Quality, cost, delivery

Quality, cost, delivery (QCD), sometimes expanded to quality, cost, delivery, morale, safety (QCDMS), is a management approach originally developed by the British automotive industry. QCD assess different components of the production process and provides feedback in the form of facts and figures that help managers make logical decisions. By using the gathered data, it is easier for organizations to prioritize their future goals. QCD helps break down processes to organize and prioritize efforts before they grow overwhelming.
QCD is a "three-dimensional" approach. If there is a problem with even one dimension, the others will inevitably suffer as well. One dimension cannot be sacrificed for the sake of the other two.
Quality.
Quality is the ability of a product or service to meet and exceed customer expectations. It is the result of the efficiency of the entire production process formed of people, material, and machinery. Customer requirements determine the quality scope.
Quality is a competitive advantage; poor quality often results in bad business. The U.S. business organizations in the 1970s focused more on cost and productivity. That approach led to Japanese businesses capturing a major share of the U.S. market. It was not until the late 1970s and the beginning of the 1980s that the quality factor drastically shifted and became a strategic approach, created by Harvard professor David Garvin. This approach focuses on preventing mistakes and puts a great emphasis on customer satisfaction.
Quality basis.
David A. Garvin lists eight dimensions of quality:
Product components.
The quality of a product depends almost entirely on the quality of its raw material. Suppliers and manufacturers must work together to eliminate defects and achieve higher quality. Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) should discuss with their suppliers how quality improvements can affect the overall performance of the supply chain. Quality assurance can reduce testing, scrapping, reworks, and production costs.
Costs.
The biggest costs in most businesses are the four basic types of manufacturing costs:
In addition, there are business costs that stay the same, regardless of the production output. Business costs include:
Businesses desire to reduce costs to increase their operating profit and bottom line. Cost reduction strategies include:
Delivery.
Logistics are an essential part in providing good customer service on time. Logistics customer service can be separated into three elements:
Benefits.
QCD offers a method of measuring both simple and complicated business processes. It also represents a basis for comparing businesses: for example, a business measuring a supplier's delivery performance may compare its findings with the business's own performance.
Flexibility.
The "quality, cost, delivery, and flexibility" (QCDF) approach, includes flexibility as the capacity to adapt to changes or modifications in the input quality, output quality, product specifications, and delivery schedules.
Profitability.
There are seven measures used to increase profitability.
Not right first time (NRFT).
Not getting things right the first time means wasted resources, effort and time. This all leads to excessive costs for the company and poor-quality, high-priced products for the customer. NRFT measures the quality of a product and is expressed in “number of defective parts per million”. The number of defective products is divided by the total quantity of finished products. This figure is then multiplied by 10^6 to get the number of defective parts per million.
NRFT can be measured internally (defective parts identified within the production process) or externally (defective parts identified outside the production process (e.g. by the supplier or the customer).
Delivery schedule achievement (DSA).
DSA analyses how well a supplier delivers what the customer wants and when they want it. The goal is to achieve 100% on-time delivery without any special deliveries or overtime payments, which only increase the delivery cost. DSA measures the actual delivery performance against the planned delivery schedule.
Failed deliveries include:
People productivity (PP).
PP is measured by the time it takes (in staff hours) to produce a good-quality product. Obtaining high PP is only possible when:
Stock turns (ST).
The ST ratio shows how quickly a company turns raw materials into finished, ready-to-be-sold products. The quicker the better. A low ST means that the money is tied up in stock, and the company has fewer funds to invest in other parts of its business.
The OEE shows how well a company uses its equipment and staff.
OEE is calculated on the base of three elements:
Value added per person (VAPP).
VAPP shows how well people are used to turn raw materials into finished goods. In order to calculate VAPP, three things need to be taken into account:
Floor space utilisation (FSU).
FSU measures the sales revenue generated by a square meter of factory floor space. Usually to achieve higher FSU the floor space has to be reduced. That means eliminating inventory and reducing the necessary space to a minimum.


List of Harley-Davidson motorcycles

A list of motorcycles produced under the Harley-Davidson brand.
Aermacchis sold as Harley-Davidsons.
Aermacchi motorcycles sold in US with Harley-Davidson badging.


Armored Trunk Manufacturing Company

Founded in 1920 by Louis Knell, the Youngstown, Ohio-based Armored Trunk Manufacturing Company was one of America's largest manufacturers of steamers, trunks and luggage. During the Dust Bowl, Armored relocated west to Los Angeles, California where the company developed a reputation for building quality products to protect belongings while in transit.
During war times, Armored built footlockers for troops traveling overseas. With the introduction of commercial airline travel, Armored grew into one of the largest footlocker and luggage manufacturers in the country, utilizing its Los Angeles-based factory to produce goods, with New York City sales and distribution office serving some of the biggest national chains.
Through the 1980s, Armored introduced specialty luggage packages such as its proprietary brands Alfredo Fettuccini, Sports Network and Luggage Set in a Box and through the licensing of key brands such as Budweiser, Charles Schulz's Snoopy and Friends and the 1984 Olympic Team USA. Sales surged as Armored became the largest luggage and trunk manufacturer west of the Mississippi River.
In 1994, after much resistance to the changing marketplace for cheap imported goods, Armored Trunk Manufacturing Company sold its trunk manufacturing production line to Seward Trunk Company. Seward was subsequently purchased by Mercury Luggage Co. of Jacksonville, Florida forming the largest manufacturer of luggage and trunks in the United States.
After the divestiture of the trunk manufacturing production line, Armored focussed on its specialty line, Innerspace Cases, a manufacturer of ATA-style, custom protective road cases.
External links.


Moldmaker

A moldmaker (mouldmaker in English-speaking countries other than the US) or molder is a skilled tradesperson who fabricates molds for use in casting metal products.
Moldmakers are generally employed in foundries, where molds are used to cast products from metals such as aluminium and cast iron.
Injection molding.
The term moldmaker may also be used to describe workers employed in fabricating dies and metal moulds for use in injection molding and die-casting, such as in the plastics, rubber or ceramics industries, in which case it is sometimes regarded as a variety of the trade of the toolmaker. The process of manufacturing molds is now often highly automated.
While much of the machining processes involved in mold making use computer-controlled equipment for the actual manufacturing of molds (particularly plastic and rubber injection and transfer). Moldmaking is still a highly skilled trade requiring expertise in manual machining, CNC machining, CNC wire EDM, CNC Ram EDM, surface grinding, hand polishing and more. Because of the high skill and intense labor involved much of the mold making in the US has been outsourced to low wage countries.
The majority of plastic and rubber parts that are in existence today are made using injection or transfer molds, requiring a mold to be manufactured by a moldmaker.


Hobbing

Hobbing is a machining process for gear cutting, cutting splines, and cutting sprockets using a hobbing machine, a specialized milling machine. The teeth or splines of the gear are progressively cut into the material (such as a flat, cylindrical piece of metal or thermoset plastic) by a series of cuts made by a cutting tool called a hob.
Hobbing is relatively fast and inexpensive compared to most other gear-forming processes and is used for a broad range of parts and quantities. Hobbing is especially common for machining spur and helical gears.
A type of skiving that is analogous to the hobbing of external gears can be applied to the cutting of internal gears, which are skived with a rotary cutter (rather than shaped or broached).
Process.
Hobbing can create gears that are straight, helical, straight bevel, faced, crowned, wormed, cylkro and chamfered. A hobbing machine uses two skew spindles. One is mounted with a blank workpiece and the other holds the cutter (or “hob”). The angle between the hob's spindle (axis) and the workpiece's spindle varies depending on the type part being manufactured. For example, if a spur gear is being produced, the spindle is held at the lead angle of the hob, whereas if a helical gear is being produced, the held at the lead angle of the hob plus the helix angle of the helical gear. The speeds of the two spindles are held at a constant proportion determined by the number of teeth being cut into the blank; for example, for a single-threaded hob with a gear ratio of 40:1 the hob rotates 40 times to each turn of the blank, producing 40 teeth in the blank. If the hob has multiple threads, the speed ratio is multiplied by the number of threads on the hob. The hob is then fed up into the workpiece until the correct tooth depth is obtained. To finish the operation, the hob is fed through the workpiece parallel to the blank's axis of rotation.
Often during mass production, multiple blanks are stacked using a suitable fixture and cut in one operation.
For very large gears, the blank may be preliminarily gashed to a rough shape to make hobbing more efficient.
Equipment.
Hobbing machines, also known as "hobbers", come in many sizes to produce different sizes of gears. Tiny instrument gears are produced on small table-top machines, while large-diameter marine gears are produced on large industrial machines. A hobbing machine typically consists of a chuck and tailstock to hold the workpiece, a spindle to mount the hob, and a drive motor.
For a tooth profile which is theoretically involute, the fundamental rack is straight-sided, with sides inclined at the pressure angle of the tooth form, with flat top and bottom. The necessary addendum correction to allow the use of small-numbered pinions can either be obtained by suitable modification of this rack to a cycloidal form at the tips, or by hobbing at a diameter other than the theoretical pitch. Since the gear ratio between hob and blank is fixed, the resulting gear will have the correct pitch on the pitch circle but the tooth thickness will not be equal to the space width.
Hobbing machines are characterized by the largest module or pitch diameter it can generate. For example, a capacity machine can generate gears with a 10 in pitch diameter and usually a maximum of a 10 in face width. Most hobbing machines are vertical hobbers, meaning the blank is mounted vertically. Horizontal hobbing machines are usually used for cutting longer workpieces; i.e. cutting splines on the end of a shaft.
The hob.
The "hob" is a cutting tool used to cut the teeth into the workpiece. It is cylindrical in shape with helical cutting teeth. These teeth have grooves that run the length of the hob, which aid in cutting and chip removal. There are also special hobs designed for special gears such as the spline and sprocket gears.
The cross-sectional shape of the hob teeth are almost the same shape as teeth of a rack gear that would be used with the finished product. There are slight changes to the shape for generating purposes, such as extending the hob's tooth length to create a clearance in the gear's roots. Each hob tooth is relieved on its back side to reduce friction.
Most hobs are single-thread hobs, but double-, and triple-thread hobs are used for high production volume shops. Multiple-thread hobs are more efficient but less accurate than single-thread hobs.
Depending on type of gear teeth to be cut, there are custom made hobs and general purpose hobs. Custom made hobs are different from other hobs as they are suited to make gears with modified tooth profiles. Modified tooth profiles are usually used to add strength and reduce size and gear noise.
Common types of hobs include:
Uses.
Hobbing is used to make the following types of finished gears:
Hobbing is used to produce most throated worm wheels, but certain tooth profiles cannot be hobbed. If any portion of the hob profile is perpendicular to the axis, the hob will not have the cutting clearance generated by the usual backing off process and will not cut well.
Cycloidal forms.
For cycloidal gears (as used in BS978-2 Specification for fine pitch gears) and cycloidal-type gears, each module, ratio, and number of teeth in the pinion requires a different hobbing cutter, so the hobbing is ineffective for small-volume production.
To circumvent this problem, a special war-time emergency circular arc gear standard was produced giving a series of close-to-cycloidal forms which could be cut with a single hob for each module for eight teeth and upwards to economize on cutter manufacturing resources. A variant on this is still included in BS978-2a (Gears for instruments and clockwork mechanisms. Cycloidal type gears. Double circular arc type gears).
Tolerances of concentricity of the hob limit the lower modules which can be cut practically by hobbing to about 0.5 module.
History.
Christian Schiele of Lancaster England patented the hobbing machine in 1856. It was a simple design, but the rudimentary components are all present in the customary patent drawings. The hob cutting tool and the gear train to provide the appropriate spindle speed ratio are clearly visible. Knowledge of hobbing within the watchmaking trade likely precedes his patent.


Centrifuge casting

Centrifugal casting, also commonly known as spin casting, is typically used for industrial manufacturing of cast parts. It was the work of A. G. Eckhardt in 1809 to develop a patent showing the basic principles involved with the process. Centrifugal casting is one of the few casting processes that can be used both to manufacture metals as well as plastic parts. Parts ranging from belt buckles, medallions, figurines, and souvenirs to "pot metal" gears and machine parts, bushings, and concrete expansion fasteners are usually manufactured using this process. Spin casting or centrifugal casting is considered to be a relatively inexpensive process ranging to a total cost of no more than a $20,000 investment requirement, in comparison to a process such as investment molding that costs a lot more (usually millions). Centrifugal casting is a popular process for the petrochemical market, defense market, and virtually any other market who needs good quality products at a low manufacturing cost.
Process variants.
Centrifugal casting is a metal casting technique that uses the forces of centripetal acceleration to distribute the molten material in the mold. Molten metal is typically fed into the mold using a spout. The process is then completed using rollers that rotate the mold about its axis causing the liquid metal to form to the mold and harden as the rotation continues. Rotation speeds and pouring rates are specific to the material being used and the design specifications. The true centrifugal casting technique can be performed using both vertical as well as horizontal rotation. The vertical rotation technique is generally used for the smaller parts whereas the longer parts are formed using the horizontal technique.
Horizontal.
The horizontal method is utilized for castings that have a much larger length than diameter and a cylindrical bore in the center. Complex shapes are not obtainable through this process; however, this process is very useful for making things such as piping and tubing. The trouble with this process is the slip that occurs between the metal and the mold as the mold rotates, causing the metal to move slower than the mold.
Vertical.
This method is usually used to cast parts in which the diameter exceeds the length. Vertical casting can produce both cylindrical and non-cylindrical castings. These non-cylindrical castings include ball valve balls, gear blanks, and conical shaped parts. Unlike the horizontal method, no slip occurs between the metal and mold due to the constant resultant force applied during rotation.
Semi-centrifugal.
Semi-centrifugal casting is a variant of centrifugal casting. The main difference being that the mold is completely filled during the process through the use of a central sprue. If a central bore is required in the casting, a dry sand core is best suited. This process can be completed using either permanent or, the more popular, sand molds. The rotational symmetry produced by this process make it ideal for objects such rail car wheels and pulleys.
Design considerations.
Many factors go into the design of a centrifugal casting process. The desired size and shape of the finished product govern whether the horizontal or vertical method should be used. In addition, the type of material used and the desired dimensions aid in deciding the correct rotation speed and pouring flow rate. In order to compensate for the extreme weight of the metal and the forces exerted by rotation, the apparatus needs to have a sturdy foundation to ensure quality and safety.
Features.
Geometric capabilities.
Centrifugal casting is not capable of producing complex geometry. However, the variations in the processes allow for different geometric capabilities. For instance, the horizontal method mainly produces piping whereas the vertical method can produce parts as complex as a propeller.
Surface finishing.
The method produces finished products that have a smooth surface finish. This can be obtained as the die of this kind of process is usually that of a smooth finish and not an uneven or a sand like material. The centrifugal action of the process results in the material having very fine grain on the outer surface. Quality castings with good dimensional accuracy can be produced with this process.


Multi-material injection molding

Multi-material injection molding (MMM) is the process of molding two or more different materials into one plastic part at one time. As is the case in traditional injection molding, multi material injection molding uses materials that are at or near their melting point so that the semi-liquidous (viscous) material can fill voids and cavities within a pre-machined mold, thus taking on the desired shape of designed tooling. In general, advantages of MMM over other production techniques include, but are not limited to, creating parts that have an elastic modulus that varies with location on the part (different regional polymer hardness), creating a single-structure part with different regional materials (similar to the previous advantage, but more focused on joining different types of polymers like rubber and plastic), and also creating a single part with multiple independent polymer colors. Applications range from simple household items like a toothbrush to more heavy duty construction of items like power tools.
The three most widely used methods of MMM fabrication are:
Each MMM primary subset can also be further subdivided into secondary and tertiary subsets, and even further in some cases. This can be advantageous when fine tuning or other general calibration of a specific MMM process is desired. Each primary subset is outlined further in the following sections.
Multi-component injection molding.
Also referred to as co-injection molding, multi-component injection molding describes insertion of multiple viscous materials injected simultaneously, as opposed to placing one material as an additional layer relative to another. In other words, it creates a sandwich-like structure where both materials mold around each other as dissimilar liquids, and exist in such a state at the same time. Relative to the part center, materials can be injected concentrically using the same mold/gate, or regionally using gates at different locations.
Multi-shot injection molding (MSM).
Also referred to as sequential injection molding, multi-shot injection molding refers to creation of multiple layers relative to the starting axis of the initial mold. In other words, the warm, heated materials are inserted into the mold in a very specific sequence one after another. This creates a layering effect between materials while maintaining relatively high-energy interactions at material boundaries. This is important because it implies that the inter-layer bonds are stronger in many cases than when the layers are applied to a previously cooled part, as is more closely the case of over molding. While there are other applications, this operation is preferred when varying molds (different geometries) are desired between material layers.
Over-molding.
Over molding is effectively the use of layering effects in polymer application techniques. This process is centered around the use of a liquidous resin to add additional layers of shape and structure to an existing component. An example of such a resin could be a polymer that has been heated to a temperature just above its glass transition temperature). The existing component to which the resin is being added is often injection molded as well, and may be near its own glass transition temperature. This process works well when layers with varying geometric profiles are desired around a central "core" structure.
Benefits.
If the desired object is manufacturable using MMM, it is definitely best to use MMM over traditional injection molding. Some of the key features that makes MMM a better approach are:


AP&T

AP&T AB is an industrial enterprise active in the sheet metal forming industry. It is the parent company for the AP&T Group. The company develops and manufactures complete production systems, automation equipment, presses, tools and services for companies that produce pressed sheet metal parts. Customers are active in the automotive industry and as manufacturers of heat exchangers, ventilation products and roof drainage products. AP&T is headquartered in Ulricehamn, Sweden with production facilities in Ulricehamn, Tranemo and Brescia, Italy through its subsidiary NORDA S.p.A.
History.
AP&T's roots go back to the early 1960s when two of the three companies forming the basis of AP&T were founded.
Lagan Press.
Bertil Åberg began manufacturing hydraulic presses at his new company Lagan Press in 1963. This enabled him to quickly produce spare parts and styling accessories for the American cars he had formerly imported and sold. He opted not to use mechanical presses because they would make the parts too expensive. Bertil Åberg considered hydraulic presses from Germany, but decided that they were too expensive and complicated. These were the factors underlying Åberg's decision to manufacture his own presses.
VIBAB.
At the same time in the early 1960s, Stig Gunnarson and Janne Merlander founded a small-scale machine shop in Blidsberg. The initial products they produced were rod cutting machines and press tools for various industries. The business, which was initially housed in an old hen house, would later become a successful tool manufacturer called VIBAB (Verktygsindustri i Blidsberg AB).
Tranemo Hydraulmaskiner.
Two employees at Lagan Press, Håkan Sallander and Bertil Jonsson, had some ideas about how to achieve more stable hydraulic presses that could perform more operations on the same press table. The company's managing director, Bertil Åberg, was not receptive to their idea, however, so the enterprising employees founded a competing business – Tranemo Hydraulmaskiner – in 1970. The three companies became important in the Swedish sheet metal forming market, and all three of them developed automation products in parallel.
Three companies become one.
Bertil Åberg sold Lagan Press at the beginning of the 1980s, and it became part of ASEA after a few more years (currently ABB). At this time all three companies, Lagan Press, Tranemo Hydraulmaskiner and VIBAB, were only active locally in the Swedish market.
When the three companies decided to merge into one in 1989 they could venture out into the export market together and offer complete solutions.
Global expansion.
AP&T's sales tripled in the 1990s. The company founded its own sales and service companies in Germany, the US and Denmark. NORDA, an Italian company, was acquired in 1991, and Talent AB was added in 1994. AP&T founded sales and service companies in 2001 in the United Kingdom and Japan, and the company has been represented in Poland with its own sales and service company since 2007. Its presence in Asia was further reinforced in 2009 when AP&T founded a sales and service company in Shanghai, China.
The company celebrated 50 years of operations in 2014, and is currently represented on three continents.
Operations.
AP&T supplies the sheet metal forming industry with complete production systems and aftermarket services such as service and spare parts solutions, rebuilds and training. The company manufactures its own automation, presses and tools.
Research and development.
AP&T conducts its own research and development within sheet metal forming, and cooperates with Swedish and international research centers on the development of materials, methods and production systems.


Smart manufacturing

Smart manufacturing is a broad category of manufacturing that employs computer-integrated manufacturing, high levels of adaptability and rapid design changes, digital information technology, and more flexible technical workforce training. Other goals sometimes include fast changes in production levels based on demand, optimization of the supply chain, efficient production and recyclability. In this concept, as smart factory has interoperable systems, multi-scale dynamic modelling and simulation, intelligent automation, strong cyber security, and networked sensors.
The broad definition of smart manufacturing covers many different technologies. Some of the key technologies in the smart manufacturing movement include big data processing capabilities, industrial connectivity devices and services, and advanced robotics.
Big data processing.
Smart manufacturing utilizes big data analytics, to refine complicated processes and manage supply chains. Big data analytics refers to a method for gathering and understanding large data sets in terms of what are known as the three V's, velocity, variety and volume. Velocity informs the frequency of data acquisition, which can be concurrent with the application of previous data. Variety describes the different types of data that may be handled. Volume represents the amount of data. Big data analytics allows an enterprise to use smart manufacturing to predict demand and the need for design changes rather than reacting to orders placed.
Some products have embedded sensors, which produce large amounts of data that can be used to understand consumer behavior and improve future versions of the product.
Advanced robotics.
Advanced industrial robots, also known as smart machines, operate autonomously and can communicate directly with manufacturing systems. In some advanced manufacturing contexts, they can work with humans for co-assembly tasks. By evaluating sensory input and distinguishing between different product configurations, these machines are able to solve problems and make decisions independent of people. These robots are able to complete work beyond what they were initially programmed to do and have artificial intelligence that allows them to learn from experience. These machines have the flexibility to be reconfigured and re-purposed. This gives them the ability to respond rapidly to design changes and innovation, which is a competitive advantage over more traditional manufacturing processes. An area of concern surrounding advanced robotics is the safety and well-being of the human workers who interact with robotic systems. Traditionally, measures have been taken to segregate robots from the human workforce, but advances in robotic cognitive ability have opened up opportunities, such as cobots, for robots to work collaboratively with people.
Cloud computing allows large amounts of data storage or computational power to be rapidly applied to manufacturing, and allow a large amount of data on machine performance and output quality to be collected. This can improve machine configuration, predictive maintenance, and fault analysis. Better predictions can facilitate better strategies for ordering raw materials or scheduling production runs.
3D printing.
As of 2019, 3D printing is mainly used in rapid prototyping, design iteration, and small-scale production. Improvements in speed, quality, and materials could make it useful in mass production and mass customization.
However, 3D printing developed so much in recent years that it is no longer used just as technology for prototyping. 3D printing sector is moving beyond prototyping especially it is becoming increasingly widespread in supply chains. The industries where digital manufacturing with 3D printing is the most seen are automotive, industrial and medical. In the auto industry, 3D printing is used not only for prototyping but also for the full production of final parts and products. 3D printing has also been used by suppliers and digital manufacturers coming together to help fight COVID-19.
3D printing allows to prototype more successfully, thus companies are saving time and money as significant volumes of parts can be produced in a short period. There is great potential for 3D printing to revolutionise supply chains, hence more companies are using it. The main challenge that 3D printing faces is the change of people's mindset. Moreover, some workers will need to re-learn a set of new skills to manage 3D printing technology.
Eliminating workplace inefficiencies and hazards.
Smart manufacturing can also be attributed to surveying workplace inefficiencies and assisting in worker safety. Efficiency optimization is a huge focus for adopters of "smart" systems, which is done through data research and intelligent learning automation. For instance operators can be given personal access cards with inbuilt Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, which can connect to the machines and a Cloud platform to determine which operator is working on which machine in real time. An intelligent, interconnected 'smart' system can be established to set a performance target, determine if the target is obtainable, and identify inefficiencies through failed or delayed performance targets. In general, automation may alleviate inefficiencies due to human error. And in general, evolving AI eliminates the inefficiencies of its predecessors.
As robots take on more of the physical tasks of manufacturing, workers no longer need to be present and are exposed to fewer hazards.
Impact of Industry 4.0.
Industry 4.0 is a project in the high-tech strategy of the German government that promotes the computerization of traditional industries such as manufacturing. The goal is the intelligent factory (Smart Factory) that is characterized by adaptability, resource efficiency, and ergonomics, as well as the integration of customers and business partners in business and value processes. Its technological foundation consists of cyber-physical systems and the Internet of Things.
This kind of "intelligent manufacturing" makes a great use of:
European Roadmap "Factories of the Future" and German one ""Industrie 4.0″" illustrate several of the action lines to undertake and the related benefits. Some examples are:
Statistics.
The Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry in South Korea announced on 10 March 2016 that it had aided the construction of smart factories in 1,240 small and medium enterprises, which it said resulted in an average 27.6% decrease in defective products, 7.1% faster production of prototypes, and 29.2% lower cost.


Digital manufacturing

Digital manufacturing is an integrated approach to manufacturing that is centered around a computer system. The transition to digital manufacturing has become more popular with the rise in the quantity and quality of computer systems in manufacturing plants. As more automated tools have become used in manufacturing plants it has become necessary to model, simulate, and analyze all of the machines, tooling, and input materials in order to optimize the manufacturing process. Overall, digital manufacturing can be seen sharing the same goals as computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM), flexible manufacturing, lean manufacturing, and design for manufacturability (DFM). The main difference is that digital manufacturing was evolved for use in the computerized world.
As part of Manufacturing USA, Congress and the U.S. Department of Defense established MxD (Manufacturing x Digital), the nation's digital manufacturing institute, to speed adoption of these digital tools.
Three dimensional modeling.
Manufacturing engineers use 3D modeling software to design the tools and machinery necessary for their intended applications. The software allows them to design the factory floor layout and the production flow. This technique lets engineers analyze the current manufacturing processes and allows them to search for ways to increase efficiency in production before production even begins.
Simulation.
Simulation can be used to model and test a system's behavior. Simulation also provides engineers with a tool for inexpensive, fast, and secure analysis to test how changes in a system can affect the performance of that system.
These models can be classified into the following:
Applications of simulation can be assigned to:
Analysis.
Digital manufacturing systems often incorporate optimization capabilities to reduce time, cost, and improve the efficiency of most processes. These systems improve optimization of floor schedules, production planning, and decision making. The system analyzes feedback from production, such as deviations or problems in the manufacturing system, and generates solutions for handling them.
In addition, many technologies analyze data from simulations in order to calculate a design that is optimal before it is even built.
Debate continues on the impact of such systems on the manufacturing workforce. Econometric models have found that each newly installed robot displaces 1.6 manufacturing workers on average. Those models also have forecasted that by 2030 as many as 20 million additional manufacturing jobs worldwide could be displaced due to robotization.
However, other research has found evidence, not of job losses, but of a skills gap. Digital manufacturing is creating hundreds of new data-centric manufacturing jobs — roles like “collaborative robotics technician” and “predictive maintenance systems specialist" — but not enough available workers with the skills and training necessary to fill them.
Tooling and processes.
There are many different tooling processes that digital manufacturing utilizes. However, every digital manufacturing process involves the use of computerized numerical controlled machines (CNC). This technology is crucial in digital manufacturing as it not only enables mass production and flexibility, but it also provides a link between a CAD model and production. The two primary categories of CNC tooling are additive and subtractive. Major strides in additive manufacturing have come about recently and are at the forefront of digital manufacturing. These processes allow machines to address every element of a part no matter the complexity of its shape.
Types.
Cloud-based design and manufacturing.
Cloud-Based Design (CBD) refers to a model that incorporates social network sites, cloud computing, and other web technologies to aid in cloud design services. This type of system must be cloud computing-based, be accessible from mobile devices, and must be able to manage complex information. Autodesk Fusion 360 is an example CBD.
Cloud-Based Manufacturing (CBM) refers to a model that utilizes the access to open information from various resources to develop reconfigurable production lines to improve efficiency, reduce costs, and improve response to customer needs. A number of online manufacturing platforms enables users to upload their 3D files for DFM analysis and Manufacture.


Transfer molding

Transfer molding (BrE: transfer moulding) is a manufacturing process in which casting material is forced into a mold. Transfer molding is different from compression molding in that the mold is enclosed rather than open to the fill plunger resulting in higher dimensional tolerances and less environmental impact. Compared to injection molding, transfer molding uses higher pressures to uniformly fill the mold cavity. This allows thicker reinforcing fiber matrices to be more completely saturated by resin. Furthermore, unlike injection molding the transfer mold casting material may start the process as a solid. This can reduce equipment costs and time dependency. The transfer process may have a slower fill rate than an equivalent injection molding process.
Process.
The mold interior surfaces may be gel-coated. If desired, the mold is first pre-loaded with a reinforcing fiber matrix or preform. Fiber content of a transfer molded composite can be as high as 60% by volume. The fill material may be a preheated solid or a liquid. It is loaded into a chamber known as the pot. A ram or plunger forces material from the pot into the heated mold cavity. If feed-stock is initially solid, the forcing pressure and mold temperature melt it. Standard mold features such as sprue channels, a flow gate and ejector pins may be used. The heated mold ensures that the flow remains liquid for complete filling. Once filled the mold can be cooled at a controlled rate for optimal thermoset curing.
Variations.
The industry identifies a variety of processes within the transfer molding category. There are areas of overlap and the distinctions between each method may not be clearly defined.
Resin transfer molding.
Resin transfer molding (RTM) uses a liquid thermoset resin to saturate a fiber preform placed in a closed mold. The process is versatile and can fabricate products with embedded objects such as foam cores or other components in addition to the fiber preform.
Vacuum assisted resin transfer molding.
Vacuum assisted transfer molding (VARTM) uses a partial vacuum on one side of a fiber mat to pull the resin in for complete saturation. VARTM uses lower plunger forces which allows molding to be carried out with cheaper equipment. The use of a vacuum may allow the resin to adequately flow and or cure without heating. This temperature independence allows thicker fiber preforms and larger product geometries to be economical. VARTM can produce parts with less porosity than regular transfer molding with a proportional increase in casting strength.
Micro transfer molding.
Also called transfer micromolding, micro transfer molding is a process that uses a mold to form then transfer structures as small as 30 nm onto thin films and microcircuitry. Unlike normal scale transfer molding, the micro form can and is used with metals as well as non metals.
Defects.
Limiting defects is key when commercially producing any sort of material. Transfer molding is no exception. For example, voids in a transfer molded parts significantly reduce strength and modulus. There can also be defects when fibers are used around sharp corners. The resin flow can create resin rich zones on the outside of these corners.
Pressure distribution
There are several contributing factors to voids in the final product of transfer molding. One is a non uniform pressure distribution among the material being pressed into the mold. In this case the material folds in on itself and generates voids. Another is voids in the resin being forced into the mold beforehand. This may be obvious, but it is a main contributor. Things to be done to limit these molds include pressing the resin in at a high pressure, keeping the fiber distribution uniform, and using a high quality properly degassed base resin.
Sharp corners
Sharp corners are the problems with all mold based manufacturing, including casting. Specifically in transfer molding corners can break fibers that have been placed in the mold and can create voids on the inside of corners. This effect is demonstrated in Figure 3 on the right. The limiting factor in these designs is the inner corner radius. This inner radius limit varies depending on resin and fiber selection, but a rule of thumbs is the radius though be 3 to 5 times the laminate thickness.
Materials.
The material most commonly used for transfer molding is a thermoset polymer. This type of polymer is easy to mold and manipulate, but upon curing, hardens into a permanent form. For simple homogeneous transfer molded parts, the part is simply made of this plastic substrate. On the other hand, resin transfer molding allows for a composite material to be made by placing a fiber within the mold and subsequently injecting the thermosetting polymer.
Defects known as voids and dry resin (in the case of resin transfer molding) are possible in transfer molding and often are exacerbated by high viscosity materials. This is because a high viscosity plastic flowing through a thin mold may miss entire vacated areas, leaving air pockets. When air pockets are left in the presence of fiber, this creates a “dry” area, which prevents load from being transferred through the fibers in the dry area.
Materials used for the plastic are often polyurethanes or epoxy resins. Both of these are soft and malleable before curing, becoming much harder after setting. Materials used for fibers vary extensively, although common choices are carbon or Kevlar fibers, as well as organic fibers, such as hemp.


Mesoscale manufacturing

Mesoscale manufacturing is the process of creating components and products in a range of approximately from 0.1mm to 5mm with high accuracy and precision using a wide variety of engineering materials. Mesomanufacturing processes are filling the gap between macro- and micromanufacturing processes and overlaps both of them (see picture). Other manufacturing technologies are nanoscale ( 0.5 mm).
Applications.
Application of mesomanufacturing include electronics, biotechnology, optics, medicine, avionics, communications, and other areas. Specific applications include mechanical watches, and extremely small motors and bearings; lenses for cameras and other micro parts for mobile telephones; micro-batteries, mesoscale fuel cells, microscale pumps, valves, and mixing devices for microchemical reactors; biomedical implants, microholes for fiber optics; medical devices such as stents and valves; mini nozzles for high-temperature jets; mesoscale molds; desktop- or micro-factories, and many others.
Processes.
Manufacturing in the mesoscale can be accomplished by scaling down macroscale manufacturing processes or scaling up nanomanufacturing processes. Macroscale techniques like mill and lathe machining have been successful used to create features in the range of 25 µm. Meso Machine tools (mMTs), for example a miniaturized milling machine, is an expansion of using traditional macroscale techniques to manufacture mesoscale products. With the limitation of self-excited vibration of machine tools and fatigue, microassembly and micro- and mesoscale milling are created to improve the maximum stiffness and dynamic operation of the milling process, which improves the overall performance of manufacturing. The development of mMTs has revealed many challenges that are specific to machining at the small scales. These challenges stem from the large influence of grain size at small scales and the necessity of extremely small tolerances for both the machine tools and the measuring tools.
Laser machining is a traditional technique that uses nanosecond pulses of ultraviolet light to create mesoscale features like holes, fillets, etc. The removal of material during laser machining is proportional to exposure time and therefore this process can be used to create three dimensional features.
A less traditional technique is to use focused ion beam sputtering (FIB) to remove material. This process involves focusing a beam of ions, for example gallium, to the work piece, causing material to be removed. FIB sputtering has a relatively low rate of material removal and therefore has limited application.
Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is another subtractive manufacturing process used in the mesoscale. This process requires that electricity be transferred between the tool electrode and the work piece and therefore it can only be used to manufacture materials that conduct electricity. One advantage of EDM is that it can be used on hard materials that do not work well in traditional machining processes, such as titanium.


Toyota K platform

The Toyota K platform, informally known as the Toyota Camry platform, is a front-wheel-drive automobile platform (also adaptable to four-wheel-drive) that has underpinned various Toyota and Lexus models from the mid-size category upwards since September 1999, starting with the Avalon (XX20). Besides the Camry, the K platform was used on minivans, crossovers and luxury sedans. This platform was larger than the front-wheel-drive MC and New MC platforms, but less upscale than the N and New N platforms designed for rear-wheel drive luxury applications. Starting with the XV70 Toyota Camry (2017), the new K platform (TNGA-K) is part of the Toyota New Global Architecture (TNGA).


Toyota Motor Engineering & Manufacturing North America, Inc. (TEMA) is the holding company for Toyota's automobile manufacturing and research and development operations in North America. Although the company still exists for legal purposes, the company is operated as part of Toyota Motor North America.
TEMA was formed in April 2006 as the result of a merger of Toyota Motor Manufacturing North America (TMMNA) and Toyota Technical Center, U.S.A. (TTC). As part of the "One Toyota" initiative, TEMA merged with Toyota Motor Sales, USA (TMS) and Toyota Motor North America, Inc. (TMA), which controlled Toyota’s corporate functions, to form Toyota Motor North America. While the three companies continue to exist in legal name, they operate as one company.
History.
Toyota’s first manufacturing investment in the United States came in 1972 when the company struck a deal with Atlas Fabricators, to produce truck beds in Long Beach, California. The partnership was successful and two years later, Toyota purchased Atlas and renamed it Toyota Auto Body California (TABC) as part of its Toyota Auto Body manufacturing subsidiary.
In June 1977, the company established the Toyota Technical Center, U.S.A. (TTC), an engineering design and research and development subsidiary in the town of Ann Arbor, Michigan, not far from Detroit, the center of automobile manufacturing in the United States.
In 1984, Toyota would establish with GM a joint-venture vehicle manufacturing plant called NUMMI (New United Motor Manufacturing, Inc.) which would begin assembling the Toyota Corolla in Fremont, California, the first Toyota built in America. Toyota took the lessons it learned from NUMMI and went onto establish the wholly-owned Toyota Motor Manufacturing Kentucky and Toyota Motor Manufacturing Canada plants in 1986.
As Toyota prepared to open more plants in 1996, the company created the Toyota Motor Manufacturing North America (TMMNA) subsidiary in Erlanger, Kentucky to oversee all Toyota manufacturing operations in North America.
TMMNA would merge with the Toyota Technical Center, U.S.A. (TTC) research and development subsidiary in April 2006 to form Toyota Motor Engineering & Manufacturing North America, Inc. (TEMA).
In July 2017, as part of the "One Toyota" initiative, TEMA merged with Toyota Motor Sales, USA (TMS), and Toyota Motor North America, Inc. (TMA), which controlled Toyota’s corporate functions, to form Toyota Motor North America. While the three companies continue to exist in legal name, they operate as one company, at one headquarters campus in Plano, Texas.
Toyota continues to operate research and design centers in Michigan and in October 2017 opened a new Production Engineering and Manufacturing Center (PEMC) in Georgetown, Kentucky (about an hour from the former headquarters), to serve as the go-between for design and manufacturing.


KLA Corporation

KLA Corporation is an American capital equipment company based in Milpitas, California. It supplies process control and yield management systems for the semiconductor industry and other related nanoelectronics industries. The company's products and services are intended for all phases of wafer, reticle, integrated circuit (IC) and packaging production, from research and development to final volume manufacturing.
History.
KLA-Tencor was formed in 1997 through the merger of KLA Instruments and Tencor Instruments, two companies in the semiconductor equipment and yield management systems industry. The merger was intended to create a single source for chip process and diagnostics equipment. KLA Instruments was founded in 1975 by Ken Levy and Bob Anderson, and focused on photomask detection to identify chip defects. KLA later broadened its product line to include wafer inspection, wafer metrology and integrated inspection and analysis software. Tencor was founded in 1976 by Czech scientist and US immigrant Karel Urbanek, along with colleague John Schwabacher. The company initially focused on making precise measurements of semiconductor film layer thickness, and in 1984, developed laser-scanning technology to detect particle and other contamination. The company also developed defect review and data analysis equipment. At the time of the merger, the companies' combined revenue was greater than $1 billion.
In February 1998, KLA-Tencor acquired Freiburg, Germany-based Nanopro GmbH, a company that used advanced interferometric technology for wafer shape and thickness measurements. In April, the company acquired Amray, Inc., a Bedford, Massachusetts-based provider of scanning electron microscope (SEM) systems for applications including semiconductor manufacturing. In June, the company acquired San Jose, CA-based VARS, a developer of image archiving and retrieval systems. In November, KLA-Tencor acquired the Quantox line of oxide monitoring products from Solon, Ohio-based measurement and instrument company Keithley Instruments. In December, the company acquired the Ultrapointe subsidiary of Uniphase Corporation.
In December 1999, the company acquired Taiwan-based yield analysis software maker ACME Systems.
In February 2000, KLA-Tencor acquired Austin, Texas-based Finle Technologies, Inc., a developer of lithography modeling and analysis software. In March, the company acquired Austin, Texas-based advanced process control (APC) software developer Fab Solutions, from parent ObjectSpace.
In 2001, the company acquired yield management and process control company Phase Metrics, Inc.
In 2004, KLA-Tencor acquired surface inspection system manufacturer Candela Instruments, Inc. and the Wafer Inspection Systems business of Inspex, Inc.
In 2006, the company acquired ADE Corporation, a supplier of silicon wafer metrology and related gear.
In 2007, KLA-Tencor acquired lithography and plasma etch products manufacturer OnWafer Technologies, temperature monitoring firm SensArray Corporation and process control and metrology company Therma-Wave Corporation.
In 2008, the company acquired test and measurement company ICOS Vision Systems Corporation NV, and the Microelectronic Inspection Equipment (MIE) business unit of Vistec Semiconductor Systems, Inc.
In 2010, KLA-Tencor acquired technology hardware company Ambios Technology, Inc.
In 2014, the company acquired computational lithography and inspection company Luminescent Technologies, Inc.
In 2017, the company acquired optical profiling and inspection company Zeta Technologies Co. Ltd.
In 2018, KLA-Tencor acquired the Nano Indenter product line from Keysight Technologies. The company also acquired Nanomechanics Inc. and MicroVision.
In March 2018, KLA-Tencor announced an agreement to acquire Yavne, Israel-based automated optical inspection equipment vendor Orbotech for approximately $3.4 billion. Orbotech also owned Newport, Wales, UK-based SPTS Technologies Ltd, a manufacturer of etch, PVD and CVD wafer processing equipment for the MEMS, advanced packaging, LED, high-speed RF, and power management devices.
On January 10, 2019, KLA-Tencor announced that they were changing their name to KLA Corporation. In February, the company announced that its acquisition of Orbotech was complete. The company's name change took effect in July 2019. In June, KLA announced plans to open a second US headquarters in Ann Arbor, Michigan. The facility was scheduled to open in summer 2021, with plans to host 500-600 new hires, around 50% of whom were to be engineers. The facility would reportedly have a relationship with the University of Michigan and support automotive industry partnerships.
In July 2021, the company introduced new inspection products for automotive chips. In November, KLA's new North American headquarters opened in Ann Arbor, Michigan. The facility is 230,000 square feet, and is designed to support 1,000 employees.
Illegal stock options backdating.
On January 2008, KLA paid $65 million to settle allegations that the company and certain executives had illegally backdated stock option grants. The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission stated that "KLA dramatically overstated its reported financial results, depriving investors of accurate information about the company's compensation costs and financial performance. It is especially troubling for a public company to engage in such misconduct even after being cautioned that these practices were impermissible."
KLA Foundation.
KLA Foundation (originally KLA-Tencor Foundation) is the company's philanthropic arm, and was founded in 2000. KLA Foundation supports and benefits the global communities in which KLA employees live, such as donations to the Milpitas school district, the American Red Cross, and Silicon Valley Leadership Group’s Covid-19 Aid Coalition.


Continuous casting

Continuous casting, also called strand casting, is the process whereby molten metal is solidified into a "semifinished" billet, bloom, or slab for subsequent rolling in the finishing mills. Prior to the introduction of continuous casting in the 1950s, steel was poured into stationary molds to form ingots. Since then, "continuous casting" has evolved to achieve improved yield, quality, productivity and cost efficiency. It allows lower-cost production of metal sections with better quality, due to the inherently lower costs of continuous, standardised production of a product, as well as providing increased control over the process through automation. This process is used most frequently to cast steel (in terms of tonnage cast). Aluminium and copper are also continuously cast.
Sir Henry Bessemer, of Bessemer converter fame, received a patent in 1857 for casting metal between two counter-rotating rollers. The basic outline of this system has recently been implemented today in the casting of steel strip.
Equipment and process.
Steel.
Molten metal is tapped into the ladle from furnaces. After undergoing any ladle treatments, such as alloying and degassing, and arriving at the correct temperature, the ladle is transported to the top of the casting machine. Usually the ladle sits in a slot on a rotating turret at the casting machine. One ladle is in the 'on-cast' position (feeding the casting machine) while the other is made ready in the 'off-cast' position, and is switched to the casting position when the first ladle is empty.
From the ladle, the hot metal is transferred via a refractory shroud (pipe) to a holding bath called a tundish. The tundish allows a reservoir of metal to feed the casting machine while ladles are switched, thus acting as a buffer of hot metal, as well as smoothing out flow, regulating metal feed to the molds and cleaning the metal (see below).
Usually a disposable working lining refractory used is called as "tundish boards".
Metal is drained from the tundish through another shroud into the top of an open-base copper mold. The depth of the mold can range from , depending on the casting speed and section size. The mold is water-cooled to solidify the hot metal directly in contact with it; this is the "primary cooling" process. It also oscillates vertically (or in a near vertical curved path) to prevent the metal sticking to the mold walls. A lubricant (either powders that melt on contact with the metal, or liquids) is added to the metal in the mold to prevent sticking, and to trap any slag particles—including oxide particles or scale—that may be present in the metal and bring them to the top of the pool to form a floating layer of slag. The shroud is set so the hot metal exits it below the surface of the slag layer in the mold and is thus called a submerged entry nozzle (SEN). In some cases, shrouds may not be used between tundish and mold ('open-pour' casting); in this case, interchangeable metering nozzles in the base of the tundish direct the metal into the moulds. Some continuous casting layouts feed several molds from the same tundish.
In the mold, a thin shell of metal next to the mold walls solidifies before the center, and then the molded metal, now called a strand, exits the base of the mold into a spray chamber. The bulk of the metal within the walls of the strand is still molten. The strand is immediately supported by closely spaced, water-cooled rollers which support the walls of the strand against the ferrostatic pressure (compare hydrostatic pressure) of the still-solidifying liquid within the strand. To increase the rate of solidification, the strand is sprayed with large amounts of water as it passes through the spray-chamber; this is the "secondary cooling" process. Final solidification of the strand may take place after the strand has exited the spray-chamber.
It is here that the design of continuous casting machines may vary. This describes a 'curved apron' casting machine; vertical configurations are also used. In a curved apron casting machine, the strand exits the mold vertically (or on a near vertical curved path) and as it travels through the spray-chamber, the rollers gradually curve the strand towards the horizontal. In a vertical casting machine, the strand stays vertical as it passes through the spray-chamber. Molds in a curved apron casting machine can be straight or curved, depending on the basic design of the machine.
In a true horizontal casting machine, the mold axis is horizontal and the flow of steel is horizontal from liquid to thin shell to solid (no bending). In this type of machine, either strand or mold oscillation is used to prevent sticking in the mold.
After exiting the spray-chamber, the strand passes through straightening rolls (if cast on other than a vertical machine) and withdrawal rolls. There may be a hot rolling stand after withdrawal to take advantage of the metal's hot condition to pre-shape the final strand. Finally, the strand is cut into predetermined lengths by mechanical shears or by travelling oxyacetylene torches, is marked for identification, and is taken either to a stockpile or to the next forming process.
In many cases the strand may continue through additional rollers and other mechanisms which may flatten, roll or extrude the metal into its final shape.
Developments since the mid 1980s reduced the thicknesses that can be cast, initially to transfer bars of ~50mm thickness, also called thin slabs, and then more recently down to thin strip castings of 2mm thickness.
Casting machines for aluminium and copper.
Aluminium and copper can be cast horizontally and can be more easily cast into near net shape, especially strip, due to their lower melting temperatures.
Startup and control of the process.
Starting a continuous casting machine involves placing a dummy bar (essentially a curved metal beam) up through the spray chamber to close off the base of the mould. Metal is poured into the mould and withdrawn with the dummy bar once it solidifies. It is extremely important that the metal supply afterwards be guaranteed to avoid unnecessary shutdowns and restarts, known as 'turnarounds'. Each time the caster stops and restarts, a new tundish is required, as any uncast metal in the tundish cannot be drained and instead freezes into a 'skull'. Avoiding turnarounds requires the melt shop, including ladle furnaces (if any) to keep tight control on the temperature of the metal, which can vary dramatically with alloying additions, slag cover and deslagging, and the preheating of the ladle before it accepts metal, among other parameters. However, the cast rate may be lowered by reducing the amount of metal in the tundish (although this can increase wear on the tundish), or if the caster has multiple strands, one or more strands may be shut down to accommodate upstream delays. Turnarounds may be scheduled into a production sequence if the tundish temperature becomes too high after a certain number of heats or the service lifetime of a non-replaceable component (i.e., the submerged entry nozzle (SEN) in a thin-slab casting machine) is reached.
Many continuous casting operations are now fully computer-controlled. Several electromagnetic, thermal, or radiation sensors at the ladle shroud, tundish and mould sense the metal level or weight, flow rate and temperature of the hot metal, and the programmable logic controller (PLC) can set the rate of strand withdrawal via speed control of the withdrawal rolls. The flow of metal into the moulds can be controlled via three methods:
Overall casting speed can be adjusted by altering the amount of metal in the tundish, via the ladle slide gate. The PLC can also set the mould oscillation rate and the rate of mould powder feed, as well as the flow of water in the cooling sprays within the strand. Computer control also allows vital casting data to be transmitted to other manufacturing centres (particularly the steelmaking furnaces), allowing their work rates to be adjusted to avoid 'overflow' or 'underrun' of product.
Problems.
Contamination by oxygen.
While the large amount of automation helps produce castings with no shrinkage and little segregation, continuous casting is of no use if the metal is not clean beforehand, or becomes 'dirty' during the casting process. One of the main methods through which hot metal may become dirty is by oxidation, which occurs rapidly at molten metal temperatures (up to 1700 °C for steel); inclusions of gas, slag or undissolved alloys may also be present. To prevent oxidation, the metal is isolated from the atmosphere as much as possible. To achieve this, exposed liquid metal surfaces are covered – by the shrouds, or in the case of the ladle, tundish and mould, by synthetic slag. In the tundish, any inclusions that are less dense than the liquid metal – gas bubbles, other slag or oxides, or undissolved alloys – may also float to the surface and be trapped in the slag layer. While the tundish and mold fill for the first time at the start of a casting run, the liquid is badly contaminated with oxygen and the first items produced are typically quarantined or diverted to customers who do not require top-quality material.
Upcasting solves this problem by forming a continuous product from a metal (e.g. copper or silver) seed (e.g. metal rod).
Breakouts.
A major problem that may occur in continuous casting is "breakout" of the liquid metal: for whatever reason, the solid shell of the strand breaks and allows the still-molten metal contained within to spill out and foul the machine. In most industrial environments this event is very costly as it leads to a shutdown of the strand and typically requires an extended turnaround involving removal of the spilled material from within the strand equipment and/or replacement of damaged machinery. A breakout is usually due to the shell wall being too thin to support the liquid column above it, a condition which has several root causes often related to heat management. Improper cooling water flow to the mould or the strand cooling sprays may lead to inadequate heat removal from the solidifying metal, causing the solid shell to thicken too slowly. If the metal withdrawal rate is too fast, the shell may not have time to solidify to the required thickness even with enhanced cooling sprays. Similarly, the incoming liquid metal may be too hot and the final solidification may occur further down the strand at a later point than expected; if this point is below the straightening rolls, the shell may break from stresses applied during straightening. A breakout can also occur as a result of physical irregularities or damage to the shell occurring within the mould during the initial seconds of solidification. Excessive turbulence within the mold may cause an irregular shell pattern that grows abnormally or it may entrap slag droplets within the shell which reduces the wall strength. A common occurrence is for the shell to stick to the mould's surface and tear; modern instrumented molds and computer control systems typically detect this and slow the caster down temporarily to let the wall refreeze and heal while it is still supported in the mould. Should the tear occur near the exit of the mould or be of unexpected severity, the shell may still fail in a breakout once it emerges from the mould wall. If the incoming metal is severely overheated, it may be preferable to stop the caster than to risk a breakout. Additionally, lead contamination of the metal (caused by counterweights or lead-acid batteries in the initial steel charge) can form a thin film between the mould wall and the steel, inhibiting heat removal and shell growth and increasing the risk of breakouts.
Other considerations.
Another problem that may occur is a "carbon boil" – oxygen dissolved in the steel reacts with also-present carbon to generate bubbles of carbon monoxide. As the term "boil" suggests, this reaction is extremely fast and violent, generating large amounts of hot gas, and is especially dangerous if it occurs in the confined spaces of a casting machine. Oxygen can be removed by "killing" it through the addition of silicon or aluminium to the steel, which reacts to form silicon oxide (silica) or aluminium oxide (alumina). However, too much alumina in the steel will clog the casting nozzles and cause the steel to 'choke off'.
Computational fluid dynamics and other fluid flow techniques are being used extensively in the design of new continuous casting operations, especially in the tundish, to ensure that inclusions and turbulence are removed from the hot metal, yet ensure that all the metal reaches the mould before it cools too much. Slight adjustments to the flow conditions within the tundish or the mould can mean the difference between high and low rejection rates of the product.
Starter bar.
The starter bar, also called a dummy bar, has a free end portion which is flexible for storage and a substantially rigid portion at the end which plugs the mold. The starter bar is constructed in discrete blocks secured to one side of a planar spine provided in segments and arranged end to end. Adjustable spacers in the form of tapered blocks are disposed between the blocks of the bar to allow the starter bar to be self-supporting in a curved configuration corresponding to the casting path. A more flexible spine in the end portion of the starter bar allows the starter bar to be curved to a tighter radius than that of the casting path while the blocks fan out in an unsupported configuration. A storage ramp is provided to support the flexible end in the stored position. Before a cast is started, the starter bars are fed through the caster (in reverse direction of casting) using hydraulic actuators. Once fed all the way to the bottom of the mold, the process of packing the mold can continue to ensure a smooth start up.
Direct strip casting.
Direct strip casting is a continuous casting process for producing metallic sheet directly from the molten state that minimizes the need for substantial secondary processing. For low-carbon sheet steels, this is a relatively new process which has only achieved commercial success since the early 2000s.
Twin-belt continuous casting.
Twin-belt continuous casting is a continuous casting process that produces high volume continuous metal bar or strip of constant rectangular cross section. Twin-belt continuous casting employs a moving mold consisting of parallel carbon-steel belts held in tension as top and bottom casting surfaces. Chains of rectangular steel or copper blocks moving with the belts and spaced according to the desired cast width form the sides of the mold.
Molten metal is introduced into the twin-belt continuous casting machine from a tundish through a nozzle placed between the casting belts. The metal is cooled by direct contact with the belts which are in turn cooled by high pressure recirculating water. Various coatings can be applied to the belt casting surfaces to provide required mold interface characteristics and prevent adhesion.
The cast metal from the twin-belt continuous casting machine is synchronized with, and directly fed into, a hot rolling mill. Combining the casting and rolling operations can result in significant energy and cost savings over other casting processes which incorporate intermediate cast and reheat steps.
Metals cast on twin-belt continuous casting machines: Copper (Bar, Strip, Anode), Aluminum(Strip), Zinc (Strip), Lead (Strip)
Production rates and speeds: Twin-belt continuous casting rates range up to 60 tons per hour at speeds up to 14 meters per minute.
Twin-belt continuous casting is a near net shape casting process, which significantly reduces the need for secondary rolling or forming operations. For example, when casting copper anode plate the cast slab is not rolled but rather sheared directly into distinct anode plates.
The cooling belts are typically made of low carbon steel and are held under tension within the casting machine to ensure flatness and accuracy. As a "cold" belt enters the mold region, it is heated in the cast zone and is subject to powerful forces caused by thermal expansion. When casting wide strip, these forces must be controlled to eliminate buckling and reduce thermal distortion of the belt at the mold entrance. These forces can be controlled by preheating the belts before mold entry, or by magnetically stabilizing them once they have entered the mold.
Belt preheating: For wide strip casting, a belt preheating system can be used to bring the belt up to 150 °C or higher immediately prior to entering the casting mold, reducing the effects of cold framing. Induction heating coils can be used across the width to preheat each belt. In addition to preventing thermal distortion, the high preheat temperature serves to eliminate any moisture present on the belt surface.
Magnetic stabilization: When casting wide strip, the tendency of localized thermal distortion can be resisted by the use of high-strength, magnetic belt back-up support rolls within the mold region. The moving belt is held against the support rolls by magnetized rotating fins maintaining the belt in a flat plane.
Within the twin-belt continuous casting machine, molten metal progressively solidifies on the mold surfaces as it moves through the mold region, with a sump of molten metal present between the solidifying outer surfaces. Belt coatings, texture, and gas layer modifications are used to fine tune the heat transfer rate from the cast metal to the belt. Full thickness solidification can occur as early as 30% of the way through the mold for thin strip, or up to 2 m beyond the mold exit for large bar where exit water spray cooling and roller support are required.
Closed pool feeding: When casting certain metals such as aluminum, a fully closed pool “injection” metal feeding system can be employed. Here, the metal is introduced under slight pressure into the closed mold cavity. Metal flow is controlled by maintaining a preset level in the tundish. The feed snout, or nozzle, is typically made from a ceramic material which is thermally stable and permeable to gases being released from the flowing metal.
Open pool feeding: When casting other metals, such as copper, zinc and lead, an open pool feeding system is often used. In this case, the upper belt pulley is offset downstream from the bottom pulley. Metal flows through an open trough or tundish into a standing pool of molten metal formed at the convergence of the belts. Shrouding gases may be employed to protect against oxidation.
Mold tapering: The twin-belt casting machine differs from other moving mold casting machines in that all four mold surfaces are independent. This allows the mold surfaces to be tapered to remain in contact with the cast product as it shrinks. The high velocity cooling water, which is continuously applied to the backside of the belt, impinges on the belt and creates a force on the belt. This force acts to press the belt against the surface of the strip or slab as it shrinks, keeping the belt in close contact with the cast product throughout the mold. Each side of the mold is formed by an endless chain of dam blocks, which are held against the cast strip by adjustable spring-loaded guides.
Molten metal level control: To accommodate high casting speeds and maintain as high a pool level as possible, non-contact electromagnetic metal level indicators can be used to sense the pool level in the casting machine.
Aluminum or copper strip casting: Commercial twin-belt continuous strip casting machines are capable of producing as-cast dimensions from 10–35 mm thick, and up to 2035 mm wide. After being directly fed into a hot rolling mill, the as-cast strip is typically rolled down to 1–3 mm thickness strip.
Copper bar casting: As-cast dimensions range from 35–75 mm thick, and from 50-150 mm wide. After being directly fed into a hot rolling mill, the as-cast bar is typically rolled into 8 mm diameter rod to be used for wire drawing.
Copper anode casting: Special dam blocks which contain anode lug molds and a traveling hydraulic shear are added to the twin-belt casting machine to continuously cast net shape copper anodes. Anode width of approximately 1 meter (excluding lugs) and thicknesses from 16 mm to 45 mm. The primary advantage of this process is uniformity of the as-cast anode in terms of size and surface quality. Anodes cast using this process do not require additional preparation after casting.
Mold length:The mold length ranges from approximately 2000 mm for strip casting machines and up to 3700 mm for copper bar casting machines.


Material requirements planning

Material requirements planning (MRP) is a production planning, scheduling, and inventory control system used to manage manufacturing processes. Most MRP systems are software-based, but it is possible to conduct MRP by hand as well.
An MRP system is intended to simultaneously meet three objectives:
History.
Prior to MRP, and before computers dominated industry, reorder point (ROP)/reorder-quantity (ROQ) type methods like EOQ (economic order quantity) had been used in manufacturing and inventory management.
MRP was computerized by the aero engine makers Rolls-Royce and General Electric in the early 1950s but not commercialized by them. It was then 'reinvented' to supply the Polaris program and then, in 1964, as a response to the Toyota Manufacturing Program, Joseph Orlicky developed material requirements planning (MRP). The first company to use MRP was Black & Decker in 1964, with Dick Alban as project leader. Orlicky's 1975 book "Material Requirements Planning" has the subtitle "The New Way of Life in Production and Inventory Management". By 1975, MRP was implemented in 700 companies. This number had grown to about 8,000 by 1981.
In 1983, Oliver Wight developed MRP into manufacturing resource planning (MRP II). In the 1980s, Joe Orlicky's MRP evolved into Oliver Wight's manufacturing resource planning (MRP II) which brings master scheduling, rough-cut capacity planning, capacity requirements planning, S&OP in 1983 and other concepts to classical MRP. By 1989, about one third of the software industry was MRP II software sold to American industry ($1.2 billion worth of software).
The scope of MRP in manufacturing.
Dependent demand vs independent demand.
Independent demand is demand originating outside the plant or production system, while dependent demand is demand for components. The bill of materials (BOM) specifies the relationship between the end product (independent demand) and the components (dependent demand). MRP takes as input the information contained in the BOM.
The basic functions of an MRP system include: inventory control, bill of material processing, and elementary scheduling. MRP helps organizations to maintain low inventory levels. It is used to plan manufacturing, purchasing and delivering activities.
"Manufacturing organizations, whatever their products, face the same daily practical problem - that customers want products to be available in a shorter time than it takes to make them. This means that some level of planning is required."
Companies need to control the types and quantities of materials they purchase, plan which products are to be produced and in what quantities and ensure that they are able to meet current and future customer demand, all at the lowest possible cost. Making a bad decision in any of these areas will make the company lose money. A few examples are given below:
MRP is a tool to deal with these problems. It provides answers for several questions:
MRP can be applied both to items that are purchased from outside suppliers and to sub-assemblies, produced internally, that are components of more complex items.
Data.
The data that must be considered include:
Outputs.
There are two outputs and a variety of messages/reports:
Messages and reports:
Methods to find order quantities.
Well-known methods to find order quantities are:
Mathematical formulation.
MRP can be expressed as an optimal control problem:
Where "x' " is local inventory (the state), "z" the order size (the control), "d" is local demand, "k" represents fixed order costs, "c" variable order costs, "h" local inventory holding costs. δ is the Heaviside function. Changing the dynamics of the problem leads to a multi-item analogue of the dynamic lot-size model.
Problems with MRP systems.
Solutions to data integrity issues.
Source:
Demand driven MRP.
In 2011, the third edition of "Orlicky's Materials Requirements Planning" introduced a new type of MRP called "demand driven MRP" (DDMRP). The new edition of the book was written, not by Orlicky himself (he died in 1986) but by Carol Ptak and Chad Smith at the invitation of McGraw Hill to update Orlicky's work.
Demand driven MRP is a multi-echelon formal planning and execution technique with five distinct components:
These five components work together to attempt to dampen, if not eliminate, the nervousness of traditional MRP systems and the bullwhip effect in complex and challenging environments. The Demand Driven Institute claims the following: In utilizing these approaches, planners will no longer have to try to respond to every single message for every single part that is off by even one day. This approach provides real information about those parts that are truly at risk of negatively impacting the planned availability of inventory. DDMRP sorts the significant few items that require attention from the many parts that are being managed. Under the DDMRP approach, consultants selling it claim that fewer planners can make better decisions more quickly. That means companies will be better able to leverage their working and human capital as well as the huge investments they have made in information technology. One down-side, however, is that DDMRP cannot run on the majority of MRPII/ERP systems in use today.
It is claimed by the companies selling it that DDMRP has been successfully applied to a variety of environments including CTO (configure to order), MTS (make to stock), MTO (make to order) and ETO (engineer to order) although detailed studies are rare. The methodology is applied differently in each environments but the five step process remains the same. DDMRP leverages knowledge from theory of constraints (TOC), traditional MRP & DRP, Six Sigma and lean. It is effectively an amalgam of MRP for planning, and kanban techniques for execution (across multi-echelon supply chains) which means that it has the strengths of both but also the weaknesses of both, so it remains a niche solution. Implementations of Demand Driven MRP began in 2002 and there are now multiple case studies and published peer reviewed journal articles published by the organizations selling it. The problems with MRP (as listed above) also apply to DDMRP.
Additional references are included below.


Crash simulation

A crash simulation is a virtual recreation of a destructive crash test of a car or a highway guard rail system using a computer simulation in order to examine the level of safety of the car and its occupants. Crash simulations are used by automakers during computer-aided engineering (CAE) analysis for crashworthiness in the computer-aided design (CAD) process of modelling new cars. During a crash simulation, the kinetic energy, or energy of motion, that a vehicle has before the impact is transformed into deformation energy, mostly by plastic deformation (plasticity) of the car body material (Body in White), at the end of the impact.
Data obtained from a crash simulation indicate the capability of the car body or guard rail structure to protect the vehicle occupants during a collision (and also pedestrians hit by a car) against injury. Important results are the deformations (for example, steering wheel intrusions) of the occupant space (driver, passengers) and the decelerations (for example, head acceleration) felt by them, which must fall below threshold values fixed in legal car safety regulations. To model real crash tests, today's crash simulations include virtual models of crash test dummies and of passive safety devices (seat belts, airbags, shock absorbing dash boards, etc.). Guide rail tests evaluate vehicle deceleration and rollover potential, as well as penetration of the barrier by vehicles.
History.
In the years 1970 attempts were made to simulate car crash events with non-linear spring-mass systems after calibration, which require as input the results of physical destructive laboratory tests, needed to determine the mechanical crushing behavior of each spring component of the modeled system. "First principle" simulations like more elaborate finite element models, however, need only the definition of the structural geometry and the basic material properties (rheology of car body steel, glass, plastic parts, etc.) as an input to generate the numerical model.
The origins of industrial first principle computerized car crash simulation lies in military defense, outer space, and civil nuclear power plant applications. Upon presentation of a simulation of the accidental crash of a military fighter plane into a nuclear power plant on May 30, 1978, by ESI Group in a meeting organized by the Verein Deutscher Ingenieure (VDI) in Stuttgart, car makers became alerted to the possibility of using this technology for the simulation of destructive car crash tests (Haug 1981).
In the following years, German car makers produced more complex crash simulation studies, simulating the crash behavior of individual car body components, component assemblies, and quarter and half car bodies in white (BIW). These experiments culminated in a joint project by the Forschungsgemeinschaft Automobil-Technik (FAT), a conglomeration of all seven German car makers (Audi, BMW, Ford, Mercedes-Benz, Opel, Porsche, and Volkswagen), which tested the applicability of two emerging commercial crash simulation codes. These simulation codes recreated a frontal impact of a full passenger car structure (Haug 1986) and they ran to completion on a computer overnight. Now that turn-around time between two consecutive job-submissions (computer runs) did not exceed one day, engineers were able to better understand the crash behavior and make efficient and progressive improvements to the analyzed car body structure.
Computer-aided engineering (CAE) software became lately a norm in the crash test simulation. The combination of Machine learning and CAE tools allowed a much better acceleration of the simulation software. Engineers used ML to predict:
Application.
Crash simulations are used to investigate the safety of the car occupants during impacts on the front end structure of the car in a "head-on collision" or "frontal impact", the lateral structure of the car in a “side collision” or “side impact”, the rear end structure of a car in a "rear-end collision" or “rear impact”, and the roof structure of the car when it overturns during a "rollover". Crash simulations can also be used to assess injury to pedestrians hit by a car.
Benefits.
A crash simulation produces results without actual destructive testing of a new car model. This way, tests can be performed quickly and inexpensively in a computer, which permits optimization of the design before a real prototype of the car has been manufactured. Using a simulation, problems can be solved before spending time and money on an actual crash test. The great flexibility of printed output and graphical display enables designers to solve some problems that would have been nearly impossible without the help of a computer.
Analysis.
Large number of crash simulations use a method of analysis called the Finite Element Method. The complex problems are solved by dividing a surface into a large but still finite number of elements and determining the motion of these elements over very small periods of time. Another approach to crash simulations is performed by application of Macro Element Method. The difference between two mentioned above methodologies is that the structure in case of Macro Element Method consists of smaller number of elements. The calculation algorithm of structure deformation is based on experimental data rather than calculated from partial differential equations.
Pam-Crash started crash simulation and together with LS-DYNA is a software package which is widely used for application of Finite Element Method. This method allows detailed modeling of a structure, but the disadvantage lies in high processing unit requirements and calculation time.
The Visual Crash Studio uses Macro Element Methodology. In comparison with FEM it has some modeling and boundary condition limitations but its application does not require advanced computers and the calculation time is incomparably smaller. Two presented methods complement each other. Macro Element Method is useful at early stage of the structure design process while Finite Element Method performs well at its final stages.
Structural analysis.
In a typical crash simulation, the car body structure is analyzed using spatial discretization, that is, breaking up the continuous movement of the body in real time into smaller changes in position over small, discrete time steps. The discretization involves subdividing the surface of the constituent, thin, sheet metal parts into a large number (approaching one million in 2006) of quadrilateral or triangular regions, each of which spans the area between "nodes" to which its corners are fixed. Each element has mass, which is distributed as concentrated masses and as mass moments of inertia to its connecting nodes. Each node has 6 kinematic degrees of freedom, that is, one node can move in three linear directions under translation and can rotate about three independent axes. The spatial coordinates ("x"), displacement ("u"), velocity ("v"), and acceleration ("a") of each node is mostly expressed in a three-dimensional rectangular Cartesian coordinate system with axes "X","Y", and "Z".
If the nodes move during a crash simulation, the connected elements move, stretch, and bend with their nodes, which causes them to impart forces and moments to their nodal connections. The forces and moments at the nodes correspond to the inertia forces and moments, caused by their translational (linear) and angular accelerations and to the forces and moments transmitted by the resistance of the structural material of the connected elements as they deform. Sometimes, additional external structural loads are applied, like gravity loads from the self weight of the parts, or added loads from external masses.
The forces and moments of all nodes are collected into a column vector (or column matrix), and the time dependent equations of motion (in dynamic equilibrium) can be written as follows.
where vector formula_2 (mass times acceleration vector) collects the inertia forces at the nodes, formula_3 collects the external nodal loads, and formula_4 collects the internal resisting forces from the deformation of the material. "M" is a diagonal matrix of the nodal masses. Each vector ("u", "v", "a", "F", etc.) has dimension 6 times the total number of nodes in the crash model (about 6 million “degrees of freedom” for every 1 million "nodes" in 3-D thin shell finite element models).
Time analysis.
A crash simulation uses time discretization as well to separate the continuous changes in time into very small, usable segments. The dynamic equations of motion hold at all times during a crash simulation and must be integrated in time, "t", starting from an initial condition at time zero, which is just prior to the crash. According to the explicit finite difference time integration method used by most crash codes, the accelerations, velocities, and displacements of the body are related by the following equations.
In these equations the subscripts "n"±1/2, "n", "n"+1 denote past, present, and future times, "t", at half and full-time intervals with time steps formula_8 and formula_9, respectively.
Solution.
The above system of linear equations is solved for the accelerations, formula_10, the velocities, formula_11, and the displacements, formula_12, at each discrete point in time, "t", during the crash duration. This solution is trivial, since the mass matrix is diagonal. The computer time is proportional to the number of finite elements and the number of solution time steps. The stable solution time step, formula_13, is limited for numerical stability, as expressed by the Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy condition (CFL), which states that “in any time-marching computer simulation, the time step must be less than the time for some significant action to occur, and preferably considerably less." In a crash simulation, the fastest significant actions are the acoustic signals that travel inside the structural material.
The solid elastic stress wave speed amounts to
where formula_15 is the initial elastic modulus (before plastic deformation) of the material and formula_16 is the mass density. The largest stable time step for a given material is therefore
where formula_18 is the smallest distance between any two nodes of the numerical crash simulation model.
Since this distance can change during a simulation, the stable time step changes and must be updated continually as the solution proceeds in time. When using steel, the typical value of the stable time step is about one microsecond when the smallest discrete node distance in the mesh of the finite element model is about 5 millimeters. It needs then more than 100,000 time intervals to solve a crash event that lasts for one tenth of a second. This figure is exceeded in many industrial crash models demanding optimized crash solvers with High-Performance Computing (HPC) features, such as vectorization and parallel computing.


Shot welding

Shot welding is a type of spot welding used to join two pieces of metal together. This is accomplished by clamping the two pieces together and then passing a large electric current through them for a short period of time. Shot welding was invented by Earl J. Ragsdale, a mechanical engineer at the Budd Company, in 1932 to weld stainless steel. This welding method was used to construct the "Pioneer Zephyr".
Method.
The E. G. Budd Company of Philadelphia recognized the important metallurgical characteristics of 18/8 stainless steel (known today as SAE 304 austenitic stainless steel) and developed a spot welding process to take advantage of the oxidized layer on the surface of stainless steel. Heat treating the 18-8 stainless steel leaves the metal with non-magnetic and ductile properties. Repeatedly reheating the metal to 1000–1100°C impairs the mechanical and chemical properties of the metal. The metal becomes susceptible to corrosion due to carbide precipitation, and loses fatigue resistance. The important factor in controlling the metal's properties is the dwell time at those temperatures. Using a controlled time element and recorder, a power supply with smooth current, and very brief high currents, a satisfactory spot weld may be produced.
The corona of the shot weld should not exist on the metal, and the equipment used produces satisfactory welds with a smaller than normal diameter. Sufficient electrode force is applied to hold the two sheets of metal together and the peak current rapidly creates a forge weld at the interface between the two sheets, producing a small nugget of weld metal, which when cooled results in a shear-resistant metal interface. Good shotwelds have twice the shear strength of a rivet of similar diameter and can be placed 50% closer together. When done properly, distortion, which is a problem in fusion welding processes, is eliminated.


Okuma Corporation

 is a machine tool builder based in Ōguchi, Aichi Prefecture, Japan. It has global market share in CNC machine tools such as CNC lathes, machining centers, and turn-mill machining centers. The company also offers FA (factory automation) products and servomotors.
It is listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange and is a component of the Nikkei 225 stock index.
History.
The company was founded in 1898, as the Okuma Noodle Machine Co., to manufacture and sell noodle-making machines. Eiichi Okuma, the founder of the original company, was working on how to make udon more effectively. He was using lathe to make "sticks", that has an important role in cutting the udon noodle. But the lathes used in those days in Japan were of poor precision. This was one of big reasons which convinced Okuma to start making machine tools. In 1918 Eiichi established Okuma Machinery Works Ltd. and started selling the OS lathe.
Okuma is a machine tool builder with a history of more than 100 years. Lathes were the main product category in the early days of company. The line now includes many CNC machine tools, including lathes, machining centers (mills), multitasking (turn-mill) machines, and grinding machines. Okuma's Double-Column Machining Center has a large market share in Japan.
Technological development.
Most machine tool builders source their CNC controls from partners such as Fanuc, Mitsubishi Electric, Siemens, and Heidenhain. Several builders have developed their own CNC controls over the years (including Mazak, Okuma, Haas, Dalian Kede and others), but Okuma is unusual among machine tool builders for the degree to which it designs and builds all of its own hardware, software, and machine components. This is the company's "Single Source" philosophy.
Okuma's CNC control is called the "OSP" series. It offers closed-loop positioning via its absolute position feedback system. The "OSP" name began as an abbreviation for "Okuma Sampling Pathcontrol".
In an industry that pushes hard for continual technological innovation, Okuma has often been an innovative leader. For example, it has been among the leaders of development for thermal compensation and collision avoidance. Thermal compensation is designing the machine elements and control to minimize the dimensional distortion that results from the heat generated by machining. This is done both by preventing heat buildup (for example, flowing coolant through machine elements formerly not cooled) and by detecting and compensating for temperature rises when they occur (for example, monitoring temperature with a sensor and using the sensor's output signal as input to the control logic). Collision avoidance is designing the machine to predict and prevent interference, for example, having the machine "know" the form and location of all fixturing so that it can foresee a crash and stop its own movement before crashing. Recent innovation includes technology to avoid chatter, both by predicting and preventing it and by early automatic detection and correction (via dynamic changes of speeds and feeds) when it does occur.


Toyo Seikan

 (formerly known as Toyo Seikan Kaisha, Ltd.) is a Japan-based packaging container manufacturing company.
It became a holding company in 2013, taking the name Toyo Seikan Group Holdings Ltd. As of March 2013, the company has 78 subsidiary and nine affiliate companies. It is listed on the first section of the Tokyo Stock Exchange and the Osaka Securities Exchange and was a constituent of the Nikkei 225 stock index.
Business segments and products.
The Group also engages in the manufacturing and sales of hard alloys, raw material products for agriculture, sales of petroleum products, non-life insurance agency business and real estate management.


Meidensha

 is a Japanese, Tokyo-based company, engaged in the manufacturing and selling of water treatment equipment, electronic equipment, and information equipment. It is listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the Nikkei 225.
The company was established by Hosui Shigemune for the manufacture of electric motors in Kyobashi, Tokyo.
Business segments and products.
The company operates in four business segments:


Feeder line (manufacturing)

A feeder line is a secondary assembly line which provides parts for use in a primary assembly line. Researchers assert that the traditional level scheduling methodology of assembly line planning is not effective unless feeder lines provide parts to the primary assembly line.