, 0.07506997138261795, -0.009836718440055847, -0.00949585810303688, -0.0013458048924803734, -0.025630757212638855, -0.0253736712038517, 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710,"planet occurred in July 1994 when Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 broke up into pieces and collided with Jupiter . Nomenclature The names given to comets have followed several different conventions over the past two centuries .Prior to the early 20th century, most comets were referred to by the year when they appeared, sometimes with additional adjectives for particularly bright comets; thus, the ""Great Comet of 1680"", the ""Great Comet of 1882"", and the ""Great January Comet of 1910"". After Edmond Halley demonstrated that the comets of 1531, 1607, and 1682 were the same body and successfully predicted its return in 1759 by calculating its orbit, that comet became known as Halley's Comet. Similarly, the second and third known periodic comets, Encke's Comet and Biela's Comet, were named after the astronomers who calculated their orbits rather than their original discoverers. Later, periodic comets were usually named after their discoverers, but comets that had appeared only once continued to be referred to by the year of their appearance. In the early 20th century, the convention of naming comets after their discoverers became common, and this remains so today. A comet can be named after its discoverers or an instrument or program that helped to find it. For example, in 2019, astronomer Gennadiy Borisov observed a comet that appeared to have originated outside of the solar system; the comet was named 2I/Borisov after him. History of study
Early observations and thought
From ancient sources, such as Chinese oracle bones, it is known that comets have been noticed by humans for millennia. Until the sixteenth century, comets were usually considered bad omens of deaths of kings or noble men, or coming catastrophes, or even interpreted as attacks by heavenly beings against terrestrial inhabitants.","[-0.06311403214931488, -0.02959388680756092, 0.06626208126544952, 0.009518137201666832, -0.019523916766047478, -0.044438235461711884, -0.04196905344724655, 0.09165435284376144, -0.04070897400379181, 0.005103007890284061, 0.010587852448225021, 0.0779009461402893, 0.01231361087411642, -0.0494665652513504, 0.008777045644819736, -0.041119448840618134, 0.01379561796784401, -0.0307367704808712, 0.043969668447971344, -0.031839244067668915, -0.002115667099133134, 0.01782660372555256, -0.05817761644721031, -0.004125901497900486, 0.04507650062441826, 0.05978547781705856, -0.04053886979818344, -0.054852280765771866, -0.013664649799466133, 0.004736737813800573, 0.012771760113537312, 0.024511143565177917, 0.03845413774251938, 8.009654266061261e-05, -4.2660842154873535e-05, 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711,"Until the sixteenth century , comets were usually considered bad omens of deaths of kings or noble men , or coming catastrophes , or even interpreted as attacks by heavenly beings against terrestrial inhabitants .Aristotle (384–322 BCE) was the first known scientist to use various theories and observational facts to employ a consistent, structured cosmological theory of comets. He believed that comets were atmospheric phenomena, due to the fact that they could appear outside of the zodiac and vary in brightness over the course of a few days. Aristotle's cometary theory arose from his observations and cosmological theory that everything in the cosmos is arranged in a distinct configuration. Part of this configuration was a clear separation between the celestial and terrestrial, believing comets to be strictly associated with the latter. According to Aristotle, comets must be within the sphere of the moon and clearly separated from the heavens. Also in the 4th century BCE, Apollonius of Myndus supported the idea that comets moved like the planets. Aristotelian theory on comets continued to be widely accepted throughout the Middle Ages, despite several discoveries from various individuals challenging aspects of it. In the 1st century CE, Seneca the Younger questioned Aristotle's logic concerning comets. Because of their regular movement and imperviousness to wind, they cannot be atmospheric, and are more permanent than suggested by their brief flashes across the sky. He pointed out that only the tails are transparent and thus cloudlike, and argued that there is no reason to confine their orbits to the zodiac. In criticizing Apollonius of Myndus, Seneca argues, ""A comet cuts through the upper regions of the universe and then finally becomes visible when it reaches the lowest point of its orbit."" While Seneca did not author a substantial theory of his own, his arguments would spark much debate among Aristotle's critics in the 16th and 17th centuries.","[0.005232471507042646, 0.030322672799229622, 0.021736515685915947, -0.023947784677147865, -0.0035775862634181976, -0.04948419705033302, 0.011723492294549942, 0.057743970304727554, -0.03764575719833374, 0.07870723307132721, -0.020845787599682808, 0.031312983483076096, 0.03268331661820412, -0.025317847728729248, -0.013140121474862099, -0.051593128591775894, -0.005895305424928665, -0.0017324649961665273, -0.02459511160850525, 0.00818638689815998, -0.0644664317369461, 0.005426758900284767, -0.0720381811261177, 0.04506527632474899, 0.052655838429927826, 0.10139834135770798, 0.020317966118454933, -0.06674624979496002, -0.02192717231810093, 0.013592646457254887, -0.014125533401966095, -0.014093782752752304, -0.0027957786805927753, -0.06304718554019928, -0.038842543959617615, -0.0013521770015358925, 0.012236124835908413, 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712,"point of its orbit . '' While Seneca did not author a substantial theory of his own , his arguments would spark much debate among Aristotle 's critics in the 16th and 17th centuries .In the 1st century CE, Pliny the Elder believed that comets were connected with political unrest and death. Pliny observed comets as ""human like"", often describing their tails with ""long hair"" or ""long beard"". His system for classifying comets according to their color and shape was used for centuries. In India, by the 6th century CE astronomers believed that comets were apparitions that re-appeared periodically. This was the view expressed in the 6th century by the astronomers Varāhamihira and Bhadrabahu, and the 10th-century astronomer Bhaṭṭotpala listed the names and estimated periods of certain comets, but it is not known how these figures were calculated or how accurate they were. There is a claim that an Arab scholar in 1258 noted several recurrent appearances of a comet (or a type of comet), and though it's not clear if he considered it to be a single periodic comet, it might have been a comet with a period of around 63 years. In 1301, the Italian painter Giotto was the first person to accurately and anatomically portray a comet. In his work Adoration of the Magi, Giotto's depiction of Halley's Comet in the place of the Star of Bethlehem would go unmatched in accuracy until the 19th century and be bested only with the invention of photography. Astrological interpretations of comets proceeded to take precedence clear into the 15th century, despite the presence of modern scientific astronomy beginning to take root. Comets continued to forewarn of disaster, as seen in the Luzerner Schilling chronicles and in the warnings of Pope Callixtus III.","[-0.07253096997737885, -0.004441993311047554, 0.021356085315346718, -0.02137722074985504, -0.09671363979578018, -0.010815220884978771, 0.013871216215193272, 0.08257270604372025, -0.048957087099552155, 0.05096288025379181, 0.014565322548151016, -0.021990153938531876, 0.021565765142440796, -0.008742958307266235, 0.0028716453816741705, -0.019138233736157417, -0.009704936295747757, -0.016076933592557907, 0.039014559239149094, 0.01524035632610321, -0.005853004287928343, 0.004969222005456686, -0.036014772951602936, -0.010203632526099682, 0.12782414257526398, 0.058039695024490356, 0.026908140629529953, -0.09326116740703583, -0.005100679583847523, 0.053555991500616074, 0.05582264065742493, 0.03875276818871498, 0.008467389270663261, -0.06409710645675659, 0.029768994078040123, -0.028499804437160492, -0.004955057520419359, 0.02134663797914982, 0.06783445179462433, 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713,"despite the presence of modern scientific astronomy beginning to take root . Comets continued to forewarn of disaster , as seen in the Luzerner Schilling chronicles and in the warnings of Pope Callixtus III .In 1578, German Lutheran bishop Andreas Celichius defined comets as ""the thick smoke of human sins ... kindled by the hot and fiery anger of the Supreme Heavenly Judge"". The next year, Andreas Dudith stated that ""If comets were caused by the sins of mortals, they would never be absent from the sky."" Modern astronomy
Crude attempts at a parallax measurement of Halley's Comet were made in 1456, but were erroneous. Regiomontanus was the first to attempt to calculate diurnal parallax by observing the Great Comet of 1472. His predictions were not very accurate, but they were conducted in the hopes of estimating the distance of a comet from Earth. In the 16th century, Tycho Brahe and Michael Maestlin demonstrated that comets must exist outside of Earth's atmosphere by measuring the parallax of the Great Comet of 1577. Within the precision of the measurements, this implied the comet must be at least four times more distant than from Earth to the Moon. Based on observations in 1664, Giovanni Borelli recorded the longitudes and latitudes of comets that he observed, and suggested that cometary orbits may be parabolic. Despite being a skilled astronomer, in his 1623 book The Assayer, Galileo Galilei rejected Brahe's theories on the parallax of comets and claimed that they may be a mere optical illusion, despite little personal observation. In 1625, Maestlin's student Johannes Kepler upheld that Brahe's view of cometary parallax was correct. Additionally, mathematician Jacob Bernoulli published a treatise on comets in 1682. During the early modern period comets were studied for their astrological significance in medical disciplines.","[-0.043723344802856445, 0.01645970717072487, -0.04710766673088074, 0.005912886932492256, -0.01691911369562149, -0.01828518882393837, -0.051875337958335876, 0.14485546946525574, -0.02540292777121067, 0.016031568869948387, -0.03618793934583664, -0.03967207297682762, 0.037932831794023514, -0.05101858079433441, 0.000911927258130163, -0.06695058196783066, -0.026608524844050407, -0.04804201051592827, 0.00896775908768177, -0.0353669710457325, -0.005580114666372538, 0.02997499704360962, -0.03796735405921936, 0.03810944780707359, 0.04382334649562836, 0.013691145926713943, -0.028083769604563713, -0.05099102854728699, 0.018741974607110023, 0.03399353474378586, 0.00968663115054369, -0.007042414974421263, -0.024128921329975128, -0.0653599426150322, 0.06805054843425751, -0.013329834677278996, 0.08131679892539978, -0.06386595219373703, -0.008357116021215916, 0.0025311107747256756, 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714,"of cometary parallax was correct . Additionally , mathematician Jacob Bernoulli published a treatise on comets in 1682 . During the early modern period comets were studied for their astrological significance in medical disciplines .Many healers of this time considered medicine and astronomy to be inter-disciplinary and employed their knowledge of comets and other astrological signs for diagnosing and treating patients. Isaac Newton, in his Principia Mathematica of 1687, proved that an object moving under the influence of gravity by an inverse square law must trace out an orbit shaped like one of the conic sections, and he demonstrated how to fit a comet's path through the sky to a parabolic orbit, using the comet of 1680 as an example. He describes comets as compact and durable solid bodies moving in oblique orbit and their tails as thin streams of vapor emitted by their nuclei, ignited or heated by the Sun. He suspected that comets were the origin of the life-supporting component of air. He pointed out that comets usually appear near the Sun, and therefore most likely orbit it. On their luminosity, he stated, ""The comets shine by the Sun's light, which they reflect,"" with their tails illuminated by ""the Sun's light reflected by a smoke arising from [the coma]"". In 1705, Edmond Halley (1656–1742) applied Newton's method to 23 cometary apparitions that had occurred between 1337 and 1698. He noted that three of these, the comets of 1531, 1607, and 1682, had very similar orbital elements, and he was further able to account for the slight differences in their orbits in terms of gravitational perturbation caused by Jupiter and Saturn. Confident that these three apparitions had been three appearances of the same comet, he predicted that it would appear again in 1758–59.","[-0.04697561264038086, -0.011153111234307289, -0.00828617438673973, 0.034985899925231934, -0.04471350461244583, -0.06041278690099716, 0.027882544323801994, 0.12563446164131165, -0.06265845894813538, 0.09774137288331985, -0.02892213687300682, 0.07794589549303055, 0.021881291642785072, -0.036978237330913544, 0.008988074958324432, 0.015931908041238785, -0.006850477773696184, -0.047101784497499466, -0.004748135805130005, -0.004222297575324774, -0.0054847183637320995, -0.029059218242764473, -0.041470929980278015, 0.0011481106048449874, 0.04953625053167343, 0.07119492441415787, -0.039228376001119614, -0.03869180753827095, -0.01896549016237259, 0.014948793686926365, -0.020721379667520523, -0.00024396873777732253, -0.018250279128551483, -0.0615750327706337, 0.027042340487241745, 0.050623998045921326, 0.053902070969343185, -0.015252478420734406, 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715,"in terms of gravitational perturbation caused by Jupiter and Saturn . Confident that these three apparitions had been three appearances of the same comet , he predicted that it would appear again in 1758–59 .Halley's predicted return date was later refined by a team of three French mathematicians: Alexis Clairaut, Joseph Lalande, and Nicole-Reine Lepaute, who predicted the date of the comet's 1759 perihelion to within one month's accuracy. When the comet returned as predicted, it became known as Halley's Comet. As early as the 18th century, some scientists had made correct hypotheses as to comets' physical composition. In 1755, Immanuel Kant hypothesized in his Universal Natural History that comets were condensed from ""primitive matter"" beyond the known planets, which is ""feebly moved"" by gravity, then orbit at arbitrary inclinations, and are partially vaporized by the Sun's heat as they near perihelion. In 1836, the German mathematician Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel, after observing streams of vapor during the appearance of Halley's Comet in 1835, proposed that the jet forces of evaporating material could be great enough to significantly alter a comet's orbit, and he argued that the non-gravitational movements of Encke's Comet resulted from this phenomenon. In the 19th century, the Astronomical Observatory of Padova was an epicenter in the observational study of comets. Led by Giovanni Santini (1787–1877) and followed by Giuseppe Lorenzoni (1843–1914), this observatory was devoted to classical astronomy, mainly to the new comets and planets orbit calculation, with the goal of compiling a catalog of almost ten thousand stars. Situated in the Northern portion of Italy, observations from this observatory were key in establishing important geodetic, geographic, and astronomical calculations, such as the difference of longitude between Milan and Padua as well as Padua to Fiume.","[-0.09073254466056824, -0.030784690752625465, 0.04873998463153839, 0.07083059102296829, -0.00797567330300808, 0.014976408332586288, -0.005081020761281252, 0.12958396971225739, 0.011930229142308235, 0.03864332661032677, -0.00824219360947609, 0.006355990190058947, 0.03086831420660019, -0.037539899349212646, -0.07833149284124374, 0.02131965197622776, -0.036530330777168274, 0.025266917422413826, -0.027783473953604698, -0.026387741789221764, -0.011859606951475143, 0.003493785159662366, -0.015733353793621063, 0.008467947132885456, 0.1283719688653946, 0.047639328986406326, 0.007012215908616781, -0.08507232367992401, -0.017092851921916008, 0.045786891132593155, 8.028380398172885e-05, 0.0005472087650559843, -0.05836218222975731, 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716,", observations from this observatory were key in establishing important geodetic , geographic , and astronomical calculations , such as the difference of longitude between Milan and Padua as well as Padua to Fiume .Correspondence within the observatory, particularly between Santini and another astronomer Giuseppe Toaldo, mentioned the importance of comet and planetary orbital observations. In 1950, Fred Lawrence Whipple proposed that rather than being rocky objects containing some ice, comets were icy objects containing some dust and rock. This ""dirty snowball"" model soon became accepted and appeared to be supported by the observations of an armada of spacecraft (including the European Space Agency's Giotto probe and the Soviet Union's Vega 1 and Vega 2) that flew through the coma of Halley's Comet in 1986, photographed the nucleus, and observed jets of evaporating material. On 22 January 2014, ESA scientists reported the detection, for the first definitive time, of water vapor on the dwarf planet Ceres, the largest object in the asteroid belt. The detection was made by using the far-infrared abilities of the Herschel Space Observatory. The finding is unexpected because comets, not asteroids, are typically considered to ""sprout jets and plumes"". According to one of the scientists, ""The lines are becoming more and more blurred between comets and asteroids."" On 11 August 2014, astronomers released studies, using the Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array (ALMA) for the first time, that detailed the distribution of HCN, HNC, H2CO, and dust inside the comae of comets C/2012 F6 (Lemmon) and C/2012 S1 (ISON). Spacecraft missions
The Halley Armada describes the collection of spacecraft missions that visited and/or made observations of Halley's Comet 1980s perihelion. The Space Shuttle Challenger was intended to do a study of Halley's Comet in 1986, but exploded shortly after being launched. 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717,"observations of Halley 's Comet 1980s perihelion . The Space Shuttle Challenger was intended to do a study of Halley 's Comet in 1986 , but exploded shortly after being launched . Deep Impact .Debate continues about how much ice is in a comet. In 2001, the Deep Space 1 spacecraft obtained high-resolution images of the surface of Comet Borrelly. It was found that the surface of comet Borrelly is hot and dry, with a temperature of between 26 and 71 °C (79 and 160 °F), and extremely dark, suggesting that the ice has been removed by solar heating and maturation, or is hidden by the soot-like material that covers Borrelly. In July 2005, the Deep Impact probe blasted a crater on Comet Tempel 1 to study its interior. The mission yielded results suggesting that the majority of a comet's water ice is below the surface and that these reservoirs feed the jets of vaporized water that form the coma of Tempel 1. Renamed EPOXI, it made a flyby of Comet Hartley 2 on 4 November 2010. Ulysses. In 2007, the Ulysses probe unexpectedly passed through the tail of the comet C/2006 P1 (McNaught) which was discovered in 2006. Ulysses was launched in 1990 and the intended mission was for Ulysses to orbit around the Sun for further study at all latitudes. Stardust. Data from the Stardust mission show that materials retrieved from the tail of Wild 2 were crystalline and could only have been ""born in fire"", at extremely high temperatures of over 1,000 °C (1,830 °F). Although comets formed in the outer Solar System, radial mixing of material during the early formation of the Solar System is thought to have redistributed material throughout the proto-planetary disk. As a result, comets contain crystalline grains that formed in the early, hot inner Solar System.","[-0.09256641566753387, -0.008326282724738121, 0.06744027137756348, 0.028375018388032913, 0.027611427009105682, -0.06033777818083763, 0.0001597268710611388, 0.10221241414546967, -0.011903841979801655, 0.03673522546887398, -0.060899797827005386, -0.023515326902270317, 0.00526789203286171, -0.008056994527578354, 0.029486898332834244, -0.01972043700516224, 0.04145335406064987, -0.09028413146734238, -0.008762740530073643, -0.04346396028995514, 0.019467050209641457, 0.026604648679494858, -0.04962579160928726, 0.00376709783449769, 0.001366221928037703, 0.031050115823745728, 0.021052926778793335, -0.019865315407514572, -0.07450833916664124, -0.01132300216704607, -0.03666863217949867, 0.005824369844049215, -0.05674012377858162, -0.04488018527626991, 0.14219237864017487, 0.060473471879959106, 0.0309523306787014, -0.0053496346808969975, 0.0370490737259388, -0.059507980942726135, 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-0.025282293558120728]",Comet,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
718,"formation of the Solar System is thought to have redistributed material throughout the proto-planetary disk . As a result , comets contain crystalline grains that formed in the early , hot inner Solar System .This is seen in comet spectra as well as in sample return missions. More recent still, the materials retrieved demonstrate that the ""comet dust resembles asteroid materials"". These new results have forced scientists to rethink the nature of comets and their distinction from asteroids. Rosetta. The Rosetta probe orbited Comet Churyumov–Gerasimenko. On 12 November 2014, its lander Philae successfully landed on the comet's surface, the first time a spacecraft has ever landed on such an object in history. Classification
Comets can be classified by astronomers using the planets that control their perihelion and aphelion, Tisserand orbital parameters. Other more qualitative and casual classifications are also possible. Great comets
Approximately once a decade, a comet becomes bright enough to be noticed by a casual observer, leading such comets to be designated as great comets. Predicting whether a comet will become a great comet is notoriously difficult, as many factors may cause a comet's brightness to depart drastically from predictions. Broadly speaking, if a comet has a large and active nucleus, will pass close to the Sun, and is not obscured by the Sun as seen from Earth when at its brightest, it has a chance of becoming a great comet. However, Comet Kohoutek in 1973 fulfilled all the criteria and was expected to become spectacular but failed to do so. Comet West, which appeared three years later, had much lower expectations but became an extremely impressive comet. The Great Comet of 1577 is a well-known example of a great comet. It passed near Earth as a non-periodic comet and was seen by many, including well-known astronomers Tycho Brahe and Taqi ad-Din.","[-0.07018430531024933, -0.06533588469028473, 0.020150434225797653, 0.011709125712513924, 0.06084506958723068, -0.07340193539857864, 0.02634771354496479, 0.08755993098020554, -0.014988263137638569, 0.08322704583406448, -0.09679678082466125, -0.013479595072567463, 0.00015138910384848714, -0.039155665785074234, 0.03119426593184471, -0.05039413645863533, 0.11017334461212158, -0.08813687413930893, 0.01597742550075054, -0.012725723907351494, 0.01505228877067566, 0.002231037011370063, -0.035103775560855865, -0.04677295684814453, 0.056672897189855576, 0.04372064396739006, 0.014414086937904358, -0.008901262655854225, -0.028535237535834312, -0.06279493868350983, -0.00572974281385541, 0.04645984247326851, -0.03394709527492523, -0.021929513663053513, 0.058933135122060776, 0.056293219327926636, -0.047818008810281754, -0.020874882116913795, 0.019976282492280006, 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719,"Comet of 1577 is a well-known example of a great comet . It passed near Earth as a non-periodic comet and was seen by many , including well-known astronomers Tycho Brahe and Taqi ad-Din .Observations of this comet led to several significant findings regarding cometary science, especially for Brahe. The late 20th century saw a lengthy gap without the appearance of any great comets, followed by the arrival of two in quick succession—Comet Hyakutake in 1996, followed by Hale–Bopp, which reached maximum brightness in 1997 having been discovered two years earlier. The first great comet of the 21st century was C/2006 P1 (McNaught), which became visible to naked eye observers in January 2007. It was the brightest in over 40 years. Sungrazing comets
A sungrazing comet is a comet that passes extremely close to the Sun at perihelion, generally within a few million kilometers. Although small sungrazers can be completely evaporated during such a close approach to the Sun, larger sungrazers can survive many perihelion passages. However, the strong tidal forces they experience often lead to their fragmentation. About 90% of the sungrazers observed with SOHO are members of the Kreutz group, which all originate from one giant comet that broke up into many smaller comets during its first passage through the inner Solar System. The remainder contains some sporadic sungrazers, but four other related groups of comets have been identified among them: the Kracht, Kracht 2a, Marsden, and Meyer groups. The Marsden and Kracht groups both appear to be related to Comet 96P/Machholz, which is the parent of two meteor streams, the Quadrantids and the Arietids. Unusual comets
Of the thousands of known comets, some exhibit unusual properties.","[-0.01087215542793274, 0.0006729239830747247, 0.00667648995295167, -0.010172184556722641, 0.04107443988323212, -0.061629753559827805, -0.018673231825232506, 0.09079068154096603, -0.045935846865177155, 0.05451091006398201, 0.012724053114652634, 0.03279683366417885, 0.03209047392010689, -0.04478561133146286, 0.06422396749258041, -0.008244279772043228, 0.09621311724185944, -0.13787078857421875, 0.02472483552992344, -0.04131811857223511, -0.08106476813554764, -0.01637016423046589, -0.032522670924663544, 0.037875279784202576, -0.00032488693250343204, 0.05714159086346626, 0.015263631008565426, -0.02922390215098858, -0.0490269772708416, -0.02789742685854435, -0.03715387359261513, 0.0014338833279907703, -0.028081433847546577, -0.0016692299395799637, 0.04817909747362137, 0.05034405738115311, -0.025633784011006355, -0.006640350911766291, 0.027848629280924797, -0.05451878905296326, 0.06181326508522034, -0.08978234976530075, 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720,"be related to Comet 96P/Machholz , which is the parent of two meteor streams , the Quadrantids and the Arietids . Unusual comets Of the thousands of known comets , some exhibit unusual properties .Comet Encke (2P/Encke) orbits from outside the asteroid belt to just inside the orbit of the planet Mercury whereas the Comet 29P/Schwassmann–Wachmann currently travels in a nearly circular orbit entirely between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn. 2060 Chiron, whose unstable orbit is between Saturn and Uranus, was originally classified as an asteroid until a faint coma was noticed. Similarly, Comet Shoemaker–Levy 2 was originally designated asteroid 1990 UL3. Largest
The largest known periodic comet is 95P/Chiron at 200 km in diameter that comes to perihelion every 50 years just inside of Saturn's orbit at 8 AU. The largest known Oort cloud comet is suspected of being Comet Bernardinelli-Bernstein at ≈150 km that will come to perihelion in January 2031 just outside of Saturn's orbit at 11 AU. The Comet of 1729 is estimated to have been ≈100 km in diameter and came to perihelion inside of Jupiter's orbit at 4 AU. Centaurs
Centaurs typically behave with characteristics of both asteroids and comets. Centaurs can be classified as comets such as 60558 Echeclus, and 166P/NEAT. 166P/NEAT was discovered while it exhibited a coma, and so is classified as a comet despite its orbit, and 60558 Echeclus was discovered without a coma but later became active, and was then classified as both a comet and an asteroid (174P/Echeclus). One plan for Cassini involved sending it to a centaur, but NASA decided to destroy it instead. Observation
A comet may be discovered photographically using a wide-field telescope or visually with binoculars. However, even without access to optical equipment, it is still possible for the amateur astronomer to discover a sungrazing comet online by downloading images accumulated by some satellite observatories such as SOHO.","[-0.042151302099227905, -0.06770607829093933, 0.009029420092701912, -0.03084568865597248, 0.03216131031513214, -0.05768255889415741, -0.05523759499192238, 0.15288400650024414, -0.04296308010816574, 0.04063493013381958, -0.00939610693603754, 0.05565590038895607, -0.010490402579307556, -0.04211582615971565, -0.02252303436398506, -0.006569258868694305, 0.06590195000171661, -0.10122709721326828, 0.06134843826293945, 0.0019203182309865952, -0.01786191575229168, -0.05300233140587807, -0.0026481198146939278, -0.0024502892047166824, 0.017740165814757347, 0.06105571985244751, -0.014153605327010155, -0.03943571820855141, -0.0077682072296738625, -0.08009329438209534, 0.06438959389925003, -0.010906098410487175, -0.07807445526123047, -0.03396998345851898, 0.0636945366859436, 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721,"However , even without access to optical equipment , it is still possible for the amateur astronomer to discover a sungrazing comet online by downloading images accumulated by some satellite observatories such as SOHO .SOHO's 2000th comet was discovered by Polish amateur astronomer Michał Kusiak on 26 December 2010 and both discoverers of Hale–Bopp used amateur equipment (although Hale was not an amateur). Lost
A number of periodic comets discovered in earlier decades or previous centuries are now lost comets. Their orbits were never known well enough to predict future appearances or the comets have disintegrated. However, occasionally a ""new"" comet is discovered, and calculation of its orbit shows it to be an old ""lost"" comet. An example is Comet 11P/Tempel–Swift–LINEAR, discovered in 1869 but unobservable after 1908 because of perturbations by Jupiter. It was not found again until accidentally rediscovered by LINEAR in 2001. There are at least 18 comets that fit this category. In popular culture
The depiction of comets in popular culture is firmly rooted in the long Western tradition of seeing comets as harbingers of doom and as omens of world-altering change. Halley's Comet alone has caused a slew of sensationalist publications of all sorts at each of its reappearances. It was especially noted that the birth and death of some notable persons coincided with separate appearances of the comet, such as with writers Mark Twain (who correctly speculated that he'd ""go out with the comet"" in 1910) and Eudora Welty, to whose life Mary Chapin Carpenter dedicated the song ""Halley Came to Jackson"". In times past, bright comets often inspired panic and hysteria in the general population, being thought of as bad omens.","[-0.10309378802776337, 0.0015435152454301715, -0.004222429357469082, 0.016495754942297935, -0.00991967972368002, -0.023186095058918, -0.06449016183614731, 0.04140067100524902, -0.024189548566937447, 0.03016485646367073, -0.009913344867527485, 0.03237878158688545, 0.04064628854393959, -0.04168650880455971, 0.01416817307472229, -0.05224021151661873, 0.049573540687561035, -0.0692337229847908, 0.03054492361843586, -0.07910756766796112, -0.0787118524312973, -0.03351878374814987, 0.007734955288469791, -0.0009872236987575889, 0.08298547565937042, 0.03250893950462341, 0.011535524390637875, -0.05744873732328415, -0.018366912379860878, -0.034500494599342346, -0.05403421074151993, 0.05822637304663658, -0.0570211187005043, -0.06242462992668152, 0.06007656827569008, -0.004125221632421017, 0.029843656346201897, -0.0017737643793225288, 0.018447307869791985, -0.02600426785647869, 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722,"Chapin Carpenter dedicated the song `` Halley Came to Jackson '' . In times past , bright comets often inspired panic and hysteria in the general population , being thought of as bad omens .More recently, during the passage of Halley's Comet in 1910, Earth passed through the comet's tail, and erroneous newspaper reports inspired a fear that cyanogen in the tail might poison millions, whereas the appearance of Comet Hale–Bopp in 1997 triggered the mass suicide of the Heaven's Gate cult. In science fiction, the impact of comets has been depicted as a threat overcome by technology and heroism (as in the 1998 films Deep Impact and Armageddon), or as a trigger of global apocalypse (Lucifer's Hammer, 1979) or zombies (Night of the Comet, 1984). In Jules Verne's Off on a Comet a group of people are stranded on a comet orbiting the Sun, while a large crewed space expedition visits Halley's Comet in Sir Arthur C. Clarke's novel 2061: Odyssey Three. In literature
The long-period comet first recorded by Pons in Florence on 15 July 1825 inspired Lydia Sigourney's humorous poem  The Comet of 1825. in which all the celestial bodies argue over the comet's appearance and purpose. Gallery
Videos

See also
The Big Splash
Comet vintages
List of impact craters on Earth
List of possible impact structures on Earth
Lists of comets

References
Footnotes
Citations
Bibliography
Sagan, Carl & Druyan, Ann (1997). Comet. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-3078-0105-0. Further reading
Schechner, Sara J. (1997). Comets, Popular Culture, and the Birth of Modern Cosmology. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01150-9. Brandt, John C. & Chapman, Robert D. (2004). Introduction to Comets (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. 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723,"Princeton University Press . ISBN 978-0-691-01150-9 . Brandt , John C. & Chapman , Robert D. ( 2004 ) . Introduction to Comets ( 2nd ed. ) . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-80863-7 .External links
Comets at NASA's Solar System Exploration
International Comet Quarterly by Harvard University
Catalogue of the Solar System Small Bodies Orbital Evolution
Science Demos: Make a Comet by the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory
Comets: from myths to reality, exhibition on Paris Observatory digital library","[-0.04408181831240654, -0.03272419795393944, 0.05335397273302078, 0.015551719814538956, 0.02115386351943016, -0.022479481995105743, -0.08036413788795471, 0.08773252367973328, -0.08534810692071915, 0.09154064953327179, -0.04485404118895531, 0.05995471403002739, 0.025126753374934196, -0.09244398027658463, -0.00020833523012697697, 0.0007891211425885558, 0.05284890532493591, -0.03928566351532936, 0.0475061796605587, -0.013817363418638706, -0.02747073955833912, 0.010002336464822292, 0.07667908072471619, 0.016948392614722252, 0.015827063471078873, 0.015901347622275352, -0.025961989536881447, -0.04109499230980873, -0.03720930218696594, -0.05077485367655754, -0.028123954311013222, 0.017679153010249138, -0.032782480120658875, -0.10803180932998657, 0.1263313591480255, 0.026321714743971825, 0.016555415466427803, -0.008885730057954788, 0.044022198766469955, 0.022113753482699394, 0.038608305156230927, 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724," The Kuiper belt ( ) is a circumstellar disc in the outer Solar System, extending from the orbit of Neptune at 30 astronomical units (AU) to approximately 50 AU from the Sun. It is similar to the asteroid belt, but is far larger—20 times as wide and 20–200 times as massive. Like the asteroid belt, it consists mainly of small bodies or remnants from when the Solar System formed. While many asteroids are composed primarily of rock and metal, most Kuiper belt objects are composed largely of frozen volatiles (termed ""ices""), such as methane, ammonia, and water. The Kuiper belt is home to most of the objects that astronomers generally accept as dwarf planets:  Orcus, Pluto, Haumea, Quaoar, and Makemake. Some of the Solar System's moons, such as Neptune's Triton and Saturn's Phoebe, may have originated in the region. The Kuiper belt is named in honor of the Dutch astronomer Gerard Kuiper, who conjectured the existence of a version of the belt in 1951. There were researchers before and after him who proposed similar hypoetheses, such as Kenneth Edgeworth in the 1930s. The most direct prediction of the belt was by astronomer Julio Ángel Fernández, who published a paper in 1980 suggesting the existence of a comet belt beyond Neptune which could serve as a source for short-period comets. In 1992, minor planet 15760 Albion was discovered, the first Kuiper belt object (KBO) since Pluto (in 1930) and Charon (in 1978). Since its discovery, the number of known KBOs has increased to thousands, and more than 100000 KBOs over 100 km (62 mi) in diameter are thought to exist. The Kuiper belt was initially thought to be the main repository for periodic comets, those with orbits lasting less than 200 years.","[-0.02035505697131157, -0.0020766835659742355, -0.015229769051074982, -0.04087083414196968, -0.004633926786482334, -0.09504140913486481, -0.019218403846025467, 0.060766711831092834, 0.06015186756849289, 0.018126212060451508, -0.019743621349334717, -0.10360506176948547, -0.0011536316014826298, -0.0426224023103714, -0.007959838956594467, -0.04033639281988144, 0.03563956543803215, 0.0038940852973610163, 0.014901068061590195, -0.012916987761855125, -0.021861298009753227, 0.04133819416165352, -0.020991526544094086, 0.010065129958093166, -0.09549408406019211, 0.0494694709777832, -0.03960882127285004, -0.05911121144890785, -0.02430698648095131, 0.008936936967074871, -0.045532599091529846, -0.030944056808948517, -0.010045173577964306, 0.007386671844869852, 0.07600727677345276, 0.01697085238993168, -0.0361495241522789, 0.022644998505711555, -0.033536285161972046, 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725,"( 62 mi ) in diameter are thought to exist . The Kuiper belt was initially thought to be the main repository for periodic comets , those with orbits lasting less than 200 years .Studies since the mid-1990s have shown that the belt is dynamically stable and that comets' true place of origin is the scattered disc, a dynamically active zone created by the outward motion of Neptune 4.5 billion years ago; scattered-disc objects such as Eris have extremely eccentric orbits that take them as far as 100 AU from the Sun. The Kuiper belt is distinct from the hypothesized Oort cloud, which is believed to be a thousand times more distant and mostly spherical. The objects within the Kuiper belt, together with the members of the scattered disc and any potential Hills cloud or Oort cloud objects, are collectively referred to as trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs). Pluto is the largest and most massive known member of the Kuiper belt and the largest and the second-most-massive known TNO, surpassed only by Eris in the scattered disc. Originally considered a planet, Pluto's status as part of the Kuiper belt caused it to be reclassified as a dwarf planet in 2006. It is compositionally similar to many other objects of the Kuiper belt, and its orbital period is characteristic of a class of KBOs, known as ""plutinos"", that share the same 2:3 resonance with Neptune. The Kuiper belt and Neptune may be treated as a marker of the extent of the Solar System, alternatives being the heliopause and the distance at which the Sun's gravitational influence is matched by that of other stars (estimated to be between 50000 and 125000 AU). History
After the discovery of Pluto in 1930, many speculated that it might not be alone. 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726,") . History After the discovery of Pluto in 1930 , many speculated that it might not be alone . The region now called the Kuiper belt was hypothesized in various forms for decades .It was only in 1992 that the first direct evidence for its existence was found. The number and variety of prior speculations on the nature of the Kuiper belt have led to continued uncertainty as to who deserves credit for first proposing it. Hypotheses
The first astronomer to suggest the existence of a trans-Neptunian population was Frederick C. Leonard. Soon after Pluto's discovery by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930, Leonard pondered whether it was ""likely that in Pluto there has come to light the first of a series of ultra-Neptunian bodies, the remaining members of which still await discovery but which are destined eventually to be detected"". That same year, astronomer Armin O. Leuschner suggested that Pluto ""may be one of many long-period planetary objects yet to be discovered"". In 1943, in the Journal of the British Astronomical Association, Kenneth Edgeworth hypothesized that, in the region beyond Neptune, the material within the primordial solar nebula was too widely spaced to condense into planets, and so rather condensed into a myriad smaller bodies. From this he concluded that ""the outer region of the solar system, beyond the orbits of the planets, is occupied by a very large number of comparatively small bodies"" and that, from time to time, one of their number ""wanders from its own sphere and appears as an occasional visitor to the inner solar system"", becoming a comet.","[-0.024335471913218498, -0.028121137991547585, 0.009848421439528465, 0.015526987612247467, -0.0071227094158530235, -0.11745033413171768, -0.04267686977982521, 0.04077470675110817, 0.03819367662072182, 0.00384984421543777, 0.05236504599452019, -0.06180133298039436, -0.021623792126774788, -0.014171493239700794, -0.03149580582976341, -0.04358997195959091, 0.010244091972708702, -0.049158692359924316, 0.06102234497666359, 0.01561223715543747, -0.07936783879995346, 0.03979988023638725, -0.002393687143921852, -0.035307254642248154, -0.010998662561178207, -0.06551963090896606, -0.033712856471538544, -0.13137927651405334, 0.011337331496179104, 0.036016080528497696, 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727,"and that , from time to time , one of their number `` wanders from its own sphere and appears as an occasional visitor to the inner solar system '' , becoming a comet .In 1951, in a paper in Astrophysics: A Topical Symposium, Gerard Kuiper speculated on a similar disc having formed early in the Solar System's evolution and concluded that the disc consisted of ""remnants of original clusterings which have lost many members that became stray asteroids, much as has occurred with open galactic clusters dissolving into stars"". In another paper, based upon a lecture Kuiper gave in 1950, also called On the Origin of the Solar System, Kuiper wrote about the ""outermost region of the solar nebula, from 38 to 50 astr. units (i.e., just outside proto-Neptune)"" where ""condensation products (ices of H2O, NH3, CH4, etc.) must have formed, and the flakes must have slowly collected and formed larger aggregates, estimated to range up to 1 km or more in size"". He continued to write that ""these condensations appear to account for the comets, in size, number and composition"". According to Kuiper ""the planet Pluto, which sweeps through the whole zone from 30 to 50 astr. units, is held responsible for having started the scattering of the comets throughout the solar system"". Kuiper was operating on the assumption, common in his time, that Pluto was far more massive than we now know it to be, and had therefore scattered these bodies out toward the Oort cloud or out of the Solar System; there would not be a Kuiper belt today if this were correct. The hypothesis took many other forms in the following decades.","[-0.08489254117012024, -0.03597172722220421, 0.031449101865291595, 0.003551316913217306, 0.030989479273557663, -0.060782887041568756, -0.0005773580051027238, 0.08066195249557495, 0.07952151447534561, 0.0015026041073724627, -0.008878246881067753, -0.04060559347271919, 0.03898422792553902, -0.05777813121676445, 0.018206311389803886, -0.030550308525562286, -0.02563408948481083, -0.10047485679388046, 0.004271530546247959, 0.0539245530962944, -0.027757691219449043, 0.05170666053891182, -0.046558987349271774, 0.03032545931637287, 0.0333796851336956, 0.048581212759017944, -0.033011991530656815, -0.07433684170246124, 0.07625923305749893, 0.024116022512316704, 0.0004732091329060495, 0.10805721580982208, 0.03168701007962227, 0.02856377698481083, 0.13637188076972961, -0.0232672318816185, 0.006238034460693598, 0.006002804264426231, 0.007186438422650099, -0.003955388907343149, 0.018116679042577744, -0.0723697617650032, 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728,"toward the Oort cloud or out of the Solar System ; there would not be a Kuiper belt today if this were correct . The hypothesis took many other forms in the following decades .In 1962, physicist Alastair G. W. Cameron postulated the existence of ""a tremendous mass of small material on the outskirts of the solar system"". In 1964, Fred Whipple, who popularised the famous ""dirty snowball"" hypothesis for cometary structure, thought that a ""comet belt"" might be massive enough to cause the purported discrepancies in the orbit of Uranus that had sparked the search for Planet X, or, at the very least, massive enough to affect the orbits of known comets. Observation ruled out this hypothesis. In 1977, Charles Kowal discovered 2060 Chiron, an icy object with an orbit between Saturn and Uranus. He used a blink comparator, the same device that had allowed Clyde Tombaugh to discover Pluto nearly 50 years before. In 1992, another object, 5145 Pholus, was discovered in a similar orbit. Today, an entire population of comet-like bodies, called the centaurs, is known to exist in the region between Jupiter and Neptune. The centaurs' orbits are unstable and have dynamical lifetimes of a few million years. From the time of Chiron's discovery in 1977, astronomers have speculated that the centaurs therefore must be frequently replenished by some outer reservoir. Further evidence for the existence of the Kuiper belt later emerged from the study of comets. That comets have finite lifespans has been known for some time. As they approach the Sun, its heat causes their volatile surfaces to sublimate into space, gradually dispersing them. In order for comets to continue to be visible over the age of the Solar System, they must be replenished frequently.","[-0.08511069416999817, -0.01919206976890564, 0.018267890438437462, -4.451339555089362e-05, -0.0007215319201350212, -0.09003429859876633, -0.019857950508594513, 0.06473994255065918, -0.00433229748159647, 0.07227939367294312, 0.018336381763219833, 0.013487367890775204, 0.04888591170310974, -0.023346224799752235, -0.021113691851496696, -0.04036320000886917, 0.007705716881901026, -0.03380829840898514, -0.0160163976252079, -0.03516208752989769, -0.026043731719255447, 0.021091777831315994, 0.00041549120214767754, 0.006084244232624769, -0.03136761859059334, 0.036247823387384415, -0.009379101917147636, -0.041908297687768936, -0.02932104468345642, -0.0346604660153389, -0.011273258365690708, 0.0004963178653270006, -0.06253105401992798, 0.0023200877476483583, 0.027626315131783485, 0.009559547528624535, 0.0285129826515913, 0.014232330024242401, 0.046406544744968414, 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729,"their volatile surfaces to sublimate into space , gradually dispersing them . In order for comets to continue to be visible over the age of the Solar System , they must be replenished frequently .A proposal for such an area of replenishment is the Oort cloud, possibly a spherical swarm of comets extending beyond 50,000 AU from the Sun first hypothesised by Dutch astronomer Jan Oort in 1950. The Oort cloud is thought to be the point of origin of long-period comets, which are those, like Hale–Bopp, with orbits lasting thousands of years.There is another comet population, known as short-period or periodic comets, consisting of those comets that, like Halley's Comet, have orbital periods of less than 200 years. By the 1970s, the rate at which short-period comets were being discovered was becoming increasingly inconsistent with their having emerged solely from the Oort cloud. For an Oort cloud object to become a short-period comet, it would first have to be captured by the giant planets. In a paper published in Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1980, Uruguayan astronomer Julio Fernández stated that for every short-period comet to be sent into the inner Solar System from the Oort cloud, 600 would have to be ejected into interstellar space. He speculated that a comet belt from between 35 and 50 AU would be required to account for the observed number of comets. Following up on Fernández's work, in 1988 the Canadian team of Martin Duncan, Tom Quinn and Scott Tremaine ran a number of computer simulations to determine if all observed comets could have arrived from the Oort cloud. They found that the Oort cloud could not account for all short-period comets, particularly as short-period comets are clustered near the plane of the Solar System, whereas Oort-cloud comets tend to arrive from any point in the sky.","[-0.025705287232995033, 0.04577433690428734, 0.04650494456291199, 0.04997603967785835, 0.08703267574310303, -0.015867561101913452, -0.017043497413396835, 0.02635876089334488, 0.04142504930496216, 0.04722617194056511, 0.022300928831100464, 0.06076769530773163, 0.0011026556603610516, -0.08860957622528076, 0.05924883484840393, -0.013860528357326984, 0.056560590863227844, -0.0610307939350605, 0.06317020952701569, 0.02670465037226677, 0.02386455051600933, 0.008158843033015728, -0.04800964519381523, 0.004324326291680336, 0.012196684256196022, 0.01418586727231741, -0.0679369792342186, -0.0419793426990509, 0.01723749376833439, -0.047585103660821915, 0.036298710852861404, 0.0649329125881195, 0.02299492061138153, 0.0055492958053946495, 0.047176793217659, 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730,"could not account for all short-period comets , particularly as short-period comets are clustered near the plane of the Solar System , whereas Oort-cloud comets tend to arrive from any point in the sky .With a ""belt"", as Fernández described it, added to the formulations, the simulations matched observations. Reportedly because the words ""Kuiper"" and ""comet belt"" appeared in the opening sentence of Fernández's paper, Tremaine named this hypothetical region the ""Kuiper belt"". Discovery
In 1987, astronomer David Jewitt, then at MIT, became increasingly puzzled by ""the apparent emptiness of the outer Solar System"". He encouraged then-graduate student Jane Luu to aid him in his endeavour to locate another object beyond Pluto's orbit, because, as he told her, ""If we don't, nobody will."" Using telescopes at the Kitt Peak National Observatory in Arizona and the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory in Chile, Jewitt and Luu conducted their search in much the same way as Clyde Tombaugh and Charles Kowal had, with a blink comparator. Initially, examination of each pair of plates took about eight hours, but the process was sped up with the arrival of electronic charge-coupled devices or CCDs, which, though their field of view was narrower, were not only more efficient at collecting light (they retained 90% of the light that hit them, rather than the 10% achieved by photographs) but allowed the blinking process to be done virtually, on a computer screen. Today, CCDs form the basis for most astronomical detectors. In 1988, Jewitt moved to the Institute of Astronomy at the University of Hawaii. Luu later joined him to work at the University of Hawaii's 2.24 m telescope at Mauna Kea.","[-0.03524112328886986, -0.0013310866197571158, -0.0004991765017621219, 0.006157167721539736, 0.030934739857912064, -0.12441109865903854, -0.03739069402217865, 0.07625361531972885, 0.026570698246359825, 0.03685881569981575, 0.03847217187285423, -0.0382150337100029, 0.04232267662882805, -0.06162573769688606, -0.0022401984315365553, -0.013998527079820633, 0.055244363844394684, -0.0941772311925888, 0.022228272631764412, -0.05727994069457054, -0.02942870929837227, 0.012562667950987816, 0.010172917507588863, -0.03830637037754059, 0.05175354331731796, 0.055817149579524994, -0.06202614679932594, -0.09566991776227951, -0.020319057628512383, 0.02325420454144478, -0.03580445423722267, 0.07582388818264008, -0.01588430441915989, 0.020169826224446297, 0.07622555643320084, 0.010715613141655922, 0.07895579934120178, 0.003420085646212101, 0.03322378173470497, -0.04874211549758911, -0.038836520165205, 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731,"In 1988 , Jewitt moved to the Institute of Astronomy at the University of Hawaii . Luu later joined him to work at the University of Hawaii 's 2.24 m telescope at Mauna Kea .Eventually, the field of view for CCDs had increased to 1024 by 1024 pixels, which allowed searches to be conducted far more rapidly. Finally, after five years of searching, Jewitt and Luu announced on 30 August 1992 the ""Discovery of the candidate Kuiper belt object 1992 QB1"". This object would later be named 15760 Albion. Six months later, they discovered a second object in the region, (181708) 1993 FW. By 2018, over 2000 Kuiper belt objects had been discovered. Over one thousand bodies were found in a belt in the twenty years (1992–2012), after finding 1992 QB1 (named in 2018, 15760 Albion), showing a vast belt of bodies in addition to Pluto and Albion. Even in the 2010s the full extent and nature of Kuiper belt bodies was largely unknown. Finally, the unmanned spacecraft New Horizons conducted the first KBO flybys, providing much closer observations of the Plutonian system (2015) and then Arrokoth (2019). Studies conducted since the trans-Neptunian region was first charted have shown that the region now called the Kuiper belt is not the point of origin of short-period comets, but that they instead derive from a linked population called the scattered disc. The scattered disc was created when Neptune migrated outward into the proto-Kuiper belt, which at the time was much closer to the Sun, and left in its wake a population of dynamically stable objects that could never be affected by its orbit (the Kuiper belt proper), and a population whose perihelia are close enough that Neptune can still disturb them as it travels around the Sun (the scattered disc).","[-0.023501776158809662, -0.015859656035900116, 0.0007247952744364738, -0.0395936444401741, -0.024161322042346, -0.12295711040496826, -0.09444603323936462, 0.0013565142871811986, 0.017790134996175766, 0.006971465423703194, 0.04063756763935089, -0.09919678419828415, -0.015401862561702728, 0.009774540551006794, -0.05453108996152878, 0.007505748886615038, 0.027141502127051353, -0.03167538344860077, -0.019259298220276833, 0.003981722053140402, -0.09467952698469162, 0.043337609618902206, -0.009618307463824749, 0.002012018347159028, -0.025775859132409096, 0.01309124380350113, 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732,"its orbit ( the Kuiper belt proper ) , and a population whose perihelia are close enough that Neptune can still disturb them as it travels around the Sun ( the scattered disc ) .Because the scattered disc is dynamically active and the Kuiper belt relatively dynamically stable, the scattered disc is now seen as the most likely point of origin for periodic comets. Name
Astronomers sometimes use the alternative name Edgeworth–Kuiper belt to credit Edgeworth, and KBOs are occasionally referred to as EKOs. Brian G. Marsden claims that neither deserves true credit: ""Neither Edgeworth nor Kuiper wrote about anything remotely like what we are now seeing, but Fred Whipple did"". David Jewitt comments: ""If anything ... Fernández most nearly deserves the credit for predicting the Kuiper Belt."" KBOs are sometimes called ""kuiperoids"", a name suggested by Clyde Tombaugh. The term ""trans-Neptunian object"" (TNO) is recommended for objects in the belt by several scientific groups because the term is less controversial than all others—it is not an exact synonym, though, as TNOs include all objects orbiting the Sun past the orbit of Neptune, not just those in the Kuiper belt. Structure
At its fullest extent, including its outlying regions (but excluding the scattered disc), the Kuiper belt stretches from roughly 30–55 AU. The main body of the belt is generally accepted to extend from the 2:3 mean-motion resonance (see below) at 39.5 AU to the 1:2 resonance at roughly 48 AU. The Kuiper belt is quite thick, with the main concentration extending as much as ten degrees outside the ecliptic plane and a more diffuse distribution of objects extending several times farther. Overall it more resembles a torus or doughnut than a belt. 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733,"a more diffuse distribution of objects extending several times farther . Overall it more resembles a torus or doughnut than a belt . Its mean position is inclined to the ecliptic by 1.86 degrees .The presence of Neptune has a profound effect on the Kuiper belt's structure due to orbital resonances. Over a timescale comparable to the age of the Solar System, Neptune's gravity destabilises the orbits of any objects that happen to lie in certain regions, and either sends them into the inner Solar System or out into the scattered disc or interstellar space. This causes the Kuiper belt to have pronounced gaps in its current layout, similar to the Kirkwood gaps in the asteroid belt. In the region between 40 and 42 AU, for instance, no objects can retain a stable orbit over such times, and any observed in that region must have migrated there relatively recently. Classical belt
Between the 2:3 and 1:2 resonances with Neptune, at approximately 42–48 AU, the gravitational interactions with Neptune occur over an extended timescale, and objects can exist with their orbits essentially unaltered. This region is known as the classical Kuiper belt, and its members comprise roughly two thirds of KBOs observed to date. Because the first modern KBO discovered (Albion, but long called 1992 QB1), is considered the prototype of this group, classical KBOs are often referred to as cubewanos (""Q-B-1-os""). The guidelines established by the IAU demand that classical KBOs be given names of mythological beings associated with creation. The classical Kuiper belt appears to be a composite of two separate populations.","[0.008195037953555584, -0.02571435645222664, 0.027422774583101273, -0.035505715757608414, -0.017624851316213608, -0.09151315689086914, -0.07143133133649826, 0.041882265359163284, 0.11310477554798126, -0.0008902443805709481, -0.0024132144171744585, -0.05140550062060356, 0.01630818471312523, -0.06921276450157166, 0.0400572344660759, -0.050856102257966995, 0.082332082092762, -0.007609156891703606, -0.034551698714494705, 0.021944614127278328, -0.0151257598772645, 0.02217952162027359, 0.001853991998359561, 0.04142037034034729, -0.16126273572444916, -0.03708622604608536, -0.01452003326267004, -0.06119256839156151, 0.00810885988175869, -0.03428762033581734, -0.036544445902109146, -0.018694842234253883, -0.06123984232544899, 0.03736212104558945, 0.018609536811709404, 0.036633990705013275, -0.03681466728448868, 0.044273506850004196, -0.028354370966553688, -0.01919328048825264, 0.0423896424472332, 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734,". The guidelines established by the IAU demand that classical KBOs be given names of mythological beings associated with creation . The classical Kuiper belt appears to be a composite of two separate populations .The first, known as the ""dynamically cold"" population, has orbits much like the planets; nearly circular, with an orbital eccentricity of less than 0.1, and with relatively low inclinations up to about 10° (they lie close to the plane of the Solar System rather than at an angle). The cold population also contains a concentration of objects, referred to as the kernel, with semi-major axes at 44–44.5 AU. The second, the ""dynamically hot"" population, has orbits much more inclined to the ecliptic, by up to 30°. The two populations have been named this way not because of any major difference in temperature, but from analogy to particles in a gas, which increase their relative velocity as they become heated up. Not only are the two populations in different orbits, the cold population also differs in color and albedo, being redder and brighter, has a larger fraction of binary objects, has a different size distribution, and lacks very large objects. The mass of the dynamically cold population is roughly 30 times less than the mass of the hot. The difference in colors may be a reflection of different compositions, which suggests they formed in different regions. The hot population is proposed to have formed near Neptune's original orbit and to have been scattered out during the migration of the giant planets. The cold population, on the other hand, has been proposed to have formed more or less in its current position because the loose binaries would be unlikely to survive encounters with Neptune.","[0.009191850200295448, -0.06800394505262375, -0.020604969933629036, 0.08152338117361069, -0.04038311541080475, -0.10243647545576096, -0.0029305294156074524, 0.025304879993200302, 0.10910521447658539, 0.026189003139734268, 0.046220991760492325, -0.1108754500746727, 0.01846330799162388, -0.06097210943698883, 0.03125905990600586, -0.06699860841035843, 0.06879213452339172, -0.020161252468824387, -0.03767400234937668, 0.02531859278678894, -0.01807580702006817, -0.010937216691672802, -0.04103882983326912, 0.05795837566256523, -0.0723738744854927, -0.024745646864175797, 0.00012963282642886043, -0.008710241876542568, 0.001251542242243886, -0.01389797031879425, -0.0428217276930809, 0.033074360340833664, 0.06540445238351822, 0.00864124484360218, 0.02407330647110939, 0.021565504372119904, 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735,"The cold population , on the other hand , has been proposed to have formed more or less in its current position because the loose binaries would be unlikely to survive encounters with Neptune .Although the Nice model appears to be able to at least partially explain a compositional difference, it has also been suggested the color difference may reflect differences in surface evolution. Resonances
When an object's orbital period is an exact ratio of Neptune's (a situation called a mean-motion resonance), then it can become locked in a synchronised motion with Neptune and avoid being perturbed away if their relative alignments are appropriate. If, for instance, an object orbits the Sun twice for every three Neptune orbits, and if it reaches perihelion with Neptune a quarter of an orbit away from it, then whenever it returns to perihelion, Neptune will always be in about the same relative position as it began, because it will have completed 1+1⁄2 orbits in the same time. This is known as the 2:3 (or 3:2) resonance, and it corresponds to a characteristic semi-major axis of about 39.4 AU. This 2:3 resonance is populated by about 200 known objects, including Pluto together with its moons. In recognition of this, the members of this family are known as plutinos. Many plutinos, including Pluto, have orbits that cross that of Neptune, although their resonance means they can never collide. Plutinos have high orbital eccentricities, suggesting that they are not native to their current positions but were instead thrown haphazardly into their orbits by the migrating Neptune. IAU guidelines dictate that all plutinos must, like Pluto, be named for underworld deities. The 1:2 resonance (whose objects complete half an orbit for each of Neptune's) corresponds to semi-major axes of ~47.7 AU, and is sparsely populated. Its residents are sometimes referred to as twotinos.","[-0.0009845034219324589, -0.07361222058534622, 0.05330043286085129, 0.010577362962067127, 0.02172216959297657, -0.020443199202418327, -0.06663825362920761, -0.004041540902107954, 0.1299963891506195, 0.018069777637720108, -0.014970417134463787, -0.06361570209264755, 0.09769561141729355, -0.10298801958560944, 0.07213372737169266, -0.021422624588012695, 0.009866686537861824, -0.04993826523423195, 0.0019667656160891056, 0.04882623627781868, -0.010295131243765354, -0.019686823710799217, -0.022798214107751846, 0.05025935918092728, -0.15207915008068085, -0.03748004883527756, -0.021547233685851097, 0.0024788384325802326, 0.026513639837503433, -0.019302379339933395, -0.04539487883448601, 0.033093515783548355, -0.05241965502500534, -0.030425025150179863, -0.03883056715130806, 0.009608857333660126, -0.04621880501508713, 0.04720303788781166, -0.0974588394165039, -0.020328938961029053, 0.051268238574266434, 0.01351634319871664, 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736,"( whose objects complete half an orbit for each of Neptune 's ) corresponds to semi-major axes of ~47.7 AU , and is sparsely populated . Its residents are sometimes referred to as twotinos .Other resonances also exist at 3:4, 3:5, 4:7, and 2:5. Neptune has a number of trojan objects, which occupy its Lagrangian points, gravitationally stable regions leading and trailing it in its orbit. Neptune trojans are in a 1:1 mean-motion resonance with Neptune and often have very stable orbits. Additionally, there is a relative absence of objects with semi-major axes below 39 AU that cannot apparently be explained by the present resonances. The currently accepted hypothesis for the cause of this is that as Neptune migrated outward, unstable orbital resonances moved gradually through this region, and thus any objects within it were swept up, or gravitationally ejected from it. Kuiper cliff
The 1:2 resonance at 47.8 AU appears to be an edge beyond which few objects are known. It is not clear whether it is actually the outer edge of the classical belt or just the beginning of a broad gap. Objects have been detected at the 2:5 resonance at roughly 55 AU, well outside the classical belt; predictions of a large number of bodies in classical orbits between these resonances have not been verified through observation. Based on estimations of the primordial mass required to form Uranus and Neptune, as well as bodies as large as Pluto (see § Mass and size distribution), earlier models of the Kuiper belt had suggested that the number of large objects would increase by a factor of two beyond 50 AU, so this sudden drastic falloff, known as the Kuiper cliff, was unexpected, and to date its cause is unknown. 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737,"two beyond 50 AU , so this sudden drastic falloff , known as the Kuiper cliff , was unexpected , and to date its cause is unknown . Bernstein , Trilling , et al .(2003) found evidence that the rapid decline in objects of 100 km or more in radius beyond 50 AU is real, and not due to observational bias. Possible explanations include that material at that distance was too scarce or too scattered to accrete into large objects, or that subsequent processes removed or destroyed those that did. Patryk Lykawka of Kobe University claimed that the gravitational attraction of an unseen large planetary object, perhaps the size of Earth or Mars, might be responsible. An analysis of the TNO data available prior to September 2023 shows that the distribution of objects at the outer rim of the classical Kuiper belt resembles that of the outer main asteroid belt with a gap at about 72 AU, far from any mean-motion resonances with Neptune; the outer main asteroid belt exhibits a gap induced by the 5:6 mean-motion resonance with Jupiter at 5.875 AU. Origin
The precise origins of the Kuiper belt and its complex structure are still unclear, and astronomers are awaiting the completion of several wide-field survey telescopes such as Pan-STARRS and the future LSST, which should reveal many currently unknown KBOs. These surveys will provide data that will help determine answers to these questions. Pan-STARRS 1 finished its primary science mission in 2014, and the full data from the Pan-STARRS 1 surveys were published in 2019, helping reveal many more KBOs. The Kuiper belt is thought to consist of planetesimals, fragments from the original protoplanetary disc around the Sun that failed to fully coalesce into planets and instead formed into smaller bodies, the largest less than 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi) in diameter.","[-0.015680668875575066, 0.019175274297595024, 0.05045851692557335, -0.0013712059007957578, 0.042802490293979645, -0.08019891381263733, -0.12757760286331177, 0.10854877531528473, 0.032808344811201096, 0.05070037022233009, -0.01754613220691681, -0.10519352555274963, -0.028185319155454636, -0.05448871850967407, 0.028530238196253777, -0.025469301268458366, 0.043509047478437424, -0.05622197687625885, -0.023107435554265976, 0.05031641945242882, -0.05197276920080185, 0.07815428823232651, -0.014359959401190281, 0.05633076652884483, -0.08167503774166107, 0.02385615184903145, -0.035777777433395386, -0.07638014853000641, -0.011139065958559513, -0.021155070513486862, -0.04323570057749748, -0.01061806920915842, -0.01273003313690424, 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738,"from the original protoplanetary disc around the Sun that failed to fully coalesce into planets and instead formed into smaller bodies , the largest less than 3,000 kilometres ( 1,900 mi ) in diameter .Studies of the crater counts on Pluto and Charon revealed a scarcity of small craters suggesting that such objects formed directly as sizeable objects in the range of tens of kilometers in diameter rather than being accreted from much smaller, roughly kilometer scale bodies. Hypothetical mechanisms for the formation of these larger bodies include the gravitational collapse of clouds of pebbles concentrated between eddies in a turbulent protoplanetary disk or in streaming instabilities. These collapsing clouds may fragment, forming binaries. Modern computer simulations show the Kuiper belt to have been strongly influenced by Jupiter and Neptune, and also suggest that neither Uranus nor Neptune could have formed in their present positions, because too little primordial matter existed at that range to produce objects of such high mass. Instead, these planets are estimated to have formed closer to Jupiter. Scattering of planetesimals early in the Solar System's history would have led to migration of the orbits of the giant planets: Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune drifted outwards, whereas Jupiter drifted inwards. Eventually, the orbits shifted to the point where Jupiter and Saturn reached an exact 1:2 resonance; Jupiter orbited the Sun twice for every one Saturn orbit. The gravitational repercussions of such a resonance ultimately destabilized the orbits of Uranus and Neptune, causing them to be scattered outward onto high-eccentricity orbits that crossed the primordial planetesimal disc. While Neptune's orbit was highly eccentric, its mean-motion resonances overlapped and the orbits of the planetesimals evolved chaotically, allowing planetesimals to wander outward as far as Neptune's 1:2 resonance to form a dynamically cold belt of low-inclination objects. Later, after its eccentricity decreased, Neptune's orbit expanded outward toward its current position.","[0.009790495969355106, -0.005425369832664728, 0.06353180855512619, -0.027821701020002365, 0.02398887649178505, -0.10584888607263565, -0.059024594724178314, 0.08043123781681061, 0.04469889774918556, 0.05484255403280258, -0.03238220885396004, -0.06916956603527069, 0.012126374989748001, -0.057109467685222626, 0.0027736022602766752, -0.048919521272182465, -0.005522588267922401, -0.007792160380631685, -0.04290034621953964, 0.041259244084358215, 0.007418021094053984, 0.05000980943441391, -0.06995922327041626, 0.036538559943437576, -0.032942671328783035, 0.0024242056533694267, -0.052296046167612076, -0.048767950385808945, 0.010683140717446804, -0.01820673793554306, -0.01762174256145954, -0.010203973390161991, -0.006368708331137896, 0.009445817209780216, 0.05476505309343338, -0.0035574533976614475, 0.04357880726456642, 0.029689425602555275, -0.007041593082249165, -0.03078409843146801, 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739,"outward as far as Neptune 's 1:2 resonance to form a dynamically cold belt of low-inclination objects . Later , after its eccentricity decreased , Neptune 's orbit expanded outward toward its current position .Many planetesimals were captured into and remain in resonances during this migration, others evolved onto higher-inclination and lower-eccentricity orbits and escaped from the resonances onto stable orbits. Many more planetesimals were scattered inward, with small fractions being captured as Jupiter trojans, as irregular satellites orbiting the giant planets, and as outer belt asteroids. The remainder were scattered outward again by Jupiter and in most cases ejected from the Solar System reducing the primordial Kuiper belt population by 99% or more. The original version of the currently most popular model, the ""Nice model"", reproduces many characteristics of the Kuiper belt such as the ""cold"" and ""hot"" populations, resonant objects, and a scattered disc, but it still fails to account for some of the characteristics of their distributions. The model predicts a higher average eccentricity in classical KBO orbits than is observed (0.10–0.13 versus 0.07) and its predicted inclination distribution contains too few high inclination objects. In addition, the frequency of binary objects in the cold belt, many of which are far apart and loosely bound, also poses a problem for the model. These are predicted to have been separated during encounters with Neptune, leading some to propose that the cold disc formed at its current location, representing the only truly local population of small bodies in the solar system. A recent modification of the Nice model has the Solar System begin with five giant planets, including an additional ice giant, in a chain of mean-motion resonances. About 400 million years after the formation of the Solar System the resonance chain is broken. Instead of being scattered into the disc, the ice giants first migrate outward several AU.","[0.025747887790203094, -0.037639666348695755, 0.05491781234741211, 0.0043056127615273, 0.02924172580242157, -0.1104356124997139, -0.04412730410695076, 0.07967456430196762, 0.07228678464889526, 0.03864279389381409, -0.00912882573902607, -0.03806633502244949, 0.08602755516767502, -0.07091865688562393, 0.035137515515089035, -0.055548038333654404, 0.08095072954893112, -0.039274778217077255, -0.03257579356431961, 0.02777871862053871, -0.05663389712572098, 0.05564427748322487, -0.050074733793735504, 0.03870738670229912, -0.13753215968608856, -0.0604582279920578, -0.019072968512773514, -0.044386088848114014, -0.03244752064347267, -0.03847922757267952, -0.04662953317165375, -0.011255916208028793, -0.03162526339292526, 0.0184166356921196, 0.016813043504953384, -0.008819051086902618, -0.04812631756067276, 0.013937351293861866, -0.058850936591625214, -0.023431502282619476, 0.07002399116754532, 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740,". About 400 million years after the formation of the Solar System the resonance chain is broken . Instead of being scattered into the disc , the ice giants first migrate outward several AU .This divergent migration eventually leads to a resonance crossing, destabilizing the orbits of the planets. The extra ice giant encounters Saturn and is scattered inward onto a Jupiter-crossing orbit and after a series of encounters is ejected from the Solar System. The remaining planets then continue their migration until the planetesimal disc is nearly depleted with small fractions remaining in various locations. As in the original Nice model, objects are captured into resonances with Neptune during its outward migration. Some remain in the resonances, others evolve onto higher-inclination, lower-eccentricity orbits, and are released onto stable orbits forming the dynamically hot classical belt. The hot belt's inclination distribution can be reproduced if Neptune migrated from 24 AU to 30 AU on a 30 Myr timescale. When Neptune migrates to 28 AU, it has a gravitational encounter with the extra ice giant. Objects captured from the cold belt into the 1:2 mean-motion resonance with Neptune are left behind as a local concentration at 44 AU when this encounter causes Neptune's semi-major axis to jump outward. The objects deposited in the cold belt include some loosely bound 'blue' binaries originating from closer than the cold belt's current location. If Neptune's eccentricity remains small during this encounter, the chaotic evolution of orbits of the original Nice model is avoided and a primordial cold belt is preserved. In the later phases of Neptune's migration, a slow sweeping of mean-motion resonances removes the higher-eccentricity objects from the cold belt, truncating its eccentricity distribution.","[-0.013268171809613705, -0.04331010580062866, 0.022546473890542984, 0.03958636894822121, 0.05565745756030083, -0.06359926611185074, -0.0606067068874836, 0.04616013914346695, 0.04330398142337799, 0.0064885541796684265, 0.0020412777084857225, -0.003957242239266634, 0.057925138622522354, -0.11100151389837265, 0.03843691945075989, -0.008818007074296474, -0.0045032501220703125, -0.06588955968618393, -0.039432357996702194, -0.00971605721861124, -0.018951011821627617, -0.026407621800899506, -0.07362061738967896, 0.025279847905039787, -0.13408802449703217, -0.04138342663645744, -0.04155286028981209, -0.02378113754093647, 0.00443595414981246, 0.013447396457195282, -0.036119475960731506, 0.0015404922887682915, -0.07139825820922852, 0.009870387613773346, -0.004736953414976597, 0.04021913930773735, 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741,"primordial cold belt is preserved . In the later phases of Neptune 's migration , a slow sweeping of mean-motion resonances removes the higher-eccentricity objects from the cold belt , truncating its eccentricity distribution .Composition
Being distant from the Sun and major planets, Kuiper belt objects are thought to be relatively unaffected by the processes that have shaped and altered other Solar System objects; thus, determining their composition would provide substantial information on the makeup of the earliest Solar System. Due to their small size and extreme distance from Earth, the chemical makeup of KBOs is very difficult to determine. The principal method by which astronomers determine the composition of a celestial object is spectroscopy. When an object's light is broken into its component colors, an image akin to a rainbow is formed. This image is called a spectrum. Different substances absorb light at different wavelengths, and when the spectrum for a specific object is unravelled, dark lines (called absorption lines) appear where the substances within it have absorbed that particular wavelength of light. Every element or compound has its own unique spectroscopic signature, and by reading an object's full spectral ""fingerprint"", astronomers can determine its composition. Analysis indicates that Kuiper belt objects are composed of a mixture of rock and a variety of ices such as water, methane, and ammonia. The temperature of the belt is only about 50 K, so many compounds that would be gaseous closer to the Sun remain solid. The densities and rock–ice fractions are known for only a small number of objects for which the diameters and the masses have been determined. The diameter can be determined by imaging with a high-resolution telescope such as the Hubble Space Telescope, by the timing of an occultation when an object passes in front of a star or, most commonly, by using the albedo of an object calculated from its infrared emissions.","[-0.01425866223871708, -0.011117123067378998, 0.05168106034398079, 0.01153320912271738, 0.0430777445435524, -0.06376446783542633, 0.05140664801001549, 7.887673564255238e-05, 0.14179974794387817, 0.022796323522925377, -0.03225414454936981, -0.09616804122924805, -0.003067071782425046, -0.045664556324481964, 0.011994950473308563, -0.022212890908122063, 0.030317625030875206, 0.0029437795747071505, -0.053449906408786774, -0.005988305434584618, 0.03594730794429779, 0.007733694743365049, -0.104513019323349, -0.009456314146518707, -0.06700429320335388, 0.05816518887877464, -0.016509858891367912, -0.07169485837221146, 0.019665539264678955, 0.010097896680235863, 0.004205445293337107, 0.00014522616402246058, 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742,"Telescope , by the timing of an occultation when an object passes in front of a star or , most commonly , by using the albedo of an object calculated from its infrared emissions .The masses are determined using the semi-major axes and periods of satellites, which are therefore known only for a few binary objects. The densities range from less than 0.4 to 2.6 g/cm3. The least dense objects are thought to be largely composed of ice and have significant porosity. The densest objects are likely composed of rock with a thin crust of ice. There is a trend of low densities for small objects and high densities for the largest objects. One possible explanation for this trend is that ice was lost from the surface layers when differentiated objects collided to form the largest objects. Initially, detailed analysis of KBOs was impossible, and so astronomers were only able to determine the most basic facts about their makeup, primarily their color. These first data showed a broad range of colors among KBOs, ranging from neutral grey to deep red. This suggested that their surfaces were composed of a wide range of compounds, from dirty ices to hydrocarbons. This diversity was startling, as astronomers had expected KBOs to be uniformly dark, having lost most of the volatile ices from their surfaces to the effects of cosmic rays. Various solutions were suggested for this discrepancy, including resurfacing by impacts or outgassing. Jewitt and Luu's spectral analysis of the known Kuiper belt objects in 2001 found that the variation in color was too extreme to be easily explained by random impacts. The radiation from the Sun is thought to have chemically altered methane on the surface of KBOs, producing products such as tholins. Makemake has been shown to possess a number of hydrocarbons derived from the radiation-processing of methane, including ethane, ethylene and acetylene.","[-0.01037959661334753, -0.027171989902853966, 0.0937483012676239, 0.09538324177265167, 0.05099239572882652, -0.102672278881073, 0.05165065824985504, 0.05248819291591644, 0.06421712040901184, 0.07478886097669601, -0.13070665299892426, -0.07999637722969055, 0.025516493245959282, -0.024109015241265297, 0.01560348179191351, -0.02435208298265934, 0.08708667755126953, -0.04892249405384064, -0.08509021997451782, 0.06541329622268677, 0.026216862723231316, 0.008604474365711212, -0.13478688895702362, -0.014062704518437386, -0.01380293257534504, 0.034631527960300446, -0.011321447789669037, -0.07754665613174438, 0.007515858858823776, -0.02612418495118618, -0.032722242176532745, 0.03444433584809303, 0.05230240523815155, 0.0007707177428528666, 0.05369490385055542, -0.019660724326968193, 0.03061853162944317, -0.058277785778045654, 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743,"the surface of KBOs , producing products such as tholins . Makemake has been shown to possess a number of hydrocarbons derived from the radiation-processing of methane , including ethane , ethylene and acetylene .Although to date most KBOs still appear spectrally featureless due to their faintness, there have been a number of successes in determining their composition. In 1996, Robert H. Brown et al. acquired spectroscopic data on the KBO 1993 SC, which revealed that its surface composition is markedly similar to that of Pluto, as well as Neptune's moon Triton, with large amounts of methane ice. For the smaller objects, only colors and in some cases the albedos have been determined. These objects largely fall into two classes: gray with low albedos, or very red with higher albedos. The difference in colors and albedos is hypothesized to be due to the retention or the loss of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) on the surface of these objects, with the surfaces of those that formed far enough from the Sun to retain H2S being reddened due to irradiation. The largest KBOs, such as Pluto and Quaoar, have surfaces rich in volatile compounds such as methane, nitrogen and carbon monoxide; the presence of these molecules is likely due to their moderate vapor pressure in the 30–50 K temperature range of the Kuiper belt. This allows them to occasionally boil off their surfaces and then fall again as snow, whereas compounds with higher boiling points would remain solid. The relative abundances of these three compounds in the largest KBOs is directly related to their surface gravity and ambient temperature, which determines which they can retain. Water ice has been detected in several KBOs, including members of the Haumea family such as 1996 TO66, mid-sized objects such as 38628 Huya and 20000 Varuna, and also on some small objects.","[-0.030191145837306976, -0.03284934535622597, 0.06867900490760803, 0.02261117473244667, 0.08624840527772903, -0.053113240748643875, 0.0655762180685997, 0.024495314806699753, 0.02716243825852871, 0.06664319336414337, -0.05241256579756737, -0.12565650045871735, 0.01739538460969925, -0.06550237536430359, 0.038461603224277496, 0.03652225062251091, 0.02492883987724781, -0.047558557242155075, -0.0481170229613781, 0.01670468971133232, 0.04333874210715294, 0.001424332382157445, -0.06269008666276932, -0.012811812572181225, -0.06425256282091141, 0.046012043952941895, 0.018694784492254257, -0.0459788478910923, 0.01331414096057415, -0.004311020486056805, -0.07662850618362427, 0.011758732609450817, 0.0024776298087090254, 0.00908545684069395, 0.09891778975725174, -0.0025068523827940226, -0.01173285860568285, 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744,"has been detected in several KBOs , including members of the Haumea family such as 1996 TO66 , mid-sized objects such as 38628 Huya and 20000 Varuna , and also on some small objects .The presence of crystalline ice on large and mid-sized objects, including 50000 Quaoar where ammonia hydrate has also been detected, may indicate past tectonic activity aided by melting point lowering due to the presence of ammonia. Mass and size distribution
Despite its vast extent, the collective mass of the Kuiper belt is relatively low. The total mass of the dynamically hot population is estimated to be 1% the mass of the Earth. The dynamically cold population is estimated to be much smaller with only 0.03% the mass of the Earth. While the dynamically hot population is thought to be the remnant of a much larger population that formed closer to the Sun and was scattered outward during the migration of the giant planets, in contrast, the dynamically cold population is thought to have formed at its current location. The most recent estimate (2018) puts the total mass of the Kuiper belt at (1.97±0.30)×10−2 Earth masses based on the influence that it exerts on the motion of planets. The small total mass of the dynamically cold population presents some problems for models of the Solar System's formation because a sizable mass is required for accretion of KBOs larger than 100 km (62 mi) in diameter. If the cold classical Kuiper belt had always had its current low density, these large objects simply could not have formed by the collision and mergers of smaller planetesimals. Moreover, the eccentricity and inclination of current orbits make the encounters quite ""violent"" resulting in destruction rather than accretion. The removal of a large fraction of the mass of the dynamically cold population is thought to be unlikely.","[-0.008403797633945942, -0.008764329366385937, 0.028611719608306885, 0.050650566816329956, -0.0133003368973732, -0.07725498080253601, -0.005902010481804609, 0.01727016642689705, 0.04027211666107178, 0.058897167444229126, 0.0018938322318717837, -0.171067476272583, -0.0465976782143116, -0.03410106897354126, 0.006518795620650053, -0.0341976024210453, -0.016969380900263786, -0.06629291921854019, -0.02299293875694275, -0.018055124208331108, -0.026397226378321648, 0.045858994126319885, -0.05550704523921013, 0.028850514441728592, -0.08310028165578842, 0.012093556113541126, -0.045516204088926315, 0.02162308804690838, 0.004621876869350672, 0.0011156343389302492, -0.08725342154502869, 0.0010068559786304832, 0.08892081677913666, 0.01201183907687664, 0.05208926647901535, 0.019567187875509262, -0.05720696598291397, -0.05679774284362793, -0.024592747911810875, 0.014867221936583519, 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belt,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.
745,"orbits make the encounters quite `` violent '' resulting in destruction rather than accretion . The removal of a large fraction of the mass of the dynamically cold population is thought to be unlikely .Neptune's current influence is too weak to explain such a massive ""vacuuming"", and the extent of mass loss by collisional grinding is limited by the presence of loosely bound binaries in the cold disk, which are likely to be disrupted in collisions. Instead of forming from the collisions of smaller planetesimals, the larger object may have formed directly from the collapse of clouds of pebbles. The size distributions of the Kuiper belt objects follow a number of power laws. A power law describes the relationship between N(D) (the number of objects of diameter greater than D) and D, and is referred to as brightness slope. The number of objects is inversely proportional to some power of the diameter D:

  
    
      
        
          
            
              d
              N
            
            
              d
              D
            
          
        
        ∝
        
          D
          
            −
            q
          
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\frac {dN}{dD}}\propto D^{-q},}
  
 which yields (assuming q is not 1):
  
    
      
        N
        ∝
        
          D
          
            1
            −
            q
          
        
        +
        
          a constant
        
        . {\displaystyle N\propto D^{1-q}+{\text{a constant}}.} (The constant may be non-zero only if the power law doesn't apply at high values of D.)
Early estimates that were based on measurements of the apparent magnitude distribution found a value of q = 4 ± 0.5, which implied that there are 8 (=23) times more objects in the 100–200 km range than in the 200–400 km range. Recent research has revealed that the size distributions of the hot classical and cold classical objects have differing slopes. The slope for the hot objects is q = 5.3 at large diameters and q = 2.0 at small diameters with the change in slope at 110 km.","[-0.0001726229820633307, 0.048492182046175, 0.11367125809192657, 0.031125381588935852, -0.028961868956685066, -0.10545625537633896, -0.026073209941387177, 0.030001325532794, 0.061930932104587555, 0.06767132878303528, -0.03418494760990143, -0.08031408488750458, 0.06683485209941864, -0.07032565027475357, -0.0056976634077727795, -0.029841482639312744, 0.015261247754096985, -0.0012047049822285771, -0.07094278931617737, -0.00010241503332508728, -0.02095923386514187, 0.034286707639694214, -0.023787816986441612, 0.0637933686375618, -0.1085323616862297, -0.0648159384727478, -0.10849364846944809, -0.021810177713632584, 0.030366696417331696, -0.014584679156541824, -0.04426470026373863, -0.01725167967379093, 0.029224742203950882, 0.03044995479285717, 0.05426976829767227, 0.034383393824100494, -0.023693494498729706, 0.04091528803110123, -0.05187823623418808, 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746,"classical objects have differing slopes . The slope for the hot objects is q = 5.3 at large diameters and q = 2.0 at small diameters with the change in slope at 110 km .The slope for the cold objects is q = 8.2 at large diameters and q = 2.9 at small diameters with a change in slope at 140 km. The size distributions of the scattering objects, the plutinos, and the Neptune trojans have slopes similar to the other dynamically hot populations, but may instead have a divot, a sharp decrease in the number of objects below a specific size. This divot is hypothesized to be due to either the collisional evolution of the population, or to be due to the population having formed with no objects below this size, with the smaller objects being fragments of the original objects. The smallest known Kuiper belt objects with radii below 1 km have only been detected by stellar occultations, as they are far too dim (magnitude 35) to be seen directly by telescopes such as the Hubble Space Telescope. The first reports of these occultations were from Schlichting et al. in December 2009, who announced the discovery of a small, sub-kilometre-radius Kuiper belt object in archival Hubble photometry from March 2007. With an estimated radius of 520±60 m or a diameter of 1040±120 m, the object was detected by Hubble's star tracking system when it briefly occulted a star for 0.3 seconds. In a subsequent study published in December 2012, Schlichting et al. performed a more thorough analysis of archival Hubble photometry and reported another occultation event by a sub-kilometre-sized Kuiper belt object, estimated to be 530±70 m in radius or 1060±140 m in diameter. 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747,"event by a sub-kilometre-sized Kuiper belt object , estimated to be 530±70 m in radius or 1060±140 m in diameter . From the occultation events detected in 2009 and 2012 , Schlichting et al .determined the Kuiper belt object size distribution slope to be q = 3.6 ± 0.2 or q = 3.8 ± 0.2, with the assumptions of a single power law and a uniform ecliptic latitude distribution. Their result implies a strong deficit of sub-kilometer-sized Kuiper belt objects compared to  extrapolations from the population of larger Kuiper belt objects with diameters above 90 km. Observations made by NASA's New Horizons Venetia Burney Student Dust Counter showed ""higher than model-predicted dust fluxes"" as far as 55 au, not explained by any existing model. Scattered objects
The scattered disc is a sparsely populated region, overlapping with the Kuiper belt but extending to beyond 100 AU. Scattered disc objects (SDOs) have very elliptical orbits, often also very inclined to the ecliptic. Most models of Solar System formation show both KBOs and SDOs first forming in a primordial belt, with later gravitational interactions, particularly with Neptune, sending the objects outward, some into stable orbits (the KBOs) and some into unstable orbits, the scattered disc. Due to its unstable nature, the scattered disc is suspected to be the point of origin of many of the Solar System's short-period comets. Their dynamic orbits occasionally force them into the inner Solar System, first becoming centaurs, and then short-period comets. According to the Minor Planet Center, which officially catalogues all trans-Neptunian objects, a KBO is any object that orbits exclusively within the defined Kuiper belt region regardless of origin or composition. Objects found outside the belt are classed as scattered objects.","[0.03831435739994049, -0.02289719320833683, 0.032602567225694656, -0.02057606168091297, 0.04796837270259857, -0.14470717310905457, -0.004535599611699581, 0.04280306398868561, 0.10113608092069626, 0.03128974884748459, 0.023324858397245407, -0.08673194795846939, -0.029338449239730835, -0.0037727479357272387, 0.03395360708236694, -0.029812881723046303, 0.05542091280221939, -0.01814371347427368, -0.0800241231918335, 0.037315547466278076, -0.004290741868317127, 0.08239596337080002, -0.048499975353479385, 0.07284409552812576, -0.04624313861131668, -0.041658639907836914, -0.032126545906066895, -0.10201715677976608, -0.04817027971148491, 0.0032440507784485817, -0.014164553955197334, 0.0044755819253623486, 0.022531913593411446, 0.04749506711959839, 0.11877447366714478, -0.02361067570745945, -0.013969131745398045, 0.030198263004422188, 0.005417175590991974, 0.008480778895318508, 0.0019074606243520975, -0.046607572585344315, 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748,"all trans-Neptunian objects , a KBO is any object that orbits exclusively within the defined Kuiper belt region regardless of origin or composition . Objects found outside the belt are classed as scattered objects .In some scientific circles the term ""Kuiper belt object"" has become synonymous with any icy minor planet native to the outer Solar System assumed to have been part of that initial class, even if its orbit during the bulk of Solar System history has been beyond the Kuiper belt (e.g. in the scattered-disc region). They often describe scattered disc objects as ""scattered Kuiper belt objects"". Eris, which is known to be more massive than Pluto, is often referred to as a KBO, but is technically an SDO. A consensus among astronomers as to the precise definition of the Kuiper belt has yet to be reached, and this issue remains unresolved. The centaurs, which are not normally considered part of the Kuiper belt, are also thought to be scattered objects, the only difference being that they were scattered inward, rather than outward. The Minor Planet Center groups the centaurs and the SDOs together as scattered objects. Triton
During its period of migration, Neptune is thought to have captured a large KBO, Triton, which is the only large moon in the Solar System with a retrograde orbit (that is, it orbits opposite to Neptune's rotation). This suggests that, unlike the large moons of Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus, which are thought to have coalesced from rotating discs of material around their young parent planets, Triton was a fully formed body that was captured from surrounding space. Gravitational capture of an object is not easy: it requires some mechanism to slow down the object enough to be caught by the larger object's gravity. A possible explanation is that Triton was part of a binary when it encountered Neptune.","[0.031186411157250404, -0.06030488386750221, 0.01959344558417797, -0.012462870217859745, 0.03494749590754509, -0.15242138504981995, 0.004012551158666611, 0.029708025977015495, 0.06780751794576645, 0.02574795112013817, 0.008983150124549866, -0.09149925410747528, -0.0226147398352623, -0.010490425862371922, 0.004496268928050995, -0.06386376917362213, 0.07144404202699661, 0.0168454647064209, -0.056232016533613205, 0.07355547696352005, -0.006878531072288752, 0.0700625628232956, -0.046521320939064026, 0.04151197522878647, -0.07055362313985825, -0.03491571545600891, -0.01217123493552208, -0.07059619575738907, -0.019672438502311707, -0.011120174080133438, -0.06231892481446266, 0.04107076674699783, -0.018540672957897186, 0.06152792274951935, 0.062197159975767136, 0.024054329842329025, 0.0031901332549750805, 0.022967008873820305, -0.0063159954734146595, -0.029254594817757607, 0.01653691940009594, 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749,"requires some mechanism to slow down the object enough to be caught by the larger object 's gravity . A possible explanation is that Triton was part of a binary when it encountered Neptune .(Many KBOs are members of binaries. See below.) Ejection of the other member of the binary by Neptune could then explain Triton's capture. Triton is only 14% larger than Pluto, and spectral analysis of both worlds shows that their surfaces are largely composed of similar materials, such as methane and carbon monoxide. All this points to the conclusion that Triton was once a KBO that was captured by Neptune during its outward migration. Largest KBOs
Since 2000, a number of KBOs with diameters of between 500 and 1,500 km (932 mi), more than half that of Pluto (diameter 2370 km), have been discovered. Quaoar, a classical KBO discovered in 2002, is over 1200 km across. Makemake and Haumea, both announced on 29 July 2005, are larger still. Other objects, such as 28978 Ixion (discovered in 2001) and 20000 Varuna (discovered in 2000), measure roughly 600–700 km (373–435 mi) across. Pluto
The discovery of these large KBOs in orbits similar to Pluto's led many to conclude that, aside from its relative size, Pluto was not particularly different from other members of the Kuiper belt. Not only are these objects similar to Pluto in size, but many also have natural satellites, and are of similar composition (methane and carbon monoxide have been found both on Pluto and on the largest KBOs). Thus, just as Ceres was considered a planet before the discovery of its fellow asteroids, some began to suggest that Pluto might also be reclassified.","[-0.040068451315164566, -0.036292459815740585, -0.007857387885451317, -0.03967926278710365, 0.027836063876748085, -0.06151551380753517, 0.020942887291312218, 0.061356279999017715, -0.04044574126601219, 0.08959433436393738, 0.0376662015914917, -0.12022389471530914, -0.0243681687861681, -0.01735844835639, -0.004361430183053017, 0.00611921027302742, 0.040679700672626495, -0.028158038854599, -0.035461146384477615, 0.03199480473995209, 0.02037269063293934, 0.016494721174240112, -0.03598880022764206, 0.031112659722566605, -0.1126476600766182, 0.0041602179408073425, 0.004627291578799486, -0.045422352850437164, 0.020515084266662598, -0.034040335565805435, -0.1109478697180748, 0.03440699726343155, -0.011706884950399399, 0.004471021704375744, 0.058860715478658676, 0.0691920816898346, -0.0032541994005441666, -1.0063939953397494e-05, 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750,"and on the largest KBOs ) . Thus , just as Ceres was considered a planet before the discovery of its fellow asteroids , some began to suggest that Pluto might also be reclassified .The issue was brought to a head by the discovery of Eris, an object in the scattered disc far beyond the Kuiper belt, that is now known to be 27% more massive than Pluto. (Eris was originally thought to be larger than Pluto by volume, but the New Horizons mission found this not to be the case.) In response, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) was forced to define what a planet is for the first time, and in so doing included in their definition that a planet must have ""cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit"". As Pluto shares its orbit with many other sizable objects, it was deemed not to have cleared its orbit and was thus reclassified from a planet to a dwarf planet, making it a member of the Kuiper belt. It is not clear how many KBOs are large enough to be dwarf planets. Consideration of the surprisingly low densities of many dwarf-planet candidates suggests that not many are. Orcus, Pluto, Haumea, Quaoar, and Makemake are accepted by most astronomers; some have proposed other bodies, such as Salacia, Máni, Aya, and Ixion. Satellites
The six largest TNOs (Eris, Pluto, Gonggong, Makemake, Haumea and Quaoar) are all known to have satellites, and two of them have more than one. A higher percentage of the larger KBOs have satellites than the smaller objects in the Kuiper belt, suggesting that a different formation mechanism was responsible. There are also a high number of binaries (two objects close enough in mass to be orbiting ""each other"") in the Kuiper belt.","[0.03545808047056198, -0.07080098241567612, 0.009137517772614956, -0.023792926222085953, 0.02577357552945614, -0.10144442319869995, -0.0005701083573512733, 0.014062692411243916, 0.08083200454711914, 0.09411624819040298, 0.019336605444550514, -0.07235854119062424, -0.013859339989721775, -0.058815281838178635, 0.014330580830574036, -0.05655355751514435, 0.030135687440633774, -0.037454333156347275, -0.0002846739662345499, 0.05076787248253822, 0.013098974712193012, 0.0802973285317421, 0.012311543338000774, 0.04877043515443802, -0.031042253598570824, -0.072095587849617, -0.01923016831278801, -0.06282659620046616, -0.023973984643816948, -0.08036024123430252, -0.03690643236041069, 0.04818516597151756, 0.08080350607633591, -0.0019391663372516632, 0.07281418889760971, 0.021781131625175476, 0.00963853020220995, -0.002172221429646015, -0.06036769971251488, 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751,"a different formation mechanism was responsible . There are also a high number of binaries ( two objects close enough in mass to be orbiting `` each other '' ) in the Kuiper belt .The most notable example is the Pluto–Charon binary, but it is estimated that around 11% of KBOs exist in binaries. Exploration
On 19 January 2006, the first spacecraft to explore the Kuiper belt, New Horizons, was launched, which flew by Pluto on 14 July 2015. Beyond the Pluto flyby, the mission's goal was to locate and investigate other, farther objects in the Kuiper belt. On 15 October 2014, it was revealed that Hubble had uncovered three potential targets, provisionally designated PT1 (""potential target 1""), PT2 and PT3 by the New Horizons team. The objects' diameters were estimated to be in the 30–55 km range; too small to be seen by ground telescopes, at distances from the Sun of 43–44 AU, which would put the encounters in the 2018–2019 period. The initial estimated probabilities that these objects were reachable within New Horizons' fuel budget were 100%, 7%, and 97%, respectively. All were members of the ""cold"" (low-inclination, low-eccentricity) classical Kuiper belt, and thus very different from Pluto. PT1 (given the temporary designation ""1110113Y"" on the HST web site), the most favorably situated object, was magnitude 26.8, 30–45 km in diameter, and was encountered in January 2019. Once sufficient orbital information was provided, the Minor Planet Center gave official designations to the three target KBOs: 2014 MU69 (PT1, now Arrokoth), 2014 OS393 (PT2), and 2014 PN70 (PT3). By the fall of 2014, a possible fourth target, 2014 MT69, had been eliminated by follow-up observations.","[0.02213318832218647, -0.06002131476998329, -0.008064561523497105, -0.00775432912632823, 0.057826872915029526, -0.0816441997885704, -0.013846399262547493, 0.05269884318113327, 0.02537311427295208, 0.055456724017858505, 0.013270050287246704, -0.04745374619960785, -0.014836015179753304, -0.02873573824763298, 0.021561089903116226, -0.029921628534793854, 0.048855721950531006, -0.09567441046237946, -0.0009496117127127945, 0.011784915812313557, -0.04670041799545288, 0.0312870554625988, 0.0395967997610569, 0.029990963637828827, -0.004440781194716692, -0.01519768126308918, 0.00974821113049984, -0.11255503445863724, -0.035071633756160736, -0.005378779023885727, -0.03241443634033203, -0.00902089849114418, 0.015389041975140572, -0.010213080793619156, 0.07875124365091324, 0.04614457115530968, 0.035593945533037186, 0.0022293406073004007, -0.006045161280781031, -0.03615107387304306, 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752,", 2014 OS393 ( PT2 ) , and 2014 PN70 ( PT3 ) . By the fall of 2014 , a possible fourth target , 2014 MT69 , had been eliminated by follow-up observations .PT2 was out of the running before the Pluto flyby. On 26 August 2015, the first target, 2014 MU69 (nicknamed ""Ultima Thule"" and later named 486958 Arrokoth), was chosen. Course adjustment took place in late October and early November 2015, leading to a flyby in January 2019. On 1 July 2016, NASA approved additional funding for New Horizons to visit the object. On 2 December 2015, New Horizons detected what was then called 1994 JR1 (later named 15810 Arawn) from 270 million kilometres (170×10^6 mi) away. On 1 January 2019, New Horizons successfully flew by Arrokoth, returning data showing Arrokoth to be a contact binary 32 km long by 16 km wide. The Ralph instrument aboard New Horizons confirmed Arrokoth's red color. Data from the fly-by will continue to be downloaded over the next 20 months. No follow-up missions for New Horizons are planned, though at least two concepts for missions that would return to orbit or land on Pluto have been studied. Beyond Pluto, there exist many large KBOs that cannot be visited with New Horizons, such as the dwarf planets Makemake and Haumea. New missions would be tasked to explore and study these objects in detail. Thales Alenia Space has studied the logistics of an orbiter mission to Haumea, a high priority scientific target due to its status as the parent body of a collisional family that includes several other TNOs, as well as Haumea's ring and two moons. The lead author, Joel Poncy, has advocated for new technology that would allow spacecraft to reach and orbit KBOs in 10–20 years or less.","[-0.056556135416030884, -0.09974498301744461, 0.013273188844323158, -0.021923966705799103, 0.10938379913568497, -0.09054818004369736, -0.04731413722038269, 0.020600544288754463, -0.05467406287789345, 0.014685851521790028, 0.04212847724556923, 0.01479433011263609, -0.11304660886526108, -0.06746173650026321, -0.01174002792686224, 0.008147208951413631, 0.026020677760243416, -0.08815804123878479, 0.03840145841240883, 0.030671510845422745, -0.04647873342037201, 0.022748086601495743, -0.004851529374718666, 0.02755923382937908, 0.024073557928204536, 0.017816687002778053, 0.018771303817629814, -0.07851531356573105, -0.013592211529612541, -0.025734849274158478, 0.01424850057810545, 0.014612295664846897, -0.01158874575048685, 0.029566967859864235, 0.02992437593638897, 0.05124500021338463, 0.03846871480345726, 0.03516865149140358, -0.06346236169338226, 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753,"as Haumea 's ring and two moons . The lead author , Joel Poncy , has advocated for new technology that would allow spacecraft to reach and orbit KBOs in 10–20 years or less .New Horizons Principal Investigator Alan Stern has informally suggested missions that would flyby the planets Uranus or Neptune before visiting new KBO targets, thus furthering the exploration of the Kuiper belt while also visiting these ice giant planets for the first time since the Voyager 2 flybys in the 1980s. Design studies and concept missions
Quaoar has been considered as a flyby target for a probe tasked with exploring the interstellar medium, as it currently lies near the heliospheric nose; Pontus Brandt at Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory and his colleagues have studied a probe that would flyby Quaoar in the 2030s before continuing to the interstellar medium through the heliospheric nose. Among their interests in Quaoar include its likely disappearing methane atmosphere and cryovolcanism. The mission studied by Brandt and his colleagues would launch using SLS and achieve 30 km/s using a Jupiter flyby. Alternatively, for an orbiter mission, a study published in 2012 concluded that Ixion and Huya are among the most feasible targets. For instance, the authors calculated that an orbiter mission could reach Ixion after 17 years cruise time if launched in 2039. Extrasolar Kuiper belts
By 2006, astronomers had resolved dust discs thought to be Kuiper belt-like structures around nine stars other than the Sun. They appear to fall into two categories: wide belts, with radii of over 50 AU, and narrow belts (tentatively like that of the Solar System) with radii of between 20 and 30 AU and relatively sharp boundaries. Beyond this, 15–20% of solar-type stars have an observed infrared excess that is suggestive of massive Kuiper-belt-like structures.","[-0.0682985782623291, -0.049961529672145844, -0.07053110748529434, -0.014121590182185173, -0.020842356607317924, -0.05359681695699692, -0.0010160583769902587, 0.029491879045963287, -0.04416920617222786, 0.07658012956380844, -0.01023381669074297, -0.08042041957378387, -0.06292352825403214, -0.061233121901750565, 0.0009415759705007076, 0.08978284150362015, 0.02515087090432644, -0.09034238755702972, 0.05430154129862785, -0.051744505763053894, 0.004637762438505888, 0.01967809535562992, -0.02515115588903427, -0.04619666934013367, -0.06004580855369568, -0.026278862729668617, 0.021016942337155342, -0.0630289688706398, -0.017658846452832222, 0.018680337816476822, -0.012539735995233059, 0.049806687980890274, -0.06684406846761703, -0.0034624096006155014, 0.022253865376114845, 0.05282506346702576, 0.02711835503578186, -0.06236856430768967, -0.054382484406232834, 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754,") with radii of between 20 and 30 AU and relatively sharp boundaries . Beyond this , 15–20 % of solar-type stars have an observed infrared excess that is suggestive of massive Kuiper-belt-like structures .Most known debris discs around other stars are fairly young, but the two images on the right, taken by the Hubble Space Telescope in January 2006, are old enough (roughly 300 million years) to have settled into stable configurations. The left image is a ""top view"" of a wide belt, and the right image is an ""edge view"" of a narrow belt. Computer simulations of dust in the Kuiper belt suggest that when it was younger, it may have resembled the narrow rings seen around younger stars. See also
Asteroid belt
List of possible dwarf planets
List of trans-Neptunian objects
Planet Nine
Trans-Neptunian spectral types

Note
References
External links

Dave Jewitt's page @ UCLA
The belt's name
List of short period comets by family Archived 24 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine
Kuiper Belt Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration
The Kuiper Belt Electronic Newsletter
Wm. Robert Johnston's TNO page
Minor Planet Center: Plot of the Outer Solar System, illustrating Kuiper gap
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755," The heliosphere is the magnetosphere, astrosphere, and outermost atmospheric layer of the Sun. It takes the shape of a vast, tailed bubble-like region of space. In plasma physics terms, it is the cavity formed by the Sun in the surrounding interstellar medium. The ""bubble"" of the heliosphere is continuously ""inflated"" by plasma originating from the Sun, known as the solar wind. Outside the heliosphere, this solar plasma gives way to the interstellar plasma permeating the Milky Way. As part of the interplanetary magnetic field, the heliosphere shields the Solar System from significant amounts of cosmic ionizing radiation; uncharged gamma rays are, however, not affected. Its name was likely coined by Alexander J. Dessler, who is credited with the first use of the word in the scientific literature in 1967. The scientific study of the heliosphere is heliophysics, which includes space weather and space climate. Flowing unimpeded through the Solar System for billions of kilometers, the solar wind extends far beyond even the region of Pluto until it encounters the ""termination shock"", where its motion slows abruptly due to the outside pressure of the interstellar medium. The ""heliosheath"" is a broad transitional region between the termination shock and the heliosphere's outmost edge, the ""heliopause"". The overall shape of the heliosphere resembles that of a comet, being roughly spherical on one side to around 100 astronomical units (AU), and on the other side being tail shaped, known as the ""heliotail"", trailing for several thousands of AUs. Two Voyager program spacecraft explored the outer reaches of the heliosphere, passing through the termination shock and the heliosheath. Voyager 1 encountered the heliopause on 25 August 2012, when the spacecraft measured a sudden forty-fold increase in plasma density. Voyager 2 traversed the heliopause on 5 November 2018.","[-0.0294552743434906, 0.017825985327363014, -0.010111662559211254, 0.023825008422136307, -0.026429127901792526, -0.03951208293437958, 0.04984657093882561, 0.029781734570860863, 0.015069711022078991, -0.03529983386397362, -0.022873086854815483, -0.021623868495225906, 0.021598966792225838, -0.038415372371673584, 0.024885091930627823, -0.03391577675938606, 0.06531497836112976, -0.08030100166797638, 0.03269056975841522, -0.009811611846089363, -0.03290535882115364, 0.06582135707139969, -0.059332288801670074, -0.023453488945961, 0.06221985071897507, 0.036177363246679306, -0.06504768878221512, -0.05185728520154953, -0.083884097635746, 0.05283791944384575, 0.08435305953025818, -0.024092916399240494, -0.03007485158741474, 0.08205731958150864, 0.03851364180445671, 0.054717641323804855, -0.017588919028639793, 0.034915052354335785, 0.013674769550561905, 0.04070723429322243, -0.08729951083660126, -0.10531529784202576, -0.03358158469200134, 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0.04389718174934387]",Heliosphere,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.
756,"the heliosheath . Voyager 1 encountered the heliopause on 25 August 2012 , when the spacecraft measured a sudden forty-fold increase in plasma density . Voyager 2 traversed the heliopause on 5 November 2018 .Because the heliopause marks the boundary between matter originating from the Sun and matter originating from the rest of the galaxy, spacecraft that depart the heliosphere (such as the two Voyagers) are in interstellar space. History
The heliosphere is thought to change significantly over the course of millions of years due to extrasolar effects such as closer supernovas or the traversing interstellar medium of different densities. Evidence suggests that up to three million years ago Earth was exposed to the interstellar medium due to it shrinking the heliosphere to the Inner Solar System, which possibly had impacted Earth's past climate and human evolution. Structure
Despite its name, the heliosphere's shape is not a perfect sphere. Its shape is determined by three factors: the interstellar medium (ISM), the solar wind, and the overall motion of the Sun and heliosphere as it passes through the ISM. Because the solar wind and the ISM are both fluid, the heliosphere's shape and size are also fluid. Changes in the solar wind, however, more strongly alter the fluctuating position of the boundaries on short timescales (hours to a few years). The solar wind's pressure varies far more rapidly than the outside pressure of the ISM at any given location. In particular, the effect of the 11-year solar cycle, which sees a distinct maximum and minimum of solar wind activity, is thought to be significant. On a broader scale, the motion of the heliosphere through the fluid medium of the ISM results in an overall comet-like shape.","[-0.014529500156641006, 0.005873297806829214, 0.08494902402162552, 0.031517304480075836, 0.03133591264486313, 0.003620837815105915, 0.00571654736995697, 0.043956976383924484, -0.00930972583591938, 0.010158090852200985, -0.05386706441640854, -0.048443373292684555, 0.0040671187452971935, -0.021665560081601143, 0.040313392877578735, -0.07129553705453873, -0.011915227398276329, -0.10406848043203354, -0.006173625122755766, -0.012725415639579296, -0.042174577713012695, 0.03954152390360832, -0.05285271257162094, -0.030052192509174347, 0.02639736235141754, 0.026236433535814285, -0.06424864381551743, -0.05118313431739807, -0.04677479714155197, 0.005235787946730852, 0.04119700565934181, 0.02761603705585003, -0.08486276119947433, 0.00471427571028471, 0.009203104302287102, -0.027863148599863052, 0.03288986161351204, 0.06664615124464035, 0.048935405910015106, 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0.0300305113196373]",Heliosphere,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.
757,"of solar wind activity , is thought to be significant . On a broader scale , the motion of the heliosphere through the fluid medium of the ISM results in an overall comet-like shape .The solar wind plasma which is moving roughly ""upstream"" (in the same direction as the Sun's motion through the galaxy) is compressed into a nearly-spherical form, whereas the plasma moving ""downstream"" (opposite the Sun's motion) flows out for a much greater distance before giving way to the ISM, defining the long, trailing shape of the heliotail. The limited data available and the unexplored nature of these structures have resulted in many theories as to their form. In 2020, Merav Opher led the team of researchers who determined that the shape of the heliosphere is a crescent that can be described as a deflated croissant. Solar wind
The solar wind consists of particles (ionized atoms from the solar corona) and fields like the magnetic field that are produced from the Sun and stream out into space. Because the Sun rotates once approximately every 25 days, the heliospheric magnetic field transported by the solar wind gets wrapped into a spiral. The solar wind affects many other systems in the Solar System; for example, variations in the Sun's own magnetic field are carried outward by the solar wind, producing geomagnetic storms in the Earth's magnetosphere. Heliospheric current sheet
The heliospheric current sheet is a ripple in the heliosphere created by the rotating magnetic field of the Sun. It marks the boundary between heliospheric magnetic field regions of opposite polarity. Extending throughout the heliosphere, the heliospheric current sheet could be considered the largest structure in the Solar System and is said to resemble a ""ballerina's skirt"". Edge structure
The outer structure of the heliosphere is determined by the interactions between the solar wind and the winds of interstellar space.","[-0.0158554594963789, 0.049887437373399734, 0.02383633702993393, 0.030927428975701332, 0.0358339361846447, -0.03081221878528595, 0.0029510133899748325, 0.03165057674050331, 0.08749286830425262, 0.0027585900388658047, -0.03405154496431351, 0.006580464541912079, -0.05803787708282471, -0.06632208824157715, 0.03992969170212746, -0.04378468543291092, -0.009919182397425175, -0.04511759430170059, -0.02070365846157074, 0.023127956315875053, -0.038547974079847336, -0.013131910935044289, -0.06731907278299332, 0.009709259495139122, 0.05298544839024544, 0.08748839050531387, -0.063232421875, -0.03220454975962639, -0.05825306475162506, 0.012038846500217915, 0.07175598293542862, 0.06783182919025421, -0.12356344610452652, 0.07065325975418091, -0.03297949582338333, 0.02793826535344124, 0.024290133267641068, 0.05425572395324707, 0.0008916617371141911, 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758,"is said to resemble a `` ballerina 's skirt '' . Edge structure The outer structure of the heliosphere is determined by the interactions between the solar wind and the winds of interstellar space .The solar wind streams away from the Sun in all directions at speeds of several hundred km/s in the Earth's vicinity. At some distance from the Sun, well beyond the orbit of Neptune, this supersonic wind slows down as it encounters the gases in the interstellar medium. This takes place in several stages:

The solar wind is traveling at supersonic speeds within the Solar System. At the termination shock, a standing shock wave, the solar wind falls below the speed of sound and becomes subsonic. It was previously thought that once subsonic, the solar wind would be shaped by the ambient flow of the interstellar medium, forming a blunt nose on one side and comet-like heliotail behind, a region called the heliosheath. However, observations in 2009 showed that this model is incorrect. As of 2011, it is thought to be filled with a magnetic bubble ""foam"". The outer surface of the heliosheath, where the heliosphere meets the interstellar medium, is called heliopause. This is the edge of the entire heliosphere. Observations in 2009 led to changes to this model. In theory, heliopause causes turbulence in the interstellar medium as the Sun orbits the Galactic Center. This turbulence results from the pressure of the advancing heliopause against the interstellar medium. However, the velocity of the solar wind relative to the interstellar medium may be too low for a bow shock. Termination shock
The termination shock is the point in the heliosphere where the solar wind slows down to subsonic speed (relative to the Sun) because of interactions with the local interstellar medium. This causes compression, heating, and a change in the magnetic field.","[-0.020979920402169228, -0.024550747126340866, 0.03387543559074402, -0.011395983397960663, 0.04274551197886467, -0.01869104988873005, -0.0013531306758522987, 0.028599627315998077, 0.019452206790447235, -0.05615609511733055, -0.011785394512116909, -0.038184162229299545, -0.023420322686433792, -0.07603256404399872, 0.04040917009115219, -0.009943164885044098, 0.06864457577466965, -0.08291934430599213, 0.024378402158617973, 0.03203028440475464, -0.01701631210744381, 0.06492763757705688, -0.025253498926758766, 0.023843303322792053, 0.04306989163160324, 0.027193326503038406, -0.048591259866952896, -0.0213758684694767, -0.08839401602745056, 0.017787041142582893, 0.043341848999261856, -0.016128020361065865, -0.09741296619176865, 0.04470047354698181, 0.06339570879936218, -0.029985461384058, 0.022036371752619743, 0.06991900503635406, 0.0004821495385840535, 0.026647716760635376, -0.05440140888094902, -0.08359010517597198, 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759,"wind slows down to subsonic speed ( relative to the Sun ) because of interactions with the local interstellar medium . This causes compression , heating , and a change in the magnetic field .In the Solar System, the termination shock is believed to be 75 to 90 astronomical units from the Sun. In 2004, Voyager 1 crossed the Sun's termination shock, followed by Voyager 2 in 2007. The shock arises because solar wind particles are emitted from the Sun at about 400 km/s, while the speed of sound (in the interstellar medium) is about 100 km/s. The exact speed depends on the density, which fluctuates considerably. The interstellar medium, although very low in density, nonetheless has a relatively constant pressure associated with it; the pressure from the solar wind decreases with the square of the distance from the Sun. As one moves far enough away from the Sun, the pressure of the solar wind drops to where it can no longer maintain supersonic flow against the pressure of the interstellar medium, at which point the solar wind slows to below its speed of sound, causing a shock wave. Further from the Sun, the termination shock is followed by heliopause, where the two pressures become equal and solar wind particles are stopped by the interstellar medium. Other termination shocks can be seen in terrestrial systems; perhaps the easiest may be seen by simply running a water tap into a sink creating a hydraulic jump. Upon hitting the floor of the sink, the flowing water spreads out at a speed that is higher than the local wave speed, forming a disk of shallow, rapidly diverging flow (analogous to the tenuous, supersonic solar wind).","[-0.022243058308959007, 0.0019426336511969566, 0.14653050899505615, 0.032009247690439224, 0.07519777119159698, -0.003717925865203142, -0.0548362135887146, 0.05623265355825424, 0.008189289830625057, -0.027695277705788612, 0.01898317225277424, -0.026725873351097107, -0.01905791088938713, -0.0794605016708374, 0.04407205432653427, -0.0049978336319327354, 0.06121620163321495, -0.03244255855679512, 0.01674308441579342, -0.005182098597288132, -0.009143244475126266, 0.09304752945899963, -0.009088004939258099, 0.022414254024624825, 0.08213818073272705, -0.0209842287003994, -0.0493350625038147, -0.0375404916703701, -0.03337860852479935, -0.021059297025203705, 0.022517671808600426, -0.017448805272579193, -0.12486156821250916, 0.021630944684147835, -0.023819735273718834, 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0.08141166716814041]",Heliosphere,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.
760,"water spreads out at a speed that is higher than the local wave speed , forming a disk of shallow , rapidly diverging flow ( analogous to the tenuous , supersonic solar wind ) .Around the periphery of the disk, a shock front or wall of water forms; outside the shock front, the water moves slower than the local wave speed (analogous to the subsonic interstellar medium). Evidence presented at a meeting of the American Geophysical Union in May 2005 by Ed Stone suggests that the Voyager 1 spacecraft passed the termination shock in December 2004, when it was about 94 AU from the Sun, by virtue of the change in magnetic readings taken from the craft. In contrast, Voyager 2 began detecting returning particles when it was only 76 AU from the Sun, in May 2006. This implies that the heliosphere may be irregularly shaped, bulging outwards in the Sun's northern hemisphere and pushed inward in the south. Heliosheath
The heliosheath is the region of the heliosphere beyond the termination shock. Here the wind is slowed, compressed, and made turbulent by its interaction with the interstellar medium. At its closest point, the inner edge of the heliosheath lies approximately 80 to 100 AU from the Sun. A proposed model hypothesizes that the heliosheath is shaped like the coma of a comet, and trails several times that distance in the direction opposite to the Sun's path through space. At its windward side, its thickness is estimated to be between 10 and 100 AU. Voyager project scientists have determined that the heliosheath is not ""smooth"" – it is rather a ""foamy zone"" filled with magnetic bubbles, each about 1 AU wide. These magnetic bubbles are created by the impact of the solar wind and the interstellar medium. Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 began detecting evidence of the bubbles in 2007 and 2008, respectively.","[0.022650906816124916, -0.0016420762985944748, 0.0922519788146019, -0.001947486074641347, 0.05171436816453934, -0.030922003090381622, -0.05788847804069519, 0.048437390476465225, -0.011736049316823483, -0.020029554143548012, -0.056144438683986664, -0.028903307393193245, -0.023361168801784515, -0.04144706204533577, -0.0029744277708232403, -0.05510864034295082, 0.004252331331372261, -0.06581923365592957, 0.008694976568222046, -0.01893654093146324, -0.005173631478101015, 0.09407533705234528, -0.01717909425497055, 0.012579785659909248, 0.055785540491342545, 0.009226943366229534, -0.03286295011639595, -0.029041429981589317, -0.018944591283798218, -0.022919204086065292, 0.04986852407455444, -0.03788577392697334, -0.13819308578968048, -0.026443129405379295, 0.008425063453614712, -0.0034260316751897335, 0.0729813426733017, 0.07875923067331314, 0.05551478639245033, -0.013470874167978764, 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761,"These magnetic bubbles are created by the impact of the solar wind and the interstellar medium . Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 began detecting evidence of the bubbles in 2007 and 2008 , respectively .The probably sausage-shaped bubbles are formed by magnetic reconnection between oppositely oriented sectors of the solar magnetic field as the solar wind slows down. They probably represent self-contained structures that have detached from the interplanetary magnetic field. At a distance of about 113 AU, Voyager 1 detected a 'stagnation region' within the heliosheath. In this region, the solar wind slowed to zero, the magnetic field intensity doubled and high-energy electrons from the galaxy increased 100-fold. At about 122 AU, the spacecraft entered a new region that Voyager project scientists called the ""magnetic highway"", an area still under the influence of the Sun but with some dramatic differences. Heliopause
The heliopause is the theoretical boundary where the Sun's solar wind is stopped by the interstellar medium; where the solar wind's strength is no longer great enough to push back the stellar winds of the surrounding stars. This is the boundary where the interstellar medium and solar wind pressures balance. The crossing of the heliopause should be signaled by a sharp drop in the temperature of solar wind-charged particles, a change in the direction of the magnetic field, and an increase in the number of galactic cosmic rays. In May 2012, Voyager 1 detected a rapid increase in such cosmic rays (a 9% increase in a month, following a more gradual increase of 25% from January 2009 to January 2012), suggesting it was approaching the heliopause. Between late August and early September 2012, Voyager 1 witnessed a sharp drop in protons from the Sun, from 25 particles per second in late August, to about 2 particles per second by early October.","[-0.04204757511615753, -0.017755331471562386, 0.04021892324090004, 0.031661778688430786, 0.01600748486816883, -0.012491484172642231, -0.02140606753528118, -0.007127781864255667, -0.05948265641927719, -0.0893646851181984, -0.06561341881752014, 0.018713222816586494, 0.005725450813770294, -0.073122039437294, 0.05135566368699074, 0.004972480237483978, -0.013608410023152828, -0.13364624977111816, 0.04005524888634682, 0.011321621015667915, -0.009062147699296474, -0.00489931320771575, -0.04301510006189346, -0.03215683624148369, 0.05631061643362045, 0.04792959615588188, -0.01274689007550478, -0.06921225041151047, -0.015224616043269634, -0.024255944415926933, 0.05415648594498634, -0.004649768583476543, -0.09994617104530334, 0.017741337418556213, 0.018546247854828835, -0.01985674351453781, 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0.028010889887809753]",Heliosphere,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.
762,"early September 2012 , Voyager 1 witnessed a sharp drop in protons from the Sun , from 25 particles per second in late August , to about 2 particles per second by early October .In September 2013, NASA announced that Voyager 1 had crossed the heliopause as of 25 August 2012. This was at a distance of 121 AU (1.81×1010 km) from the Sun. Contrary to predictions, data from Voyager 1 indicates the magnetic field of the galaxy is aligned with the solar magnetic field. On November 5, 2018, the Voyager 2 mission detected a sudden decrease in the flux of low-energy ions. At the same time, the level of cosmic rays increased. This demonstrated that the spacecraft crossed the heliopause at a distance of 119 AU (1.78×1010 km) from the Sun. Unlike Voyager 1, the Voyager 2 spacecraft did not detect interstellar flux tubes while crossing the heliosheath. NASA also collected data from the heliopause remotely during the suborbital SHIELDS mission in 2021. Heliotail
The heliotail is the several thousand astronomical units long tail of the heliosphere, and thus the Solar System's tail. It can be compared to the tail of a comet (however, a comet's tail does not stretch behind it as it moves; it is always pointing away from the Sun). The tail is a region where the Sun's solar wind slows down and ultimately escapes the heliosphere, slowly evaporating because of charge exchange. The shape of the heliotail (as found by NASA's Interstellar Boundary Explorer – IBEX) is that of a four-leaf clover. The particles in the tail do not shine, therefore it cannot be seen with conventional optical instruments. IBEX made the first observations of the heliotail by measuring the energy of ""energetic neutral atoms"", neutral particles created by collisions in the Solar System's boundary zone.","[0.0165136456489563, 0.0022909855470061302, 0.024478837847709656, 0.021625513210892677, 0.0005366934929043055, 0.0007290269713848829, -0.03953476995229721, 0.062062788754701614, -0.03285408765077591, -0.0299663208425045, -0.010454430244863033, -0.03176766633987427, 0.0020180856809020042, -0.03623685613274574, 0.03327030688524246, -0.03130292892456055, 0.06226654723286629, -0.09817054867744446, -0.030318623408675194, -0.010716898366808891, -0.024865351617336273, -0.008940278552472591, -0.00929246749728918, 0.014985074289143085, 0.032253384590148926, 0.018290827050805092, -0.049065038561820984, -0.10540605336427689, -0.053938016295433044, -0.0399024598300457, 0.013531976379454136, 0.018006721511483192, -0.13678845763206482, -0.02274414710700512, 0.02178824134171009, -0.02288578450679779, 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763,"optical instruments . IBEX made the first observations of the heliotail by measuring the energy of `` energetic neutral atoms '' , neutral particles created by collisions in the Solar System 's boundary zone .The tail has been shown to contain fast and slow particles; the slow particles are on the side and the fast particles are encompassed in the center. The shape of the tail can be linked to the Sun sending out fast solar winds near its poles and slow solar winds near its equator more recently. The clover-shaped tail moves further away from the Sun, which makes the charged particles begin to morph into a new orientation. Cassini and IBEX data challenged the ""heliotail"" theory in 2009. In July 2013, IBEX results revealed a 4-lobed tail on the Solar System's heliosphere. Outside structures
The heliopause is the final known boundary between the heliosphere and the interstellar space that is filled with material, especially plasma, not from the Earth's own star, the Sun, but from other stars. Even so, just outside the heliosphere (i.e. the ""solar bubble"") there is a transitional region, as detected by Voyager 1. Just as some interstellar pressure was detected as early as 2004, some of the Sun's material seeps into the interstellar medium. The heliosphere is thought to reside in the Local Interstellar Cloud inside the Local Bubble, which is a region in the Orion Arm of the Milky Way Galaxy. Outside the heliosphere, there is a forty-fold increase in plasma density. There is also a radical reduction in the detection of certain types of particles from the Sun, and a large increase in galactic cosmic rays. The flow of the interstellar medium (ISM) into the heliosphere has been measured by at least 11 different spacecraft as of 2013.","[0.006802182644605637, -0.03552080690860748, 0.001727030030451715, 0.04697618633508682, 0.044485222548246384, -0.04273594543337822, 0.06865577399730682, 0.03960932046175003, 0.056409746408462524, -0.03185434639453888, -0.017880383878946304, -0.03695651888847351, -0.07036015391349792, -0.02029532380402088, 0.0060875304043293, -0.07054740190505981, 0.04345553740859032, -0.1007254347205162, -0.011863105930387974, -0.0119553217664361, -0.05503511056303978, -0.002525271847844124, -0.018067428842186928, 0.013963770121335983, 0.04717518016695976, 0.0594184435904026, -0.04388219118118286, -0.003217949764803052, -0.024772008880972862, -0.05029270052909851, 0.016461383551359177, -0.0077917445451021194, -0.05991369113326073, 0.015584297478199005, 0.09346117079257965, -0.04344774782657623, 0.09393169730901718, 0.02371229976415634, 0.04784032702445984, 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0.04536326229572296]",Heliosphere,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.
764,", and a large increase in galactic cosmic rays . The flow of the interstellar medium ( ISM ) into the heliosphere has been measured by at least 11 different spacecraft as of 2013 .By 2013, it was suspected that the direction of the flow had changed over time. The flow, coming from Earth's perspective from the constellation Scorpius, has probably changed direction by several degrees since the 1970s. Hydrogen wall
Predicted to be a region of hot hydrogen, a structure called the ""hydrogen wall"" may be between the bow shock and the heliopause. The wall is composed of interstellar material interacting with the edge of the heliosphere. One paper released in 2013 studied the concept of a bow wave and hydrogen wall. Another hypothesis suggests that the heliopause could be smaller on the side of the Solar System facing the Sun's orbital motion through the galaxy. It may also vary depending on the current velocity of the solar wind and the local density of the interstellar medium. It is known to lie far outside the orbit of Neptune. The mission of the Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft is to find and study the termination shock, heliosheath, and heliopause. Meanwhile, the IBEX mission is attempting to image the heliopause from Earth orbit within two years of its 2008 launch. Initial results (October 2009) from IBEX suggest that previous assumptions are insufficiently cognizant of the true complexities of the heliopause. In August 2018, long-term studies about the hydrogen wall by the New Horizons spacecraft confirmed results first detected in 1992 by the two Voyager spacecraft. Although the hydrogen is detected by extra ultraviolet light (which may come from another source), the detection by New Horizons corroborates the earlier detections by Voyager at a much higher level of sensitivity.","[-0.03749612718820572, -0.037115879356861115, -0.02667892538011074, 0.047099288552999496, 0.04849957302212715, -0.04708198085427284, -0.06640156358480453, 0.07235144823789597, -0.026849791407585144, -0.08047471195459366, -0.03829256072640419, -0.05654536560177803, -0.0173585657030344, -0.02296111360192299, 0.028098877519369125, -0.08576948940753937, 0.004532103426754475, -0.08533036708831787, 0.01022021472454071, -0.01245691068470478, -0.029258113354444504, -0.0008360452484339476, -0.03927109017968178, 0.014719410799443722, 0.04972906783223152, 0.027950622141361237, -0.032346174120903015, -0.020829763263463974, -0.060642309486866, -0.03165333345532417, 0.08292169123888016, -0.014891916885972023, -0.07118582725524902, 0.018819062039256096, 0.05468544363975525, 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765,"hydrogen is detected by extra ultraviolet light ( which may come from another source ) , the detection by New Horizons corroborates the earlier detections by Voyager at a much higher level of sensitivity .Bow shock
It was long hypothesized that the Sun produces a ""shock wave"" in its travels within the interstellar medium. It would occur if the interstellar medium is moving supersonically ""toward"" the Sun, since its solar wind moves ""away"" from the Sun supersonically. When the interstellar wind hits the heliosphere it slows and creates a region of turbulence. A bow shock was thought to possibly occur at about 230 AU, but in 2012 it was determined it probably does not exist. This conclusion resulted from new measurements: The velocity of the LISM (local interstellar medium) relative to the Sun's was previously measured to be 26.3 km/s by Ulysses, whereas IBEX measured it at 23.2 km/s. This phenomenon has been observed outside the Solar System, around stars other than the Sun, by NASA's now retired orbital GALEX telescope. The red giant star Mira in the constellation Cetus has been shown to have both a debris tail of ejecta from the star and a distinct shock in the direction of its movement through space (at over 130 kilometers per second). Observational methods
Detection by spacecraft
The precise distance to and shape of the heliopause are still uncertain. Interplanetary/interstellar spacecraft such as Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11 and New Horizons are traveling outward through the Solar System and will eventually pass through the heliopause. Contact to Pioneer 10 and 11 has been lost. Cassini results
Rather than a comet-like shape, the heliosphere appears to be bubble-shaped according to data from Cassini's Ion and Neutral Camera (MIMI / INCA).","[-0.017326291650533676, -0.05396648496389389, 0.0931573435664177, 0.09525814652442932, 0.09849909693002701, -0.04646064341068268, 0.022827239707112312, 0.04137060046195984, 0.037303727120161057, -0.05847904831171036, -0.01313553936779499, -0.04854584112763405, -0.05160786211490631, -0.0251017939299345, -0.036430831998586655, -0.029054692015051842, 0.06102106347680092, -0.08410925418138504, -0.002987398998811841, 0.018226319923996925, -0.016753748059272766, 0.0057982588186860085, -0.024565106257796288, 0.03373685106635094, 0.066388800740242, -0.01740596629679203, 0.003919271286576986, -0.010144366882741451, -0.07183268666267395, -0.06402209401130676, 0.03930877149105072, -0.05387219786643982, -0.06653907895088196, 0.025504469871520996, -0.015771683305501938, 0.012451100163161755, 0.13272245228290558, -0.0606074295938015, 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766,"11 has been lost . Cassini results Rather than a comet-like shape , the heliosphere appears to be bubble-shaped according to data from Cassini 's Ion and Neutral Camera ( MIMI / INCA ) .Rather than being dominated by the collisions between the solar wind and the interstellar medium, the INCA (ENA) maps suggest that the interaction is controlled more by particle pressure and magnetic field energy density. IBEX results
Initial data from Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX), launched in October 2008, revealed a previously unpredicted ""very narrow ribbon that is two to three times brighter than anything else in the sky"", now known as the IBEX ribbon. Initial interpretations suggest that ""the interstellar environment has far more influence on structuring the heliosphere than anyone previously believed""
""No one knows what is creating the ENA (energetic neutral atoms) ribbon, ...""
""The IBEX results are truly remarkable! What we are seeing in these maps does not match with any of the previous theoretical models of this region. It will be exciting for scientists to review these (ENA) maps and revise the way we understand our heliosphere and how it interacts with the galaxy."" In October 2010, significant changes were detected in the ribbon after 6 months, based on the second set of IBEX observations. IBEX data did not support the existence of a bow shock, but there might be a 'bow wave' according to one study. Locally
Examples of missions that have or continue to collect data related to the heliosphere include:

Solar Anomalous and Magnetospheric Particle Explorer
Solar and Heliospheric Observatory
Solar Dynamics Observatory
STEREO
Ulysses spacecraft
Parker Solar Probe
Solar Orbiter
During a total eclipse the high-temperature corona can be more readily observed from Earth solar observatories. During the Apollo program the Solar wind was measured on the Moon via the Solar Wind Composition Experiment.","[-0.06751815974712372, -0.07805807888507843, 0.030414046719670296, 0.057808373123407364, -0.020761102437973022, -0.06956040859222412, 0.028892140835523605, 0.04743899405002594, -0.0065113031305372715, 0.0026987900491803885, -0.02224886417388916, -0.03943397104740143, -0.09154108166694641, 0.01654963009059429, -0.012845351360738277, -0.03220897167921066, 0.05291912332177162, -0.09227391332387924, -0.0749698281288147, -0.006674765609204769, -0.006011930759996176, -0.005823872052133083, -9.713679173728451e-05, 0.027491195127367973, 0.008221066556870937, 0.05292357876896858, -0.03513247147202492, -0.017248760908842087, -0.040315691381692886, -0.04378468915820122, -0.008464228361845016, -0.02352847531437874, -0.03055485151708126, -0.013155832886695862, 0.056482866406440735, -0.04090350121259689, 0.07001420110464096, -0.032170094549655914, 0.033201903104782104, -0.07196422666311264, 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767,"a total eclipse the high-temperature corona can be more readily observed from Earth solar observatories . During the Apollo program the Solar wind was measured on the Moon via the Solar Wind Composition Experiment .Some examples of Earth surface based Solar observatories include the McMath–Pierce solar telescope or the newer GREGOR Solar Telescope, and the refurbished Big Bear Solar Observatory. Exploration history
The heliosphere is the area under the influence of the Sun; the two major components to determining its edge are the heliospheric magnetic field and the solar wind from the Sun. Three major sections from the beginning of the heliosphere to its edge are the termination shock, the heliosheath, and the heliopause. Five spacecraft have returned much of the data about its furthest reaches, including Pioneer 10 (1972–1997; data to 67 AU), Pioneer 11 (1973–1995; 44 AU), Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 (launched 1977, ongoing), and New Horizons (launched 2006). A type of particle called an energetic neutral atom (ENA) has also been observed to have been produced from its edges. Except for regions near obstacles such as planets or comets, the heliosphere is dominated by material emanating from the Sun, although cosmic rays, fast-moving neutral atoms, and cosmic dust can penetrate the heliosphere from the outside. Originating at the extremely hot surface of the corona, solar wind particles reach escape velocity, streaming outwards at 300 to 800 km/s (671 thousand to 1.79 million mph or 1 to 2.9 million km/h). As it begins to interact with the interstellar medium, its velocity slows to a stop. The point where the solar wind becomes slower than the speed of sound is called the termination shock; the solar wind continues to slow as it passes through the heliosheath leading to a boundary called the heliopause, where the interstellar medium and solar wind pressures balance.","[0.0148245170712471, -0.004697432741522789, 0.028423713520169258, 0.009669692255556583, 0.07095802575349808, -0.022796306759119034, -0.04152197390794754, 0.036531541496515274, -0.04937201738357544, 0.04598498344421387, -0.02428760752081871, -0.035847846418619156, -0.05531982704997063, -0.03207869082689285, 0.054612286388874054, -0.01587992161512375, 0.043062008917331696, -0.055872999131679535, 0.01641146093606949, -0.04086056351661682, -0.07868841290473938, 0.03354145959019661, -0.029753075912594795, -0.027404921129345894, 0.06509837508201599, 0.07593844085931778, -0.07322435826063156, -0.03681975603103638, -0.03940879926085472, 0.005445548333227634, 0.06217864900827408, -0.016835255548357964, 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768,"called the termination shock ; the solar wind continues to slow as it passes through the heliosheath leading to a boundary called the heliopause , where the interstellar medium and solar wind pressures balance .The termination shock was traversed by Voyager 1 in 2004, and Voyager 2 in 2007. It was thought that beyond the heliopause there was a bow shock, but data from Interstellar Boundary Explorer suggested the velocity of the Sun through the interstellar medium is too low for it to form. It may be a more gentle ""bow wave"". Voyager data led to a new theory that the heliosheath has ""magnetic bubbles"" and a stagnation zone. Also, there were reports of a ""stagnation region"" within the heliosheath, starting around 113 au (1.69×1010 km; 1.05×1010 mi), detected by Voyager 1 in 2010. There, the solar wind velocity drops to zero, the magnetic field intensity doubles, and high-energy electrons from the galaxy increase 100-fold. Starting in May 2012 at 120 au (1.8×1010 km; 1.1×1010 mi), Voyager 1 detected a sudden increase in cosmic rays, an apparent sign of approach to the heliopause. In the summer of 2013, NASA announced that Voyager 1 had reached interstellar space as of 25 August 2012. In December 2012, NASA announced that in late August 2012, Voyager 1, at about 122 au (1.83×1010 km; 1.13×1010 mi) from the Sun, entered a new region they called the ""magnetic highway"", an area still under the influence of the Sun but with some dramatic differences. Pioneer 10 was launched in March 1972, and within 10 hours passed by the Moon; over the next 35 years or so the mission would be the first out, laying out many firsts of discoveries about the nature of heliosphere as well as Jupiter's impact on it.","[-0.0004482881922740489, 0.01975940726697445, 0.08022363483905792, 0.05841141566634178, 0.04063685983419418, -0.02790144830942154, -0.030007118359208107, 0.03949959576129913, -0.054765064269304276, -0.057127874344587326, -0.03584425151348114, 0.0011242475593462586, -0.039449453353881836, -0.037033215165138245, 0.036149464547634125, -0.01751929335296154, -0.003155060578137636, -0.10300005227327347, 0.007415555417537689, 0.02110387571156025, -0.002834475366398692, 0.08397528529167175, -0.046459972858428955, 0.006849836558103561, 0.0866682380437851, 0.004011592362076044, -0.0534035861492157, -0.04487872123718262, -0.006848725024610758, -0.01605566032230854, 0.0602591447532177, -0.005571865011006594, -0.10342584550380707, 0.026914158836007118, 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769,"over the next 35 years or so the mission would be the first out , laying out many firsts of discoveries about the nature of heliosphere as well as Jupiter 's impact on it .Pioneer 10 was the first spacecraft to detect sodium and aluminum ions in the solar wind, as well as helium in the inner Solar System. In November 1972, Pioneer 10 encountered Jupiter's enormous (compared to Earth) magnetosphere and would pass in and out of it and its heliosphere 17 times charting its interaction with the solar wind. Pioneer 10 returned scientific data until March 1997, including data on the solar wind out to about 67 AU. It was also contacted in 2003 when it was a distance of 7.6 billion miles from Earth (82 AU), but no instrument data about the solar wind was returned then. Voyager 1 surpassed the radial distance from the Sun of Pioneer 10 at 69.4 AU on 17 February 1998, because it was traveling faster, gaining about 1.02 AU per year. On July 18, 2023, Voyager 2 overtook Pioneer 10 as the second most distant human-made object from the Sun. Pioneer 11, launched a year after Pioneer 10, took similar data as Pioneer out to 44.7 AU in 1995 when that mission was concluded. Pioneer 11 had a similar instrument suite as 10 but also had a flux-gate magnetometer. Pioneer and Voyager spacecraft were on different trajectories and thus recorded data on the heliosphere in different overall directions away from the Sun. Data obtained from Pioneer and Voyager spacecraft helped corroborate the detection of a hydrogen wall. In 2012 Voyager 1 is thought to have passed through heliopause, and Voyager 2 did the same in 2018. The twin Voyagers are the only man-made objects to have entered interstellar space.","[-0.02916409634053707, 0.029606517404317856, 0.0663478672504425, -0.002880767220631242, 0.08798010647296906, -0.02639300934970379, -0.055355023592710495, 0.06438783556222916, -0.07449278235435486, 0.043369412422180176, -0.00437550013884902, 0.02174435555934906, 0.049613818526268005, -0.024988826364278793, 0.043124496936798096, -0.0023610445205122232, 0.031820669770240784, -0.07788492739200592, -0.013419602997601032, -0.012744772247970104, -0.05428078770637512, 0.054076895117759705, 0.01981719583272934, -0.02499687671661377, 0.08416181802749634, 0.0157659612596035, -0.027783147990703583, -0.10680799931287766, -0.019603079184889793, 0.00850524753332138, 0.0019525622483342886, 0.0405491441488266, -0.012686636298894882, 0.00020889469305984676, -0.12127572298049927, -0.02569039911031723, 0.09616491943597794, 0.012961482629179955, -0.03164775297045708, -0.010487678460776806, -0.0004951763548888266, 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-0.02766369841992855]",Heliosphere,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.
770,"In 2012 Voyager 1 is thought to have passed through heliopause , and Voyager 2 did the same in 2018 . The twin Voyagers are the only man-made objects to have entered interstellar space .However, while they have left the heliosphere, they have not yet left the boundary of the Solar System which is considered to be the outer edge of the Oort Cloud. Upon passing the heliopause, Voyager 2's Plasma Science Experiment (PLS) observed a sharp decline in the speed of solar wind particles on 5 November and there has been no sign of it since. The three other instruments on board measuring cosmic rays, low-energy charged particles, and magnetic fields also recorded the transition. The observations complement data from NASA's IBEX mission. NASA is also preparing an additional mission, Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe (IMAP) which is due to launch in 2025 to capitalize on Voyager's observations. Timeline of exploration and detection
1904: Astronomers using the Potsdam Great Refractor with a spectrograph find evidence of the interstellar medium while observing the binary star Mintaka in Orion. January 1959: Luna 1 becomes the first spacecraft to observe the solar wind. 1962: Mariner 2 detects the solar wind. 1972–1973: Pioneer 10 becomes the first spacecraft to explore the heliosphere past Mars, flying by Jupiter on 4 December 1973 and continuing to return solar wind data out to a distance of 67 AU. February 1992: After flying by Jupiter, the Ulysses spacecraft becomes the first to explore the mid and high latitudes of the heliosphere. 1992: Pioneer and Voyager probes detected Ly-α radiation resonantly scattered by heliospheric hydrogen. 2004: Voyager 1 becomes the first spacecraft to reach the termination shock. 2005: SOHO observations of the solar wind show that the shape of the heliosphere is not axisymmetrical, but distorted, very likely under the effect of the local galactic magnetic field.","[-0.07822901010513306, -0.052778296172618866, 0.07932806760072708, 0.05783962085843086, 0.049093570560216904, -0.04931788891553879, -0.05566570162773132, 0.00441838288679719, -0.0009449645294807851, -0.007181025110185146, -0.021611902862787247, -0.03677672892808914, 0.0033615310676395893, -0.040519680827856064, 0.024842651560902596, -0.03122752718627453, 0.006691135931760073, -0.09289778023958206, 0.05085666850209236, -0.012883063405752182, -0.03658647835254669, 0.0023206474725157022, 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-0.0840468481183052, 0.017208203673362732]",Heliosphere,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.
771,". 2005 : SOHO observations of the solar wind show that the shape of the heliosphere is not axisymmetrical , but distorted , very likely under the effect of the local galactic magnetic field .2009: IBEX project scientists discover and map a ribbon-shaped region of intense energetic neutral atom emission. These neutral atoms are thought to be originating from the heliopause. October 2009: the heliosphere may be bubble, not comet shaped. October 2010: significant changes were detected in the ribbon after six months, based on the second set of IBEX observations. May 2012: IBEX data implies there is probably not a bow ""shock"". June 2012: At 119 AU, Voyager 1 detected an increase in cosmic rays. 25 August 2012: Voyager 1 crosses the heliopause, becoming the first human-made object to depart the heliosphere. August 2018: long-term studies about the hydrogen wall by the New Horizons spacecraft confirmed results first detected in 1992 by the two Voyager spacecraft. 5 November 2018: Voyager 2 crosses the heliopause, departing the heliosphere. See also
Coronal mass ejection
Fermi glow

References
Sources
""Heliopause Seems to Be 23 Billion Kilometres"". Universe Today. 9 December 2003. Retrieved 8 August 2007. ""Space probes reveal Solar System's bullet shape"". COSMOS magazine. 11 May 2007. Archived from the original on 13 May 2007. Retrieved 12 May 2007. Further reading
Schwadron, Nathan A.; et al. (September 2011). ""Does the space environment affect the ecosphere?"". Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union. 92 (36): 297–298. Bibcode:2011EOSTr..92..297S. doi:10.1029/2011EO360001. ISSN 0096-3941. Gough, Evan (7 August 2020). ""This is What the Solar System Really Looks Like"". Universe Today. Retrieved 8 September 2024.","[0.015403571538627148, -0.04248657450079918, 0.023479577153921127, 0.058365195989608765, 0.009080006740987301, -0.012443531304597855, -0.036545995622873306, 0.04570594057440758, -0.006956093013286591, -0.04097869619727135, -0.005216628313064575, -0.019273199141025543, -0.031211400404572487, 0.032710298895835876, 0.05913536995649338, -0.04823899641633034, 0.015186545439064503, -0.1270708441734314, 0.015212574042379856, -0.005772235803306103, -0.079655222594738, 0.01215165201574564, -0.0021447050385177135, 0.023715782910585403, 0.05887864902615547, 0.012827971950173378, -0.0014490956673398614, -0.07741398364305496, -0.03225134313106537, -0.03206224739551544, 0.03851451352238655, -0.023229194805026054, -0.06836001574993134, -0.017406830564141273, 0.05163342133164406, -0.02374972403049469, 0.08334432542324066, 0.047364551573991776, 0.07596635073423386, -0.025122011080384254, -0.06523771584033966, -0.13226746022701263, -0.02817131020128727, 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772,". doi:10.1029/2011EO360001 . ISSN 0096-3941 . Gough , Evan ( 7 August 2020 ) . `` This is What the Solar System Really Looks Like '' . Universe Today . Retrieved 8 September 2024 .External links

Voyager Interstellar Mission Objectives
NASA GALEX (Galaxy evolution Explorer) homepage at Caltech
A Big Surprise from the Edge of the Solar System Archived 17 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine (NASA 06.09.11)","[-0.12445040792226791, 0.025016291067004204, 0.03487447276711464, 0.01706799305975437, 0.02397279627621174, -0.06413977593183517, -0.049683380872011185, 0.010233567096292973, -0.008675288408994675, 0.018160702660679817, 0.015115896239876747, -0.026488181203603745, -0.0017344318330287933, -0.05134281888604164, 0.021272411569952965, -0.05507630109786987, 0.03432457521557808, -0.06591853499412537, 0.028216855600476265, 0.013574724085628986, 0.018436593934893608, 0.08534932881593704, -0.05322781205177307, 0.02534537762403488, 0.04501139372587204, 0.08002153784036636, 0.04390668496489525, -0.0686175674200058, 0.008545294404029846, -0.06803766638040543, -0.012797154486179352, 0.059839244931936264, -0.0880473405122757, -0.04093164578080177, 0.0346517413854599, 0.014351497404277325, 0.04847659170627594, -0.05963378772139549, 0.07972807437181473, -0.028806427493691444, 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773," The Oort cloud (pronounced  ORT or  OORT), sometimes called the Öpik–Oort cloud, is theorized to be a cloud of billions of icy planetesimals surrounding the Sun at distances ranging from 2,000 to 200,000 AU (0.03 to 3.2 light-years). The cloud was proposed in 1950 by the Dutch astronomer Jan Oort, in whose honor the idea was named. Oort proposed that the bodies in this cloud replenish and keep constant the number of long-period comets entering the inner Solar System—where they are eventually consumed and destroyed during close approaches to the Sun. The cloud is thought to encompass two regions: a disc-shaped inner Oort cloud aligned with the solar ecliptic (also called its Hills cloud) and a spherical outer Oort cloud enclosing the entire Solar System. Both regions lie well beyond the heliosphere and are in interstellar space. The innermost portion of the Oort cloud is more than a thousand times as far from the Sun as the Kuiper belt, the scattered disc and the detached objects—three nearer reservoirs of trans-Neptunian objects. The outer limit of the Oort cloud defines the cosmographic boundary of the Solar System. This area is defined by the Sun's Hill sphere, and hence lies at the interface between solar and galactic gravitational dominion. The outer Oort cloud is only loosely bound to the Solar System and its constituents are easily affected by the gravitational pulls of passing stars, the Milky Way itself and the cloud's own microgravity. These forces served to moderate and render more circular the highly eccentric orbits of material ejected from the inner Solar System during its early phases of development. The circular orbits of material in the Oort disc are largely thanks to this galactic gravitational torquing. By the same token, galactic interference in the motion of Oort bodies occasionally dislodges comets from their orbits within the cloud, sending them into the inner Solar System.","[-0.021632857620716095, 0.04110822454094887, 0.05569974705576897, 0.052160028368234634, 0.06850577145814896, -0.09014976024627686, 0.018779905512928963, 0.03409462422132492, 0.11882065236568451, -0.03828081116080284, -0.02919803000986576, 0.023707402870059013, -0.020044226199388504, -0.1085294783115387, -0.003428291529417038, -0.010395212098956108, 0.08167614787817001, -0.07635946571826935, -0.01464163325726986, -0.0066612763330340385, 0.045829568058252335, 0.044142547994852066, -0.008506915532052517, -0.012745019048452377, -0.012004522606730461, 0.005357219837605953, -0.04377064108848572, -0.022257203236222267, -0.02652793377637863, -0.039264652878046036, 0.07615648210048676, -0.005278706084936857, -0.055523984134197235, 0.059790804982185364, 0.055007778108119965, -0.028257103636860847, 0.014410721138119698, 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774,"galactic gravitational torquing . By the same token , galactic interference in the motion of Oort bodies occasionally dislodges comets from their orbits within the cloud , sending them into the inner Solar System .Based on their orbits, most but not all of the short-period comets appear to have come from the Oort disc. Other short-period comets may have originated from the far larger spherical cloud. Astronomers hypothesize that the material presently in the Oort cloud formed much closer to the Sun, in the protoplanetary disc, and was then scattered far into space through the gravitational influence of the giant planets. No direct observation of the Oort cloud is possible with present imaging technology. Nevertheless, the cloud is thought to be the source that replenishes most long-period and Halley-type comets, which are eventually consumed by their close approaches to the Sun after entering the inner Solar System. The cloud may also serve the same function for many of the centaurs and Jupiter-family comets. Development of theory
By the early 20th century, astronomers had identified two main types of comets: short-period comets (also called ecliptic comets) and long-period comets (also called nearly isotropic comets). Ecliptic comets have relatively small orbits aligned near the ecliptic plane and are not found much farther than the Kuiper cliff around 50 AU from the Sun (the orbit of Neptune averages about 30 AU and 177P/Barnard has aphelion around 48 AU). Long-period comets, on the other hand, travel in very large orbits thousands of AU from the Sun and are isotropically distributed. This means long-period comets appear from every direction in the sky, both above and below the ecliptic plane. In 1907, Armin Otto Leuschner showed that comet trajectories were related to observation time: Short times implied assumed parabolic trajectories, and longer times implied elliptical orbits.","[-0.052813753485679626, 0.010554173961281776, 0.06924226880073547, 0.04383249953389168, 0.0978093072772026, -0.05196623131632805, -0.004698336124420166, 0.055195316672325134, 0.0943446159362793, 0.025061363354325294, 0.018073469400405884, 0.048314228653907776, -0.021016927435994148, -0.11314921081066132, 0.007330760825425386, -0.05537809431552887, 0.07266576588153839, -0.04763207212090492, 0.0007297155680134892, 0.01672104187309742, 0.008846241980791092, 0.023954033851623535, -0.05110873654484749, 0.011914780363440514, 0.037917912006378174, -0.039577994495630264, -0.04044647887349129, -0.008103061467409134, 0.008291789330542088, -0.09288717806339264, 0.04579544812440872, 0.054191697388887405, -0.046275265514850616, -0.018821872770786285, 0.014752522110939026, -0.01839768886566162, 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775,"below the ecliptic plane . In 1907 , Armin Otto Leuschner showed that comet trajectories were related to observation time : Short times implied assumed parabolic trajectories , and longer times implied elliptical orbits .Leuschner conjectured that better statistics would show that comets had elliptical orbits and were permanent members of the Solar System that would return to the inner Solar System after long intervals during which they were invisible to Earth-based astronomy. In 1932, the Estonian astronomer Ernst Öpik proposed a reservoir of long-period comets in the form of an orbiting cloud at the outermost edge of the Solar System. Dutch astronomer Jan Oort revived this idea in 1950 to resolve a paradox about the origin of comets. The following facts are not easily reconcilable with the highly elliptical orbits in which long-period comets are always found:

Over millions and billions of years the orbits of Oort cloud comets are unstable. Celestial dynamics will eventually dictate that a comet must be pulled away by a passing star, collide with the Sun or a planet, or be ejected from the Solar System through planetary perturbations. Moreover, the volatile composition of comets means that as they repeatedly approach the Sun radiation gradually boils the volatiles off until the comet splits or develops an insulating crust that prevents further outgassing. Oort reasoned that comets with orbits that closely approach the Sun cannot have been doing so since the condensation of the protoplanetary disc, more than 4.5 billion years ago. Hence long-period comets could not have formed in the current orbits in which they are always discovered and must have been held in an outer reservoir for nearly all of their existence. Oort also studied tables of ephemerides for long-period comets and discovered that there is a curious concentration of long-period comets whose farthest retreat from the Sun (their aphelia) cluster around 20,000 AU. This suggested a reservoir at that distance with a spherical, isotropic distribution.","[-0.06812608242034912, 0.07318111509084702, 0.045991986989974976, 0.04419342800974846, 0.069858118891716, -0.03436186909675598, -0.034067969769239426, 0.09101071208715439, 0.07732009142637253, 0.003610600484535098, -0.016529908403754234, 0.06741100549697876, -0.02708244137465954, -0.10412313789129257, 0.0007985976990312338, 0.0002262298366986215, 0.026452910155057907, -0.039592843502759933, 0.017727356404066086, 0.01757827401161194, -0.036450814455747604, -0.029655424878001213, -0.029203422367572784, -0.03947014361619949, 0.059476740658283234, 0.04323526471853256, 0.011069009080529213, -0.05181171000003815, 0.010717382654547691, -0.017096638679504395, 0.03942970931529999, 0.025939440354704857, -0.040667109191417694, -0.016836902126669884, 0.050318535417318344, -0.0037480678874999285, 0.02822916954755783, -0.05997076258063316, -0.011718085035681725, 0.028903212398290634, 0.03305474668741226, 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776,"a curious concentration of long-period comets whose farthest retreat from the Sun ( their aphelia ) cluster around 20,000 AU . This suggested a reservoir at that distance with a spherical , isotropic distribution .He also proposed that the relatively rare comets with orbits of about 10,000 AU probably went through one or more orbits into the inner Solar System and there had their orbits drawn inward by the gravity of the planets. Structure and composition
The Oort cloud is thought to occupy a vast space somewhere between 2,000 and 5,000 AU (0.03 and 0.08 ly) from the Sun to as far out as 50,000 AU (0.79 ly) or even 100,000 to 200,000 AU (1.58 to 3.16 ly). The region can be subdivided into a spherical outer Oort cloud with a radius of some 20,000–50,000 AU (0.32–0.79 ly) and a torus-shaped inner Oort cloud with a radius of 2,000–20,000 AU (0.03–0.32 ly). The inner Oort cloud is sometimes known as the Hills cloud, named for Jack G. Hills, who proposed its existence in 1981. Models predict the inner cloud to be much the denser of the two, having tens or hundreds of times as many cometary nuclei as the outer cloud. The Hills cloud is thought to be necessary to explain the continued existence of the Oort cloud after billions of years. Because it lies at the interface between the dominion of Solar and galactic gravitation, the objects comprising the outer Oort cloud are only weakly bound to the Sun. This in turn allows small perturbations from nearby stars or the Milky Way itself to inject long-period (and possibly Halley-type) comets inside the orbit of Neptune. This process ought to have depleted the sparser, outer cloud and yet long-period comets with orbits well above or below the ecliptic continue to be observed.","[-0.0011575560783967376, 0.013736526481807232, 0.010092289187014103, 0.03923926129937172, 0.053721558302640915, -0.06992744654417038, 0.0009104794007726014, 0.030761394649744034, 0.100953608751297, 0.039749789983034134, -0.02383100986480713, -0.0035629048943519592, 0.018724912777543068, -0.07729703933000565, 0.03074214793741703, 0.017301414161920547, 0.09107942879199982, -0.06492932885885239, -0.027423949912190437, 0.0003212608862668276, 0.03134347125887871, 0.021972021088004112, -0.009725434705615044, 0.03810207545757294, -0.012058642692863941, -0.0022740366403013468, -0.07410132139921188, 0.004953939467668533, -0.01380383875221014, -0.1079917848110199, 0.08501806110143661, 0.021037327125668526, -0.005947038996964693, -0.008418776094913483, 0.07993126660585403, 0.017476972192525864, 0.004035015590488911, -0.006949041970074177, 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cloud,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.
777,"comets inside the orbit of Neptune . This process ought to have depleted the sparser , outer cloud and yet long-period comets with orbits well above or below the ecliptic continue to be observed .The Hills cloud is thought to be a secondary reservoir of cometary nuclei and the source of replenishment for the tenuous outer cloud as the latter's numbers are gradually depleted through losses to the inner Solar System. The outer Oort cloud may have trillions of objects larger than 1 km (0.6 mi), and billions with diameters of 20-kilometre (12 mi). This corresponds to an absolute magnitude of more than 11. On this analysis, ""neighboring"" objects in the outer cloud are separated by a significant fraction of 1 AU, tens of millions of kilometres. The outer cloud's total mass is not known, but assuming that Halley's Comet is a suitable proxy for the nuclei composing the outer Oort cloud, their combined mass would be roughly 3×1025 kilograms (6.6×1025 lb), or five Earth masses. Formerly the outer cloud was thought to be more massive by two orders of magnitude, containing up to 380 Earth masses,
but improved knowledge of the size distribution of long-period comets has led to lower estimates. No estimates of the mass of the inner Oort cloud have been published as of 2023. If analyses of comets are representative of the whole, the vast majority of Oort-cloud objects consist of ices such as water, methane, ethane, carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide. However, the discovery of the object 1996 PW, an object whose appearance was consistent with a D-type asteroid in an orbit typical of a long-period comet, prompted theoretical research that suggests that the Oort cloud population consists of roughly one to two percent asteroids.","[-0.022721385583281517, -0.005288382992148399, 0.06668780744075775, 0.02692604623734951, 0.08570779114961624, -0.08303198963403702, -0.020898081362247467, 0.07640639692544937, 0.03396192565560341, 0.06604818999767303, -0.0510144978761673, -0.04909566417336464, 0.051318585872650146, -0.08971211314201355, 0.02177915908396244, -0.00462184427306056, 0.09631877392530441, -0.07989806681871414, -0.05748441442847252, -0.00925594661384821, 0.011613713577389717, 0.026723744347691536, -0.03671080619096756, 0.04471339285373688, -0.005084348376840353, 0.004875176586210728, -0.09982343018054962, -0.03142787888646126, 0.004073944874107838, -0.07388456165790558, 0.04030756652355194, 0.007203844841569662, 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778,"appearance was consistent with a D-type asteroid in an orbit typical of a long-period comet , prompted theoretical research that suggests that the Oort cloud population consists of roughly one to two percent asteroids .Analysis of the carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios in both the long-period and Jupiter-family comets shows little difference between the two, despite their presumably vastly separate regions of origin. This suggests that both originated from the original protosolar cloud, a conclusion also supported by studies of granular size in Oort-cloud comets and by the recent impact study of Jupiter-family comet Tempel 1. Origin
The Oort cloud is thought to have developed after the formation of planets from the primordial protoplanetary disc approximately 4.6 billion years ago. The most widely accepted hypothesis is that the Oort cloud's objects initially coalesced much closer to the Sun as part of the same process that formed the planets and minor planets. After formation, strong gravitational interactions with young gas giants, such as Jupiter, scattered the objects into extremely wide elliptical or parabolic orbits that were subsequently modified by perturbations from passing stars and giant molecular clouds into long-lived orbits detached from the gas giant region. Recent research has been cited by NASA hypothesizing that a large number of Oort cloud objects are the product of an exchange of materials between the Sun and its sibling stars as they formed and drifted apart and it is suggested that many—possibly the majority—of Oort cloud objects did not form in close proximity to the Sun. Simulations of the evolution of the Oort cloud from the beginnings of the Solar System to the present suggest that the cloud's mass peaked around 800 million years after formation, as the pace of accretion and collision slowed and depletion began to overtake supply. Models by Julio Ángel Fernández suggest that the scattered disc, which is the main source for periodic comets in the Solar System, might also be the primary source for Oort cloud objects.","[-0.03218361735343933, 0.020232681185007095, 0.06209839507937431, 0.01776316575706005, 0.12457751482725143, -0.057239972054958344, -0.013132184743881226, 0.06812793761491776, 0.06536480784416199, 0.03906089812517166, -0.04142868146300316, 0.0068936836905777454, -0.014359154738485813, -0.10622113198041916, 0.02310102805495262, -0.021254032850265503, 0.07121514528989792, -0.10707011073827744, 0.016196653246879578, 0.028612351045012474, -0.015164763666689396, 0.003575243055820465, 0.011042566038668156, 0.000950778485275805, 0.016126109287142754, 0.004844341427087784, -0.04238498583436012, 0.003852675436064601, 0.011137280613183975, -0.05841407552361488, 0.054888952523469925, 0.018114345148205757, 0.017891503870487213, 0.026625586673617363, 0.04212542250752449, -0.039335619658231735, 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779,"Models by Julio Ángel Fernández suggest that the scattered disc , which is the main source for periodic comets in the Solar System , might also be the primary source for Oort cloud objects .According to the models, about half of the objects scattered travel outward toward the Oort cloud, whereas a quarter are shifted inward to Jupiter's orbit, and a quarter are ejected on hyperbolic orbits. The scattered disc might still be supplying the Oort cloud with material. A third of the scattered disc's population is likely to end up in the Oort cloud after 2.5 billion years. Computer models suggest that collisions of cometary debris during the formation period play a far greater role than was previously thought. According to these models, the number of collisions early in the Solar System's history was so great that most comets were destroyed before they reached the Oort cloud. Therefore, the current cumulative mass of the Oort cloud is far less than was once suspected. The estimated mass of the cloud is only a small part of the 50–100 Earth masses of ejected material. Gravitational interaction with nearby stars and galactic tides modified cometary orbits to make them more circular. This explains the nearly spherical shape of the outer Oort cloud. On the other hand, the Hills cloud, which is bound more strongly to the Sun, has not acquired a spherical shape. Recent studies have shown that the formation of the Oort cloud is broadly compatible with the hypothesis that the Solar System formed as part of an embedded cluster of 200–400 stars. These early stars likely played a role in the cloud's formation, since the number of close stellar passages within the cluster was much higher than today, leading to far more frequent perturbations.","[0.0047111245803534985, -0.019120151177048683, 0.08260094374418259, 0.03911925107240677, 0.11344177275896072, -0.08759406208992004, -0.022377079352736473, 0.06291306018829346, 0.08804173022508621, 0.03083067573606968, -0.01869785226881504, 0.012907635420560837, 0.02858930453658104, -0.09021225571632385, 0.026682229712605476, -0.03776977211236954, 0.08614742010831833, -0.08246493339538574, -0.030015112832188606, 0.0021496512927114964, 0.004688077140599489, 0.04425495117902756, -0.05005009099841118, 0.020031770691275597, -0.0031685170251876116, -0.0038601472042500973, -0.0723966434597969, -0.03681056946516037, -0.042855601757764816, -0.09870495647192001, 0.044519368559122086, 0.03871697559952736, -0.01637001894414425, 0.023890137672424316, 0.022882554680109024, -0.03590313345193863, 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cloud,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.
780,"early stars likely played a role in the cloud 's formation , since the number of close stellar passages within the cluster was much higher than today , leading to far more frequent perturbations .In June 2010 Harold F. Levison and others suggested on the basis of enhanced computer simulations that the Sun ""captured comets from other stars while it was in its birth cluster."" Their results imply that ""a substantial fraction of the Oort cloud comets, perhaps exceeding 90%, are from the protoplanetary discs of other stars."" In July 2020 Amir Siraj and Avi Loeb found that a captured origin for the Oort Cloud in the Sun's birth cluster could address the theoretical tension in explaining the observed ratio of outer Oort cloud to scattered disc objects, and in addition could increase the chances of a captured Planet Nine. Comets
Comets are remnants from the formation of the Solar system around 4 billion years ago, stored in two separate areas, the Kuiper belt and the Oort cloud. Short-period comets (those with orbits of up to 200 years) are generally accepted to have emerged from either the Kuiper belt or the scattered disc, which are two linked flat discs of icy debris beyond Neptune's orbit at 30 AU and jointly extending out beyond 100 AU. Very long-period comets, such as C/1999 F1 (Catalina), whose orbits last for millions of years, are thought to originate directly from the outer Oort cloud. Other comets modeled to have come directly from the outer Oort cloud include C/2006 P1 (McNaught), C/2010 X1 (Elenin), Comet ISON, C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring), C/2017 K2, and C/2017 T2 (PANSTARRS). The orbits within the Kuiper belt are relatively stable, so very few comets are thought to originate there.","[-0.06412145495414734, 0.009865145199000835, 0.04372687637805939, 0.02392539009451866, 0.11135685443878174, -0.0558633916079998, 0.0265362411737442, 0.04080304503440857, 0.039550844579935074, 0.0419541597366333, -0.007831943221390247, 0.02432357519865036, 0.037392761558294296, -0.08929247409105301, 0.03445567935705185, -0.00834761094301939, 0.04739288613200188, -0.09211190044879913, -0.0006139229517430067, -0.019156567752361298, -0.0004519597569014877, 0.01639087311923504, 0.014121437445282936, -0.018757738173007965, 0.0016122190281748772, 0.02330692857503891, -0.038833100348711014, 0.0016176836797967553, 0.006485749036073685, -0.0473761111497879, 0.031245844438672066, 0.02295444719493389, -0.031270015984773636, 0.01103378739207983, 0.046862244606018066, -0.012608932331204414, 0.021292096003890038, 0.009347946383059025, -0.002867172472178936, -0.03023361973464489, 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781,"( Siding Spring ) , C/2017 K2 , and C/2017 T2 ( PANSTARRS ) . The orbits within the Kuiper belt are relatively stable , so very few comets are thought to originate there .The scattered disc, however, is dynamically active and is far more likely to be the place of origin for comets. Comets pass from the scattered disc into the realm of the outer planets, becoming what are known as centaurs. These centaurs are then sent farther inward to become the short-period comets. There are two main types of short-period comets: Jupiter-family comets (with orbits smaller than 5 AU) and Halley-family comets. Halley-family comets, named after Halley's Comet, are distinct because, even though they are short-period comets, they are thought to come from the Oort Cloud rather than the scattered disc. Based on their orbits, it is suggested they were long-period comets that were captured by the gravity of the giant planets and sent into the inner Solar System. This process may have also created the present orbits of a significant fraction of the Jupiter-family comets, although the majority of such comets are thought to have originated in the scattered disc. Oort noted that the number of returning comets was far less than his model predicted, and this issue, known as ""cometary fading"", has yet to be resolved. No dynamical process is known to explain the smaller number of observed comets than Oort estimated. Hypotheses for this discrepancy include the destruction of comets due to tidal stresses, impact or heating; the loss of all volatiles, rendering some comets invisible, or the formation of a non-volatile crust on the surface. Dynamical studies of hypothetical Oort cloud comets have estimated that their occurrence in the outer-planet region would be several times higher than in the inner-planet region.","[-0.035419728606939316, -0.036793388426303864, 0.05692940950393677, -0.04727436974644661, 0.022673552855849266, -0.05115406960248947, -0.07474341988563538, 0.05925370380282402, 0.025644691661000252, 0.003961649257689714, 0.018985604867339134, -0.0710347518324852, 0.0053923362866044044, -0.09644929319620132, 0.06329391896724701, -0.05106106773018837, 0.010897895321249962, -0.06955806910991669, 0.01889156922698021, 0.019221678376197815, -0.04270189255475998, 0.01273679081350565, -0.08091200888156891, 0.0327845960855484, -0.011025100015103817, 0.03682377561926842, -0.0197069700807333, -0.0501350574195385, 0.031236838549375534, -0.05151939392089844, 0.005036059767007828, 0.06255865842103958, 0.004446214530616999, -0.01711743324995041, 0.05186360329389572, -0.03832004964351654, 0.012718463316559792, 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782,"of a non-volatile crust on the surface . Dynamical studies of hypothetical Oort cloud comets have estimated that their occurrence in the outer-planet region would be several times higher than in the inner-planet region .This discrepancy may be due to the gravitational attraction of Jupiter, which acts as a kind of barrier, trapping incoming comets and causing them to collide with it, just as it did with Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 in 1994. An example of a typical dynamically old comet with an origin in the Oort cloud could be C/2018 F4. Sedna and similar objects
Several observed objects have been proposed as members of the inner Oort cloud. Sedna, first reported in 2004, has a highly eccentric orbit with a perihelion distances of 76 AU. 2012 VP113, observed in 2012, has a larger perihelion (closest approach to the Sun) but its aphelion is half of Sedna's. Other candidate objects include 2010 GB174 and 474640 Alicanto (originally 2004 VN112). Tidal effects
Most of the comets seen close to the Sun seem to have reached their current positions through gravitational perturbation of the Oort cloud by the tidal force exerted by the Milky Way. Just as the Moon's tidal force deforms Earth's oceans, causing the tides to rise and fall, the galactic tide also distorts the orbits of bodies in the outer Solar System. In the charted regions of the Solar System, these effects are negligible compared to the gravity of the Sun, but in the outer reaches of the system, the Sun's gravity is weaker and the gradient of the Milky Way's gravitational Galactic Center compresses it along the other two axes; these small perturbations can shift orbits in the Oort cloud to bring objects close to the Sun. The point at which the Sun's gravity concedes its influence to the galactic tide is called the tidal truncation radius.","[-0.05687537416815758, -0.009811566211283207, 0.05634809657931328, -0.00015581765910610557, 0.06133885681629181, -0.08704572170972824, -0.07098890095949173, 0.042181894183158875, 0.054035160690546036, -0.029388880357146263, 0.03207923471927643, 0.03302787244319916, -0.011857341043651104, -0.11111769080162048, -0.01187252625823021, 0.0005545985768549144, 0.10160049796104431, -0.05654376745223999, -0.004118628799915314, 0.03293658047914505, -0.05385670065879822, 0.004140527918934822, 0.05937269330024719, 0.03713575750589371, -0.0402446985244751, -0.036262404173612595, -0.012112393043935299, 0.010355234146118164, -0.021390333771705627, -0.11902357637882233, 0.04850783199071884, -0.011886256746947765, -0.04434368014335632, 0.02010931819677353, 0.05862969532608986, -0.033636465668678284, 0.014695842750370502, -0.015785403549671173, -0.02607550658285618, 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783,"orbits in the Oort cloud to bring objects close to the Sun . The point at which the Sun 's gravity concedes its influence to the galactic tide is called the tidal truncation radius .It lies at a radius of 100,000 to 200,000 AU, and marks the outer boundary of the Oort cloud. Some scholars theorize that the galactic tide may have contributed to the formation of the Oort cloud by increasing the perihelia (smallest distances to the Sun) of planetesimals with large aphelia (largest distances to the Sun). The effects of the galactic tide are quite complex, and depend heavily on the behaviour of individual objects within a planetary system. Cumulatively, however, the effect can be quite significant: up to 90% of all comets originating from the Oort cloud may be the result of the galactic tide. Statistical models of the observed orbits of long-period comets argue that the galactic tide is the principal means by which their orbits are perturbed toward the inner Solar System. Stellar perturbations and stellar companion hypotheses
Besides the galactic tide, the main trigger for sending comets into the inner Solar System is thought to be interaction between the Sun's Oort cloud and the gravitational fields of nearby stars or giant molecular clouds. The orbit of the Sun through the plane of the Milky Way sometimes brings it into relatively close proximity to other stellar systems. For example, it is hypothesized that 70,000 years ago Scholz's Star passed through the outer Oort cloud (although its low mass and high relative velocity limited its effect). During the next 10 million years the known star with the greatest possibility of perturbing the Oort cloud is Gliese 710. This process could also scatter Oort cloud objects out of the ecliptic plane, potentially also explaining its spherical distribution.","[-0.0323786698281765, 0.016559533774852753, 0.06803642213344574, -0.011412150226533413, 0.025220390409231186, -0.019380060955882072, -0.03307385742664337, 0.04349910467863083, 0.07424236834049225, 0.005831715650856495, -0.014228302985429764, -0.00831798929721117, 0.04898951202630997, -0.0871371254324913, 0.049909308552742004, 0.014789310283958912, 0.10574903339147568, -0.055077746510505676, -0.03182276710867882, 0.0325237400829792, -0.008291334845125675, 0.027578797191381454, -0.033033277839422226, 0.004539553076028824, -0.023600105196237564, -0.05659998580813408, -0.041948042809963226, -0.02595672197639942, -0.05964769423007965, -0.0601520910859108, -0.028169505298137665, 0.01049511507153511, -0.0048607452772557735, -0.00801216159015894, 0.016112301498651505, 0.0057705300860106945, 0.06532953679561615, -0.05475578084588051, 0.011867324821650982, 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784,"star with the greatest possibility of perturbing the Oort cloud is Gliese 710 . This process could also scatter Oort cloud objects out of the ecliptic plane , potentially also explaining its spherical distribution .In 1984, physicist Richard A. Muller postulated that the Sun has an as-yet undetected companion, either a brown dwarf or a red dwarf, in an elliptical orbit within the Oort cloud. This object, known as Nemesis, was hypothesized to pass through a portion of the Oort cloud approximately every 26 million years, bombarding the inner Solar System with comets. However, to date no evidence of Nemesis has been found, and many lines of evidence (such as crater counts), have thrown its existence into doubt. Recent scientific analysis no longer supports the idea that extinctions on Earth happen at regular, repeating intervals. Thus, the Nemesis hypothesis is no longer needed to explain current assumptions. A somewhat similar hypothesis was advanced by astronomer John J. Matese of the University of Louisiana at Lafayette in 2002. He contends that more comets are arriving in the inner Solar System from a particular region of the postulated Oort cloud than can be explained by the galactic tide or stellar perturbations alone, and that the most likely cause would be a Jupiter-mass object in a distant orbit. This hypothetical gas giant was nicknamed Tyche. The WISE mission, an all-sky survey using parallax measurements in order to clarify local star distances, was capable of proving or disproving the Tyche hypothesis. In 2014, NASA announced that the WISE survey had ruled out any object as they had defined it. Future exploration
Voyager 1, Earth's most distant spacecraft,
will not reach the Oort cloud for about 300 years and would take about 30,000 years to pass through it.","[-0.04707629233598709, 0.03963800147175789, 0.09016451239585876, 0.06879039853811264, 0.06564056873321533, -0.029539495706558228, -0.008552833460271358, 0.042317379266023636, 0.08574923127889633, 0.022826123982667923, -0.05553337186574936, 0.02926415205001831, 0.037290047854185104, -0.08756997436285019, 0.011592546477913857, -0.023157814517617226, 0.06872355937957764, -0.09983168542385101, 0.03461143374443054, -0.016573410481214523, -0.04470537602901459, 0.05956464260816574, -0.04960541054606438, 0.011139669455587864, 0.011805728077888489, -0.03974007070064545, 0.002598817925900221, -0.03067951835691929, -0.0454169325530529, -0.08078164607286453, 0.03228126838803291, 0.018747324123978615, -0.03978125378489494, 0.05565711855888367, 0.05736861750483513, -0.0195444468408823, 0.09905380010604858, -0.04909643903374672, -0.0006828464684076607, 0.014092880301177502, 0.0009526960202492774, 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cloud,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.
785,"defined it . Future exploration Voyager 1 , Earth 's most distant spacecraft , will not reach the Oort cloud for about 300 years and would take about 30,000 years to pass through it .In the 1980s, there was a concept for a probe that could reach 1,000 AU in 50 years, called TAU; among its missions would be to look for the Oort cloud. In the 2014 Announcement of Opportunity for the Discovery program, an observatory to detect the objects in the Oort cloud (and Kuiper belt) called the ""Whipple Mission"" was proposed. It would monitor distant stars with a photometer, looking for transits up to 10,000 AU away. The observatory was proposed for halo orbiting around L2 with a suggested 5-year mission. It was also suggested that the Kepler space telescope could have been capable of detecting objects in the Oort cloud. See also
Heliosphere
Hills cloud
Interstellar object
List of possible dwarf planets
List of trans-Neptunian objects
Nemesis (hypothetical star)
Planets beyond Neptune
Scattered disc
Tyche (hypothetical planet)

References
Further reading
Arnett, Bill (March 2007). ""The Kuiper Belt and The Oort Cloud"". Nine Planets. Brasser, R.; Schwamb, M. E. (2015). ""Re-assessing the formation of the inner Oort cloud in an embedded star cluster – II. Probing the inner edge"". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 446 (4): 3788. arXiv:1411.1844. Bibcode:2015MNRAS.446.3788B. doi:10.1093/mnras/stu2374. S2CID 17001564. Batygin, Konstantin; Raush, Dennis (2024). ""Formation of the inner Oort cloud in the presence of an early solar binary"". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters. 533 (1): L43 – L47. arXiv:2305.00999. doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slad107. Fouchard, M.; Rickman, H.; Froeschlé, C.; Valsecchi, G. B. 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cloud,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.
786,"Letters . 533 ( 1 ) : L43 – L47 . arXiv:2305.00999. doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slad107 . Fouchard , M. ; Rickman , H. ; Froeschlé , C. ; Valsecchi , G. B . ( 2023 ) .""What long-period comets tell us about the Oort Cloud"". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 671: A36. Bibcode:2023A&A...676A.104F. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202243728. Hands, T. O.; Dehnen, W.; Gration, A. (2021). ""Formation of extrasolar Oort clouds and the origin of interstellar objects"". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 647: A96. arXiv:2011.08257. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038888. Matthews, R. A. J. (1994). ""The close approach of stars in the solar neighbourhood"". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 35: 1. Bibcode:1994QJRAS..35....1M. Oort, Jan H. (1950). ""The structure of the cloud of comets surrounding the Solar System and a hypothesis concerning its origin"". Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of the Netherlands. 11: 91–110. Bibcode:1950BAN....11...91O. External links

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