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( six of which are classified as near-earth objects ( NEOs ) ) , 109 HTCs ( 36 of which are NEOs ) , and 815 JFCs ( 153 of which are NEOs ) .Recently discovered main-belt comets form a distinct class, orbiting in more circular orbits within the asteroid belt. Because their elliptical orbits frequently take them close to the giant planets, comets are subject to further gravitational perturbations. Short-period comets have a tendency for their aphelia to coincide with a giant planet's semi-major axis, with the JFCs being the largest group. It is clear that comets coming in from the Oort cloud often have their orbits strongly influenced by the gravity of giant planets as a result of a close encounter. Jupiter is the source of the greatest perturbations, being more than twice as massive as all the other planets combined. These perturbations can deflect long-period comets into shorter orbital periods. Based on their orbital characteristics, short-period comets are thought to originate from the centaurs and the Kuiper belt/scattered disc —a disk of objects in the trans-Neptunian region—whereas the source of long-period comets is thought to be the far more distant spherical Oort cloud (after the Dutch astronomer Jan Hendrik Oort who hypothesized its existence). Vast swarms of comet-like bodies are thought to orbit the Sun in these distant regions in roughly circular orbits. Occasionally the gravitational influence of the outer planets (in the case of Kuiper belt objects) or nearby stars (in the case of Oort cloud objects) may throw one of these bodies into an elliptical orbit that takes it inwards toward the Sun to form a visible comet. Unlike the return of periodic comets, whose orbits have been established by previous observations, the appearance of new comets by this mechanism is unpredictable.
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the Sun to form a visible comet . Unlike the return of periodic comets , whose orbits have been established by previous observations , the appearance of new comets by this mechanism is unpredictable .When flung into the orbit of the sun, and being continuously dragged towards it, tons of matter are stripped from the comets which greatly influence their lifetime; the more stripped, the shorter they live and vice versa. Long period
Long-period comets have highly eccentric orbits and periods ranging from 200 years to thousands or even millions of years. An eccentricity greater than 1 when near perihelion does not necessarily mean that a comet will leave the Solar System. For example, Comet McNaught had a heliocentric osculating eccentricity of 1.000019 near its perihelion passage epoch in January 2007 but is bound to the Sun with roughly a 92,600-year orbit because the eccentricity drops below 1 as it moves farther from the Sun. The future orbit of a long-period comet is properly obtained when the osculating orbit is computed at an epoch after leaving the planetary region and is calculated with respect to the center of mass of the Solar System. By definition long-period comets remain gravitationally bound to the Sun; those comets that are ejected from the Solar System due to close passes by major planets are no longer properly considered as having "periods". The orbits of long-period comets take them far beyond the outer planets at aphelia, and the plane of their orbits need not lie near the ecliptic. Long-period comets such as C/1999 F1 and C/2017 T2 (PANSTARRS) can have aphelion distances of nearly 70,000 AU (0.34 pc; 1.1 ly) with orbital periods estimated around 6 million years. Single-apparition or non-periodic comets are similar to long-period comets because they have parabolic or slightly hyperbolic trajectories when near perihelion in the inner Solar System. However, gravitational perturbations from giant planets cause their orbits to change.
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Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
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702
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are similar to long-period comets because they have parabolic or slightly hyperbolic trajectories when near perihelion in the inner Solar System . However , gravitational perturbations from giant planets cause their orbits to change .Single-apparition comets have a hyperbolic or parabolic osculating orbit which allows them to permanently exit the Solar System after a single pass of the Sun. The Sun's Hill sphere has an unstable maximum boundary of 230,000 AU (1.1 pc; 3.6 ly). Only a few hundred comets have been seen to reach a hyperbolic orbit (e > 1) when near perihelion that using a heliocentric unperturbed two-body best-fit suggests they may escape the Solar System. As of 2025, three objects have been discovered with an eccentricity significantly greater than one: 1I/ʻOumuamua, 2I/Borisov, and 3I/ATLAS, indicating an origin outside the Solar System. While ʻOumuamua, with an eccentricity of about 1.2, showed no optical signs of cometary activity during its passage through the inner Solar System in October 2017, changes to its trajectory—which suggests outgassing—indicate that it is probably a comet. On the other hand, 2I/Borisov, with an estimated eccentricity of about 3.36, has been observed to have the coma feature of comets, and is considered the first detected interstellar comet. 3I/ATLAS has an eccentricity of about 6.1, and also has a coma, indicating that it is also a comet. Comet C/1980 E1 had an orbital period of roughly 7.1 million years before the 1982 perihelion passage, but a 1980 encounter with Jupiter accelerated the comet giving it the largest eccentricity (1.057) of any known solar comet with a reasonable observation arc. Comets not expected to return to the inner Solar System include C/1980 E1, C/2000 U5, C/2001 Q4 (NEAT), C/2009 R1, C/1956 R1, and C/2007 F1 (LONEOS).
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Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
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703
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not expected to return to the inner Solar System include C/1980 E1 , C/2000 U5 , C/2001 Q4 ( NEAT ) , C/2009 R1 , C/1956 R1 , and C/2007 F1 ( LONEOS ) .Some authorities use the term "periodic comet" to refer to any comet with a periodic orbit (that is, all short-period comets plus all long-period comets), whereas others use it to mean exclusively short-period comets. Similarly, although the literal meaning of "non-periodic comet" is the same as "single-apparition comet", some use it to mean all comets that are not "periodic" in the second sense (that is, to include all comets with a period greater than 200 years). Early observations have revealed a few genuinely hyperbolic (i.e. non-periodic) trajectories, but no more than could be accounted for by perturbations from Jupiter. Comets from interstellar space are moving with velocities of the same order as the relative velocities of stars near the Sun (a few tens of km per second). When such objects enter the Solar System, they have a positive specific orbital energy resulting in a positive velocity at infinity (
v
∞
{\displaystyle v_{\infty }\!} ) and have notably hyperbolic trajectories. A rough calculation shows that there might be four hyperbolic comets per century within Jupiter's orbit, give or take one and perhaps two orders of magnitude. Oort cloud and Hills cloud
The Oort cloud is thought to occupy a vast space starting from between 2,000 and 5,000 AU (0.03 and 0.08 ly) to as far as 50,000 AU (0.79 ly) from the Sun. This cloud encases the celestial bodies that start at the middle of the Solar System—the Sun, all the way to outer limits of the Kuiper Belt. The Oort cloud consists of viable materials necessary for the creation of celestial bodies.
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Comet
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704
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at the middle of the Solar System—the Sun , all the way to outer limits of the Kuiper Belt . The Oort cloud consists of viable materials necessary for the creation of celestial bodies .The Solar System's planets exist only because of the planetesimals (chunks of leftover space that assisted in the creation of planets) that were condensed and formed by the gravity of the Sun. The eccentric made from these trapped planetesimals is why the Oort Cloud even exists. Some estimates place the outer edge at between 100,000 and 200,000 AU (1.58 and 3.16 ly). The region can be subdivided into a spherical outer Oort cloud of 20,000–50,000 AU (0.32–0.79 ly), and a doughnut-shaped inner cloud, the Hills cloud, of 2,000–20,000 AU (0.03–0.32 ly). The outer cloud is only weakly bound to the Sun and supplies the long-period (and possibly Halley-type) comets that fall to inside the orbit of Neptune. The inner Oort cloud is also known as the Hills cloud, named after Jack G. Hills, who proposed its existence in 1981. Models predict that the inner cloud should have tens or hundreds of times as many cometary nuclei as the outer halo; it is seen as a possible source of new comets that resupply the relatively tenuous outer cloud as the latter's numbers are gradually depleted. The Hills cloud explains the continued existence of the Oort cloud after billions of years. Exocomets
Exocomets beyond the Solar System have been detected and may be common in the Milky Way. The first exocomet system detected was around Beta Pictoris, a very young A-type main-sequence star, in 1987. A total of 11 such exocomet systems have been identified as of 2013, using the absorption spectrum caused by the large clouds of gas emitted by comets when passing close to their star.
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Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
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705
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A total of 11 such exocomet systems have been identified as of 2013 , using the absorption spectrum caused by the large clouds of gas emitted by comets when passing close to their star .For ten years the Kepler space telescope was responsible for searching for planets and other forms outside of the solar system. The first transiting exocomets were found in February 2018 by a group consisting of professional astronomers and citizen scientists in light curves recorded by the Kepler Space Telescope. After Kepler Space Telescope retired in October 2018, a new telescope called TESS Telescope has taken over Kepler's mission. Since the launch of TESS, astronomers have discovered the transits of comets around the star Beta Pictoris using a light curve from TESS. Since TESS has taken over, astronomers have since been able to better distinguish exocomets with the spectroscopic method. New planets are detected by the white light curve method which is viewed as a symmetrical dip in the charts readings when a planet overshadows its parent star. However, after further evaluation of these light curves, it has been discovered that the asymmetrical patterns of the dips presented are caused by the tail of a comet or of hundreds of comets. Effects of comets
Connection to meteor showers
As a comet is heated during close passes to the Sun, outgassing of its icy components releases solid debris too large to be swept away by radiation pressure and the solar wind. If Earth's orbit sends it through that trail of debris, which is composed mostly of fine grains of rocky material, there is likely to be a meteor shower as Earth passes through. Denser trails of debris produce quick but intense meteor showers and less dense trails create longer but less intense showers. Typically, the density of the debris trail is related to how long ago the parent comet released the material.
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Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
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706
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intense meteor showers and less dense trails create longer but less intense showers . Typically , the density of the debris trail is related to how long ago the parent comet released the material .The Perseid meteor shower, for example, occurs every year between 9 and 13 August, when Earth passes through the orbit of Comet Swift–Tuttle. Halley's Comet is the source of the Orionid shower in October. Comets and impact on life
Many comets and asteroids collided with Earth in its early stages. Many scientists think that comets bombarding the young Earth about 4 billion years ago brought the vast quantities of water that now fill Earth's oceans, or at least a significant portion of it. Others have cast doubt on this idea. The detection of organic molecules, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, in significant quantities in comets has led to speculation that comets or meteorites may have brought the precursors of life—or even life itself—to Earth. In 2013 it was suggested that impacts between rocky and icy surfaces, such as comets, had the potential to create the amino acids that make up proteins through shock synthesis. The speed at which the comets entered the atmosphere, combined with the magnitude of energy created after initial contact, allowed smaller molecules to condense into the larger macro-molecules that served as the foundation for life. In 2015, scientists found significant amounts of molecular oxygen in the outgassings of comet 67P, suggesting that the molecule may occur more often than had been thought, and thus less an indicator of life as has been supposed. It is suspected that comet impacts have, over long timescales, delivered significant quantities of water to Earth's Moon, some of which may have survived as lunar ice. Comet and meteoroid impacts are thought to be responsible for the existence of tektites and australites.
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Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
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707
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quantities of water to Earth 's Moon , some of which may have survived as lunar ice . Comet and meteoroid impacts are thought to be responsible for the existence of tektites and australites .Fear of comets
Fear of comets as acts of God and signs of impending doom was highest in Europe from 1200 to 1650 CE. The year after the Great Comet of 1618, for example, Gotthard Arthusius published a pamphlet stating that it was a sign that the Day of Judgment was near. He listed ten pages of comet-related disasters, including "earthquakes, floods, changes in river courses, hail storms, hot and dry weather, poor harvests, epidemics, war and treason and high prices". By 1700 most scholars concluded that such events occurred whether a comet was seen or not. Using Edmond Halley's records of comet sightings, however, William Whiston in 1711 wrote that the Great Comet of 1680 had a periodicity of 574 years and was responsible for the worldwide flood in the Book of Genesis, by pouring water on Earth. His announcement revived for another century fear of comets, now as direct threats to the world instead of signs of disasters. Spectroscopic analysis in 1910 found the toxic gas cyanogen in the tail of Halley's Comet, causing panicked buying of gas masks and quack "anti-comet pills" and "anti-comet umbrellas" by the public. Fate of comets
Departure (ejection) from Solar System
If a comet is traveling fast enough, it may leave the Solar System. Such comets follow the open path of a hyperbola, and as such, they are called hyperbolic comets. Solar comets are only known to be ejected by interacting with another object in the Solar System, such as Jupiter.
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Comet
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708
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a hyperbola , and as such , they are called hyperbolic comets . Solar comets are only known to be ejected by interacting with another object in the Solar System , such as Jupiter .An example of this is Comet C/1980 E1, which was shifted from an orbit of 7.1 million years around the Sun, to a hyperbolic trajectory, after a 1980 close pass by the planet Jupiter. Interstellar comets such as 1I/ʻOumuamua, 2I/Borisov and 3I/ATLAS never orbited the Sun and therefore do not require a 3rd-body interaction to be ejected from the Solar System. Extinction
Jupiter-family comets and long-period comets appear to follow very different fading laws. The JFCs are active over a lifetime of about 10,000 years or ~1,000 orbits whereas long-period comets fade much faster. Only 10% of the long-period comets survive more than 50 passages to small perihelion and only 1% of them survive more than 2,000 passages. Eventually most of the volatile material contained in a comet nucleus evaporates, and the comet becomes a small, dark, inert lump of rock or rubble that can resemble an asteroid. Some asteroids in elliptical orbits are now identified as extinct comets. Roughly six percent of the near-Earth asteroids are thought to be extinct comet nuclei. Breakup and collisions
The nucleus of some comets may be fragile, a conclusion supported by the observation of comets splitting apart. A significant cometary disruption was that of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9, which was discovered in 1993. A close encounter in July 1992 had broken it into pieces, and over a period of six days in July 1994, these pieces fell into Jupiter's atmosphere—the first time astronomers had observed a collision between two objects in the Solar System. Other splitting comets include 3D/Biela in 1846 and 73P/Schwassmann–Wachmann from 1995 to 2006. Greek historian Ephorus reported that a comet split apart as far back as the winter of 372–373 BCE.
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Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
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709
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System . Other splitting comets include 3D/Biela in 1846 and 73P/Schwassmann–Wachmann from 1995 to 2006 . Greek historian Ephorus reported that a comet split apart as far back as the winter of 372–373 BCE .Comets are suspected of splitting due to thermal stress, internal gas pressure, or impact. Comets 42P/Neujmin and 53P/Van Biesbroeck appear to be fragments of a parent comet. Numerical integrations have shown that both comets had a rather close approach to Jupiter in January 1850, and that, before 1850, the two orbits were nearly identical. Another group of comets that is the result of fragmentation episodes is the Liller comet family made of C/1988 A1 (Liller), C/1996 Q1 (Tabur), C/2015 F3 (SWAN), C/2019 Y1 (ATLAS), and C/2023 V5 (Leonard). Some comets have been observed to break up during their perihelion passage, including great comets West and Ikeya–Seki. Biela's Comet was one significant example when it broke into two pieces during its passage through the perihelion in 1846. These two comets were seen separately in 1852, but never again afterward. Instead, spectacular meteor showers were seen in 1872 and 1885 when the comet should have been visible. A minor meteor shower, the Andromedids, occurs annually in November, and it is caused when Earth crosses the orbit of Biela's Comet. Some comets meet a more spectacular end – either falling into the Sun or colliding with a planet or other body. Collisions between comets and planets or moons were common in the early Solar System: some of the many craters on the Moon, for example, may have been caused by comets. A recent collision of a comet with a planet occurred in July 1994 when Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 broke up into pieces and collided with Jupiter. Nomenclature
The names given to comets have followed several different conventions over the past two centuries.
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Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
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710
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planet occurred in July 1994 when Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 broke up into pieces and collided with Jupiter . Nomenclature The names given to comets have followed several different conventions over the past two centuries .Prior to the early 20th century, most comets were referred to by the year when they appeared, sometimes with additional adjectives for particularly bright comets; thus, the "Great Comet of 1680", the "Great Comet of 1882", and the "Great January Comet of 1910". After Edmond Halley demonstrated that the comets of 1531, 1607, and 1682 were the same body and successfully predicted its return in 1759 by calculating its orbit, that comet became known as Halley's Comet. Similarly, the second and third known periodic comets, Encke's Comet and Biela's Comet, were named after the astronomers who calculated their orbits rather than their original discoverers. Later, periodic comets were usually named after their discoverers, but comets that had appeared only once continued to be referred to by the year of their appearance. In the early 20th century, the convention of naming comets after their discoverers became common, and this remains so today. A comet can be named after its discoverers or an instrument or program that helped to find it. For example, in 2019, astronomer Gennadiy Borisov observed a comet that appeared to have originated outside of the solar system; the comet was named 2I/Borisov after him. History of study
Early observations and thought
From ancient sources, such as Chinese oracle bones, it is known that comets have been noticed by humans for millennia. Until the sixteenth century, comets were usually considered bad omens of deaths of kings or noble men, or coming catastrophes, or even interpreted as attacks by heavenly beings against terrestrial inhabitants.
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Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
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711
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Until the sixteenth century , comets were usually considered bad omens of deaths of kings or noble men , or coming catastrophes , or even interpreted as attacks by heavenly beings against terrestrial inhabitants .Aristotle (384–322 BCE) was the first known scientist to use various theories and observational facts to employ a consistent, structured cosmological theory of comets. He believed that comets were atmospheric phenomena, due to the fact that they could appear outside of the zodiac and vary in brightness over the course of a few days. Aristotle's cometary theory arose from his observations and cosmological theory that everything in the cosmos is arranged in a distinct configuration. Part of this configuration was a clear separation between the celestial and terrestrial, believing comets to be strictly associated with the latter. According to Aristotle, comets must be within the sphere of the moon and clearly separated from the heavens. Also in the 4th century BCE, Apollonius of Myndus supported the idea that comets moved like the planets. Aristotelian theory on comets continued to be widely accepted throughout the Middle Ages, despite several discoveries from various individuals challenging aspects of it. In the 1st century CE, Seneca the Younger questioned Aristotle's logic concerning comets. Because of their regular movement and imperviousness to wind, they cannot be atmospheric, and are more permanent than suggested by their brief flashes across the sky. He pointed out that only the tails are transparent and thus cloudlike, and argued that there is no reason to confine their orbits to the zodiac. In criticizing Apollonius of Myndus, Seneca argues, "A comet cuts through the upper regions of the universe and then finally becomes visible when it reaches the lowest point of its orbit." While Seneca did not author a substantial theory of his own, his arguments would spark much debate among Aristotle's critics in the 16th and 17th centuries.
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Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
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712
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point of its orbit . '' While Seneca did not author a substantial theory of his own , his arguments would spark much debate among Aristotle 's critics in the 16th and 17th centuries .In the 1st century CE, Pliny the Elder believed that comets were connected with political unrest and death. Pliny observed comets as "human like", often describing their tails with "long hair" or "long beard". His system for classifying comets according to their color and shape was used for centuries. In India, by the 6th century CE astronomers believed that comets were apparitions that re-appeared periodically. This was the view expressed in the 6th century by the astronomers Varāhamihira and Bhadrabahu, and the 10th-century astronomer Bhaṭṭotpala listed the names and estimated periods of certain comets, but it is not known how these figures were calculated or how accurate they were. There is a claim that an Arab scholar in 1258 noted several recurrent appearances of a comet (or a type of comet), and though it's not clear if he considered it to be a single periodic comet, it might have been a comet with a period of around 63 years. In 1301, the Italian painter Giotto was the first person to accurately and anatomically portray a comet. In his work Adoration of the Magi, Giotto's depiction of Halley's Comet in the place of the Star of Bethlehem would go unmatched in accuracy until the 19th century and be bested only with the invention of photography. Astrological interpretations of comets proceeded to take precedence clear into the 15th century, despite the presence of modern scientific astronomy beginning to take root. Comets continued to forewarn of disaster, as seen in the Luzerner Schilling chronicles and in the warnings of Pope Callixtus III.
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Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
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713
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despite the presence of modern scientific astronomy beginning to take root . Comets continued to forewarn of disaster , as seen in the Luzerner Schilling chronicles and in the warnings of Pope Callixtus III .In 1578, German Lutheran bishop Andreas Celichius defined comets as "the thick smoke of human sins ... kindled by the hot and fiery anger of the Supreme Heavenly Judge". The next year, Andreas Dudith stated that "If comets were caused by the sins of mortals, they would never be absent from the sky." Modern astronomy
Crude attempts at a parallax measurement of Halley's Comet were made in 1456, but were erroneous. Regiomontanus was the first to attempt to calculate diurnal parallax by observing the Great Comet of 1472. His predictions were not very accurate, but they were conducted in the hopes of estimating the distance of a comet from Earth. In the 16th century, Tycho Brahe and Michael Maestlin demonstrated that comets must exist outside of Earth's atmosphere by measuring the parallax of the Great Comet of 1577. Within the precision of the measurements, this implied the comet must be at least four times more distant than from Earth to the Moon. Based on observations in 1664, Giovanni Borelli recorded the longitudes and latitudes of comets that he observed, and suggested that cometary orbits may be parabolic. Despite being a skilled astronomer, in his 1623 book The Assayer, Galileo Galilei rejected Brahe's theories on the parallax of comets and claimed that they may be a mere optical illusion, despite little personal observation. In 1625, Maestlin's student Johannes Kepler upheld that Brahe's view of cometary parallax was correct. Additionally, mathematician Jacob Bernoulli published a treatise on comets in 1682. During the early modern period comets were studied for their astrological significance in medical disciplines.
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Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
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714
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of cometary parallax was correct . Additionally , mathematician Jacob Bernoulli published a treatise on comets in 1682 . During the early modern period comets were studied for their astrological significance in medical disciplines .Many healers of this time considered medicine and astronomy to be inter-disciplinary and employed their knowledge of comets and other astrological signs for diagnosing and treating patients. Isaac Newton, in his Principia Mathematica of 1687, proved that an object moving under the influence of gravity by an inverse square law must trace out an orbit shaped like one of the conic sections, and he demonstrated how to fit a comet's path through the sky to a parabolic orbit, using the comet of 1680 as an example. He describes comets as compact and durable solid bodies moving in oblique orbit and their tails as thin streams of vapor emitted by their nuclei, ignited or heated by the Sun. He suspected that comets were the origin of the life-supporting component of air. He pointed out that comets usually appear near the Sun, and therefore most likely orbit it. On their luminosity, he stated, "The comets shine by the Sun's light, which they reflect," with their tails illuminated by "the Sun's light reflected by a smoke arising from [the coma]". In 1705, Edmond Halley (1656–1742) applied Newton's method to 23 cometary apparitions that had occurred between 1337 and 1698. He noted that three of these, the comets of 1531, 1607, and 1682, had very similar orbital elements, and he was further able to account for the slight differences in their orbits in terms of gravitational perturbation caused by Jupiter and Saturn. Confident that these three apparitions had been three appearances of the same comet, he predicted that it would appear again in 1758–59.
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Comet
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715
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in terms of gravitational perturbation caused by Jupiter and Saturn . Confident that these three apparitions had been three appearances of the same comet , he predicted that it would appear again in 1758–59 .Halley's predicted return date was later refined by a team of three French mathematicians: Alexis Clairaut, Joseph Lalande, and Nicole-Reine Lepaute, who predicted the date of the comet's 1759 perihelion to within one month's accuracy. When the comet returned as predicted, it became known as Halley's Comet. As early as the 18th century, some scientists had made correct hypotheses as to comets' physical composition. In 1755, Immanuel Kant hypothesized in his Universal Natural History that comets were condensed from "primitive matter" beyond the known planets, which is "feebly moved" by gravity, then orbit at arbitrary inclinations, and are partially vaporized by the Sun's heat as they near perihelion. In 1836, the German mathematician Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel, after observing streams of vapor during the appearance of Halley's Comet in 1835, proposed that the jet forces of evaporating material could be great enough to significantly alter a comet's orbit, and he argued that the non-gravitational movements of Encke's Comet resulted from this phenomenon. In the 19th century, the Astronomical Observatory of Padova was an epicenter in the observational study of comets. Led by Giovanni Santini (1787–1877) and followed by Giuseppe Lorenzoni (1843–1914), this observatory was devoted to classical astronomy, mainly to the new comets and planets orbit calculation, with the goal of compiling a catalog of almost ten thousand stars. Situated in the Northern portion of Italy, observations from this observatory were key in establishing important geodetic, geographic, and astronomical calculations, such as the difference of longitude between Milan and Padua as well as Padua to Fiume.
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Comet
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, observations from this observatory were key in establishing important geodetic , geographic , and astronomical calculations , such as the difference of longitude between Milan and Padua as well as Padua to Fiume .Correspondence within the observatory, particularly between Santini and another astronomer Giuseppe Toaldo, mentioned the importance of comet and planetary orbital observations. In 1950, Fred Lawrence Whipple proposed that rather than being rocky objects containing some ice, comets were icy objects containing some dust and rock. This "dirty snowball" model soon became accepted and appeared to be supported by the observations of an armada of spacecraft (including the European Space Agency's Giotto probe and the Soviet Union's Vega 1 and Vega 2) that flew through the coma of Halley's Comet in 1986, photographed the nucleus, and observed jets of evaporating material. On 22 January 2014, ESA scientists reported the detection, for the first definitive time, of water vapor on the dwarf planet Ceres, the largest object in the asteroid belt. The detection was made by using the far-infrared abilities of the Herschel Space Observatory. The finding is unexpected because comets, not asteroids, are typically considered to "sprout jets and plumes". According to one of the scientists, "The lines are becoming more and more blurred between comets and asteroids." On 11 August 2014, astronomers released studies, using the Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array (ALMA) for the first time, that detailed the distribution of HCN, HNC, H2CO, and dust inside the comae of comets C/2012 F6 (Lemmon) and C/2012 S1 (ISON). Spacecraft missions
The Halley Armada describes the collection of spacecraft missions that visited and/or made observations of Halley's Comet 1980s perihelion. The Space Shuttle Challenger was intended to do a study of Halley's Comet in 1986, but exploded shortly after being launched. Deep Impact.
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Comet
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717
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observations of Halley 's Comet 1980s perihelion . The Space Shuttle Challenger was intended to do a study of Halley 's Comet in 1986 , but exploded shortly after being launched . Deep Impact .Debate continues about how much ice is in a comet. In 2001, the Deep Space 1 spacecraft obtained high-resolution images of the surface of Comet Borrelly. It was found that the surface of comet Borrelly is hot and dry, with a temperature of between 26 and 71 °C (79 and 160 °F), and extremely dark, suggesting that the ice has been removed by solar heating and maturation, or is hidden by the soot-like material that covers Borrelly. In July 2005, the Deep Impact probe blasted a crater on Comet Tempel 1 to study its interior. The mission yielded results suggesting that the majority of a comet's water ice is below the surface and that these reservoirs feed the jets of vaporized water that form the coma of Tempel 1. Renamed EPOXI, it made a flyby of Comet Hartley 2 on 4 November 2010. Ulysses. In 2007, the Ulysses probe unexpectedly passed through the tail of the comet C/2006 P1 (McNaught) which was discovered in 2006. Ulysses was launched in 1990 and the intended mission was for Ulysses to orbit around the Sun for further study at all latitudes. Stardust. Data from the Stardust mission show that materials retrieved from the tail of Wild 2 were crystalline and could only have been "born in fire", at extremely high temperatures of over 1,000 °C (1,830 °F). Although comets formed in the outer Solar System, radial mixing of material during the early formation of the Solar System is thought to have redistributed material throughout the proto-planetary disk. As a result, comets contain crystalline grains that formed in the early, hot inner Solar System.
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Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
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718
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formation of the Solar System is thought to have redistributed material throughout the proto-planetary disk . As a result , comets contain crystalline grains that formed in the early , hot inner Solar System .This is seen in comet spectra as well as in sample return missions. More recent still, the materials retrieved demonstrate that the "comet dust resembles asteroid materials". These new results have forced scientists to rethink the nature of comets and their distinction from asteroids. Rosetta. The Rosetta probe orbited Comet Churyumov–Gerasimenko. On 12 November 2014, its lander Philae successfully landed on the comet's surface, the first time a spacecraft has ever landed on such an object in history. Classification
Comets can be classified by astronomers using the planets that control their perihelion and aphelion, Tisserand orbital parameters. Other more qualitative and casual classifications are also possible. Great comets
Approximately once a decade, a comet becomes bright enough to be noticed by a casual observer, leading such comets to be designated as great comets. Predicting whether a comet will become a great comet is notoriously difficult, as many factors may cause a comet's brightness to depart drastically from predictions. Broadly speaking, if a comet has a large and active nucleus, will pass close to the Sun, and is not obscured by the Sun as seen from Earth when at its brightest, it has a chance of becoming a great comet. However, Comet Kohoutek in 1973 fulfilled all the criteria and was expected to become spectacular but failed to do so. Comet West, which appeared three years later, had much lower expectations but became an extremely impressive comet. The Great Comet of 1577 is a well-known example of a great comet. It passed near Earth as a non-periodic comet and was seen by many, including well-known astronomers Tycho Brahe and Taqi ad-Din.
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Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
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719
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Comet of 1577 is a well-known example of a great comet . It passed near Earth as a non-periodic comet and was seen by many , including well-known astronomers Tycho Brahe and Taqi ad-Din .Observations of this comet led to several significant findings regarding cometary science, especially for Brahe. The late 20th century saw a lengthy gap without the appearance of any great comets, followed by the arrival of two in quick succession—Comet Hyakutake in 1996, followed by Hale–Bopp, which reached maximum brightness in 1997 having been discovered two years earlier. The first great comet of the 21st century was C/2006 P1 (McNaught), which became visible to naked eye observers in January 2007. It was the brightest in over 40 years. Sungrazing comets
A sungrazing comet is a comet that passes extremely close to the Sun at perihelion, generally within a few million kilometers. Although small sungrazers can be completely evaporated during such a close approach to the Sun, larger sungrazers can survive many perihelion passages. However, the strong tidal forces they experience often lead to their fragmentation. About 90% of the sungrazers observed with SOHO are members of the Kreutz group, which all originate from one giant comet that broke up into many smaller comets during its first passage through the inner Solar System. The remainder contains some sporadic sungrazers, but four other related groups of comets have been identified among them: the Kracht, Kracht 2a, Marsden, and Meyer groups. The Marsden and Kracht groups both appear to be related to Comet 96P/Machholz, which is the parent of two meteor streams, the Quadrantids and the Arietids. Unusual comets
Of the thousands of known comets, some exhibit unusual properties.
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Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
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720
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be related to Comet 96P/Machholz , which is the parent of two meteor streams , the Quadrantids and the Arietids . Unusual comets Of the thousands of known comets , some exhibit unusual properties .Comet Encke (2P/Encke) orbits from outside the asteroid belt to just inside the orbit of the planet Mercury whereas the Comet 29P/Schwassmann–Wachmann currently travels in a nearly circular orbit entirely between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn. 2060 Chiron, whose unstable orbit is between Saturn and Uranus, was originally classified as an asteroid until a faint coma was noticed. Similarly, Comet Shoemaker–Levy 2 was originally designated asteroid 1990 UL3. Largest
The largest known periodic comet is 95P/Chiron at 200 km in diameter that comes to perihelion every 50 years just inside of Saturn's orbit at 8 AU. The largest known Oort cloud comet is suspected of being Comet Bernardinelli-Bernstein at ≈150 km that will come to perihelion in January 2031 just outside of Saturn's orbit at 11 AU. The Comet of 1729 is estimated to have been ≈100 km in diameter and came to perihelion inside of Jupiter's orbit at 4 AU. Centaurs
Centaurs typically behave with characteristics of both asteroids and comets. Centaurs can be classified as comets such as 60558 Echeclus, and 166P/NEAT. 166P/NEAT was discovered while it exhibited a coma, and so is classified as a comet despite its orbit, and 60558 Echeclus was discovered without a coma but later became active, and was then classified as both a comet and an asteroid (174P/Echeclus). One plan for Cassini involved sending it to a centaur, but NASA decided to destroy it instead. Observation
A comet may be discovered photographically using a wide-field telescope or visually with binoculars. However, even without access to optical equipment, it is still possible for the amateur astronomer to discover a sungrazing comet online by downloading images accumulated by some satellite observatories such as SOHO.
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Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
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721
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However , even without access to optical equipment , it is still possible for the amateur astronomer to discover a sungrazing comet online by downloading images accumulated by some satellite observatories such as SOHO .SOHO's 2000th comet was discovered by Polish amateur astronomer Michał Kusiak on 26 December 2010 and both discoverers of Hale–Bopp used amateur equipment (although Hale was not an amateur). Lost
A number of periodic comets discovered in earlier decades or previous centuries are now lost comets. Their orbits were never known well enough to predict future appearances or the comets have disintegrated. However, occasionally a "new" comet is discovered, and calculation of its orbit shows it to be an old "lost" comet. An example is Comet 11P/Tempel–Swift–LINEAR, discovered in 1869 but unobservable after 1908 because of perturbations by Jupiter. It was not found again until accidentally rediscovered by LINEAR in 2001. There are at least 18 comets that fit this category. In popular culture
The depiction of comets in popular culture is firmly rooted in the long Western tradition of seeing comets as harbingers of doom and as omens of world-altering change. Halley's Comet alone has caused a slew of sensationalist publications of all sorts at each of its reappearances. It was especially noted that the birth and death of some notable persons coincided with separate appearances of the comet, such as with writers Mark Twain (who correctly speculated that he'd "go out with the comet" in 1910) and Eudora Welty, to whose life Mary Chapin Carpenter dedicated the song "Halley Came to Jackson". In times past, bright comets often inspired panic and hysteria in the general population, being thought of as bad omens.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
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Chapin Carpenter dedicated the song `` Halley Came to Jackson '' . In times past , bright comets often inspired panic and hysteria in the general population , being thought of as bad omens .More recently, during the passage of Halley's Comet in 1910, Earth passed through the comet's tail, and erroneous newspaper reports inspired a fear that cyanogen in the tail might poison millions, whereas the appearance of Comet Hale–Bopp in 1997 triggered the mass suicide of the Heaven's Gate cult. In science fiction, the impact of comets has been depicted as a threat overcome by technology and heroism (as in the 1998 films Deep Impact and Armageddon), or as a trigger of global apocalypse (Lucifer's Hammer, 1979) or zombies (Night of the Comet, 1984). In Jules Verne's Off on a Comet a group of people are stranded on a comet orbiting the Sun, while a large crewed space expedition visits Halley's Comet in Sir Arthur C. Clarke's novel 2061: Odyssey Three. In literature
The long-period comet first recorded by Pons in Florence on 15 July 1825 inspired Lydia Sigourney's humorous poem The Comet of 1825. in which all the celestial bodies argue over the comet's appearance and purpose. Gallery
Videos
See also
The Big Splash
Comet vintages
List of impact craters on Earth
List of possible impact structures on Earth
Lists of comets
References
Footnotes
Citations
Bibliography
Sagan, Carl & Druyan, Ann (1997). Comet. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-3078-0105-0. Further reading
Schechner, Sara J. (1997). Comets, Popular Culture, and the Birth of Modern Cosmology. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01150-9. Brandt, John C. & Chapman, Robert D. (2004). Introduction to Comets (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80863-7.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
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Princeton University Press . ISBN 978-0-691-01150-9 . Brandt , John C. & Chapman , Robert D. ( 2004 ) . Introduction to Comets ( 2nd ed. ) . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-80863-7 .External links
Comets at NASA's Solar System Exploration
International Comet Quarterly by Harvard University
Catalogue of the Solar System Small Bodies Orbital Evolution
Science Demos: Make a Comet by the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory
Comets: from myths to reality, exhibition on Paris Observatory digital library
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Comet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet.
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724
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The Kuiper belt ( ) is a circumstellar disc in the outer Solar System, extending from the orbit of Neptune at 30 astronomical units (AU) to approximately 50 AU from the Sun. It is similar to the asteroid belt, but is far larger—20 times as wide and 20–200 times as massive. Like the asteroid belt, it consists mainly of small bodies or remnants from when the Solar System formed. While many asteroids are composed primarily of rock and metal, most Kuiper belt objects are composed largely of frozen volatiles (termed "ices"), such as methane, ammonia, and water. The Kuiper belt is home to most of the objects that astronomers generally accept as dwarf planets: Orcus, Pluto, Haumea, Quaoar, and Makemake. Some of the Solar System's moons, such as Neptune's Triton and Saturn's Phoebe, may have originated in the region. The Kuiper belt is named in honor of the Dutch astronomer Gerard Kuiper, who conjectured the existence of a version of the belt in 1951. There were researchers before and after him who proposed similar hypoetheses, such as Kenneth Edgeworth in the 1930s. The most direct prediction of the belt was by astronomer Julio Ángel Fernández, who published a paper in 1980 suggesting the existence of a comet belt beyond Neptune which could serve as a source for short-period comets. In 1992, minor planet 15760 Albion was discovered, the first Kuiper belt object (KBO) since Pluto (in 1930) and Charon (in 1978). Since its discovery, the number of known KBOs has increased to thousands, and more than 100000 KBOs over 100 km (62 mi) in diameter are thought to exist. The Kuiper belt was initially thought to be the main repository for periodic comets, those with orbits lasting less than 200 years.
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Kuiper belt
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( 62 mi ) in diameter are thought to exist . The Kuiper belt was initially thought to be the main repository for periodic comets , those with orbits lasting less than 200 years .Studies since the mid-1990s have shown that the belt is dynamically stable and that comets' true place of origin is the scattered disc, a dynamically active zone created by the outward motion of Neptune 4.5 billion years ago; scattered-disc objects such as Eris have extremely eccentric orbits that take them as far as 100 AU from the Sun. The Kuiper belt is distinct from the hypothesized Oort cloud, which is believed to be a thousand times more distant and mostly spherical. The objects within the Kuiper belt, together with the members of the scattered disc and any potential Hills cloud or Oort cloud objects, are collectively referred to as trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs). Pluto is the largest and most massive known member of the Kuiper belt and the largest and the second-most-massive known TNO, surpassed only by Eris in the scattered disc. Originally considered a planet, Pluto's status as part of the Kuiper belt caused it to be reclassified as a dwarf planet in 2006. It is compositionally similar to many other objects of the Kuiper belt, and its orbital period is characteristic of a class of KBOs, known as "plutinos", that share the same 2:3 resonance with Neptune. The Kuiper belt and Neptune may be treated as a marker of the extent of the Solar System, alternatives being the heliopause and the distance at which the Sun's gravitational influence is matched by that of other stars (estimated to be between 50000 and 125000 AU). History
After the discovery of Pluto in 1930, many speculated that it might not be alone. The region now called the Kuiper belt was hypothesized in various forms for decades.
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Kuiper belt
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) . History After the discovery of Pluto in 1930 , many speculated that it might not be alone . The region now called the Kuiper belt was hypothesized in various forms for decades .It was only in 1992 that the first direct evidence for its existence was found. The number and variety of prior speculations on the nature of the Kuiper belt have led to continued uncertainty as to who deserves credit for first proposing it. Hypotheses
The first astronomer to suggest the existence of a trans-Neptunian population was Frederick C. Leonard. Soon after Pluto's discovery by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930, Leonard pondered whether it was "likely that in Pluto there has come to light the first of a series of ultra-Neptunian bodies, the remaining members of which still await discovery but which are destined eventually to be detected". That same year, astronomer Armin O. Leuschner suggested that Pluto "may be one of many long-period planetary objects yet to be discovered". In 1943, in the Journal of the British Astronomical Association, Kenneth Edgeworth hypothesized that, in the region beyond Neptune, the material within the primordial solar nebula was too widely spaced to condense into planets, and so rather condensed into a myriad smaller bodies. From this he concluded that "the outer region of the solar system, beyond the orbits of the planets, is occupied by a very large number of comparatively small bodies" and that, from time to time, one of their number "wanders from its own sphere and appears as an occasional visitor to the inner solar system", becoming a comet.
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Kuiper belt
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and that , from time to time , one of their number `` wanders from its own sphere and appears as an occasional visitor to the inner solar system '' , becoming a comet .In 1951, in a paper in Astrophysics: A Topical Symposium, Gerard Kuiper speculated on a similar disc having formed early in the Solar System's evolution and concluded that the disc consisted of "remnants of original clusterings which have lost many members that became stray asteroids, much as has occurred with open galactic clusters dissolving into stars". In another paper, based upon a lecture Kuiper gave in 1950, also called On the Origin of the Solar System, Kuiper wrote about the "outermost region of the solar nebula, from 38 to 50 astr. units (i.e., just outside proto-Neptune)" where "condensation products (ices of H2O, NH3, CH4, etc.) must have formed, and the flakes must have slowly collected and formed larger aggregates, estimated to range up to 1 km or more in size". He continued to write that "these condensations appear to account for the comets, in size, number and composition". According to Kuiper "the planet Pluto, which sweeps through the whole zone from 30 to 50 astr. units, is held responsible for having started the scattering of the comets throughout the solar system". Kuiper was operating on the assumption, common in his time, that Pluto was far more massive than we now know it to be, and had therefore scattered these bodies out toward the Oort cloud or out of the Solar System; there would not be a Kuiper belt today if this were correct. The hypothesis took many other forms in the following decades.
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Kuiper belt
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toward the Oort cloud or out of the Solar System ; there would not be a Kuiper belt today if this were correct . The hypothesis took many other forms in the following decades .In 1962, physicist Alastair G. W. Cameron postulated the existence of "a tremendous mass of small material on the outskirts of the solar system". In 1964, Fred Whipple, who popularised the famous "dirty snowball" hypothesis for cometary structure, thought that a "comet belt" might be massive enough to cause the purported discrepancies in the orbit of Uranus that had sparked the search for Planet X, or, at the very least, massive enough to affect the orbits of known comets. Observation ruled out this hypothesis. In 1977, Charles Kowal discovered 2060 Chiron, an icy object with an orbit between Saturn and Uranus. He used a blink comparator, the same device that had allowed Clyde Tombaugh to discover Pluto nearly 50 years before. In 1992, another object, 5145 Pholus, was discovered in a similar orbit. Today, an entire population of comet-like bodies, called the centaurs, is known to exist in the region between Jupiter and Neptune. The centaurs' orbits are unstable and have dynamical lifetimes of a few million years. From the time of Chiron's discovery in 1977, astronomers have speculated that the centaurs therefore must be frequently replenished by some outer reservoir. Further evidence for the existence of the Kuiper belt later emerged from the study of comets. That comets have finite lifespans has been known for some time. As they approach the Sun, its heat causes their volatile surfaces to sublimate into space, gradually dispersing them. In order for comets to continue to be visible over the age of the Solar System, they must be replenished frequently.
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Kuiper belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.
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729
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their volatile surfaces to sublimate into space , gradually dispersing them . In order for comets to continue to be visible over the age of the Solar System , they must be replenished frequently .A proposal for such an area of replenishment is the Oort cloud, possibly a spherical swarm of comets extending beyond 50,000 AU from the Sun first hypothesised by Dutch astronomer Jan Oort in 1950. The Oort cloud is thought to be the point of origin of long-period comets, which are those, like Hale–Bopp, with orbits lasting thousands of years.There is another comet population, known as short-period or periodic comets, consisting of those comets that, like Halley's Comet, have orbital periods of less than 200 years. By the 1970s, the rate at which short-period comets were being discovered was becoming increasingly inconsistent with their having emerged solely from the Oort cloud. For an Oort cloud object to become a short-period comet, it would first have to be captured by the giant planets. In a paper published in Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1980, Uruguayan astronomer Julio Fernández stated that for every short-period comet to be sent into the inner Solar System from the Oort cloud, 600 would have to be ejected into interstellar space. He speculated that a comet belt from between 35 and 50 AU would be required to account for the observed number of comets. Following up on Fernández's work, in 1988 the Canadian team of Martin Duncan, Tom Quinn and Scott Tremaine ran a number of computer simulations to determine if all observed comets could have arrived from the Oort cloud. They found that the Oort cloud could not account for all short-period comets, particularly as short-period comets are clustered near the plane of the Solar System, whereas Oort-cloud comets tend to arrive from any point in the sky.
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Kuiper belt
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730
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could not account for all short-period comets , particularly as short-period comets are clustered near the plane of the Solar System , whereas Oort-cloud comets tend to arrive from any point in the sky .With a "belt", as Fernández described it, added to the formulations, the simulations matched observations. Reportedly because the words "Kuiper" and "comet belt" appeared in the opening sentence of Fernández's paper, Tremaine named this hypothetical region the "Kuiper belt". Discovery
In 1987, astronomer David Jewitt, then at MIT, became increasingly puzzled by "the apparent emptiness of the outer Solar System". He encouraged then-graduate student Jane Luu to aid him in his endeavour to locate another object beyond Pluto's orbit, because, as he told her, "If we don't, nobody will." Using telescopes at the Kitt Peak National Observatory in Arizona and the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory in Chile, Jewitt and Luu conducted their search in much the same way as Clyde Tombaugh and Charles Kowal had, with a blink comparator. Initially, examination of each pair of plates took about eight hours, but the process was sped up with the arrival of electronic charge-coupled devices or CCDs, which, though their field of view was narrower, were not only more efficient at collecting light (they retained 90% of the light that hit them, rather than the 10% achieved by photographs) but allowed the blinking process to be done virtually, on a computer screen. Today, CCDs form the basis for most astronomical detectors. In 1988, Jewitt moved to the Institute of Astronomy at the University of Hawaii. Luu later joined him to work at the University of Hawaii's 2.24 m telescope at Mauna Kea.
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Kuiper belt
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731
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In 1988 , Jewitt moved to the Institute of Astronomy at the University of Hawaii . Luu later joined him to work at the University of Hawaii 's 2.24 m telescope at Mauna Kea .Eventually, the field of view for CCDs had increased to 1024 by 1024 pixels, which allowed searches to be conducted far more rapidly. Finally, after five years of searching, Jewitt and Luu announced on 30 August 1992 the "Discovery of the candidate Kuiper belt object 1992 QB1". This object would later be named 15760 Albion. Six months later, they discovered a second object in the region, (181708) 1993 FW. By 2018, over 2000 Kuiper belt objects had been discovered. Over one thousand bodies were found in a belt in the twenty years (1992–2012), after finding 1992 QB1 (named in 2018, 15760 Albion), showing a vast belt of bodies in addition to Pluto and Albion. Even in the 2010s the full extent and nature of Kuiper belt bodies was largely unknown. Finally, the unmanned spacecraft New Horizons conducted the first KBO flybys, providing much closer observations of the Plutonian system (2015) and then Arrokoth (2019). Studies conducted since the trans-Neptunian region was first charted have shown that the region now called the Kuiper belt is not the point of origin of short-period comets, but that they instead derive from a linked population called the scattered disc. The scattered disc was created when Neptune migrated outward into the proto-Kuiper belt, which at the time was much closer to the Sun, and left in its wake a population of dynamically stable objects that could never be affected by its orbit (the Kuiper belt proper), and a population whose perihelia are close enough that Neptune can still disturb them as it travels around the Sun (the scattered disc).
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Kuiper belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.
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732
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its orbit ( the Kuiper belt proper ) , and a population whose perihelia are close enough that Neptune can still disturb them as it travels around the Sun ( the scattered disc ) .Because the scattered disc is dynamically active and the Kuiper belt relatively dynamically stable, the scattered disc is now seen as the most likely point of origin for periodic comets. Name
Astronomers sometimes use the alternative name Edgeworth–Kuiper belt to credit Edgeworth, and KBOs are occasionally referred to as EKOs. Brian G. Marsden claims that neither deserves true credit: "Neither Edgeworth nor Kuiper wrote about anything remotely like what we are now seeing, but Fred Whipple did". David Jewitt comments: "If anything ... Fernández most nearly deserves the credit for predicting the Kuiper Belt." KBOs are sometimes called "kuiperoids", a name suggested by Clyde Tombaugh. The term "trans-Neptunian object" (TNO) is recommended for objects in the belt by several scientific groups because the term is less controversial than all others—it is not an exact synonym, though, as TNOs include all objects orbiting the Sun past the orbit of Neptune, not just those in the Kuiper belt. Structure
At its fullest extent, including its outlying regions (but excluding the scattered disc), the Kuiper belt stretches from roughly 30–55 AU. The main body of the belt is generally accepted to extend from the 2:3 mean-motion resonance (see below) at 39.5 AU to the 1:2 resonance at roughly 48 AU. The Kuiper belt is quite thick, with the main concentration extending as much as ten degrees outside the ecliptic plane and a more diffuse distribution of objects extending several times farther. Overall it more resembles a torus or doughnut than a belt. Its mean position is inclined to the ecliptic by 1.86 degrees.
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Kuiper belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.
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733
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a more diffuse distribution of objects extending several times farther . Overall it more resembles a torus or doughnut than a belt . Its mean position is inclined to the ecliptic by 1.86 degrees .The presence of Neptune has a profound effect on the Kuiper belt's structure due to orbital resonances. Over a timescale comparable to the age of the Solar System, Neptune's gravity destabilises the orbits of any objects that happen to lie in certain regions, and either sends them into the inner Solar System or out into the scattered disc or interstellar space. This causes the Kuiper belt to have pronounced gaps in its current layout, similar to the Kirkwood gaps in the asteroid belt. In the region between 40 and 42 AU, for instance, no objects can retain a stable orbit over such times, and any observed in that region must have migrated there relatively recently. Classical belt
Between the 2:3 and 1:2 resonances with Neptune, at approximately 42–48 AU, the gravitational interactions with Neptune occur over an extended timescale, and objects can exist with their orbits essentially unaltered. This region is known as the classical Kuiper belt, and its members comprise roughly two thirds of KBOs observed to date. Because the first modern KBO discovered (Albion, but long called 1992 QB1), is considered the prototype of this group, classical KBOs are often referred to as cubewanos ("Q-B-1-os"). The guidelines established by the IAU demand that classical KBOs be given names of mythological beings associated with creation. The classical Kuiper belt appears to be a composite of two separate populations.
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Kuiper belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.
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734
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. The guidelines established by the IAU demand that classical KBOs be given names of mythological beings associated with creation . The classical Kuiper belt appears to be a composite of two separate populations .The first, known as the "dynamically cold" population, has orbits much like the planets; nearly circular, with an orbital eccentricity of less than 0.1, and with relatively low inclinations up to about 10° (they lie close to the plane of the Solar System rather than at an angle). The cold population also contains a concentration of objects, referred to as the kernel, with semi-major axes at 44–44.5 AU. The second, the "dynamically hot" population, has orbits much more inclined to the ecliptic, by up to 30°. The two populations have been named this way not because of any major difference in temperature, but from analogy to particles in a gas, which increase their relative velocity as they become heated up. Not only are the two populations in different orbits, the cold population also differs in color and albedo, being redder and brighter, has a larger fraction of binary objects, has a different size distribution, and lacks very large objects. The mass of the dynamically cold population is roughly 30 times less than the mass of the hot. The difference in colors may be a reflection of different compositions, which suggests they formed in different regions. The hot population is proposed to have formed near Neptune's original orbit and to have been scattered out during the migration of the giant planets. The cold population, on the other hand, has been proposed to have formed more or less in its current position because the loose binaries would be unlikely to survive encounters with Neptune.
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Kuiper belt
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.
|
735
|
The cold population , on the other hand , has been proposed to have formed more or less in its current position because the loose binaries would be unlikely to survive encounters with Neptune .Although the Nice model appears to be able to at least partially explain a compositional difference, it has also been suggested the color difference may reflect differences in surface evolution. Resonances
When an object's orbital period is an exact ratio of Neptune's (a situation called a mean-motion resonance), then it can become locked in a synchronised motion with Neptune and avoid being perturbed away if their relative alignments are appropriate. If, for instance, an object orbits the Sun twice for every three Neptune orbits, and if it reaches perihelion with Neptune a quarter of an orbit away from it, then whenever it returns to perihelion, Neptune will always be in about the same relative position as it began, because it will have completed 1+1⁄2 orbits in the same time. This is known as the 2:3 (or 3:2) resonance, and it corresponds to a characteristic semi-major axis of about 39.4 AU. This 2:3 resonance is populated by about 200 known objects, including Pluto together with its moons. In recognition of this, the members of this family are known as plutinos. Many plutinos, including Pluto, have orbits that cross that of Neptune, although their resonance means they can never collide. Plutinos have high orbital eccentricities, suggesting that they are not native to their current positions but were instead thrown haphazardly into their orbits by the migrating Neptune. IAU guidelines dictate that all plutinos must, like Pluto, be named for underworld deities. The 1:2 resonance (whose objects complete half an orbit for each of Neptune's) corresponds to semi-major axes of ~47.7 AU, and is sparsely populated. Its residents are sometimes referred to as twotinos.
|
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Kuiper belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.
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736
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( whose objects complete half an orbit for each of Neptune 's ) corresponds to semi-major axes of ~47.7 AU , and is sparsely populated . Its residents are sometimes referred to as twotinos .Other resonances also exist at 3:4, 3:5, 4:7, and 2:5. Neptune has a number of trojan objects, which occupy its Lagrangian points, gravitationally stable regions leading and trailing it in its orbit. Neptune trojans are in a 1:1 mean-motion resonance with Neptune and often have very stable orbits. Additionally, there is a relative absence of objects with semi-major axes below 39 AU that cannot apparently be explained by the present resonances. The currently accepted hypothesis for the cause of this is that as Neptune migrated outward, unstable orbital resonances moved gradually through this region, and thus any objects within it were swept up, or gravitationally ejected from it. Kuiper cliff
The 1:2 resonance at 47.8 AU appears to be an edge beyond which few objects are known. It is not clear whether it is actually the outer edge of the classical belt or just the beginning of a broad gap. Objects have been detected at the 2:5 resonance at roughly 55 AU, well outside the classical belt; predictions of a large number of bodies in classical orbits between these resonances have not been verified through observation. Based on estimations of the primordial mass required to form Uranus and Neptune, as well as bodies as large as Pluto (see § Mass and size distribution), earlier models of the Kuiper belt had suggested that the number of large objects would increase by a factor of two beyond 50 AU, so this sudden drastic falloff, known as the Kuiper cliff, was unexpected, and to date its cause is unknown. Bernstein, Trilling, et al.
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Kuiper belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.
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737
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two beyond 50 AU , so this sudden drastic falloff , known as the Kuiper cliff , was unexpected , and to date its cause is unknown . Bernstein , Trilling , et al .(2003) found evidence that the rapid decline in objects of 100 km or more in radius beyond 50 AU is real, and not due to observational bias. Possible explanations include that material at that distance was too scarce or too scattered to accrete into large objects, or that subsequent processes removed or destroyed those that did. Patryk Lykawka of Kobe University claimed that the gravitational attraction of an unseen large planetary object, perhaps the size of Earth or Mars, might be responsible. An analysis of the TNO data available prior to September 2023 shows that the distribution of objects at the outer rim of the classical Kuiper belt resembles that of the outer main asteroid belt with a gap at about 72 AU, far from any mean-motion resonances with Neptune; the outer main asteroid belt exhibits a gap induced by the 5:6 mean-motion resonance with Jupiter at 5.875 AU. Origin
The precise origins of the Kuiper belt and its complex structure are still unclear, and astronomers are awaiting the completion of several wide-field survey telescopes such as Pan-STARRS and the future LSST, which should reveal many currently unknown KBOs. These surveys will provide data that will help determine answers to these questions. Pan-STARRS 1 finished its primary science mission in 2014, and the full data from the Pan-STARRS 1 surveys were published in 2019, helping reveal many more KBOs. The Kuiper belt is thought to consist of planetesimals, fragments from the original protoplanetary disc around the Sun that failed to fully coalesce into planets and instead formed into smaller bodies, the largest less than 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi) in diameter.
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Kuiper belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.
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738
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from the original protoplanetary disc around the Sun that failed to fully coalesce into planets and instead formed into smaller bodies , the largest less than 3,000 kilometres ( 1,900 mi ) in diameter .Studies of the crater counts on Pluto and Charon revealed a scarcity of small craters suggesting that such objects formed directly as sizeable objects in the range of tens of kilometers in diameter rather than being accreted from much smaller, roughly kilometer scale bodies. Hypothetical mechanisms for the formation of these larger bodies include the gravitational collapse of clouds of pebbles concentrated between eddies in a turbulent protoplanetary disk or in streaming instabilities. These collapsing clouds may fragment, forming binaries. Modern computer simulations show the Kuiper belt to have been strongly influenced by Jupiter and Neptune, and also suggest that neither Uranus nor Neptune could have formed in their present positions, because too little primordial matter existed at that range to produce objects of such high mass. Instead, these planets are estimated to have formed closer to Jupiter. Scattering of planetesimals early in the Solar System's history would have led to migration of the orbits of the giant planets: Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune drifted outwards, whereas Jupiter drifted inwards. Eventually, the orbits shifted to the point where Jupiter and Saturn reached an exact 1:2 resonance; Jupiter orbited the Sun twice for every one Saturn orbit. The gravitational repercussions of such a resonance ultimately destabilized the orbits of Uranus and Neptune, causing them to be scattered outward onto high-eccentricity orbits that crossed the primordial planetesimal disc. While Neptune's orbit was highly eccentric, its mean-motion resonances overlapped and the orbits of the planetesimals evolved chaotically, allowing planetesimals to wander outward as far as Neptune's 1:2 resonance to form a dynamically cold belt of low-inclination objects. Later, after its eccentricity decreased, Neptune's orbit expanded outward toward its current position.
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Kuiper belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.
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739
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outward as far as Neptune 's 1:2 resonance to form a dynamically cold belt of low-inclination objects . Later , after its eccentricity decreased , Neptune 's orbit expanded outward toward its current position .Many planetesimals were captured into and remain in resonances during this migration, others evolved onto higher-inclination and lower-eccentricity orbits and escaped from the resonances onto stable orbits. Many more planetesimals were scattered inward, with small fractions being captured as Jupiter trojans, as irregular satellites orbiting the giant planets, and as outer belt asteroids. The remainder were scattered outward again by Jupiter and in most cases ejected from the Solar System reducing the primordial Kuiper belt population by 99% or more. The original version of the currently most popular model, the "Nice model", reproduces many characteristics of the Kuiper belt such as the "cold" and "hot" populations, resonant objects, and a scattered disc, but it still fails to account for some of the characteristics of their distributions. The model predicts a higher average eccentricity in classical KBO orbits than is observed (0.10–0.13 versus 0.07) and its predicted inclination distribution contains too few high inclination objects. In addition, the frequency of binary objects in the cold belt, many of which are far apart and loosely bound, also poses a problem for the model. These are predicted to have been separated during encounters with Neptune, leading some to propose that the cold disc formed at its current location, representing the only truly local population of small bodies in the solar system. A recent modification of the Nice model has the Solar System begin with five giant planets, including an additional ice giant, in a chain of mean-motion resonances. About 400 million years after the formation of the Solar System the resonance chain is broken. Instead of being scattered into the disc, the ice giants first migrate outward several AU.
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Kuiper belt
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740
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. About 400 million years after the formation of the Solar System the resonance chain is broken . Instead of being scattered into the disc , the ice giants first migrate outward several AU .This divergent migration eventually leads to a resonance crossing, destabilizing the orbits of the planets. The extra ice giant encounters Saturn and is scattered inward onto a Jupiter-crossing orbit and after a series of encounters is ejected from the Solar System. The remaining planets then continue their migration until the planetesimal disc is nearly depleted with small fractions remaining in various locations. As in the original Nice model, objects are captured into resonances with Neptune during its outward migration. Some remain in the resonances, others evolve onto higher-inclination, lower-eccentricity orbits, and are released onto stable orbits forming the dynamically hot classical belt. The hot belt's inclination distribution can be reproduced if Neptune migrated from 24 AU to 30 AU on a 30 Myr timescale. When Neptune migrates to 28 AU, it has a gravitational encounter with the extra ice giant. Objects captured from the cold belt into the 1:2 mean-motion resonance with Neptune are left behind as a local concentration at 44 AU when this encounter causes Neptune's semi-major axis to jump outward. The objects deposited in the cold belt include some loosely bound 'blue' binaries originating from closer than the cold belt's current location. If Neptune's eccentricity remains small during this encounter, the chaotic evolution of orbits of the original Nice model is avoided and a primordial cold belt is preserved. In the later phases of Neptune's migration, a slow sweeping of mean-motion resonances removes the higher-eccentricity objects from the cold belt, truncating its eccentricity distribution.
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Kuiper belt
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741
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primordial cold belt is preserved . In the later phases of Neptune 's migration , a slow sweeping of mean-motion resonances removes the higher-eccentricity objects from the cold belt , truncating its eccentricity distribution .Composition
Being distant from the Sun and major planets, Kuiper belt objects are thought to be relatively unaffected by the processes that have shaped and altered other Solar System objects; thus, determining their composition would provide substantial information on the makeup of the earliest Solar System. Due to their small size and extreme distance from Earth, the chemical makeup of KBOs is very difficult to determine. The principal method by which astronomers determine the composition of a celestial object is spectroscopy. When an object's light is broken into its component colors, an image akin to a rainbow is formed. This image is called a spectrum. Different substances absorb light at different wavelengths, and when the spectrum for a specific object is unravelled, dark lines (called absorption lines) appear where the substances within it have absorbed that particular wavelength of light. Every element or compound has its own unique spectroscopic signature, and by reading an object's full spectral "fingerprint", astronomers can determine its composition. Analysis indicates that Kuiper belt objects are composed of a mixture of rock and a variety of ices such as water, methane, and ammonia. The temperature of the belt is only about 50 K, so many compounds that would be gaseous closer to the Sun remain solid. The densities and rock–ice fractions are known for only a small number of objects for which the diameters and the masses have been determined. The diameter can be determined by imaging with a high-resolution telescope such as the Hubble Space Telescope, by the timing of an occultation when an object passes in front of a star or, most commonly, by using the albedo of an object calculated from its infrared emissions.
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Kuiper belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.
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742
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Telescope , by the timing of an occultation when an object passes in front of a star or , most commonly , by using the albedo of an object calculated from its infrared emissions .The masses are determined using the semi-major axes and periods of satellites, which are therefore known only for a few binary objects. The densities range from less than 0.4 to 2.6 g/cm3. The least dense objects are thought to be largely composed of ice and have significant porosity. The densest objects are likely composed of rock with a thin crust of ice. There is a trend of low densities for small objects and high densities for the largest objects. One possible explanation for this trend is that ice was lost from the surface layers when differentiated objects collided to form the largest objects. Initially, detailed analysis of KBOs was impossible, and so astronomers were only able to determine the most basic facts about their makeup, primarily their color. These first data showed a broad range of colors among KBOs, ranging from neutral grey to deep red. This suggested that their surfaces were composed of a wide range of compounds, from dirty ices to hydrocarbons. This diversity was startling, as astronomers had expected KBOs to be uniformly dark, having lost most of the volatile ices from their surfaces to the effects of cosmic rays. Various solutions were suggested for this discrepancy, including resurfacing by impacts or outgassing. Jewitt and Luu's spectral analysis of the known Kuiper belt objects in 2001 found that the variation in color was too extreme to be easily explained by random impacts. The radiation from the Sun is thought to have chemically altered methane on the surface of KBOs, producing products such as tholins. Makemake has been shown to possess a number of hydrocarbons derived from the radiation-processing of methane, including ethane, ethylene and acetylene.
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Kuiper belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.
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743
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the surface of KBOs , producing products such as tholins . Makemake has been shown to possess a number of hydrocarbons derived from the radiation-processing of methane , including ethane , ethylene and acetylene .Although to date most KBOs still appear spectrally featureless due to their faintness, there have been a number of successes in determining their composition. In 1996, Robert H. Brown et al. acquired spectroscopic data on the KBO 1993 SC, which revealed that its surface composition is markedly similar to that of Pluto, as well as Neptune's moon Triton, with large amounts of methane ice. For the smaller objects, only colors and in some cases the albedos have been determined. These objects largely fall into two classes: gray with low albedos, or very red with higher albedos. The difference in colors and albedos is hypothesized to be due to the retention or the loss of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) on the surface of these objects, with the surfaces of those that formed far enough from the Sun to retain H2S being reddened due to irradiation. The largest KBOs, such as Pluto and Quaoar, have surfaces rich in volatile compounds such as methane, nitrogen and carbon monoxide; the presence of these molecules is likely due to their moderate vapor pressure in the 30–50 K temperature range of the Kuiper belt. This allows them to occasionally boil off their surfaces and then fall again as snow, whereas compounds with higher boiling points would remain solid. The relative abundances of these three compounds in the largest KBOs is directly related to their surface gravity and ambient temperature, which determines which they can retain. Water ice has been detected in several KBOs, including members of the Haumea family such as 1996 TO66, mid-sized objects such as 38628 Huya and 20000 Varuna, and also on some small objects.
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Kuiper belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.
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744
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has been detected in several KBOs , including members of the Haumea family such as 1996 TO66 , mid-sized objects such as 38628 Huya and 20000 Varuna , and also on some small objects .The presence of crystalline ice on large and mid-sized objects, including 50000 Quaoar where ammonia hydrate has also been detected, may indicate past tectonic activity aided by melting point lowering due to the presence of ammonia. Mass and size distribution
Despite its vast extent, the collective mass of the Kuiper belt is relatively low. The total mass of the dynamically hot population is estimated to be 1% the mass of the Earth. The dynamically cold population is estimated to be much smaller with only 0.03% the mass of the Earth. While the dynamically hot population is thought to be the remnant of a much larger population that formed closer to the Sun and was scattered outward during the migration of the giant planets, in contrast, the dynamically cold population is thought to have formed at its current location. The most recent estimate (2018) puts the total mass of the Kuiper belt at (1.97±0.30)×10−2 Earth masses based on the influence that it exerts on the motion of planets. The small total mass of the dynamically cold population presents some problems for models of the Solar System's formation because a sizable mass is required for accretion of KBOs larger than 100 km (62 mi) in diameter. If the cold classical Kuiper belt had always had its current low density, these large objects simply could not have formed by the collision and mergers of smaller planetesimals. Moreover, the eccentricity and inclination of current orbits make the encounters quite "violent" resulting in destruction rather than accretion. The removal of a large fraction of the mass of the dynamically cold population is thought to be unlikely.
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Kuiper belt
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.
|
745
|
orbits make the encounters quite `` violent '' resulting in destruction rather than accretion . The removal of a large fraction of the mass of the dynamically cold population is thought to be unlikely .Neptune's current influence is too weak to explain such a massive "vacuuming", and the extent of mass loss by collisional grinding is limited by the presence of loosely bound binaries in the cold disk, which are likely to be disrupted in collisions. Instead of forming from the collisions of smaller planetesimals, the larger object may have formed directly from the collapse of clouds of pebbles. The size distributions of the Kuiper belt objects follow a number of power laws. A power law describes the relationship between N(D) (the number of objects of diameter greater than D) and D, and is referred to as brightness slope. The number of objects is inversely proportional to some power of the diameter D:
d
N
d
D
∝
D
−
q
,
{\displaystyle {\frac {dN}{dD}}\propto D^{-q},}
which yields (assuming q is not 1):
N
∝
D
1
−
q
+
a constant
. {\displaystyle N\propto D^{1-q}+{\text{a constant}}.} (The constant may be non-zero only if the power law doesn't apply at high values of D.)
Early estimates that were based on measurements of the apparent magnitude distribution found a value of q = 4 ± 0.5, which implied that there are 8 (=23) times more objects in the 100–200 km range than in the 200–400 km range. Recent research has revealed that the size distributions of the hot classical and cold classical objects have differing slopes. The slope for the hot objects is q = 5.3 at large diameters and q = 2.0 at small diameters with the change in slope at 110 km.
|
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|
Kuiper belt
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.
|
746
|
classical objects have differing slopes . The slope for the hot objects is q = 5.3 at large diameters and q = 2.0 at small diameters with the change in slope at 110 km .The slope for the cold objects is q = 8.2 at large diameters and q = 2.9 at small diameters with a change in slope at 140 km. The size distributions of the scattering objects, the plutinos, and the Neptune trojans have slopes similar to the other dynamically hot populations, but may instead have a divot, a sharp decrease in the number of objects below a specific size. This divot is hypothesized to be due to either the collisional evolution of the population, or to be due to the population having formed with no objects below this size, with the smaller objects being fragments of the original objects. The smallest known Kuiper belt objects with radii below 1 km have only been detected by stellar occultations, as they are far too dim (magnitude 35) to be seen directly by telescopes such as the Hubble Space Telescope. The first reports of these occultations were from Schlichting et al. in December 2009, who announced the discovery of a small, sub-kilometre-radius Kuiper belt object in archival Hubble photometry from March 2007. With an estimated radius of 520±60 m or a diameter of 1040±120 m, the object was detected by Hubble's star tracking system when it briefly occulted a star for 0.3 seconds. In a subsequent study published in December 2012, Schlichting et al. performed a more thorough analysis of archival Hubble photometry and reported another occultation event by a sub-kilometre-sized Kuiper belt object, estimated to be 530±70 m in radius or 1060±140 m in diameter. From the occultation events detected in 2009 and 2012, Schlichting et al.
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Kuiper belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.
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747
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event by a sub-kilometre-sized Kuiper belt object , estimated to be 530±70 m in radius or 1060±140 m in diameter . From the occultation events detected in 2009 and 2012 , Schlichting et al .determined the Kuiper belt object size distribution slope to be q = 3.6 ± 0.2 or q = 3.8 ± 0.2, with the assumptions of a single power law and a uniform ecliptic latitude distribution. Their result implies a strong deficit of sub-kilometer-sized Kuiper belt objects compared to extrapolations from the population of larger Kuiper belt objects with diameters above 90 km. Observations made by NASA's New Horizons Venetia Burney Student Dust Counter showed "higher than model-predicted dust fluxes" as far as 55 au, not explained by any existing model. Scattered objects
The scattered disc is a sparsely populated region, overlapping with the Kuiper belt but extending to beyond 100 AU. Scattered disc objects (SDOs) have very elliptical orbits, often also very inclined to the ecliptic. Most models of Solar System formation show both KBOs and SDOs first forming in a primordial belt, with later gravitational interactions, particularly with Neptune, sending the objects outward, some into stable orbits (the KBOs) and some into unstable orbits, the scattered disc. Due to its unstable nature, the scattered disc is suspected to be the point of origin of many of the Solar System's short-period comets. Their dynamic orbits occasionally force them into the inner Solar System, first becoming centaurs, and then short-period comets. According to the Minor Planet Center, which officially catalogues all trans-Neptunian objects, a KBO is any object that orbits exclusively within the defined Kuiper belt region regardless of origin or composition. Objects found outside the belt are classed as scattered objects.
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Kuiper belt
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748
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all trans-Neptunian objects , a KBO is any object that orbits exclusively within the defined Kuiper belt region regardless of origin or composition . Objects found outside the belt are classed as scattered objects .In some scientific circles the term "Kuiper belt object" has become synonymous with any icy minor planet native to the outer Solar System assumed to have been part of that initial class, even if its orbit during the bulk of Solar System history has been beyond the Kuiper belt (e.g. in the scattered-disc region). They often describe scattered disc objects as "scattered Kuiper belt objects". Eris, which is known to be more massive than Pluto, is often referred to as a KBO, but is technically an SDO. A consensus among astronomers as to the precise definition of the Kuiper belt has yet to be reached, and this issue remains unresolved. The centaurs, which are not normally considered part of the Kuiper belt, are also thought to be scattered objects, the only difference being that they were scattered inward, rather than outward. The Minor Planet Center groups the centaurs and the SDOs together as scattered objects. Triton
During its period of migration, Neptune is thought to have captured a large KBO, Triton, which is the only large moon in the Solar System with a retrograde orbit (that is, it orbits opposite to Neptune's rotation). This suggests that, unlike the large moons of Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus, which are thought to have coalesced from rotating discs of material around their young parent planets, Triton was a fully formed body that was captured from surrounding space. Gravitational capture of an object is not easy: it requires some mechanism to slow down the object enough to be caught by the larger object's gravity. A possible explanation is that Triton was part of a binary when it encountered Neptune.
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Kuiper belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.
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749
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requires some mechanism to slow down the object enough to be caught by the larger object 's gravity . A possible explanation is that Triton was part of a binary when it encountered Neptune .(Many KBOs are members of binaries. See below.) Ejection of the other member of the binary by Neptune could then explain Triton's capture. Triton is only 14% larger than Pluto, and spectral analysis of both worlds shows that their surfaces are largely composed of similar materials, such as methane and carbon monoxide. All this points to the conclusion that Triton was once a KBO that was captured by Neptune during its outward migration. Largest KBOs
Since 2000, a number of KBOs with diameters of between 500 and 1,500 km (932 mi), more than half that of Pluto (diameter 2370 km), have been discovered. Quaoar, a classical KBO discovered in 2002, is over 1200 km across. Makemake and Haumea, both announced on 29 July 2005, are larger still. Other objects, such as 28978 Ixion (discovered in 2001) and 20000 Varuna (discovered in 2000), measure roughly 600–700 km (373–435 mi) across. Pluto
The discovery of these large KBOs in orbits similar to Pluto's led many to conclude that, aside from its relative size, Pluto was not particularly different from other members of the Kuiper belt. Not only are these objects similar to Pluto in size, but many also have natural satellites, and are of similar composition (methane and carbon monoxide have been found both on Pluto and on the largest KBOs). Thus, just as Ceres was considered a planet before the discovery of its fellow asteroids, some began to suggest that Pluto might also be reclassified.
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Kuiper belt
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750
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and on the largest KBOs ) . Thus , just as Ceres was considered a planet before the discovery of its fellow asteroids , some began to suggest that Pluto might also be reclassified .The issue was brought to a head by the discovery of Eris, an object in the scattered disc far beyond the Kuiper belt, that is now known to be 27% more massive than Pluto. (Eris was originally thought to be larger than Pluto by volume, but the New Horizons mission found this not to be the case.) In response, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) was forced to define what a planet is for the first time, and in so doing included in their definition that a planet must have "cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit". As Pluto shares its orbit with many other sizable objects, it was deemed not to have cleared its orbit and was thus reclassified from a planet to a dwarf planet, making it a member of the Kuiper belt. It is not clear how many KBOs are large enough to be dwarf planets. Consideration of the surprisingly low densities of many dwarf-planet candidates suggests that not many are. Orcus, Pluto, Haumea, Quaoar, and Makemake are accepted by most astronomers; some have proposed other bodies, such as Salacia, Máni, Aya, and Ixion. Satellites
The six largest TNOs (Eris, Pluto, Gonggong, Makemake, Haumea and Quaoar) are all known to have satellites, and two of them have more than one. A higher percentage of the larger KBOs have satellites than the smaller objects in the Kuiper belt, suggesting that a different formation mechanism was responsible. There are also a high number of binaries (two objects close enough in mass to be orbiting "each other") in the Kuiper belt.
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Kuiper belt
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751
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a different formation mechanism was responsible . There are also a high number of binaries ( two objects close enough in mass to be orbiting `` each other '' ) in the Kuiper belt .The most notable example is the Pluto–Charon binary, but it is estimated that around 11% of KBOs exist in binaries. Exploration
On 19 January 2006, the first spacecraft to explore the Kuiper belt, New Horizons, was launched, which flew by Pluto on 14 July 2015. Beyond the Pluto flyby, the mission's goal was to locate and investigate other, farther objects in the Kuiper belt. On 15 October 2014, it was revealed that Hubble had uncovered three potential targets, provisionally designated PT1 ("potential target 1"), PT2 and PT3 by the New Horizons team. The objects' diameters were estimated to be in the 30–55 km range; too small to be seen by ground telescopes, at distances from the Sun of 43–44 AU, which would put the encounters in the 2018–2019 period. The initial estimated probabilities that these objects were reachable within New Horizons' fuel budget were 100%, 7%, and 97%, respectively. All were members of the "cold" (low-inclination, low-eccentricity) classical Kuiper belt, and thus very different from Pluto. PT1 (given the temporary designation "1110113Y" on the HST web site), the most favorably situated object, was magnitude 26.8, 30–45 km in diameter, and was encountered in January 2019. Once sufficient orbital information was provided, the Minor Planet Center gave official designations to the three target KBOs: 2014 MU69 (PT1, now Arrokoth), 2014 OS393 (PT2), and 2014 PN70 (PT3). By the fall of 2014, a possible fourth target, 2014 MT69, had been eliminated by follow-up observations.
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Kuiper belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.
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752
|
, 2014 OS393 ( PT2 ) , and 2014 PN70 ( PT3 ) . By the fall of 2014 , a possible fourth target , 2014 MT69 , had been eliminated by follow-up observations .PT2 was out of the running before the Pluto flyby. On 26 August 2015, the first target, 2014 MU69 (nicknamed "Ultima Thule" and later named 486958 Arrokoth), was chosen. Course adjustment took place in late October and early November 2015, leading to a flyby in January 2019. On 1 July 2016, NASA approved additional funding for New Horizons to visit the object. On 2 December 2015, New Horizons detected what was then called 1994 JR1 (later named 15810 Arawn) from 270 million kilometres (170×10^6 mi) away. On 1 January 2019, New Horizons successfully flew by Arrokoth, returning data showing Arrokoth to be a contact binary 32 km long by 16 km wide. The Ralph instrument aboard New Horizons confirmed Arrokoth's red color. Data from the fly-by will continue to be downloaded over the next 20 months. No follow-up missions for New Horizons are planned, though at least two concepts for missions that would return to orbit or land on Pluto have been studied. Beyond Pluto, there exist many large KBOs that cannot be visited with New Horizons, such as the dwarf planets Makemake and Haumea. New missions would be tasked to explore and study these objects in detail. Thales Alenia Space has studied the logistics of an orbiter mission to Haumea, a high priority scientific target due to its status as the parent body of a collisional family that includes several other TNOs, as well as Haumea's ring and two moons. The lead author, Joel Poncy, has advocated for new technology that would allow spacecraft to reach and orbit KBOs in 10–20 years or less.
|
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Kuiper belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.
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753
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as Haumea 's ring and two moons . The lead author , Joel Poncy , has advocated for new technology that would allow spacecraft to reach and orbit KBOs in 10–20 years or less .New Horizons Principal Investigator Alan Stern has informally suggested missions that would flyby the planets Uranus or Neptune before visiting new KBO targets, thus furthering the exploration of the Kuiper belt while also visiting these ice giant planets for the first time since the Voyager 2 flybys in the 1980s. Design studies and concept missions
Quaoar has been considered as a flyby target for a probe tasked with exploring the interstellar medium, as it currently lies near the heliospheric nose; Pontus Brandt at Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory and his colleagues have studied a probe that would flyby Quaoar in the 2030s before continuing to the interstellar medium through the heliospheric nose. Among their interests in Quaoar include its likely disappearing methane atmosphere and cryovolcanism. The mission studied by Brandt and his colleagues would launch using SLS and achieve 30 km/s using a Jupiter flyby. Alternatively, for an orbiter mission, a study published in 2012 concluded that Ixion and Huya are among the most feasible targets. For instance, the authors calculated that an orbiter mission could reach Ixion after 17 years cruise time if launched in 2039. Extrasolar Kuiper belts
By 2006, astronomers had resolved dust discs thought to be Kuiper belt-like structures around nine stars other than the Sun. They appear to fall into two categories: wide belts, with radii of over 50 AU, and narrow belts (tentatively like that of the Solar System) with radii of between 20 and 30 AU and relatively sharp boundaries. Beyond this, 15–20% of solar-type stars have an observed infrared excess that is suggestive of massive Kuiper-belt-like structures.
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Kuiper belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.
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754
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) with radii of between 20 and 30 AU and relatively sharp boundaries . Beyond this , 15–20 % of solar-type stars have an observed infrared excess that is suggestive of massive Kuiper-belt-like structures .Most known debris discs around other stars are fairly young, but the two images on the right, taken by the Hubble Space Telescope in January 2006, are old enough (roughly 300 million years) to have settled into stable configurations. The left image is a "top view" of a wide belt, and the right image is an "edge view" of a narrow belt. Computer simulations of dust in the Kuiper belt suggest that when it was younger, it may have resembled the narrow rings seen around younger stars. See also
Asteroid belt
List of possible dwarf planets
List of trans-Neptunian objects
Planet Nine
Trans-Neptunian spectral types
Note
References
External links
Dave Jewitt's page @ UCLA
The belt's name
List of short period comets by family Archived 24 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine
Kuiper Belt Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration
The Kuiper Belt Electronic Newsletter
Wm. Robert Johnston's TNO page
Minor Planet Center: Plot of the Outer Solar System, illustrating Kuiper gap
List of TNOS
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Kuiper belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt.
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755
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The heliosphere is the magnetosphere, astrosphere, and outermost atmospheric layer of the Sun. It takes the shape of a vast, tailed bubble-like region of space. In plasma physics terms, it is the cavity formed by the Sun in the surrounding interstellar medium. The "bubble" of the heliosphere is continuously "inflated" by plasma originating from the Sun, known as the solar wind. Outside the heliosphere, this solar plasma gives way to the interstellar plasma permeating the Milky Way. As part of the interplanetary magnetic field, the heliosphere shields the Solar System from significant amounts of cosmic ionizing radiation; uncharged gamma rays are, however, not affected. Its name was likely coined by Alexander J. Dessler, who is credited with the first use of the word in the scientific literature in 1967. The scientific study of the heliosphere is heliophysics, which includes space weather and space climate. Flowing unimpeded through the Solar System for billions of kilometers, the solar wind extends far beyond even the region of Pluto until it encounters the "termination shock", where its motion slows abruptly due to the outside pressure of the interstellar medium. The "heliosheath" is a broad transitional region between the termination shock and the heliosphere's outmost edge, the "heliopause". The overall shape of the heliosphere resembles that of a comet, being roughly spherical on one side to around 100 astronomical units (AU), and on the other side being tail shaped, known as the "heliotail", trailing for several thousands of AUs. Two Voyager program spacecraft explored the outer reaches of the heliosphere, passing through the termination shock and the heliosheath. Voyager 1 encountered the heliopause on 25 August 2012, when the spacecraft measured a sudden forty-fold increase in plasma density. Voyager 2 traversed the heliopause on 5 November 2018.
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Heliosphere
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.
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756
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the heliosheath . Voyager 1 encountered the heliopause on 25 August 2012 , when the spacecraft measured a sudden forty-fold increase in plasma density . Voyager 2 traversed the heliopause on 5 November 2018 .Because the heliopause marks the boundary between matter originating from the Sun and matter originating from the rest of the galaxy, spacecraft that depart the heliosphere (such as the two Voyagers) are in interstellar space. History
The heliosphere is thought to change significantly over the course of millions of years due to extrasolar effects such as closer supernovas or the traversing interstellar medium of different densities. Evidence suggests that up to three million years ago Earth was exposed to the interstellar medium due to it shrinking the heliosphere to the Inner Solar System, which possibly had impacted Earth's past climate and human evolution. Structure
Despite its name, the heliosphere's shape is not a perfect sphere. Its shape is determined by three factors: the interstellar medium (ISM), the solar wind, and the overall motion of the Sun and heliosphere as it passes through the ISM. Because the solar wind and the ISM are both fluid, the heliosphere's shape and size are also fluid. Changes in the solar wind, however, more strongly alter the fluctuating position of the boundaries on short timescales (hours to a few years). The solar wind's pressure varies far more rapidly than the outside pressure of the ISM at any given location. In particular, the effect of the 11-year solar cycle, which sees a distinct maximum and minimum of solar wind activity, is thought to be significant. On a broader scale, the motion of the heliosphere through the fluid medium of the ISM results in an overall comet-like shape.
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Heliosphere
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.
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of solar wind activity , is thought to be significant . On a broader scale , the motion of the heliosphere through the fluid medium of the ISM results in an overall comet-like shape .The solar wind plasma which is moving roughly "upstream" (in the same direction as the Sun's motion through the galaxy) is compressed into a nearly-spherical form, whereas the plasma moving "downstream" (opposite the Sun's motion) flows out for a much greater distance before giving way to the ISM, defining the long, trailing shape of the heliotail. The limited data available and the unexplored nature of these structures have resulted in many theories as to their form. In 2020, Merav Opher led the team of researchers who determined that the shape of the heliosphere is a crescent that can be described as a deflated croissant. Solar wind
The solar wind consists of particles (ionized atoms from the solar corona) and fields like the magnetic field that are produced from the Sun and stream out into space. Because the Sun rotates once approximately every 25 days, the heliospheric magnetic field transported by the solar wind gets wrapped into a spiral. The solar wind affects many other systems in the Solar System; for example, variations in the Sun's own magnetic field are carried outward by the solar wind, producing geomagnetic storms in the Earth's magnetosphere. Heliospheric current sheet
The heliospheric current sheet is a ripple in the heliosphere created by the rotating magnetic field of the Sun. It marks the boundary between heliospheric magnetic field regions of opposite polarity. Extending throughout the heliosphere, the heliospheric current sheet could be considered the largest structure in the Solar System and is said to resemble a "ballerina's skirt". Edge structure
The outer structure of the heliosphere is determined by the interactions between the solar wind and the winds of interstellar space.
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Heliosphere
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.
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758
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is said to resemble a `` ballerina 's skirt '' . Edge structure The outer structure of the heliosphere is determined by the interactions between the solar wind and the winds of interstellar space .The solar wind streams away from the Sun in all directions at speeds of several hundred km/s in the Earth's vicinity. At some distance from the Sun, well beyond the orbit of Neptune, this supersonic wind slows down as it encounters the gases in the interstellar medium. This takes place in several stages:
The solar wind is traveling at supersonic speeds within the Solar System. At the termination shock, a standing shock wave, the solar wind falls below the speed of sound and becomes subsonic. It was previously thought that once subsonic, the solar wind would be shaped by the ambient flow of the interstellar medium, forming a blunt nose on one side and comet-like heliotail behind, a region called the heliosheath. However, observations in 2009 showed that this model is incorrect. As of 2011, it is thought to be filled with a magnetic bubble "foam". The outer surface of the heliosheath, where the heliosphere meets the interstellar medium, is called heliopause. This is the edge of the entire heliosphere. Observations in 2009 led to changes to this model. In theory, heliopause causes turbulence in the interstellar medium as the Sun orbits the Galactic Center. This turbulence results from the pressure of the advancing heliopause against the interstellar medium. However, the velocity of the solar wind relative to the interstellar medium may be too low for a bow shock. Termination shock
The termination shock is the point in the heliosphere where the solar wind slows down to subsonic speed (relative to the Sun) because of interactions with the local interstellar medium. This causes compression, heating, and a change in the magnetic field.
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Heliosphere
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.
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759
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wind slows down to subsonic speed ( relative to the Sun ) because of interactions with the local interstellar medium . This causes compression , heating , and a change in the magnetic field .In the Solar System, the termination shock is believed to be 75 to 90 astronomical units from the Sun. In 2004, Voyager 1 crossed the Sun's termination shock, followed by Voyager 2 in 2007. The shock arises because solar wind particles are emitted from the Sun at about 400 km/s, while the speed of sound (in the interstellar medium) is about 100 km/s. The exact speed depends on the density, which fluctuates considerably. The interstellar medium, although very low in density, nonetheless has a relatively constant pressure associated with it; the pressure from the solar wind decreases with the square of the distance from the Sun. As one moves far enough away from the Sun, the pressure of the solar wind drops to where it can no longer maintain supersonic flow against the pressure of the interstellar medium, at which point the solar wind slows to below its speed of sound, causing a shock wave. Further from the Sun, the termination shock is followed by heliopause, where the two pressures become equal and solar wind particles are stopped by the interstellar medium. Other termination shocks can be seen in terrestrial systems; perhaps the easiest may be seen by simply running a water tap into a sink creating a hydraulic jump. Upon hitting the floor of the sink, the flowing water spreads out at a speed that is higher than the local wave speed, forming a disk of shallow, rapidly diverging flow (analogous to the tenuous, supersonic solar wind).
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Heliosphere
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.
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760
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water spreads out at a speed that is higher than the local wave speed , forming a disk of shallow , rapidly diverging flow ( analogous to the tenuous , supersonic solar wind ) .Around the periphery of the disk, a shock front or wall of water forms; outside the shock front, the water moves slower than the local wave speed (analogous to the subsonic interstellar medium). Evidence presented at a meeting of the American Geophysical Union in May 2005 by Ed Stone suggests that the Voyager 1 spacecraft passed the termination shock in December 2004, when it was about 94 AU from the Sun, by virtue of the change in magnetic readings taken from the craft. In contrast, Voyager 2 began detecting returning particles when it was only 76 AU from the Sun, in May 2006. This implies that the heliosphere may be irregularly shaped, bulging outwards in the Sun's northern hemisphere and pushed inward in the south. Heliosheath
The heliosheath is the region of the heliosphere beyond the termination shock. Here the wind is slowed, compressed, and made turbulent by its interaction with the interstellar medium. At its closest point, the inner edge of the heliosheath lies approximately 80 to 100 AU from the Sun. A proposed model hypothesizes that the heliosheath is shaped like the coma of a comet, and trails several times that distance in the direction opposite to the Sun's path through space. At its windward side, its thickness is estimated to be between 10 and 100 AU. Voyager project scientists have determined that the heliosheath is not "smooth" – it is rather a "foamy zone" filled with magnetic bubbles, each about 1 AU wide. These magnetic bubbles are created by the impact of the solar wind and the interstellar medium. Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 began detecting evidence of the bubbles in 2007 and 2008, respectively.
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Heliosphere
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.
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These magnetic bubbles are created by the impact of the solar wind and the interstellar medium . Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 began detecting evidence of the bubbles in 2007 and 2008 , respectively .The probably sausage-shaped bubbles are formed by magnetic reconnection between oppositely oriented sectors of the solar magnetic field as the solar wind slows down. They probably represent self-contained structures that have detached from the interplanetary magnetic field. At a distance of about 113 AU, Voyager 1 detected a 'stagnation region' within the heliosheath. In this region, the solar wind slowed to zero, the magnetic field intensity doubled and high-energy electrons from the galaxy increased 100-fold. At about 122 AU, the spacecraft entered a new region that Voyager project scientists called the "magnetic highway", an area still under the influence of the Sun but with some dramatic differences. Heliopause
The heliopause is the theoretical boundary where the Sun's solar wind is stopped by the interstellar medium; where the solar wind's strength is no longer great enough to push back the stellar winds of the surrounding stars. This is the boundary where the interstellar medium and solar wind pressures balance. The crossing of the heliopause should be signaled by a sharp drop in the temperature of solar wind-charged particles, a change in the direction of the magnetic field, and an increase in the number of galactic cosmic rays. In May 2012, Voyager 1 detected a rapid increase in such cosmic rays (a 9% increase in a month, following a more gradual increase of 25% from January 2009 to January 2012), suggesting it was approaching the heliopause. Between late August and early September 2012, Voyager 1 witnessed a sharp drop in protons from the Sun, from 25 particles per second in late August, to about 2 particles per second by early October.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.
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early September 2012 , Voyager 1 witnessed a sharp drop in protons from the Sun , from 25 particles per second in late August , to about 2 particles per second by early October .In September 2013, NASA announced that Voyager 1 had crossed the heliopause as of 25 August 2012. This was at a distance of 121 AU (1.81×1010 km) from the Sun. Contrary to predictions, data from Voyager 1 indicates the magnetic field of the galaxy is aligned with the solar magnetic field. On November 5, 2018, the Voyager 2 mission detected a sudden decrease in the flux of low-energy ions. At the same time, the level of cosmic rays increased. This demonstrated that the spacecraft crossed the heliopause at a distance of 119 AU (1.78×1010 km) from the Sun. Unlike Voyager 1, the Voyager 2 spacecraft did not detect interstellar flux tubes while crossing the heliosheath. NASA also collected data from the heliopause remotely during the suborbital SHIELDS mission in 2021. Heliotail
The heliotail is the several thousand astronomical units long tail of the heliosphere, and thus the Solar System's tail. It can be compared to the tail of a comet (however, a comet's tail does not stretch behind it as it moves; it is always pointing away from the Sun). The tail is a region where the Sun's solar wind slows down and ultimately escapes the heliosphere, slowly evaporating because of charge exchange. The shape of the heliotail (as found by NASA's Interstellar Boundary Explorer – IBEX) is that of a four-leaf clover. The particles in the tail do not shine, therefore it cannot be seen with conventional optical instruments. IBEX made the first observations of the heliotail by measuring the energy of "energetic neutral atoms", neutral particles created by collisions in the Solar System's boundary zone.
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Heliosphere
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.
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optical instruments . IBEX made the first observations of the heliotail by measuring the energy of `` energetic neutral atoms '' , neutral particles created by collisions in the Solar System 's boundary zone .The tail has been shown to contain fast and slow particles; the slow particles are on the side and the fast particles are encompassed in the center. The shape of the tail can be linked to the Sun sending out fast solar winds near its poles and slow solar winds near its equator more recently. The clover-shaped tail moves further away from the Sun, which makes the charged particles begin to morph into a new orientation. Cassini and IBEX data challenged the "heliotail" theory in 2009. In July 2013, IBEX results revealed a 4-lobed tail on the Solar System's heliosphere. Outside structures
The heliopause is the final known boundary between the heliosphere and the interstellar space that is filled with material, especially plasma, not from the Earth's own star, the Sun, but from other stars. Even so, just outside the heliosphere (i.e. the "solar bubble") there is a transitional region, as detected by Voyager 1. Just as some interstellar pressure was detected as early as 2004, some of the Sun's material seeps into the interstellar medium. The heliosphere is thought to reside in the Local Interstellar Cloud inside the Local Bubble, which is a region in the Orion Arm of the Milky Way Galaxy. Outside the heliosphere, there is a forty-fold increase in plasma density. There is also a radical reduction in the detection of certain types of particles from the Sun, and a large increase in galactic cosmic rays. The flow of the interstellar medium (ISM) into the heliosphere has been measured by at least 11 different spacecraft as of 2013.
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Heliosphere
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.
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764
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, and a large increase in galactic cosmic rays . The flow of the interstellar medium ( ISM ) into the heliosphere has been measured by at least 11 different spacecraft as of 2013 .By 2013, it was suspected that the direction of the flow had changed over time. The flow, coming from Earth's perspective from the constellation Scorpius, has probably changed direction by several degrees since the 1970s. Hydrogen wall
Predicted to be a region of hot hydrogen, a structure called the "hydrogen wall" may be between the bow shock and the heliopause. The wall is composed of interstellar material interacting with the edge of the heliosphere. One paper released in 2013 studied the concept of a bow wave and hydrogen wall. Another hypothesis suggests that the heliopause could be smaller on the side of the Solar System facing the Sun's orbital motion through the galaxy. It may also vary depending on the current velocity of the solar wind and the local density of the interstellar medium. It is known to lie far outside the orbit of Neptune. The mission of the Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft is to find and study the termination shock, heliosheath, and heliopause. Meanwhile, the IBEX mission is attempting to image the heliopause from Earth orbit within two years of its 2008 launch. Initial results (October 2009) from IBEX suggest that previous assumptions are insufficiently cognizant of the true complexities of the heliopause. In August 2018, long-term studies about the hydrogen wall by the New Horizons spacecraft confirmed results first detected in 1992 by the two Voyager spacecraft. Although the hydrogen is detected by extra ultraviolet light (which may come from another source), the detection by New Horizons corroborates the earlier detections by Voyager at a much higher level of sensitivity.
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Heliosphere
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.
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765
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hydrogen is detected by extra ultraviolet light ( which may come from another source ) , the detection by New Horizons corroborates the earlier detections by Voyager at a much higher level of sensitivity .Bow shock
It was long hypothesized that the Sun produces a "shock wave" in its travels within the interstellar medium. It would occur if the interstellar medium is moving supersonically "toward" the Sun, since its solar wind moves "away" from the Sun supersonically. When the interstellar wind hits the heliosphere it slows and creates a region of turbulence. A bow shock was thought to possibly occur at about 230 AU, but in 2012 it was determined it probably does not exist. This conclusion resulted from new measurements: The velocity of the LISM (local interstellar medium) relative to the Sun's was previously measured to be 26.3 km/s by Ulysses, whereas IBEX measured it at 23.2 km/s. This phenomenon has been observed outside the Solar System, around stars other than the Sun, by NASA's now retired orbital GALEX telescope. The red giant star Mira in the constellation Cetus has been shown to have both a debris tail of ejecta from the star and a distinct shock in the direction of its movement through space (at over 130 kilometers per second). Observational methods
Detection by spacecraft
The precise distance to and shape of the heliopause are still uncertain. Interplanetary/interstellar spacecraft such as Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11 and New Horizons are traveling outward through the Solar System and will eventually pass through the heliopause. Contact to Pioneer 10 and 11 has been lost. Cassini results
Rather than a comet-like shape, the heliosphere appears to be bubble-shaped according to data from Cassini's Ion and Neutral Camera (MIMI / INCA).
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Heliosphere
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.
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766
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11 has been lost . Cassini results Rather than a comet-like shape , the heliosphere appears to be bubble-shaped according to data from Cassini 's Ion and Neutral Camera ( MIMI / INCA ) .Rather than being dominated by the collisions between the solar wind and the interstellar medium, the INCA (ENA) maps suggest that the interaction is controlled more by particle pressure and magnetic field energy density. IBEX results
Initial data from Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX), launched in October 2008, revealed a previously unpredicted "very narrow ribbon that is two to three times brighter than anything else in the sky", now known as the IBEX ribbon. Initial interpretations suggest that "the interstellar environment has far more influence on structuring the heliosphere than anyone previously believed"
"No one knows what is creating the ENA (energetic neutral atoms) ribbon, ..."
"The IBEX results are truly remarkable! What we are seeing in these maps does not match with any of the previous theoretical models of this region. It will be exciting for scientists to review these (ENA) maps and revise the way we understand our heliosphere and how it interacts with the galaxy." In October 2010, significant changes were detected in the ribbon after 6 months, based on the second set of IBEX observations. IBEX data did not support the existence of a bow shock, but there might be a 'bow wave' according to one study. Locally
Examples of missions that have or continue to collect data related to the heliosphere include:
Solar Anomalous and Magnetospheric Particle Explorer
Solar and Heliospheric Observatory
Solar Dynamics Observatory
STEREO
Ulysses spacecraft
Parker Solar Probe
Solar Orbiter
During a total eclipse the high-temperature corona can be more readily observed from Earth solar observatories. During the Apollo program the Solar wind was measured on the Moon via the Solar Wind Composition Experiment.
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Heliosphere
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.
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767
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a total eclipse the high-temperature corona can be more readily observed from Earth solar observatories . During the Apollo program the Solar wind was measured on the Moon via the Solar Wind Composition Experiment .Some examples of Earth surface based Solar observatories include the McMath–Pierce solar telescope or the newer GREGOR Solar Telescope, and the refurbished Big Bear Solar Observatory. Exploration history
The heliosphere is the area under the influence of the Sun; the two major components to determining its edge are the heliospheric magnetic field and the solar wind from the Sun. Three major sections from the beginning of the heliosphere to its edge are the termination shock, the heliosheath, and the heliopause. Five spacecraft have returned much of the data about its furthest reaches, including Pioneer 10 (1972–1997; data to 67 AU), Pioneer 11 (1973–1995; 44 AU), Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 (launched 1977, ongoing), and New Horizons (launched 2006). A type of particle called an energetic neutral atom (ENA) has also been observed to have been produced from its edges. Except for regions near obstacles such as planets or comets, the heliosphere is dominated by material emanating from the Sun, although cosmic rays, fast-moving neutral atoms, and cosmic dust can penetrate the heliosphere from the outside. Originating at the extremely hot surface of the corona, solar wind particles reach escape velocity, streaming outwards at 300 to 800 km/s (671 thousand to 1.79 million mph or 1 to 2.9 million km/h). As it begins to interact with the interstellar medium, its velocity slows to a stop. The point where the solar wind becomes slower than the speed of sound is called the termination shock; the solar wind continues to slow as it passes through the heliosheath leading to a boundary called the heliopause, where the interstellar medium and solar wind pressures balance.
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Heliosphere
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.
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768
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called the termination shock ; the solar wind continues to slow as it passes through the heliosheath leading to a boundary called the heliopause , where the interstellar medium and solar wind pressures balance .The termination shock was traversed by Voyager 1 in 2004, and Voyager 2 in 2007. It was thought that beyond the heliopause there was a bow shock, but data from Interstellar Boundary Explorer suggested the velocity of the Sun through the interstellar medium is too low for it to form. It may be a more gentle "bow wave". Voyager data led to a new theory that the heliosheath has "magnetic bubbles" and a stagnation zone. Also, there were reports of a "stagnation region" within the heliosheath, starting around 113 au (1.69×1010 km; 1.05×1010 mi), detected by Voyager 1 in 2010. There, the solar wind velocity drops to zero, the magnetic field intensity doubles, and high-energy electrons from the galaxy increase 100-fold. Starting in May 2012 at 120 au (1.8×1010 km; 1.1×1010 mi), Voyager 1 detected a sudden increase in cosmic rays, an apparent sign of approach to the heliopause. In the summer of 2013, NASA announced that Voyager 1 had reached interstellar space as of 25 August 2012. In December 2012, NASA announced that in late August 2012, Voyager 1, at about 122 au (1.83×1010 km; 1.13×1010 mi) from the Sun, entered a new region they called the "magnetic highway", an area still under the influence of the Sun but with some dramatic differences. Pioneer 10 was launched in March 1972, and within 10 hours passed by the Moon; over the next 35 years or so the mission would be the first out, laying out many firsts of discoveries about the nature of heliosphere as well as Jupiter's impact on it.
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Heliosphere
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.
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769
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over the next 35 years or so the mission would be the first out , laying out many firsts of discoveries about the nature of heliosphere as well as Jupiter 's impact on it .Pioneer 10 was the first spacecraft to detect sodium and aluminum ions in the solar wind, as well as helium in the inner Solar System. In November 1972, Pioneer 10 encountered Jupiter's enormous (compared to Earth) magnetosphere and would pass in and out of it and its heliosphere 17 times charting its interaction with the solar wind. Pioneer 10 returned scientific data until March 1997, including data on the solar wind out to about 67 AU. It was also contacted in 2003 when it was a distance of 7.6 billion miles from Earth (82 AU), but no instrument data about the solar wind was returned then. Voyager 1 surpassed the radial distance from the Sun of Pioneer 10 at 69.4 AU on 17 February 1998, because it was traveling faster, gaining about 1.02 AU per year. On July 18, 2023, Voyager 2 overtook Pioneer 10 as the second most distant human-made object from the Sun. Pioneer 11, launched a year after Pioneer 10, took similar data as Pioneer out to 44.7 AU in 1995 when that mission was concluded. Pioneer 11 had a similar instrument suite as 10 but also had a flux-gate magnetometer. Pioneer and Voyager spacecraft were on different trajectories and thus recorded data on the heliosphere in different overall directions away from the Sun. Data obtained from Pioneer and Voyager spacecraft helped corroborate the detection of a hydrogen wall. In 2012 Voyager 1 is thought to have passed through heliopause, and Voyager 2 did the same in 2018. The twin Voyagers are the only man-made objects to have entered interstellar space.
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Heliosphere
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.
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770
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In 2012 Voyager 1 is thought to have passed through heliopause , and Voyager 2 did the same in 2018 . The twin Voyagers are the only man-made objects to have entered interstellar space .However, while they have left the heliosphere, they have not yet left the boundary of the Solar System which is considered to be the outer edge of the Oort Cloud. Upon passing the heliopause, Voyager 2's Plasma Science Experiment (PLS) observed a sharp decline in the speed of solar wind particles on 5 November and there has been no sign of it since. The three other instruments on board measuring cosmic rays, low-energy charged particles, and magnetic fields also recorded the transition. The observations complement data from NASA's IBEX mission. NASA is also preparing an additional mission, Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe (IMAP) which is due to launch in 2025 to capitalize on Voyager's observations. Timeline of exploration and detection
1904: Astronomers using the Potsdam Great Refractor with a spectrograph find evidence of the interstellar medium while observing the binary star Mintaka in Orion. January 1959: Luna 1 becomes the first spacecraft to observe the solar wind. 1962: Mariner 2 detects the solar wind. 1972–1973: Pioneer 10 becomes the first spacecraft to explore the heliosphere past Mars, flying by Jupiter on 4 December 1973 and continuing to return solar wind data out to a distance of 67 AU. February 1992: After flying by Jupiter, the Ulysses spacecraft becomes the first to explore the mid and high latitudes of the heliosphere. 1992: Pioneer and Voyager probes detected Ly-α radiation resonantly scattered by heliospheric hydrogen. 2004: Voyager 1 becomes the first spacecraft to reach the termination shock. 2005: SOHO observations of the solar wind show that the shape of the heliosphere is not axisymmetrical, but distorted, very likely under the effect of the local galactic magnetic field.
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Heliosphere
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.
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771
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. 2005 : SOHO observations of the solar wind show that the shape of the heliosphere is not axisymmetrical , but distorted , very likely under the effect of the local galactic magnetic field .2009: IBEX project scientists discover and map a ribbon-shaped region of intense energetic neutral atom emission. These neutral atoms are thought to be originating from the heliopause. October 2009: the heliosphere may be bubble, not comet shaped. October 2010: significant changes were detected in the ribbon after six months, based on the second set of IBEX observations. May 2012: IBEX data implies there is probably not a bow "shock". June 2012: At 119 AU, Voyager 1 detected an increase in cosmic rays. 25 August 2012: Voyager 1 crosses the heliopause, becoming the first human-made object to depart the heliosphere. August 2018: long-term studies about the hydrogen wall by the New Horizons spacecraft confirmed results first detected in 1992 by the two Voyager spacecraft. 5 November 2018: Voyager 2 crosses the heliopause, departing the heliosphere. See also
Coronal mass ejection
Fermi glow
References
Sources
"Heliopause Seems to Be 23 Billion Kilometres". Universe Today. 9 December 2003. Retrieved 8 August 2007. "Space probes reveal Solar System's bullet shape". COSMOS magazine. 11 May 2007. Archived from the original on 13 May 2007. Retrieved 12 May 2007. Further reading
Schwadron, Nathan A.; et al. (September 2011). "Does the space environment affect the ecosphere?". Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union. 92 (36): 297–298. Bibcode:2011EOSTr..92..297S. doi:10.1029/2011EO360001. ISSN 0096-3941. Gough, Evan (7 August 2020). "This is What the Solar System Really Looks Like". Universe Today. Retrieved 8 September 2024.
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Heliosphere
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.
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772
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. doi:10.1029/2011EO360001 . ISSN 0096-3941 . Gough , Evan ( 7 August 2020 ) . `` This is What the Solar System Really Looks Like '' . Universe Today . Retrieved 8 September 2024 .External links
Voyager Interstellar Mission Objectives
NASA GALEX (Galaxy evolution Explorer) homepage at Caltech
A Big Surprise from the Edge of the Solar System Archived 17 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine (NASA 06.09.11)
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Heliosphere
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosphere.
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773
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The Oort cloud (pronounced ORT or OORT), sometimes called the Öpik–Oort cloud, is theorized to be a cloud of billions of icy planetesimals surrounding the Sun at distances ranging from 2,000 to 200,000 AU (0.03 to 3.2 light-years). The cloud was proposed in 1950 by the Dutch astronomer Jan Oort, in whose honor the idea was named. Oort proposed that the bodies in this cloud replenish and keep constant the number of long-period comets entering the inner Solar System—where they are eventually consumed and destroyed during close approaches to the Sun. The cloud is thought to encompass two regions: a disc-shaped inner Oort cloud aligned with the solar ecliptic (also called its Hills cloud) and a spherical outer Oort cloud enclosing the entire Solar System. Both regions lie well beyond the heliosphere and are in interstellar space. The innermost portion of the Oort cloud is more than a thousand times as far from the Sun as the Kuiper belt, the scattered disc and the detached objects—three nearer reservoirs of trans-Neptunian objects. The outer limit of the Oort cloud defines the cosmographic boundary of the Solar System. This area is defined by the Sun's Hill sphere, and hence lies at the interface between solar and galactic gravitational dominion. The outer Oort cloud is only loosely bound to the Solar System and its constituents are easily affected by the gravitational pulls of passing stars, the Milky Way itself and the cloud's own microgravity. These forces served to moderate and render more circular the highly eccentric orbits of material ejected from the inner Solar System during its early phases of development. The circular orbits of material in the Oort disc are largely thanks to this galactic gravitational torquing. By the same token, galactic interference in the motion of Oort bodies occasionally dislodges comets from their orbits within the cloud, sending them into the inner Solar System.
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Oort cloud
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.
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galactic gravitational torquing . By the same token , galactic interference in the motion of Oort bodies occasionally dislodges comets from their orbits within the cloud , sending them into the inner Solar System .Based on their orbits, most but not all of the short-period comets appear to have come from the Oort disc. Other short-period comets may have originated from the far larger spherical cloud. Astronomers hypothesize that the material presently in the Oort cloud formed much closer to the Sun, in the protoplanetary disc, and was then scattered far into space through the gravitational influence of the giant planets. No direct observation of the Oort cloud is possible with present imaging technology. Nevertheless, the cloud is thought to be the source that replenishes most long-period and Halley-type comets, which are eventually consumed by their close approaches to the Sun after entering the inner Solar System. The cloud may also serve the same function for many of the centaurs and Jupiter-family comets. Development of theory
By the early 20th century, astronomers had identified two main types of comets: short-period comets (also called ecliptic comets) and long-period comets (also called nearly isotropic comets). Ecliptic comets have relatively small orbits aligned near the ecliptic plane and are not found much farther than the Kuiper cliff around 50 AU from the Sun (the orbit of Neptune averages about 30 AU and 177P/Barnard has aphelion around 48 AU). Long-period comets, on the other hand, travel in very large orbits thousands of AU from the Sun and are isotropically distributed. This means long-period comets appear from every direction in the sky, both above and below the ecliptic plane. In 1907, Armin Otto Leuschner showed that comet trajectories were related to observation time: Short times implied assumed parabolic trajectories, and longer times implied elliptical orbits.
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Oort cloud
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.
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775
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below the ecliptic plane . In 1907 , Armin Otto Leuschner showed that comet trajectories were related to observation time : Short times implied assumed parabolic trajectories , and longer times implied elliptical orbits .Leuschner conjectured that better statistics would show that comets had elliptical orbits and were permanent members of the Solar System that would return to the inner Solar System after long intervals during which they were invisible to Earth-based astronomy. In 1932, the Estonian astronomer Ernst Öpik proposed a reservoir of long-period comets in the form of an orbiting cloud at the outermost edge of the Solar System. Dutch astronomer Jan Oort revived this idea in 1950 to resolve a paradox about the origin of comets. The following facts are not easily reconcilable with the highly elliptical orbits in which long-period comets are always found:
Over millions and billions of years the orbits of Oort cloud comets are unstable. Celestial dynamics will eventually dictate that a comet must be pulled away by a passing star, collide with the Sun or a planet, or be ejected from the Solar System through planetary perturbations. Moreover, the volatile composition of comets means that as they repeatedly approach the Sun radiation gradually boils the volatiles off until the comet splits or develops an insulating crust that prevents further outgassing. Oort reasoned that comets with orbits that closely approach the Sun cannot have been doing so since the condensation of the protoplanetary disc, more than 4.5 billion years ago. Hence long-period comets could not have formed in the current orbits in which they are always discovered and must have been held in an outer reservoir for nearly all of their existence. Oort also studied tables of ephemerides for long-period comets and discovered that there is a curious concentration of long-period comets whose farthest retreat from the Sun (their aphelia) cluster around 20,000 AU. This suggested a reservoir at that distance with a spherical, isotropic distribution.
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Oort cloud
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.
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776
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a curious concentration of long-period comets whose farthest retreat from the Sun ( their aphelia ) cluster around 20,000 AU . This suggested a reservoir at that distance with a spherical , isotropic distribution .He also proposed that the relatively rare comets with orbits of about 10,000 AU probably went through one or more orbits into the inner Solar System and there had their orbits drawn inward by the gravity of the planets. Structure and composition
The Oort cloud is thought to occupy a vast space somewhere between 2,000 and 5,000 AU (0.03 and 0.08 ly) from the Sun to as far out as 50,000 AU (0.79 ly) or even 100,000 to 200,000 AU (1.58 to 3.16 ly). The region can be subdivided into a spherical outer Oort cloud with a radius of some 20,000–50,000 AU (0.32–0.79 ly) and a torus-shaped inner Oort cloud with a radius of 2,000–20,000 AU (0.03–0.32 ly). The inner Oort cloud is sometimes known as the Hills cloud, named for Jack G. Hills, who proposed its existence in 1981. Models predict the inner cloud to be much the denser of the two, having tens or hundreds of times as many cometary nuclei as the outer cloud. The Hills cloud is thought to be necessary to explain the continued existence of the Oort cloud after billions of years. Because it lies at the interface between the dominion of Solar and galactic gravitation, the objects comprising the outer Oort cloud are only weakly bound to the Sun. This in turn allows small perturbations from nearby stars or the Milky Way itself to inject long-period (and possibly Halley-type) comets inside the orbit of Neptune. This process ought to have depleted the sparser, outer cloud and yet long-period comets with orbits well above or below the ecliptic continue to be observed.
|
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Oort cloud
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.
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777
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comets inside the orbit of Neptune . This process ought to have depleted the sparser , outer cloud and yet long-period comets with orbits well above or below the ecliptic continue to be observed .The Hills cloud is thought to be a secondary reservoir of cometary nuclei and the source of replenishment for the tenuous outer cloud as the latter's numbers are gradually depleted through losses to the inner Solar System. The outer Oort cloud may have trillions of objects larger than 1 km (0.6 mi), and billions with diameters of 20-kilometre (12 mi). This corresponds to an absolute magnitude of more than 11. On this analysis, "neighboring" objects in the outer cloud are separated by a significant fraction of 1 AU, tens of millions of kilometres. The outer cloud's total mass is not known, but assuming that Halley's Comet is a suitable proxy for the nuclei composing the outer Oort cloud, their combined mass would be roughly 3×1025 kilograms (6.6×1025 lb), or five Earth masses. Formerly the outer cloud was thought to be more massive by two orders of magnitude, containing up to 380 Earth masses,
but improved knowledge of the size distribution of long-period comets has led to lower estimates. No estimates of the mass of the inner Oort cloud have been published as of 2023. If analyses of comets are representative of the whole, the vast majority of Oort-cloud objects consist of ices such as water, methane, ethane, carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide. However, the discovery of the object 1996 PW, an object whose appearance was consistent with a D-type asteroid in an orbit typical of a long-period comet, prompted theoretical research that suggests that the Oort cloud population consists of roughly one to two percent asteroids.
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Oort cloud
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.
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778
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appearance was consistent with a D-type asteroid in an orbit typical of a long-period comet , prompted theoretical research that suggests that the Oort cloud population consists of roughly one to two percent asteroids .Analysis of the carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios in both the long-period and Jupiter-family comets shows little difference between the two, despite their presumably vastly separate regions of origin. This suggests that both originated from the original protosolar cloud, a conclusion also supported by studies of granular size in Oort-cloud comets and by the recent impact study of Jupiter-family comet Tempel 1. Origin
The Oort cloud is thought to have developed after the formation of planets from the primordial protoplanetary disc approximately 4.6 billion years ago. The most widely accepted hypothesis is that the Oort cloud's objects initially coalesced much closer to the Sun as part of the same process that formed the planets and minor planets. After formation, strong gravitational interactions with young gas giants, such as Jupiter, scattered the objects into extremely wide elliptical or parabolic orbits that were subsequently modified by perturbations from passing stars and giant molecular clouds into long-lived orbits detached from the gas giant region. Recent research has been cited by NASA hypothesizing that a large number of Oort cloud objects are the product of an exchange of materials between the Sun and its sibling stars as they formed and drifted apart and it is suggested that many—possibly the majority—of Oort cloud objects did not form in close proximity to the Sun. Simulations of the evolution of the Oort cloud from the beginnings of the Solar System to the present suggest that the cloud's mass peaked around 800 million years after formation, as the pace of accretion and collision slowed and depletion began to overtake supply. Models by Julio Ángel Fernández suggest that the scattered disc, which is the main source for periodic comets in the Solar System, might also be the primary source for Oort cloud objects.
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Oort cloud
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.
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779
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Models by Julio Ángel Fernández suggest that the scattered disc , which is the main source for periodic comets in the Solar System , might also be the primary source for Oort cloud objects .According to the models, about half of the objects scattered travel outward toward the Oort cloud, whereas a quarter are shifted inward to Jupiter's orbit, and a quarter are ejected on hyperbolic orbits. The scattered disc might still be supplying the Oort cloud with material. A third of the scattered disc's population is likely to end up in the Oort cloud after 2.5 billion years. Computer models suggest that collisions of cometary debris during the formation period play a far greater role than was previously thought. According to these models, the number of collisions early in the Solar System's history was so great that most comets were destroyed before they reached the Oort cloud. Therefore, the current cumulative mass of the Oort cloud is far less than was once suspected. The estimated mass of the cloud is only a small part of the 50–100 Earth masses of ejected material. Gravitational interaction with nearby stars and galactic tides modified cometary orbits to make them more circular. This explains the nearly spherical shape of the outer Oort cloud. On the other hand, the Hills cloud, which is bound more strongly to the Sun, has not acquired a spherical shape. Recent studies have shown that the formation of the Oort cloud is broadly compatible with the hypothesis that the Solar System formed as part of an embedded cluster of 200–400 stars. These early stars likely played a role in the cloud's formation, since the number of close stellar passages within the cluster was much higher than today, leading to far more frequent perturbations.
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Oort cloud
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.
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780
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early stars likely played a role in the cloud 's formation , since the number of close stellar passages within the cluster was much higher than today , leading to far more frequent perturbations .In June 2010 Harold F. Levison and others suggested on the basis of enhanced computer simulations that the Sun "captured comets from other stars while it was in its birth cluster." Their results imply that "a substantial fraction of the Oort cloud comets, perhaps exceeding 90%, are from the protoplanetary discs of other stars." In July 2020 Amir Siraj and Avi Loeb found that a captured origin for the Oort Cloud in the Sun's birth cluster could address the theoretical tension in explaining the observed ratio of outer Oort cloud to scattered disc objects, and in addition could increase the chances of a captured Planet Nine. Comets
Comets are remnants from the formation of the Solar system around 4 billion years ago, stored in two separate areas, the Kuiper belt and the Oort cloud. Short-period comets (those with orbits of up to 200 years) are generally accepted to have emerged from either the Kuiper belt or the scattered disc, which are two linked flat discs of icy debris beyond Neptune's orbit at 30 AU and jointly extending out beyond 100 AU. Very long-period comets, such as C/1999 F1 (Catalina), whose orbits last for millions of years, are thought to originate directly from the outer Oort cloud. Other comets modeled to have come directly from the outer Oort cloud include C/2006 P1 (McNaught), C/2010 X1 (Elenin), Comet ISON, C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring), C/2017 K2, and C/2017 T2 (PANSTARRS). The orbits within the Kuiper belt are relatively stable, so very few comets are thought to originate there.
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Oort cloud
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.
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781
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( Siding Spring ) , C/2017 K2 , and C/2017 T2 ( PANSTARRS ) . The orbits within the Kuiper belt are relatively stable , so very few comets are thought to originate there .The scattered disc, however, is dynamically active and is far more likely to be the place of origin for comets. Comets pass from the scattered disc into the realm of the outer planets, becoming what are known as centaurs. These centaurs are then sent farther inward to become the short-period comets. There are two main types of short-period comets: Jupiter-family comets (with orbits smaller than 5 AU) and Halley-family comets. Halley-family comets, named after Halley's Comet, are distinct because, even though they are short-period comets, they are thought to come from the Oort Cloud rather than the scattered disc. Based on their orbits, it is suggested they were long-period comets that were captured by the gravity of the giant planets and sent into the inner Solar System. This process may have also created the present orbits of a significant fraction of the Jupiter-family comets, although the majority of such comets are thought to have originated in the scattered disc. Oort noted that the number of returning comets was far less than his model predicted, and this issue, known as "cometary fading", has yet to be resolved. No dynamical process is known to explain the smaller number of observed comets than Oort estimated. Hypotheses for this discrepancy include the destruction of comets due to tidal stresses, impact or heating; the loss of all volatiles, rendering some comets invisible, or the formation of a non-volatile crust on the surface. Dynamical studies of hypothetical Oort cloud comets have estimated that their occurrence in the outer-planet region would be several times higher than in the inner-planet region.
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Oort cloud
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.
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of a non-volatile crust on the surface . Dynamical studies of hypothetical Oort cloud comets have estimated that their occurrence in the outer-planet region would be several times higher than in the inner-planet region .This discrepancy may be due to the gravitational attraction of Jupiter, which acts as a kind of barrier, trapping incoming comets and causing them to collide with it, just as it did with Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 in 1994. An example of a typical dynamically old comet with an origin in the Oort cloud could be C/2018 F4. Sedna and similar objects
Several observed objects have been proposed as members of the inner Oort cloud. Sedna, first reported in 2004, has a highly eccentric orbit with a perihelion distances of 76 AU. 2012 VP113, observed in 2012, has a larger perihelion (closest approach to the Sun) but its aphelion is half of Sedna's. Other candidate objects include 2010 GB174 and 474640 Alicanto (originally 2004 VN112). Tidal effects
Most of the comets seen close to the Sun seem to have reached their current positions through gravitational perturbation of the Oort cloud by the tidal force exerted by the Milky Way. Just as the Moon's tidal force deforms Earth's oceans, causing the tides to rise and fall, the galactic tide also distorts the orbits of bodies in the outer Solar System. In the charted regions of the Solar System, these effects are negligible compared to the gravity of the Sun, but in the outer reaches of the system, the Sun's gravity is weaker and the gradient of the Milky Way's gravitational Galactic Center compresses it along the other two axes; these small perturbations can shift orbits in the Oort cloud to bring objects close to the Sun. The point at which the Sun's gravity concedes its influence to the galactic tide is called the tidal truncation radius.
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Oort cloud
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.
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orbits in the Oort cloud to bring objects close to the Sun . The point at which the Sun 's gravity concedes its influence to the galactic tide is called the tidal truncation radius .It lies at a radius of 100,000 to 200,000 AU, and marks the outer boundary of the Oort cloud. Some scholars theorize that the galactic tide may have contributed to the formation of the Oort cloud by increasing the perihelia (smallest distances to the Sun) of planetesimals with large aphelia (largest distances to the Sun). The effects of the galactic tide are quite complex, and depend heavily on the behaviour of individual objects within a planetary system. Cumulatively, however, the effect can be quite significant: up to 90% of all comets originating from the Oort cloud may be the result of the galactic tide. Statistical models of the observed orbits of long-period comets argue that the galactic tide is the principal means by which their orbits are perturbed toward the inner Solar System. Stellar perturbations and stellar companion hypotheses
Besides the galactic tide, the main trigger for sending comets into the inner Solar System is thought to be interaction between the Sun's Oort cloud and the gravitational fields of nearby stars or giant molecular clouds. The orbit of the Sun through the plane of the Milky Way sometimes brings it into relatively close proximity to other stellar systems. For example, it is hypothesized that 70,000 years ago Scholz's Star passed through the outer Oort cloud (although its low mass and high relative velocity limited its effect). During the next 10 million years the known star with the greatest possibility of perturbing the Oort cloud is Gliese 710. This process could also scatter Oort cloud objects out of the ecliptic plane, potentially also explaining its spherical distribution.
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Oort cloud
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.
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784
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star with the greatest possibility of perturbing the Oort cloud is Gliese 710 . This process could also scatter Oort cloud objects out of the ecliptic plane , potentially also explaining its spherical distribution .In 1984, physicist Richard A. Muller postulated that the Sun has an as-yet undetected companion, either a brown dwarf or a red dwarf, in an elliptical orbit within the Oort cloud. This object, known as Nemesis, was hypothesized to pass through a portion of the Oort cloud approximately every 26 million years, bombarding the inner Solar System with comets. However, to date no evidence of Nemesis has been found, and many lines of evidence (such as crater counts), have thrown its existence into doubt. Recent scientific analysis no longer supports the idea that extinctions on Earth happen at regular, repeating intervals. Thus, the Nemesis hypothesis is no longer needed to explain current assumptions. A somewhat similar hypothesis was advanced by astronomer John J. Matese of the University of Louisiana at Lafayette in 2002. He contends that more comets are arriving in the inner Solar System from a particular region of the postulated Oort cloud than can be explained by the galactic tide or stellar perturbations alone, and that the most likely cause would be a Jupiter-mass object in a distant orbit. This hypothetical gas giant was nicknamed Tyche. The WISE mission, an all-sky survey using parallax measurements in order to clarify local star distances, was capable of proving or disproving the Tyche hypothesis. In 2014, NASA announced that the WISE survey had ruled out any object as they had defined it. Future exploration
Voyager 1, Earth's most distant spacecraft,
will not reach the Oort cloud for about 300 years and would take about 30,000 years to pass through it.
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Oort cloud
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.
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785
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defined it . Future exploration Voyager 1 , Earth 's most distant spacecraft , will not reach the Oort cloud for about 300 years and would take about 30,000 years to pass through it .In the 1980s, there was a concept for a probe that could reach 1,000 AU in 50 years, called TAU; among its missions would be to look for the Oort cloud. In the 2014 Announcement of Opportunity for the Discovery program, an observatory to detect the objects in the Oort cloud (and Kuiper belt) called the "Whipple Mission" was proposed. It would monitor distant stars with a photometer, looking for transits up to 10,000 AU away. The observatory was proposed for halo orbiting around L2 with a suggested 5-year mission. It was also suggested that the Kepler space telescope could have been capable of detecting objects in the Oort cloud. See also
Heliosphere
Hills cloud
Interstellar object
List of possible dwarf planets
List of trans-Neptunian objects
Nemesis (hypothetical star)
Planets beyond Neptune
Scattered disc
Tyche (hypothetical planet)
References
Further reading
Arnett, Bill (March 2007). "The Kuiper Belt and The Oort Cloud". Nine Planets. Brasser, R.; Schwamb, M. E. (2015). "Re-assessing the formation of the inner Oort cloud in an embedded star cluster – II. Probing the inner edge". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 446 (4): 3788. arXiv:1411.1844. Bibcode:2015MNRAS.446.3788B. doi:10.1093/mnras/stu2374. S2CID 17001564. Batygin, Konstantin; Raush, Dennis (2024). "Formation of the inner Oort cloud in the presence of an early solar binary". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters. 533 (1): L43 – L47. arXiv:2305.00999. doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slad107. Fouchard, M.; Rickman, H.; Froeschlé, C.; Valsecchi, G. B. (2023).
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Oort cloud
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.
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786
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Letters . 533 ( 1 ) : L43 – L47 . arXiv:2305.00999. doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slad107 . Fouchard , M. ; Rickman , H. ; Froeschlé , C. ; Valsecchi , G. B . ( 2023 ) ."What long-period comets tell us about the Oort Cloud". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 671: A36. Bibcode:2023A&A...676A.104F. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202243728. Hands, T. O.; Dehnen, W.; Gration, A. (2021). "Formation of extrasolar Oort clouds and the origin of interstellar objects". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 647: A96. arXiv:2011.08257. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038888. Matthews, R. A. J. (1994). "The close approach of stars in the solar neighbourhood". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 35: 1. Bibcode:1994QJRAS..35....1M. Oort, Jan H. (1950). "The structure of the cloud of comets surrounding the Solar System and a hypothesis concerning its origin". Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of the Netherlands. 11: 91–110. Bibcode:1950BAN....11...91O. External links
Oort Cloud Profile (Archived 2015-11-10 at the Wayback Machine) by NASA's Solar System Exploration
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Oort cloud
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud.
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