Melt spinning

Melt spinning is a metal forming technique that is typically used to form thin ribbons of metal or alloys with a particular atomic structure.
Some important commercial applications of melt-spun metals include high-efficiency transformers (Amorphous metal transformer), sensory devices, telecommunications equipment, and power electronics.
A typical melt spinning process involves casting molten metal by jetting it onto a rotating wheel or drum, which is cooled internally, usually by water or liquid nitrogen. The molten material rapidly solidifies upon contact with the large, cold surface area of the drum. The rotation of the drum constantly removes the solidified product while exposing new surface area to the molten metal stream, allowing for continuous production. The resulting ribbon is then directed along the production line to be packaged or machined into further products.
The cooling rates achievable by melt spinning are on the order of 104–106 Kelvins per second (K/s). Consequently, melt spinning is used to develop materials that require extremely high cooling rates in order to form, such as metallic glasses. Due to their rapid cooling, these products have a highly disordered atomic structure which gives them unique magnetic and physical properties ("see amorphous metals").
Several variations to the melt spinning process provide specific advantages. These processes include planar flow casting, twin roll melt spinning, and auto ejection melt spinning.
Originating with Robert Pond in a series of related patents from 1958 to 1961 (US Patent Nos. 2825108, 2910744, and 2976590), the current concept of the melt spinner was outlined by Pond and Maddin in 1969. At first, the liquid was quenched on the inner surface of a drum. Liebermann and Graham further developed the process as a continuous casting technique by 1976, this time on the drum's outer surface. The process can continuously produce thin ribbons of material, with sheets several inches in width commercially available.
Process.
In melt spinning, the alloy or metal is first melted in a crucible. Then, an inert gas, usually argon, is used to jet the molten material out of a nozzle located on the underside of the crucible. The resulting stream of liquid is directed onto the outer circumferential surface of a rotating wheel or drum which is cooled internally. The drum's outer surface is located extremely close to the nozzle but does not touch it. Generally, the velocity of the drum's surface must be between 10 m/s and 60 m/s in order to avoid the formation of globules (droplets) or breaking the ribbon respectively. Once the stream contacts the drum's surface, a small puddle of melt (molten material) is formed. Due to the low viscosity of the melt, the shear forces generated by the relative movement of the drum's surface underneath the melt only extend a few microns into the puddle. In other words, only a small amount of the puddle is affected by the friction from the rotation of the drum. Consequently, as the drum spins, most of the melt puddle remains held between the nozzle and the drum by surface tension. However, the melt on the very bottom of the puddle, which is in direct contact with the drum, rapidly solidifies into a thin ribbon. The solidified ribbon is carried away from under the nozzle on the drum's surface for up to 10° of rotation before centrifugal force from the drum's rotation ejects it.
This process occurs continuously, so as solidified material is removed from underneath the puddle of melt, more liquid material is added to the puddle from the nozzle.
Varying factors.
There are many factors at play in even a basic melt spinning process. The quality and dimensions of the product are determined by how the machine is operated and configured. Consequently, there are many studies exploring the effects of variations in the melt spinner's configuration on specific alloys. For example, here is an article about the specific conditions that were found to work well for melt spinning Fe-B and Fe-Si-B alloys.
In general, melt spinners will run with some variation in the following variables depending on the desired product.
Since every material acts differently, the exact cause-effect relationship between each of these variables and the resulting ribbon is usually determined experimentally. Other less commonly adjusted variables exist, but their effects on the final ribbon dimensions and structure aren't all documented.
Different mathematical models of numerical simulation were developed to obtain relevant characteristics of the ribbons according to the tangential speeds of wheel rotation, the nozzle gap, and the ejection pressure.
Modifications.
Different processes and techniques have been developed around melt spinning which offer advantages to the industrial applications and product consistency.
Planar Flow Casting.
Planar Flow Casting (PFC) is a commonly used melt spinning process for the industrial fabrication of wide metallic glass sheets. In this process, the primary modification is that a much wider nozzle is used to eject the melt from the crucible. As a result, the melt puddle covers a larger area of the drum, which in turn forms a larger area of ribbon. PFC is commonly cast in a vacuum to avoid oxidation of the molten material, which would affect the quality of the resulting product. Ribbons up to 200 mm wide have been industrially achieved using PFC.
Twin Roll Melt Spinning.
In Twin Roll Melt Spinning two rollers or drums are used instead of one. The rollers are placed side by side, and rotated such that the one to the left spins clockwise, and the one on the right spins counter-clockwise. This configuration results in material passing between the rollers being pulled down. The melt is jetted between the rollers where it is cooled and ejected as a ribbon. The advantage of twin-roll melt spinning is that it gives a high degree of control over the thickness of the resulting ribbon. With a single roller, controlling ribbon thickness is complicated involving close control over the flow rate of the melt, rotational speed of the wheel, and temperature of the melt. With the twin roller setup, a particular and consistent thickness can be achieved by simply changing the distance between the rollers.
To date, twin roll melt spinning is still limited almost exclusively to laboratory scales.
Auto Ejection Melt Spinning.
Auto Ejection Melt Spinning (AEMS) describes a type of melt spinning where ejection of the melt occurs as soon as it has liquefied, eliminating the need for a technician to manually control the flow rate, temperature, and/or release timing of the melt stream.
This modification allows for a much higher ribbon consistency between runs, and a greater level of automation in the process.
Product.
Melt spinning is used to manufacture thin metal sheets or ribbons that are near amorphous or non-crystalline. The unique resulting electric and magnetic properties of melt-spun metals are a consequence of this structure as well as the composition of the alloy or metal that was used to form the ribbon.
Structure.
Normally, when a metallic material cools, the individual atoms solidify in strong, repeating patterns to form a crystalline solid. However, in melt spinning, the melt is quenched (cooled) so rapidly that the atoms don't have time to form these ordered structures before they completely solidify. Instead, the atoms are solidified in positions resembling their liquid state. This physical structure gives rise to the magnetic and electric properties of amorphous metals.
Electric and Magnetic Properties.
The amorphous material produced by melt spinning is considered a soft magnet. That is to say that their natural coercivity is less than 1000 Am-1, which means that the metal's magnetism is more responsive to outside influences and as a result can be easily switched on and off. This makes amorphous metals particularly useful in applications requiring the repeated magnetization and demagnetization of a material in order to function. Certain amorphous alloys also provide the ability to enhance and or channel flux created by electrical currents, making them useful for magnetic shielding and insulation.
The exact magnetic properties of each alloy depend mostly on the atomic composition of the material. For example, nickel-iron alloys with a lower amount of nickel have a high electrical resistance, while those with a higher percentage of nickel have a high magnetic permeability.


Material removal rate

Material removal rate (MRR) is the amount of material removed per time unit (usually per minute) when performing machining operations such as using a lathe or milling machine. The more material removed per minute, the higher the material removal rate. The MRR is a single number that enables you to do this. It is a direct indicator of how efficiently you are cutting, and how profitable you are. MRR is the volume of material removed per minute. The higher your cutting parameters, the higher the MRR.
Phrased in another way, the MRR is equal to the volume of residue formed as a direct result of the removal from the workpiece per unit of time during a cutting operation.
The material removal rate in a work process can be calculated as the depth of the cut, times the width of the cut, times the feed rate. The material removal rate is typically measured in cubic centimeters per minute (cm3/min).


Flying probe

In the manufacture of electronic printed circuit boards, flying probes are used for testing both bare circuit boards and boards loaded with components. Flying probes were introduced in the late 1980’s. Flying probes can be found in many manufacturing and assembly operations. A flying probe tester uses one or more test probes to make contact with the circuit board under test; the probes are moved from place to place on the circuit board to carry out tests of multiple conductors or components. Flying probe testers are an alternative to bed of nails testers, which use multiple contacts to simultaneously contact the board and which rely on electrical switching to carry out measurements.
One limitation in flying probe test methods is the speed at which measurements can be taken; the probes must be moved to each new test site on the board, and then a measurement must be completed. Bed-of-nails testers touch each test point simultaneously and electronic switching of instruments between test pins is more rapid than movement of probes.
Loaded board in-circuit test.
In the testing of printed circuit boards, a flying probe test or fixtureless in-circuit test (FICT) system may be used for testing low to mid volume production, prototypes, and boards that present accessibility problems. A traditional "bed of nails" tester for testing a PCB requires a custom fixture to hold the PCBA and the Pogo pins which make contact with the PCBA. In contrast, FICT uses two or more flying probes, which may be moved based on software instruction. The flying probes are electro-mechanically controlled to access components on printed circuit assemblies (PCAs). The probes are moved around the board under test using an automatically operated two-axis system, and one or more test probes contact components of the board or test points on the printed circuit board.
The main advantage of flying probe testing is the substantial cost of a bed-of-nails fixture, costing on the order of US $20,000, is not required. The flying probes also allow easy modification of the test fixture when the PCBA design changes. FICT may be used on both bare or assembled PCB's. However, since the tester makes measurements serially, instead of making many measurements at once, the test cycle may become much longer than for a bed-of-nails fixture. A test cycle that may take 30 seconds on such a system, may take an hour with flying probes. Test coverage may not be as comprehensive as a bed of nails tester (assuming similar net access for each), because fewer points are tested at one time.


Zonda Telecom

Zonda Telecom is a Mexican telecommunications company founded in Guadalajara, Jalisco in 1968 as a television manufacturer.
This company has several manufacturing plants in the Guadalajara Metropolitan Area, which manufacture its own products as well as electronic products for other companies. This makes Zonda an OEM.
In 2002, Zonda Telecom entered the mobile phone market becoming the first Mexican company to design its own Mobile Phones. Zonda has also produced communications systems and communication subsystems and for the Mexican military.
Models.
Below is a partial list of some of Zonda Telecoms mobile phone models.


Balatonfüredi KSE

Balatonfüredi Kézilabda Sport Egyesület is a Hungarian team handball club from Balatonfüred, that currently plays in the Nemzeti Bajnokság I. The team won promotion to the top division in 2007 and achieved their best ever result in 2009 by finishing fifth. In the 2009–2010 Hungarian Cup campaign the club finished third, but as the two finalists, MKB Veszprém KC and Pick Szeged already secured their places in the EHF Champions League, BKSE got the right to represent Hungary in the EHF Cup Winners' Cup next season.
Crest, colours, supporters.
Kit manufacturers and shirt sponsor.
The following table shows in detail Balatonfüredi KSE kit manufacturers and shirt sponsors by year:
Kits.

Honours.
Individual awards.
Domestic.
Nemzeti Bajnokság I Top Scorer
European competition.
EHF Cup Winners' Cup: from the 2012–13 season, the men's competition was merged with the EHF Cup.EHF Cup: It was formerly known as the IHF Cup until 1993. Also, starting from the 2012–13 season the competition has been merged with the EHF Cup Winners' Cup. The competition will be known as the EHF European League from the 2020–21 season.


Sprue (manufacturing)

A sprue is the vertical passage through which liquid material is introduced into a mold and it is a large diameter channel through which the material enters the mold. It connects the pouring basin to the runner. In many cases it controls the flow of material into the mold. During casting or molding, the material in the sprue will solidify and need to be removed from the finished part. It is usually tapered downwards to minimize turbulence and formation of air bubbles.
Casting.
In casting, a sprue is the passage through which a molten material is introduced into a mold, and the term also refers to the excess material which solidifies in the sprue passage.
Function.
Sprues can serve as filters, as heat sinks, and as feeders. Bronze, in particular, has a high shrinkage rate as it is cooling. A sprue is tapered with its bigger end at the top to receive the liquid metal, the smaller end is connected to the runner.
Sprue design.
The design of the sprue gating and runner is also essential for casting. The design can incorporate either bottom or vertical gating.
For bottom gating
where:
This equation may change if the height of gating is equal to height of casting material.
Then the equation will be:
or, simplified,
where:
Injection molding.
In injection molding, sprue refers to the passage through which a liquid material (such as polystyrene or polyvinyl chloride) flows into a die, where the material solidifies to form parts. "Sprue" also refers to the material that solidifies in these passages, forming a framework that attaches the parts in a roughly planar arrangement.
Sprues, runners, and gates.
Some moldmakers distinguish the sprue, the gate, and the runner. The sprue is a large-diameter channel through which plastic flows, usually around the edges of the part or along straight lines. The runner is a smaller channel from the sprue to the individual part. An analogy may be found in a water system that employs a water main (sprue) and smaller pipes (runners) to individual houses. The gate is the location at which the molten plastic enters the mold cavity and is often evidenced by a small nub or projection (the "gate mark") on the molded piece.
Many scale-model kits are made from injection-molded plastic. Hobbyists typically remove the parts of a model kit from the runner using a sharp craft knife or razor saw. The sprues usually form a rectangle with the runners and parts inside which makes them easier to box.
Model makers sometimes use sprues or runners as raw material to fabricate additional parts, such as railings on model ships, antenna wires on airplanes, or greebles on fictional spacecraft.
Sprues in model kits often include engravings to identify the parts by number.


Living hinge

A living hinge or integral hinge is a thin flexible hinge (flexure bearing) made from the same material as the two rigid pieces it connects.
Description.
A living hinge or integral hinge is a thin flexible hinge (flexure bearing). It is made from the same material as the two rigid pieces it connects. It is typically thinned or cut to allow the rigid pieces to bend along the line of the hinge. The minimal friction and very little wear in such a hinge makes it useful in the design of microelectromechanical systems, and the low cost and ease of manufacturing makes them quite common in clamshell containers and other disposable, recyclable packaging.
Plastic.
Plastic living hinges are typically manufactured in an injection molding operation that creates all three parts at one time as a single piece, and if correctly designed and constructed, it can remain functional over the life of the part. Thermoforming can also produce hinged products. Polyethylene and polypropylene are considered to be the best resins for living hinges, due to their excellent fatigue resistance. Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) is also common.
Wood.
A variant on the kerf bend can be used to create living hinges in laser cut wood. The technique is popular for making light-duty hinges with large radii. It is also possible to create a living wood joint by hand, but the result is less accurate.


Virtual home design software

Virtual home design software is a type of computer-aided design software intended to help architects, designers, and homeowners preview their design implementations on-the-fly. These products differ from traditional homeowner design software and other online design tools in that they use HTML5 to ensure that changes to the design occur rapidly. This category of software as a service puts an emphasis on usability, speed, and customization.
Background.
Homeowners, contractors, and architects use virtual home exterior design software to help visualize changes to designs. Since virtual home design suites that use HTML5 are able to rapidly propagate changes to the home design, users can A/B test designs much more efficiently than with previous iterations of online design software.
Virtual home design software has found widespread usage among homeowners who have suffered property damage, as server-side, HTML5-based design software is ideal for homeowners who wish to see what certain products will look like on damaged areas of their houses.
Examples.
Several manufacturers use virtual home design software to display their products online. These companies that utilize virtual home design software include GAF Materials Corporation, James Hardie, Exterior Portfolio, and CertainTeed. Some companies, such as Design My Exterior, have built virtual home design software that is not limited to products or brands in order to allow for greater flexibility by the end-user. Design My Exterior also uses ImageMapster in order to generate a greater range of options with less processing time.
Live Home 3D is a virtual home design software for Microsoft Windows and macOS.
Future applications.
Several companies are experimenting with virtual reality for architecture. They design virtual homes and allow customers to walk around with the help of a VR headset (such as the Occulus Rift). This way, customers get a realistic, true-to-scale idea of the end result.


Ink jet material deposition

Ink jet material deposition is an emerging manufacturing technique in which inkjet technology is used to deposit materials on substrates. The technique aims to eliminate fixed costs of production and reduce the amount of materials used.
Uses.
Anything that is produced using traditional printing techniques is a candidate for ink jet material deposition. In addition, the precision available with ink jet technology may be required for some industrial applications. Examples include:


Progressive stamping

Progressive Die is a metalworking method that can encompass punching, coining, bending and several other ways of modifying metal raw material, combined with an automatic feeding system.
The feeding system pushes a strip of metal (as it unrolls from a coil) through all of the stations of a progressive stamping die. Each station performs one or more operations until a finished part is made. The final station is a cutoff operation, which separates the finished part from the carrying web. The carrying web, along with metal that is punched away in previous operations, is treated as scrap metal. Both are cut away, knocked down (or out of the dies) and then ejected from the die set, and in mass production are often transferred to scrap bins via underground scrap material conveyor belts.
The progressive stamping die is placed into a reciprocating stamping press. As the press moves up, the top die moves with it, which allows the material to feed. When the press moves down, the die closes and performs the stamping operation. With each stroke of the press, a completed part is removed from the die.
Since additional work is done in each "station" of the die, it is important that the strip be advanced very precisely so that it aligns within a few thousandths of an inch as it moves from station to station. Bullet shaped or conical "pilots" enter previously pierced round holes in the strip to assure this alignment since the feeding mechanism usually cannot provide the necessary precision in feed length.
Progressive stamping can also be produced on transfer presses. These are presses that transfer the components from one station to the next with the use of mechanical "fingers". For mass production of stamped parts which do require complicated in-press operations, it is always advisable to use a progressive press. One of the advantages of this type of press is the production cycle time. Depending upon the part, productions can easily run well over 800 parts/minute. One of the disadvantages of this type of press is that it is not suitable for high precision deep drawing which is when the depth of the stamping exceeds the diameter of the part. When necessary, this process is performed upon a transfer press, which run at slower speeds, and rely on the mechanical fingers to hold the component in place during the entire forming cycle. In the case of the progressive press, only part of the forming cycle can be guided by spring-loaded sleeves or similar, which result in concentricity and ovality issues and non uniform material thickness.
Other disadvantages of progressive presses compared to transfer presses are: increased raw material input required to transfer parts, tools are much more expensive because they are made in blocks with very little independent regulation per station; impossibility to perform processes in the press that require the part leave the strip (example beading, necking, flange curling, thread rolling, rotary stamping etc.).
The dies are usually made of tool steel to withstand the high shock loading involved, retain the necessary sharp cutting edge, and resist the abrasive forces involved.
The cost is determined by the number of features, which determine what tooling will need to be used. Engineers keep the features as simple as possible to keep the cost of tooling to a minimum. Features that are close together produce a problem because it may not provide enough clearance for the punch, which could result in another station. It can also be problematic to have narrow cuts and protrusions.
Applications.
A representative example of the product of a progressive die is the lid of a beverage can. The pull tab is made in one progressive stamping process and the lid & assembly is made in another, the pull tab simultaneously feeding at a right angle into the lid & assembly process. Also various car brake calipers have plates that are bent into shape, possibly cut too using these methods.


Hosiden

 is a Japanese electronics company. It manufactures electronic components and devices and has a strong presence in the telecommunication and automotive industries prior to the consumer markets. It is headquartered in Yao, Osaka and has over 19 factories and more than 12,000 workers.
Its products include connectors, memory card connectors, LCDs (Square and Rounded) and micro switches.
For its application in S-Video, the 4-pin Hosiden or Ushiden connector is often wrongly called mini-DIN connector. Hosiden Besson Limited was established in 1957, trading as A P Besson and Partner Limited in the UK, manufacturing earpieces for the National Health Service. It was sold to Crystalate Electronics in 1971 to form the Besson division, and as part of a manufacturing group it assimilated injection mouldings and designed and manufactured printed circuit boards. On 2 March 1990 Hosiden Corporation, acquired the company. Its capabilities now include acoustic, electronic, research and development, fire products, transmission products, manufacture and assembly, injection molding, and distribution.


Supply network operations

Supply network operations are the synchronized execution of compliant manufacturing and logistics processes across a dynamically reconfigurable supply network to profitably meet demand.supply network


Motiograph

Motiograph (originally The Enterprise Optical Manufacturing Company) was a film equipment company established by Alvah C Roebuck in Chicago in 1896. The company manufactured theater projectors and speakers. Their Optiograph 35 mm film projector was first introduced in 1898 and sold via catalogs including Sears. This was a smaller projector suitable for homes and schools. Beginning in 1908, all products released by the Enterprise Optical Manufacturing Company carry the brand name Motiograph. In 1911, their first theater grade 35 mm projector (Motiograph model D) was released. Roebuck sold the company in 1924 to a group of investors led by O.F. Spahr and Fred Matthews who would become the new President and Secretary, respectively. The Matthews family would retain ownership from then on. In 1936, they change the company name from the Enterprise Optical Manufacturing Company to become Motiograph, Inc. Also in 1936, Motiograph releases the very popular model K projector and continues to innovate after the war years. The date of the company's closure is unverified, but by 1969 it had failed to renew any copyrights for its products. The last corporate listing for Motiograph in Illinois is from 1973.


List of GSK plc products

This is a list of products manufactured by the multinational pharmaceutical, biologics, and vaccines manufacturing company GSK.


A&G Management Consulting

A&G is a management consulting Italian company based in Turin. It nationally and internationally operates in the fields of Manufacturing and Services, Finance, Banking and Insurance.
Through the group's company A&G acts in new economy and e-business. Through its partnership with the Russian start-up Intelligent Ideas A&G expands its range of activities in the Russian and international markets.
A&G also works in the field of Culture, financing Italian and foreign film works.


Chip on board

Chip on board (COB) is a method of circuit board manufacturing in which the integrated circuits (e.g. microprocessors) are attached (wired, bonded directly) to a printed circuit board, and covered by a blob of epoxy. By eliminating the packaging of individual semiconductor devices, the completed product can be more compact, lighter, and less costly. In some cases, COB construction improves the operation of radio frequency systems by reducing the inductance and capacitance of integrated circuit leads.
COB effectively merges two levels of electronic packaging: level 1 (components) and level 2 (wiring boards), and may be referred to as "level 1.5".
Construction.
A finished semiconductor wafer is cut into dies. Each die is then physically bonded to the PCB.
Three different methods are used to connect the terminal pads of the integrated circuit (or other semiconductor device) with the conductive traces of the printed circuit board.
Flip chip.
In "flip chip on board", the device is inverted, with the top layer of metallization facing the circuit board. Small balls of solder are placed on the circuit board traces where connections to the chip are required. The chip and board are passed through a reflow soldering process to make the electrical connections.
Wire bonding.
In "wire bonding", the chip is attached to the board with an adhesive. Each pad on the device is connected with a fine wire lead that is welded to the pad and to the circuit board. This is similar to the way that an integrated circuit is connected to its lead frame, but instead the chip is wire-bonded directly to the circuit board.
Flexible circuit board.
In "tape-automated bonding", thin flat metal tape leads are attached to the semiconductor device pads, then welded to the printed circuit board.
In all cases, the chip and connections are covered with an encapsulant to reduce entry of moisture or corrosive gases to the chip, to protect the wire bonds or tape leads from physical damage, and to help dissipate heat.
The printed circuit board substrate may be assembled into the final product, for example, as in a pocket calculator, or, in the case of a multi-chip module, the module may be inserted in a socket or otherwise attached to yet another circuit board. The substrate wiring board may include heat-dissipating layers where the mounted devices handle significant power, such as in LED lighting or power semiconductors. Or, the substrate may have low-loss properties required at microwave radio frequencies.
COB LED modules.
COBs containing arrays of light-emitting diodes have made LED lighting more efficient.
 LED COBs include a layer of silicone containing yellow Ce:YAG phosphor that encapsulates the LEDs and turns the blue light of the LEDs into white light. The COB is usually built on an aluminum PCB that provides good thermal conductivity to a heatsink. COB LEDs could be compared with multi chip modules or hybrid integrated circuits since all three can incorporate multiple dies into a single unit.
COB variants are also used in newer LED bulbs as in this case the substrate can be either glass, sapphire or sometimes regular phenolic.
With a transparent substrate the LED chips may be installed "upside down" shining through for higher outcoupling. Typically they are glued to the substrate with UV setting glue, interconnects attached, and the encapsulant and phosphor applied in a single step with a back reflective coating applied to channel light out of the device.


Asahi India Glass

Asahi India Glass Limited, known as AIS, is a glass solutions and manufacturing company in India. It was established in 1984. It manufactures automotive safety glass, float glass, architectural processed glass, and glass products. It also provides consumer glass offerings in the form of Glasxperts and Windshield Experts. AIS was established as a Joint Venture agreement between Mr. BM Labroo and family, Asahi Glass Co. Ltd. (AGC Inc.), Japan, and Maruti Suzuki India Ltd. In the Indian passenger car glass segment, AIS has 77.1% market share as of 2017. AIS also holds 20% market share in India’s architectural glass segment as of 2017.
History.
1984-2000.
In 1984, AIS was initially incorporated in India under the name Indian Auto Safety Glass Private Limited. By 1986, the company transferred its equity stake to Asahi Glass Co., Japan. During this period, a joint venture agreement was carried out among the promoters, namely Asahi Glass Co., Japan, Indo-Asahi Glass Company and Maruti Udyog.
The company was thus incorporated as public limited company under the name of Asahi India Safety Glass Limited on 31 December 1985. Initially, the company only manufactured toughened glass for Maruti Suzuki India Limited. However, in 1989, after increasing its tempered glass production capacity by installing a new furnace, the company began manufacturing toughened glass for other automobile manufacturers. The company also introduced black ceramic printing and heat-lite printing for production of automotive glasses for the first time in India.
By 1992, the company ventured into manufacturing of laminated safety windshields. Four years later, anticipating an increase in demand of laminated windshields due to them being made mandatory for passenger vehicles under revised Central Motor Vehicle Rules, AIS carried out a major capacity expansion to produce 7,50,000 laminated windshields.
By 1999, the company added Hyundai, Ford, Toyota, and Hindustan Motors to its clientele while also increasing its tempered glass production capacity.
2000-present.
With the turn of the millennium, AIS increased its technology capabilities with a slew of installations including laminated bending furnace for producing complex laminated windshields, CAD station and in-house designing, and print marking on glass for brand visibility.
In 2001, Float Glass India, a subsidiary of Asahi Glass Co., Japan, became the subsidiary of AIS. Next year, AIS made its first acquisition by acquiring 79.6% stake in Float Glass India and absorbing it under its own brand name.
In 2002, the company also rebranded itself as Asahi India Glass Limited (AIS) and in 2003, it set up a new automotive glass manufacturing plant in Chennai. This was followed by commencement of commercial production at the company’s Architectural Processing Unit in Taloja in 2004. In 2005, AIS Glass Solutions Ltd. was set up to further expand in the architectural glass value chain.
The year 2006 saw establishment of two more architectural processing facilities in Rewari and Chennai along with further capacity expansion across existing plants. In late 2017, AIS inaugurated a new, modernised Taloja float glass plant to enhance supply to auto and architectural glass segments by manufacturing 550 tonnes of glass per day.
Company structure and operations.
Offices.
Asahi India Glass Ltd’s registered office is situated in New Delhi. Their corporate office is located in Gurgaon, Haryana.
They have zonal offices in Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai and one regional office in Pune.
Manufacturing plants.
AIS has 13 manufacturing plants and sub-assembly units across India. In May 2017, AIS announced its plan to invest in a Greenfield Automotive Glass Plant near Mehsana, Gujarat, in order to primarily supply the new Maruti Suzuki India Limited plant in Gujarat. In November 2017, AIS commenced float glass manufacturing at its new Taloja plant at MIDC Industrial Area, Raigad District, Maharashtra.
Strategic business units.
AIS has three strategic business units. These are Automotive Glass, Architectural Glass and Consumer Glass.
Automotive glass.
AIS Auto Glass is the automotive glass SBU of AIS. It provides glass to automobile manufacturers including Maruti Udyog, Tata Motors, Hyundai Motors, Mahindra & Mahindra, General Motors Ford India, Fiat India, Honda, Eicher, Volvo, Hindustan Motors, Skoda Auto, Volkswagen India, Toyota Kirloskar, and Piaggio.
AIS Auto Glass has four production facilities at Bawal (Haryana), Roorkee (Uttarakhand), Chennai (Tamil Nadu), and Taloja (Maharashtra). They also have five automotive glass manufacturing plants in India.
Acquisitions and sales.
In 2001, AIS acquired a stake in Asahi Glass Co., Japan’s subsidiary Float Glass India. In 2003, the amalgamation of the two companies was approved with 79.6% equity in FGI held by AIS.
In 2017, AIS and four other investors concluded a deal to acquire Timex Group Precision Engineering Limited which is the Indian subsidiary of Timex Nederland BV. This acquisition was carried out via a joint venture firm Scopfy Components Pvt Ltd.
Awards.
In 2007, AIS was rated as the ‘Best Indian Company in Glass and Ceramics’ by Dun & Bradstreet.
In the same year, the Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers (JUSE) awarded AIS Auto Glass with the Deming Application Prize 2007.


Universal Instruments Corporation

Universal Instruments Corporation is an electronics technology company based in Conklin, New York. Universal Instruments builds automated machines that allow electronics manufacturing services companies to construct surface-mount technology and through-hole technology circuits, such as SMT placement equipment, insertion mount machines, and machines for electronic packaging. The company was founded in 1919 as the Universal Instruments and Metal Company in nearby Vestal, and found its initial success as a tool and die maker for IBM. In addition to electronics manufacturing machine, Universal Instruments manufactures DEKA's Luke Arm prosthetic for Mobius Bionics.


Pridgeon & Clay

Pridgeon & Clay provides metal stamping and fine-blank components, specializing in exhaust components for the automotive industry. Pridgeon & Clay also produces components for the class 8 truck, agriculture, medical, battery, fuel cell and other alternative energy industries. The company holds ISO 14001 and TS 16949 certifications, which allow the company to carry out its own product validation.
Pridgeon & Clay's Advanced Engineering Lab is an A2LA accreditation, independent testing facility. The Advanced Engineering Lab has developed new products and techniques, including patented selective catalytic reduction (SCR) mixing modules, reverse-extrusion catalytic converter cones, fuel cells and battery components for zero-emissions vehicles.
History.
John Pridgeon & Donald V. Clay founded the privately held company in 1948. In 1976, John Pridgeon retired from the company, leaving sole ownership to his partner Don Clay. In 1992, Don sold the business to his sons, Donald C. Clay and Robert E. Clay. Donald C. Clay retired in 2008, and Robert E. Clay remains as CEO of Pridgeon & Clay.
Global Production.
Pridgeon & Clay operates in four manufacturing facilities worldwide, with Sales & Engineering offices in North America, Europe & China. The company has over 95 stamping presses worldwide ranging from 40 to 1500 tons, plus other manufacturing equipment to execute a variety of production services:
United States.
Pridgeon & Clay operates two locations in the United States, in Michigan and Indiana. The Grand Rapids, Michigan location houses the head office, a manufacturing plant, a distribution center, and a Research & Development and Advanced Engineering facility. As the main production facility, Grand Rapids runs over 70 presses ranging from 40 tons to 1500 tons with customized steel feed systems that accommodate rolled coils or flat blanks. The manufacturing plant in Franklin, Indiana specializes in lighter gauge stamping up to 400 tons, plus MIG and resistance welding, tube cut-off, sizing, and forming.
Hungary.
Acquired by Pridgeon & Clay in 2001, the Apostag facility has over of manufacturing space. Located less than 80 kilometers south of Budapest, Pridgeon & Clay, KFT manufactures metal stampings and tooling for the automotive industry with progressive and transfer presses up to 800 tons. The facility is TS-16949 Certified.
Mexico.
Pridgeon & Clay's Mexico facility is located in Monterrey, Mexico, just 15 km from Monterrey International Airport, and just 200 km from the USA Texas border. P &C Mex offers progressive metal stamping on multiple presses up to 1,000 tons. Press bed sizes are as large as 4.6 meters (180 inches). The facility is TS-16949 Certified.
Germany and China.
Pridgeon & Clay also opened sales and engineering offices in Germany and Shanghai, China in 2007.
References.
All photos and logos used in this article have been used with permission from Pridgeon & Clay.


2022–23 Iranian Basketball Super League

The 2022–23 Iran Super League season was the 33rd season of the Iranian basketball league. Shahrdari Gorgan won the title after beating Kalleh Mazandaran in the final.
Playoffs.
Relegation.
The higher-seeded team played the first, second and fifth leg (if necessary) at home.
Quarterfinals.
The higher-seeded team played the first, second and fifth leg (if necessary) at home.
Semifinals.
The higher-seeded team played the first and third leg (if necessary) at home.
Final.
The higher-seeded team played the first and third leg (if necessary) at home.


Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 208 (FMVSS 208) regulates automotive occupant crash protection in the United States. Like all other Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards, FMVSS 208 is administered by the United States Department of Transportation's National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.
This standard originally specified the type of occupant restraints (i.e., seat belts) required. It was amended to specify performance requirements for anthropomorphic test dummies seated in the front outboard seats of passenger cars and of certain multi-purpose passenger vehicles, trucks, and buses, including the active and passive restraint systems. The purpose of the standard is to reduce the number of fatalities and the number and severity of injuries to occupants involved in frontal crashes.


Pam-Crash

Pam-Crash is a software package from ESI Group used for crash simulation and the design of occupant safety systems, primarily in the automotive industry. The software enables automotive engineers to simulate the performance of a proposed vehicle design and evaluate the potential for injury to occupants in multiple crash scenarios.
History.
The software originated in research aimed at simulating aerospace and nuclear applications. At a meeting organized by VDI (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure) in Stuttgart on May 30, 1978, ESI Group simulated the accidental crash of a military fighter plane into a nuclear power plant German automobile manufacturers took note and tested the applicability of several emerging commercial crash simulation codes, including what would soon become Pam-Crash. This software's predecessor code simulated the frontal impact of a full passenger car structure in an overnight computer run. This was the first successful full-car crash simulation.
Based on Finite element method (FEM), the software enables the modeling of complex geometry by offering different structural and continuum elements: beams, shells, membranes and solids. In a typical crash simulation, shells are used to model thin-walled metal, plastic and composite components. Beams and bars may also be used for stiffening frames, suspensions and special connections. The program offers a large range of linear and nonlinear materials including elastic and visco-plastic and including foam materials and multi-layers composites up to damage and failure models. It was used in the first numerical simulation of a full vehicle rollover by BMW AG (Bayerische Motoren Werke AG). The program provided accurate determination of the structural deformations while the computationally economical rigid body simulation was used during the relatively unimportant deformation and free-flight phases of the simulation.
PAM-CRASH is used on High Performance Computers including massively parallel systems. One of the most time-critical aspects of parallel simulation is the contact handling. Results with a 128-processor computer demonstrated that a contact search algorithm leads to a better scalability. Engineers utilize crash simulation not only to determine the end result of the crash but also to view the step by step time history. Observing factors such as how the bumper is folded in the impact and what is the effect of rib thickness on body deformation in the initial stages of the simulation gives insights that improve crashworthiness of the design.
"Desktop Engineering" magazine, in its review of ESI Group’s Virtual Performance Solution, which includes this software, said: “You work across multiple analysis domains with a single core model—not different models for every load case. This streamlines your workflow, saving time and money by reducing the number of individual solvers you have to deploy and all that model re-creation business.”
Applications.
Pam-Crash was used to design a steel floor pan structure to meet torsion and bending stiffness requirements while reducing its weight by 50% and the number of parts by 70%.
In a different application, the software was dynamically coupled to the occupant safety program MADYMO. The study investigated the interaction of a Hybrid III crash dummy and a passive restraint system of an airbag and kneebolster in a frontal impact situation. Good agreement with experimental data was obtained.
Researchers at the University of North Carolina and Mississippi State University simulated crash scenarios on a Chrysler Neon passenger vehicle using this program and LS-DYNA, another crash simulation code. The test data and simulation results correlated very well with only minor discrepancies in terms of overall impact deformation, component failure modes and velocity and acceleration at various locations on the vehicle.
The software was used to evaluate safety issues at the Beryl Bravo offshore platform in the North Sea operated by ExxonMobil. It was used to perform numerical simulations of the dynamic response of the structure subjected to explosion scenarios. The program's computational models agreed with experimental results and were used to guide the process of designing new blast walls.
The program is used by automobile manufacturers to improve their rankings in New Car Assessment Programs (NCAPs) used to assess the safety performance of competing automobile models. These programs include the Euro NCAP and Japan NCAP as well as a similar rating system provided by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA).


Agile manufacturing

Agile manufacturing is a term applied to an organization that has created the processes, tools, and training to enable it to respond quickly to customer needs and market changes while still controlling costs and quality. It is mostly related to lean manufacturing.
An enabling factor in becoming an agile manufacturer has been the development of manufacturing support technology that allows the marketers, the designers and the production personnel to share a common database of parts and products, to share data on production capacities and problems—particularly where small initial problems may have larger "downstream" effects. It is a general proposition of manufacturing that the cost of correcting quality issues increases as the problem moves downstream, so that it is cheaper to correct quality problems at the earliest possible point in the process.
Agile manufacturing is seen as the next step after lean manufacturing in the evolution of production methodology. The key difference between the two is like between a thin and an athletic person, agile being the latter. One can be neither, one or both. In manufacturing theory, being both is often referred to as leagile.
According to Martin Christopher, when companies have to decide what to be, they have to look at the customer order cycle (COC) (the time the customers are willing to wait) and the leadtime for getting supplies. If the supplier has a short lead time, lean production is possible. If the COC is short, agile production is beneficial.
Agile manufacturing is an approach to manufacturing which is focused on meeting the needs of customers while maintaining high standards of quality and controlling the overall costs involved in the production of a particular product. This approach is geared towards companies working in a highly competitive environment, where small variations in performance and product delivery can make a huge difference in the long term to a company's survival and reputation among consumers.
This concept is closely related to lean manufacturing, in which the goal is to reduce waste as much as possible. In lean manufacturing, the company aims to cut all costs which are not directly related to the production of a product for the consumer. Agile manufacturing can include this concept, but it also adds an additional dimension, the idea that customer demands need to be met rapidly and effectively. In situations where companies integrate both approaches, they are sometimes said to be using "agile and lean manufacturing".
Companies which utilize an agile manufacturing approach tend to have very strong networks with suppliers and related companies, along with numerous cooperative teams which work within the company to deliver products effectively. They can retool facilities quickly, negotiate new agreements with suppliers and other partners in response to changing market forces, and take other steps to meet customer demands. This means that the company can increase production on products with a high consumer demand, as well as redesign products to respond to issues which have emerged on the open market.
Markets can change very quickly, especially in the global economy. A company which cannot adapt quickly to change may find itself left behind, and once a company starts to lose market share, it can fall rapidly. The goal of agile manufacturing is to keep a company ahead of the competition so that consumers think of that company first, which allows it to continue innovating and introducing new products, because it is financially stable and it has a strong customer support base.
Companies that want to switch to the use of agile manufacturing can take advantage of consultants who specialize in helping companies convert and improve existing systems. Consultants can offer advice and assistance which is tailored to the industry a company is involved in, and they usually focus on making companies competitive as quickly as possible with proved agile techniques. There are also a number of textbooks and manuals available with additional information on agile manufacturing techniques and approaches.
Another approach was developed combining the attributes of agility together with leanness across one supply chain is the hybrid lean-agile strategy. This blended lean-agile strategy hybridizes attributes of leanness (cost minimization, waste reduction, continuous improvement), agility (speed, flexibility, responsiveness) and leagility (mass customization, postponement) in one supply network. The significance of the hybridized lean aspect is higher upstream the supply chain than the agility dimension in the same supplier node, compared to downstream the supply chain at the distributor node closer to the customers, which operates in a more agile manner.


Currency detector

A currency detector or currency validator is a device that determines whether notes or coins are genuine or counterfeit. These devices are used in a wide range of automated machines, such as retail kiosks, supermarket self checkout machines, arcade gaming machines, payphones, launderette washing machines, car park ticket machines, automatic fare collection machines, public transport ticket machines, and vending machines.
The process involves examining the coins and/or notes that have been inserted into the machine, and conducts various tests to determine if the currency is counterfeit. Because the parameters are different for each coin or note, these currency acceptors must be correctly programmed for each item to be accepted.
In normal operation, if any item such as a coin, banknote, card or ticket is accepted, it is retained within the machine and it falls into a storage container to allow a member of staff to collect it later when emptying the machine. If the item is rejected, the machine returns the item to the customer. If a coin is rejected, it usually falls into a tray or rolls out of a slot at the bottom where the customer can remove the coin. If a banknote, card or ticket is rejected, it is ejected out of the machine so that the customer can remove it from the slot into which it was inserted.
Coin acceptors.
The basic principle for coin detection is to test the physical properties of the coin against known characteristics of acceptable coins. The coin acceptor identifies the coin according to its mass, size, diameter, thickness, metal composition and/or magnetism, and then sends an appropriate electrical signal via its output connection. The next step is generally performed by the banknote-to-coins exchanger.
Today, sophisticated electronic coin acceptors are being used in some places that, in addition to examining the mass, weight and size, also scan the inserted coin using optical laser beams and match the image to a pre-defined list, or test the coin's "metallic signature" based on its metallic composition.
Normal circulation coins eventually collect microscopic particles of dirt, dust, oil and grease from people's fingers. When a coin acceptor is used for a long time, thousands of coins rolling along a track will leave enough dirt, dust, oil and grease to be visible. As a consequence of this, the coin acceptor must be cleaned properly on a regular basis to prevent malfunction or damage. Coin acceptors are modular, so a dirty acceptor can be replaced with a clean unit, minimising downtime. The old unit is then cleaned and refurbished.
Some new types of coin acceptors are able to recognize the coins through "training", so they will support any new types of coins or tokens when correctly introduced.
Testing methods.
Vending and change machines use several methods of deciding whether a banknote is genuine. Adjusting these settings and the sensitivity of each is programmed via means of DIP switches on the internal circuitry.
Optical sensing.
Optical sensing with a small light detector called a photocell or a miniature digital camera is one of the main techniques that vending machines use. Many countries' banknotes are pixelated—that is, they are made out of small dots. The dots are spaced differently and have different sizes, depending on the note. The optical sensors can look for these different patterns to determine what sort of note has been inserted. Some paper money is also fluorescent: it glows when ultraviolet light is shined on it. Some machines shine an ultraviolet light on the note and measure the glow to help determine the banknote's material composition.
GMR sensor proximity detection.
The particles in the ink on many countries' currency have ferromagnetic properties, including some elemental iron. Magnetic composition comprises carbon nanofoam in an amount of from 0.1 to 45 percent by weight of the total composition.
Notes are passed over a permanent magnet array and magnetized along their direction of travel. A magnetic sensor located several inches away with its sensitive axis parallel to the direction of travel can detect the remnant field of the ink particles.
The purpose of the biasing magnet in this case is to achieve a controlled orientation of the magnetic moments of the ink particles, resulting in a maximum and recognizable magnetic signature. Reversing the magnetizing field can actually invert the signature.
Physical attributes.
The thickness and dimensions of a banknote are tested to ensure they are correct. US currency is 2.61 inches wide by 6.14 inches in length and are 0.0042 inches thick, and weigh 1 gram. Currency printed prior to 10 July 1929 had larger physical characteristics. As the notes pass between the rollers, the voltages vary according to their thickness.
Miniature transducers, approximately 3/8" diameter, offer high accuracy linear measurement in a compact space where size constraints prohibit the use of standard LVDTI's. In addition, the low- mass core is ideal for systems with low driving forces or high acceleration and, therefore, will not adversely influence the delicate nature of these applications. Operating ranges are available from ±0.005" to ±1.00", divided into eight intermediate strokes.
Genuine Federal Reserve notes have a clear polyester thread embedded vertically in the paper. The thread is inscribed with the denomination of the note, and is visible only when held up to light. Each denomination has a unique thread position and will glow a unique color in ultraviolet (UV) light.
Banknote acceptors.
Also known as validators or acceptors, paper currency detectors scan paper currency using optical and magnetic sensors. Upon validation, the validator will inform the vending machine controller (VMC) or other host device of a credit via a parallel or serial interface. Various interfaces exist for the host device, including a single-line pulse interface, a multi-line parallel interface, a multi-line binary interface, and serial interfaces such as ccTalk, SSP, and MDB. Wrinkled or creased notes can cause these machines to reject them.
There are currently only a handful of companies manufacturing this equipment. Crane Payment Innovations (joining Crane Payment Solutions and MEI), and Japan Cash Machine (JCM) are two of the largest, each maintaining dominance in a particular market segment. Other notable companies producing this type of equipment include Coinco, Pyramid Technologies, Inc. (PTI), International Currency Technologies (ICT), Alpha CMS (Cash Management Solutions), Astrosys, Pyramid Technologies, Validation Technologies International (VTI), Innovative Technology Ltd (ITL), Global Payment Technologies (GPT) and Jofemar.
Recent innovations include remote auditing and reporting by these devices as part of an Automated Cash Handling network for entertainment, banking, retail, casino and other industries.


Laser trimming

Laser trimming is the manufacturing process of using a laser to adjust the operating parameters of an electronic circuit.
One of the most common applications uses a laser to burn away small portions of resistors, raising their resistance value. The burning operation can be conducted while the circuit is being tested by automatic test equipment, leading to optimum final values for the resistor(s) in the circuit.
The resistance value of a film resistor is defined by its geometric dimensions (length, width, height) and the resistor material. A lateral cut in the resistor material by the laser narrows or lengthens the current flow path and increases the resistance value. The same effect is obtained whether the laser changes a thick-film or a thin-film resistor on a ceramic substrate or an SMD-resistor on a SMD circuit. The SMD-resistor is produced with the same technology and may be laser trimmed as well.
Trimmable chip capacitors are built up as multilayer plate capacitors. Vaporizing the top layer with a laser decreases the capacitance by reducing the area of the top electrode.
Passive trim is the adjustment of a resistor to a given value. If the trimming adjusts the whole circuit output such as output voltage, frequency, or switching threshold, this is called active trim. During the trim process, the corresponding parameter is measured continuously and compared to the programmed nominal value. The laser stops automatically when the value reaches the nominal value.
Trimming LTCC resistances in a pressure chamber.
One type of passive trimmer uses a pressure chamber to enable resistor trimming in a single run. The LTCC boards are contacted by test probes on the assembly side and trimmed with a laser beam from the resistor side. This trimming method requires no contact points between the resistances, because the fine pitch adapter contacts the component on the opposite side of where the trimming occurs. Therefore, the LTCC can be arranged more compactly and less expensively.
Function mode:
Advantages of this method:
Trimming potentiometers.
Often designers use potentiometers, which are adjusted during end testing until the desired function of the circuit is reached. In many applications, the end user of the product would prefer not to have potentiometers, as they can drift, be mis-adjusted or develop noise. Therefore, manufacturers determine the needed resistance or capacitance values by measurement and calculation methods and afterwards solder the suitable component into the final PCB; this approach is called "Select on Test" (SOT) and is quite labor-intensive.
It is simpler to substitute the potentiometer or the SOT part with a trimmable chip resistor or chip capacitor, and the potentiometer adjusting screwdriver is replaced by the laser trimming. The achieved accuracy can be higher, the procedure can be automated, and the long-term stability is better than with potentiometers and at least as good as with SOT components. Often the laser for active trimming can be integrated in existing measurement systems by the manufacturer.
Program from digital logic circuits.
A similar approach can be used to program digital logic circuits. In this case, fuses are blown by the laser, enabling or disabling various logic circuits. An example of this is the IBM POWER4 microprocessor where the chip contains five banks of cache memory but only requires four banks for full operation. During testing, each cache bank is exercised. If a defect is found in one bank, that bank can be disabled by blowing its programming fuse. This built-in redundancy allows higher chip yields than would be possible if all cache banks had to be perfect in every chip. If no bank is defective, a fuse can be blown arbitrarily, leaving just four banks.


Computer-integrated manufacturing

Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) is the manufacturing approach of using computers to control the entire production process. This integration allows individual processes to exchange information with each part. Manufacturing can be faster and less error-prone by the integration of computers. Typically CIM relies on closed-loop control processes based on real-time input from sensors. It is also known as flexible design and manufacturing.
Overview.
CIM is an example of the implementation of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in manufacturing.
CIM implies that there are at least two computers exchanging information, e.g. the controller of an arm robot and a micro-controller.
CIM is most useful where a high level of ICT is used in the company or facility, such as CAD/CAM systems, and the availability of process planning and its data.
History.
The idea of "digital manufacturing" became prominent in the early 1970s, with the release of Dr. Joseph Harrington's book, Computer Integrated Manufacturing. However, it was not until 1984 when computer-integrated manufacturing began to be developed and promoted by machine tool manufacturers and the Computer and Automated Systems Association and Society of Manufacturing Engineers (CASA/SME).
Topics.
Key challenges.
There are three major challenges to development of a smoothly operating computer-integrated manufacturing system:
Subsystems.
A computer-integrated manufacturing system is not the same as a ""lights-out factory"", which would run completely independent of human intervention, although it is a big step in that direction. Part of the system involves flexible manufacturing, where the factory can be quickly modified to produce different products, or where the volume of products can be changed quickly with the aid of computers. Some or all of the following subsystems may be found in a CIM operation:
Computer-aided techniques:
Devices and equipment required:
Technologies:
Others:
CIMOSA.
CIMOSA (Computer Integrated Manufacturing Open System Architecture), is a 1990s European proposal for an open systems architecture for CIM developed by the AMICE Consortium as a series of ESPRIT projects. The goal of CIMOSA was "to help companies to manage change and integrate their facilities and operations to face world wide competition. It provides a consistent architectural framework for both enterprise modeling and enterprise integration as required in CIM environments".
CIMOSA provides a solution for business integration with four types of products:
CIMOSA according to Vernadat (1996), coined the term business process and introduced the process-based approach for integrated enterprise modeling based on a cross-boundaries approach, which opposed to traditional function or activity-based approaches. With CIMOSA also the concept of an "Open System Architecture" (OSA) for CIM was introduced, which was designed to be vendor-independent, and constructed with standardised CIM modules. Here to the OSA is "described in terms of their function, information, resource, and organizational aspects. This should be designed with structured engineering methods and made operational in a modular and evolutionary architecture for operational use".
Areas.
There are multiple areas of usage:


Powder metallurgy

Powder metallurgy (PM) is a term covering a wide range of ways in which materials or components are made from metal powders. PM processes can reduce or eliminate the need for subtractive processes in manufacturing, lowering material losses and reducing the cost of the final product.
Powder metallurgy is also used to make unique materials impossible to get from melting or forming in other ways. A very important product of this type is tungsten carbide. Tungsten carbide is used to cut and form other metals and is made from tungsten carbide particles bonded with cobalt. It is very widely used in industry for tools of many types and globally ~50,000 tonnes per year is made with powder metallurgy. Other products include sintered filters, porous oil-impregnated bearings, electrical contacts and diamond tools.
Since the advent of industrial production-scale metal powder-based additive manufacturing in the 2010s, selective laser sintering and other metal additive manufacturing processes are a new category of commercially important powder metallurgy applications.
Overview.
The powder metallurgy "press and sinter" process generally consists of three basic steps: powder blending (or pulverisation), die compaction, and sintering. Compaction of the powder in the die is generally performed at room temperature. Sintering is the process of binding a material together with heat without liquefying it. It is usually conducted at atmospheric pressure, and under carefully controlled atmosphere composition. To obtain special properties or enhanced precision, secondary processing like coining or heat treatment often follows.
One of the older such methods is the process of blending fine (carbon, copper, and/or nickel. This produces precise parts, normally very close to the die dimensions, but with 5–15% porosity, and thus sub-wrought steel properties. This method is still used to make around 1 Mt/y of structural components of iron-based alloys.
There are several other PM processes which have been developed over the last fifty years. These include:
History and capabilities.
The history of powder metallurgy and the art of metal and ceramic sintering are intimately related to each other. Sintering involves the production of a hard solid metal or ceramic piece from a starting powder. The ancient Incas made jewelry and other artifacts from precious metal powders, though mass manufacturing of PM products did not begin until the mid or late 19th century. In these early manufacturing operations, iron was extracted by hand from metal sponge following reduction and was then reintroduced as a powder for final melting or sintering.
A much wider range of products can be obtained from powder processes than from direct alloying of fused materials. In melting operations the "phase rule" applies to all pure and combined elements and strictly dictates the distribution of liquid and solid phases which can exist for specific compositions. In addition, whole body melting of starting materials is required for alloying, thus imposing unwelcome chemical, thermal, and containment constraints on manufacturing. Unfortunately, the handling of aluminium/iron powders poses major problems. Other substances that are especially reactive with atmospheric oxygen, such as titanium, are sinterable in special atmospheres or with temporary coatings.
In powder metallurgy or ceramics it is possible to fabricate components which otherwise would decompose or disintegrate. All considerations of solid-liquid phase changes can be ignored, so powder processes are more flexible than casting, extrusion, or forging techniques. Controllable characteristics of products prepared using various powder technologies include mechanical, magnetic, and other unconventional properties of such materials as porous solids, aggregates, and intermetallic compounds. Competitive characteristics of manufacturing processing (e.g. tool wear, complexity, or vendor options) also may be closely controlled.
Powder production techniques.
Any fusible material can be atomized. Several techniques have been developed which permit large production rates of powdered particles, often with considerable control over the size ranges of the final grain population. Powders may be prepared by crushing, grinding, chemical reactions, or electrolytic deposition. The most commonly used powders are copper-base and iron-base materials.
Powders of the elements titanium, vanadium, thorium, niobium, tantalum, calcium, and uranium have been produced by high-temperature reduction of the corresponding nitrides and carbides. Iron, nickel, uranium, and beryllium submicrometre powders are obtained by reducing metallic oxalates and formates. Exceedingly fine particles also have been prepared by directing a stream of molten metal through a high-temperature plasma jet or flame, atomizing the material. Various chemical and flame associated powdering processes are adopted in part to prevent serious degradation of particle surfaces by atmospheric oxygen.
In tonnage terms, the production of iron powders for PM structural part production dwarfs the production of all of the non-ferrous metal powders combined. Virtually all iron powders are produced by one of two processes: the sponge iron process or water atomization.
Sponge iron process.
The longest established of these processes is the sponge iron process, the leading example of a family of processes involving solid state reduction of an oxide. In the process, selected magnetite (Fe3O4) ore is mixed with coke and lime and placed in a silicon carbide retort. The filled retort is then heated in a kiln, where the reduction process leaves an iron “cake” and a slag. In subsequent steps, the retort is emptied, the reduced iron sponge is separated from the slag and is crushed and annealed.
The resultant powder is highly irregular in particle shape, therefore ensuring good “green strength” so that die-pressed compacts can be readily handled prior to sintering, and each particle contains internal pores (hence the term “sponge”) so that the good green strength is available at low compacted density levels.
Sponge iron provides the
feedstock for all iron-based self-lubricating bearings, and still accounts for around 30% of iron powder usage in PM structural parts.
Atomization.
Atomization is accomplished by forcing a molten metal stream through an orifice at moderate pressures. A gas is introduced into the metal stream just before it leaves the nozzle, serving to create turbulence as the entrained gas expands (due to heating) and exits into a large collection volume exterior to the orifice. The collection volume is filled with gas to promote further turbulence of the molten metal jet. Air and powder streams are segregated using gravity or cyclonic separation. Most atomized powders are annealed, which helps reduce the oxide and carbon content. The water atomized particles are smaller, cleaner, and nonporous and have a greater breadth of size, which allows better compacting. The particles produced through this method are normally of spherical or pear shape. Usually, they also carry a layer of oxide over them.
There are three types of atomization:
Simple atomization techniques are available in which liquid metal is forced through an orifice at a sufficiently high velocity to ensure turbulent flow. The usual performance index used is the Reynolds number:
where is the fluid density, is the velocity of the exit stream, is the diameter of the opening, and is the absolute viscosity. At low Re the liquid jet oscillates, but at higher velocities the stream becomes turbulent and breaks into droplets. Pumping energy is applied to droplet formation with very low efficiency (on the order of ) and control over the size distribution of the metal particles produced is rather poor. Other techniques such as nozzle vibration, nozzle asymmetry, multiple impinging streams, or molten-metal injection into ambient gas are all available to increase atomization efficiency, produce finer grains, and to narrow the particle size distribution. Unfortunately, it is difficult to eject metals through orifices smaller than a few millimeters in diameter, which in practice limits the minimum size of powder grains to approximately . Atomization also produces a wide spectrum of particle sizes, necessitating downstream classification by screening and remelting a significant fraction of the grain boundary.
Centrifugal disintegration.
Centrifugal disintegration of molten particles offers one way around these problems. Extensive experience is available with iron, steel, and aluminium. Metal to be powdered is formed into a rod which is introduced into a chamber through a rapidly rotating spindle. Opposite the spindle tip is an electrode from which an arc is established which heats the metal rod. As the tip material fuses, the rapid rod rotation throws off tiny melt droplets which solidify before hitting the chamber walls. A circulating gas sweeps particles from the chamber. Similar techniques could be employed in space or on the Moon. The chamber wall could be rotated to force new powders into remote collection vessels, and the electrode could be replaced by a solar mirror focused at the end of the rod.
An alternative approach capable of producing a very narrow distribution of grain sizes but with low throughput consists of a rapidly spinning bowl heated to well above the melting point of the material to be powdered. Liquid metal, introduced onto the surface of the basin near the center at flow rates adjusted to permit a thin metal film to skim evenly up the walls and over the edge, breaks into droplets, each approximately the thickness of the film.
Other techniques.
Another powder-production technique involves a thin jet of liquid metal intersected by high-speed streams of atomized water which break the jet into drops and cool the powder before it reaches the bottom of the bin. In subsequent operations the powder is dried. This is called water atomization. The advantage of water atomization is that metal solidifies faster than by gas atomization since the heat capacity of water is some magnitudes higher than gases. Since the solidification rate is inversely proportional to the particle size, smaller particles can be made using water atomization. The smaller the particles, the more homogeneous the micro structure will be. Notice that particles will have a more irregular shape and the particle size distribution will be wider. In addition, some surface contamination can occur by oxidation skin formation. Powder can be reduced by some kind of pre-consolidation treatment, such as annealing used for the manufacture of ceramic tools.
Powder compaction.
Powder compaction is the process of compacting metal powder in a die through the application of high pressures. Typically the tools are held in the vertical orientation with the punch tool forming the bottom of the cavity. The powder is then compacted into a shape and then ejected from the die cavity. In a number of these applications the parts may require very little additional work for their intended use; making for very cost efficient manufacturing.
The density of the compacted powder increases with the amount of pressure applied. Typical pressures range from 80 psi to 1000 psi (0.5 MPa to 7 MPa), pressures from 1000 psi to 1,000,000 psi have been obtained. Pressure of 10 t/in² to 50 t/in² (150 MPa to 700 MPa) are commonly used for metal powder compaction. To attain the same compression ratio across a component with more than one level or height, it is necessary to work with multiple lower punches. A cylindrical workpiece is made by single-level tooling. A more complex shape can be made by the common multiple-level tooling.
Production rates of 15 to 30 parts per minute are common.
There are four major classes of tool styles: single-action compaction, used for thin, flat components; opposed double-action with two punch motions, which accommodates thicker components; double-action with floating die; and double action withdrawal die. Double action classes give much better density distribution than single action. Tooling must be designed so that it will withstand the extreme pressure without deforming or bending. Tools must be made from materials that are polished and wear-resistant.
Better workpiece materials can be obtained by repressing and re-sintering.
Die pressing.
The dominant technology for the forming of products from powder materials, in terms of both tonnage quantities and numbers of parts produced, is die pressing. There are mechanical, servo-electrical and hydraulic presses available in the market, whereby the biggest powder throughput is processed by hydraulic presses.
This forming technology involves a production cycle comprising:
This cycle offers a readily automated and high production rate process.
Design considerations.
Probably the most basic consideration is being able to remove the part from the die after it is pressed, along with avoiding sharp corners in the design. Keeping the maximum surface area below and the height-to-diameter ratio below 7-to-1 is recommended. Along with having walls thicker than and keeping the adjacent wall thickness ratios below 2.5-to-1.
One of the major advantages of this process is its ability to produce complex geometries. Parts with undercuts and threads require a secondary machining operation. Typical part sizes range from to . in area and from in length. However, it is possible to produce parts that are less than and larger than . in area and from a fraction of an inch (2.54 cm) to approximately in length.
Isostatic pressing.
In some pressing operations, such as hot isostatic pressing (HIP) compact formation and sintering occur simultaneously. This procedure, together with explosion-driven compressive techniques is used extensively in the production of high-temperature and high-strength parts such as turbine disks for jet engines. In most applications of powder metallurgy the compact is hot-pressed, heated to a temperature above which the materials cannot remain work-hardened. Hot pressing lowers the pressures required to reduce porosity and speeds welding and grain deformation processes. It also permits better dimensional control of the product, lessens sensitivity to physical characteristics of starting materials, and allows powder to be compressed to higher densities than with cold pressing, resulting in higher strength. Negative aspects of hot pressing include shorter die life, slower throughput because of powder heating, and the frequent necessity for protective atmospheres during forming and cooling stages.
Isostatic powder compacting.
Isostatic powder compacting is a mass-conserving shaping process. Fine metal particles are placed into a flexible mould and then high fluid pressure is applied to the mold, in contrast to the direct pressure applied by the die faces of a die pressing process. The resulting article is then sintered in a furnace which increases the strength of the part by bonding the metal particles. This manufacturing process produces very little scrap metal and can be used to make many different shapes. The tolerances that this process can achieve are very precise, ranging from +/- 0.008 inches (0.2 mm) for axial dimensions and +/- 0.020 inches (0.5 mm) for radial dimensions. This is the most efficient type of powder compacting (the following subcategories are also from this reference). This operation is generally only applicable on small production quantities, although the cost of a mold much lower than that of pressing dies it is generally not reusable and the production time is much longer.
Compacting pressures range from to for most metals and approximately to for non-metals. The density of isostatic compacted parts is 5% to 10% higher than with other powder metallurgy processes.
Equipment.
There are many types of equipment used in isostatic powder compacting. There is the mold containing the part, which is flexible, a flexible outer pressure mold that contains and seals the mold, and the machine delivering the pressure. There are also devices to control the amount of pressure and how long the pressure is held. The machines need to apply pressures from for metals.
Geometrical possibilities.
Typical workpiece sizes range from to thick and to long. It is possible to compact workpieces that are between and thick and to long.
Tool style.
Isostatic tools are available in three styles, free mold (wet-bag), coarse mold (damp-bag) and fixed mold (dry-bag). The free mold style is the traditional style of isostatic compaction and is not generally used for high production work. In free mold tooling the mold is removed and filled outside the canister. Damp bag is where the mold is located in the canister, yet filled outside. In fixed mold tooling, the mold is contained within the canister, which facilitates automation of the process.
Hot isostatic pressing.
Hot isostatic pressing (HIP) compresses and sinters the part simultaneously by applying heat ranging from 900 °F (480 °C) to 2250 °F (1230 °C). Argon gas is the most common gas used in HIP because it is an inert gas, thus prevents chemical reactions during the operation.
Cold isostatic pressing.
Cold isostatic pressing (CIP) uses fluid as a means of applying pressure to the mold at room temperature. After removal the part still needs to be sintered.
It is helpful in distributing pressure uniformly over the compaction material contained in a rubber bag.
Design considerations.
Advantages over standard powder compaction are the possibility of thinner walls and larger workpieces. Height to diameter ratio has no limitation. No specific limitations exist in wall thickness variations, undercuts, reliefs, threads, and cross holes. No lubricants are need for isostatic powder compaction. The minimum wall thickness is 0.05 inches (1.27 mm) and the product can have a weight between 40 and 300 pounds (18 and 136 kg). There is 25 to 45% shrinkage of the powder after compacting.
Sintering.
After compaction, powdered materials are heated in a controlled atmosphere in a process known as sintering. During this process, the surfaces of the particles are bonded and desirable properties are achieved.
Sintering of powder metals is a process in which particles under pressure chemically bond to themselves in order to form a coherent shape when exposed to a high temperature. The temperature in which the particles are sintered is most commonly below the melting point of the main component in the powder. If the temperature is above the melting point of a component in the powder metal part, the liquid of the melted particles fills the pores. This type of sintering is known as liquid-state sintering. A major challenge with sintering in general is knowing the effect of the process on the dimensions of the compact particles. This is especially difficult for tooling purposes in which specific dimensions may be needed. It is most common for the sintered part to shrink and become denser, but it can also expand or experience no net change.
The main driving force for solid state sintering is an excess of surface free energy. The process of solid-state sintering is complex and dependent on the material and furnace (temperature and gas) conditions. There are six main stages that sintering processes can be grouped in which may overlap with one another: 1 initial bonding among particles, 2) neck growth, 3) pore channel closure, 4) pore rounding, 5) densification or pore shrinkage, and 6) pore coarsening. The main mechanisms present in these stages are evaporation, condensation, grain boundaries, volume diffusion, and plastic deformation.
Most sintering furnaces contain three zones with three different properties that help to carry out the six steps above. The first zone, commonly coined the burn-off or purge stage, is designed to combust air, burn any contaminants such as lubricant or binders, and slowly raise the temperature of the compact materials. If the temperature of the compact parts is raised too quickly, the air in the pores will be at a very high internal pressure which could lead to expansion or fracture of the part. The second zone, known as the high-temperature stage, is used to produce solid-state diffusion and particle bonding. The material is seeking to lower its surface energy and does so by moving toward the points of contact between particles. The contact points become larger and eventually a solid mass with small pores is created. The third zone, also called the cooling period, is used to cool down the parts while still in a controlled atmosphere. This is an important zone as it prevents oxidation from immediate contact with the air or a phenomenon known as rapid cooling. All of the three stages must be carried out in a controlled atmosphere containing no oxygen. Hydrogen, nitrogen, dissociated ammonia, and cracked hydrocarbons are common gases pumped into the furnace zones providing a reducing atmosphere, preventing oxide formation.
During this process, a number of characteristics are increased including the strength, ductility, toughness, and electrical and thermal conductivity of the material. If different elemental powders are compact and sintered, the material would form into alloys and intermetallic phases.
As the pore sizes decrease, the density of the material will increase. As stated above, this shrinkage is a huge problem in making parts or tooling in which particular dimensions are required. The shrinkage of test materials is monitored and used to manipulate the furnace conditions or to oversize the compact materials in order to achieve the desired dimensions. Although, sintering does not deplete the compact part of porosity. In general, powder metal parts contain five to twenty-five percent porosity after sintering.
To allow efficient stacking of product in the furnace during sintering and prevent parts sticking together, many manufacturers separate ware using ceramic powder separator sheets. These sheets are available in various materials such as alumina, zirconia, and magnesia. They are also available in fine, medium, and coarse particle sizes. By matching the material and particle size to the wares being sintered, surface damage and contamination can be reduced, while maximizing furnace loading per batch.
One recently developed technique for high-speed sintering involves passing high electric current through a powder to preferentially heat the asperities. Most of the energy serves to melt that portion of the compact where migration is desirable for densification; comparatively little energy is absorbed by the bulk materials and forming machinery. Naturally, this technique is not applicable to electrically insulating powders.
Continuous powder processing.
The phrase "continuous process" should be used only to describe modes of manufacturing which could be extended indefinitely in time. Normally, however, the term refers to processes whose products are much longer in one physical dimension than in the other two. Compression, rolling, and extrusion are the most common examples.
In a simple compression process, powder flows from a bin onto a two-walled channel and is repeatedly compressed vertically by a horizontally stationary punch. After stripping the compress from the conveyor, the compacted mass is introduced into a sintering furnace. An even easier approach is to spray powder onto a moving belt and sinter it without compression. However, good methods for stripping cold-pressed materials from moving belts are hard to find. One alternative that avoids the belt-stripping difficulty altogether is the manufacture of metal sheets using opposed hydraulic rams, although weakness lines across the sheet may arise during successive press operations.
Powders can also be rolled to produce sheets. The powdered metal is fed into a two-high rolling mill, and is compacted into strip form at up to . The strip is then sintered and subjected to another rolling and further sintering. Rolling is commonly used to produce sheet metal for electrical and electronic components, as well as coins. Considerable work also has been done on rolling multiple layers of different materials simultaneously into sheets.
Extrusion processes are of two general types. In one type, the powder is mixed with a binder or plasticizer at room temperature; in the other, the powder is extruded at elevated temperatures without fortification. Extrusions with binders are used extensively in the preparation of tungsten-carbide composites. Tubes, complex sections, and spiral drill shapes are manufactured in extended lengths and diameters varying in the range . Hard metal wires of diameter have been drawn from powder stock. At the opposite extreme, large extrusions on a tonnage basis may be feasible.
For softer, easier to form metals such as aluminium and copper alloys continuous extrusion may also be performed using processes such as conform or continuous rotary extrusion. These processes use a rotating wheel with a groove around its circumference to drive the loose powder through a forming die. Through a combination of high pressure and a complex strain path the powder particles deform, generate a large amount of frictional heat and bond together to form a bulk solid. Theoretically fully continuous operation is possible as long as the powder can be fed into the process.
There appears to be no limitation to the variety of metals and alloys that can be extruded, provided the temperatures and pressures involved are within the capabilities of die materials. Extrusion lengths may range from 3 to 30 m and diameters from 0.2 to 1 m. Modern presses are largely automatic and operate at high speeds (on the order of m/s).
Shock (dynamic) consolidation.
Shock consolidation, or dynamic consolidation, is an experimental technique of consolidating powders using high pressure shock waves. These are commonly produced by impacting the workpiece with an explosively accelerated plate. Despite being researched for a long time, the technique still has some problems in controlability and uniformity. However, it offers some valuable potential advantages. As an example, consolidation occurs so rapidly that metastable microstructures may be retained.
Electric current assisted sintering.
These techniques employ electric currents to drive or enhance sintering. Through a combination of electric currents and mechanical pressure powders sinter more rapidly thereby reducing the sintering time compared to conventional thermal solutions. The techniques can be divided into two main categories: resistance sintering, which incorporates spark plasma sintering and hot pressing; and electric discharge sintering, such as capacitor discharge sintering or its derivative, electro sinter forging. Resistance sintering techniques are consolidation methods based on temperature, where heating of the mold and of the powders is accomplished through electric currents, usually with a characteristic processing time of 15 to 30 minutes. On the other hand, electric discharge sintering methods rely on high-density currents (from 0.1 to 1 kA/mm^2) to directly sinter electrically conductive powders, with a characteristic time between tens of microseconds to hundreds of milliseconds.
Special products.
Many special products are possible with powder metallurgy technology. A nonexhaustive list includes Al2O3 whiskers coated with very thin oxide layers for improved refraction; iron compacts with Al2O3 coatings for improved high-temperature creep strength; light bulb filaments made with powder technology; linings for friction brakes; metal glasses for high-strength films and ribbons; heat shields for spacecraft reentry into Earth's atmosphere; electrical contacts for handling large current flows; magnets; microwave ferrites; filters for gases; and bearings which can be infiltrated with lubricants.
Extremely thin films and tiny spheres exhibit high strength. One application of this observation is to coat brittle materials in whisker form with a submicrometre film of much softer metal (e.g. cobalt-coated tungsten). The surface strain of the thin layer places the harder metal under compression, so that when the entire composite is sintered the rupture strength increases markedly. With this method, strengths on the order of 2.8 GPa versus 550 MPa have been observed for, respectively, coated (25% cobalt) and uncoated tungsten carbides.
Hazards.
The special materials and processes used in powder metallurgy can pose hazards to life and property. The high surface-area-to-volume ratio of the powders can increase their chemical reactivity in biological exposures (for example, inhalation or ingestion), and increases the risk of dust explosions. Materials considered relatively benign in bulk can pose special toxicological risks when in a finely divided form. Inhalation of heavy metals can result in many health issues. Lead and cadmium are generally toxic, and cobalt can cause asthma and fibrosis in sensitive individuals.