Material handling

Material handling involves short-distance movement within the confines of a building or between a building and a transportation vehicle. It uses a wide range of manual, semi-automated, and automated equipment and includes consideration of the protection, storage, and control of materials throughout their manufacturing, warehousing, distribution, consumption, and disposal. Material handling can be used to create "time and place utility" through the handling, storage, and control of waste, as distinct from manufacturing, which creates "form utility" by changing the shape, form, and makeup of material.
Role.
Material handling plays an important role in manufacturing and logistics. Almost every item of physical commerce has been transported on a conveyor or lift truck or another type of material handling equipment in manufacturing plants, warehouses, and retail stores. While material handling is usually required as part of every production worker's job, over 650,000 people in the U.S. work as dedicated "material moving machine operators" and have a median annual wage of $31,530 (May 2012). These operators use material handling equipment to transport various goods in a variety of industrial settings including moving construction materials around building sites or moving goods onto ships.
Design of material handling systems.
Material handling is integral to the design of most production systems since the efficient flow of material between the activities of a production system is heavily dependent on the arrangement (or "layout") of the activities. If two activities are adjacent to each other, then material might easily be handed from one activity to another. If activities are in sequence, a conveyor can move the material at low cost. If activities are separated, more expensive industrial trucks or overhead conveyors are required for transport. The high cost of using an industrial truck for material transport is due to both the labor costs of the operator and the negative impact on the performance of a production system (e.g., increased work in process) when multiple units of material are combined into a single transfer batch in order to reduce the number of trips required for transport.
The unit load concept.
A unit load is either a single unit of an item, or multiple units so arranged or restricted that they can be handled as a single unit and maintain their integrity. Although granular, liquid, and gaseous materials can be transported in bulk, they can also be contained into unit loads using bags, drums, and cylinders. Advantages of unit loads are that more items can be handled at the same time (thereby reducing the number of trips required, and potentially reducing handling costs, loading and unloading times, and product damage) and that it enables the use of standardized material handling equipment. Disadvantages of unit loads include the negative impact of batching on production system performance, and the cost of returning empty containers/pallets to their point of origin.
In-process handling.
Unit loads can be used both for in-process handling and for distribution (receiving, storing, and shipping). Unit load design involves determining the type, size, weight, and configuration of the load; the equipment and method used to handle the load; and the methods of forming (or building) and breaking down the load. For in-process handling, unit loads should not be larger than the production batch size of parts in process. Large production batches (used to increase the utilization of bottleneck activities) can be split into smaller "transfer batches" for handling purposes, where each transfer batch contains one or more unit loads, and small unit loads can be combined into a larger transfer batch to allow more efficient transport.
Distribution.
Selecting a unit load size for distribution can be difficult because containers/pallets are usually available only in standard sizes and configurations; truck trailers, rail boxcars, and airplane cargo bays are limited in width, length, and height; and the number of feasible container/pallet sizes for a load may be limited due to the existing warehouse layout and storage rack configurations and customer package/carton size and retail store shelf restrictions. Also, the practical size of a unit load may be limited by the equipment and aisle space available and the need for safe material handling.
Health and safety.
Manual material handling work contributes to a large percentage of the over half a million cases of musculoskeletal disorders reported annually in the United States. Musculoskeletal disorders often involve strains and sprains to the lower back, shoulders, and upper limbs. They can result in protracted pain, disability, medical treatment, and financial stress for those afflicted with them, and employers often find themselves paying the bill, either directly or through workers’ compensation insurance, at the same time they must cope with the loss of the full capacity of their workers.
Scientific evidence shows that effective ergonomic interventions can lower the physical demands of MMH work tasks, thereby lowering the incidence and severity of the musculoskeletal injuries they can cause. Their potential for reducing injury related costs alone make ergonomic interventions a useful tool for improving a company’s productivity, product quality, and overall business competitiveness. But very often productivity gets an additional and solid shot in the arm when managers and workers take a fresh look at how best to use energy, equipment, and exertion to get the job done in the most efficient, effective, and effortless way possible. Planning that applies these principles can result in big wins for all concerned.
Types.
Manual handling.
Manual handling refers to the use of a worker’s hands to move individual containers by lifting, lowering, filling, emptying, or carrying them. It can expose workers to physical dangers that can lead to injuries: a large percentage of the over half a million cases of musculoskeletal disorders reported in the U.S. each year arise from manual handling, and often involve strains and sprains to a person's lower back, shoulders and upper limbs.
Ergonomic improvements can be used to modify manual handling tasks to reduce injury. These improvements can include reconfiguring the task and using positioning equipment like lift/tilt/turn tables, hoists, balancers, and manipulators to reduce reaching and bending. The NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health) 1991 Revised Lifting Equation can be used to evaluate manual lifting tasks. Under ideal circumstances, the maximum recommended weight for manual lifting to avoid back injuries is 51 lb (23.13 kg). Using the exact conditions of the lift (height, distance lifted, weight, position of weight relative to body, asymmetrical lifts, and objects that are difficult to grasp), six multipliers are used to reduce the maximum recommended weight for less than ideal lifting tasks.
Automated handling.
Whenever technically and economically feasible, equipment can be used to reduce and sometimes replace the need to manually handle material. Most existing material handling equipment is only "semi-automated" because a human operator is needed for tasks like loading/unloading and driving that are difficult and/or too costly to fully automate. However, ongoing advances in sensing, machine intelligence, and robotics have made it possible to fully automate an increasing number of handling tasks. A rough guide to determine how much can be spent for automated equipment that would replace one material handler is to consider that, with benefits, the median moving machine operator costs a company $45,432 per year. Assuming a real interest rate of 1.7% and a service life of 5 years with no adoption/adaptation cost, no learning cost, no training cost, and no operating cost for equipment with no salvage value, a company should be willing to pay up to
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to purchase automated equipment to replace one worker. In many cases, automated equipment is not as flexible as a human operator, both with respect to not being able to do a particular task as well as a human and not being able to be as easily redeployed to do other tasks as needs change.


Direct part marking

Direct part marking (DPM) is a process to permanently mark parts with product information including serial numbers, part numbers, date codes, and barcodes. This is done to allow the tracking of parts through the full life cycle.
The interpretation of 'permanent' often depends on the context the part is used. In the aerospace industry an aircraft part may be in service for over 30 years. Within telecom and computer industries the life cycle may only last a few years.
DPM is often used by automotive, aerospace, and electronic manufacturers to facilitate a reliable identification of their parts. This can assist in data logging for safety, warranty issues and satisfy regulatory requirements. Also the United States Department of Defense demands a physical mark on tangible assets in conjunction with the Item Unique Identification.
Barcode types.
There are many ways to encode an information to a machine-readable code. The preferred codes are the Data Matrix and the QR Code. Data Matrix is used by Motorola. It is also preferred by NASA to mark parts. In the automotive industries also the QR Code is used. This is founded in the fact that this code was initially developed by Denso Wave (a global automotive components manufacturer) for tracking parts in vehicle manufacturing.
Marking methods.
Methods to produce a permanent mark on parts are:
Other methods like manual metal stamp, vibro-etch and embossing were not suitable to successfully apply micro size (1/32- to 15/64-inch square), high density machine-readable symbols.
Marking method selection factors.
The marking method depends on a number of different factors:


Westfield SEight

The SEiGHT (pronounced variously as S-8 or 'Sayt') is a sports car manufactured as a kit or factory built vehicle by Westfield Sportscars. It is based on the familiar Lotus Seven concept, created by Colin Chapman, whose design philosophy was to strip a car design down to bare essentials for the ultimate in driving experiences. Bar a few visual differences, such as a bonnet bulge to house the large engine, it uses the same widebody chassis as the smaller engined SEi. All SEiGHTs are defined as such by the powerplant - a V8 engine. In kit form they were initially only available from the factory as a rolling chassis, unlike other Westfield kits which can be bought in component form. Later in their production run Westfield would allow the SEiGHT to be purchased in component form allowing customers to fully experience the build.
Westfield ended production of the SEiGHT in December 2010.
Powerplant.
The Rover V8 engine powerplant of the SEiGHT ranges from 3.5 litre units originally sourced from the Rover SD1 to bored and stroked 5.2 litre units. There are also 3.9 fuel injected versions, which are currently provided in the factory built vehicles and TVR Power engines of 4.2 litres. On the whole the V8 is a Rover unit, an alloy block which is lighter than the cast iron blocks of many V8s. One example has been built around an alloy version of the Chevrolet small block with a displacement of 6.6 litres.


Bead probe technology

Bead probe technology (BPT) is technique used to provide electrical access (called “nodal access”) to printed circuit board (PCB) circuitry for performing in-circuit testing (ICT). It makes use of small beads of solder placed onto the board's traces to allow measuring and controlling of the signals using a test probe. This permits test access to boards on which standard ICT test pads are not feasible due to space constraints.
Description.
Bead probe technology is a probing method used to connect electronic test equipment to the device under test (DUT) within a bed of nails fixture. The technique was first used in the 1990s and originally given the name “Waygood Bump” after one of the main proponents, Rex Waygood. They are also commonly referred to as solder bumps. Bead probes were designed for when less than 30 mil is available for test probe points on the PCB. They are used with standard ICT spring-loaded test probes to connect the test equipment to the DUT.
Bead construction.
Bead probes are made from a very small "beads" of solder that fit atop of the PCB traces. They are manufactured using the same techniques as other solder features. Construction requires a hole to be opened in the solder mask, exposing the copper trace. This hole is sized to precisely control the amount of metal that forms the bead. Solder paste is applied to the location and reflowed. During reflow, solder flows and is drawn to the copper trace. Surface tension causes the bead to have a curved surface and rise above the solder mask, where it solidifies into a Bead Probe. The bead will be roughly obround in shape and may be 15-25 mils long. A properly constructed bead is the same width as the trace and just enough to clear the surrounding solder mask. The bead is then accessible for testing using a probe with a flat end, which can help compensate for the tolerance build up in the test fixture and PCB.
Advantages.
Bead probe can be used in circuits where the pin-pitch is too fine to allow standard test pads. This is becoming more common as pin pitches continue to reduce, particularly in embedded devices. Typically bead probe widths are the width of the PCB traces with a length of about three times this. This allows a high degree of flexibility in their positioning, and can in some cases be applied retrospectively to existing layouts.
Because of their small size, bead probes do not affect the signal quality of the signals transferring within the PCB trace. This is especially useful in high speed input/output (HSIO) interconnects, where a standard test pad would interfere with the signal.


Redistribution layer

A redistribution layer (RDL) is an extra metal layer on an integrated circuit that makes its I/O pads available in other locations of the chip, for better access to the pads where necessary.
When an integrated circuit is manufactured, it usually has a set of I/O pads that are wirebonded to the pins of the package. A redistribution layer is an extra layer of wiring on the chip that enables bond out from different locations on the chip, making chip-to-chip bonding simpler. Another example of the use for RDL is for spreading the contact points around the die so that solder balls can be applied, and the thermal stress of mounting can be spread.


LARG SCM

LARG Supply Chain Management attempts to put together lean, agile, resilient, and green approaches in supply chain management. Lean supply chain managements aims are to maintain close to zero inventories and reduce work-in-process; Agile goes for quick responses to customer inquiries and market changes while controlling costs and quality; resilience is about reacting quickly to disruptions impacting supply chain; and green refers to sustainability in supply chain through low emissions to the environment and a recycling strategy for products.
History.
The idea of LARG SCM was developed in the research unit of mechanical and industrial engineering (UNIDEMI) in the Faculty of Science and Technology at New University of Lisbon, Portugal. UNIDEMI is the main research center working on LARG SCM. UNINOVA and NECE are contributing partners.
Overview.
A lean company means nearly zero inventories; a resilient company must have enough inventory to react to the effects of disruptions that may occur in a supply chain. These concepts seem to be contradictory . However, it would be ideal to have both systems working together in a company. These facts advise for further research in production and supply chain management; lean and resilient concepts require to be modeled on a compatibility basis.
LARG SCM develops a deep understanding of interrelationships (conflicts and trade-offs) across lean, agile, resilient and green supply chain paradigms. This understanding is believed to be vital to turn these concepts really compatible. This achievement will provide an important contribution for a competitive and sustainable environment; its justification will be based on better “lean, agile, resilient and green production systems” at the company level, with implications at the overall supply chain level and its agents.
LARG SCM encompasses a variety of related topics such as methodology, characteristics, organizational system, Performance measurement, human factors, information system, and management integration model.


Waterloo Manufacturing Company

The Waterloo Manufacturing Company, Ltd. was a Canadian farm engine builder based in Waterloo, Ontario, which built engines in sizes ranging from sixteen to thirty horsepower between 1880 and 1925.
Waterloo Manufacturing of Ontario is occasionally confused with the Waterloo Gasoline Engine Company, of Waterloo, Iowa, U.S., which was purchased by John Deere for its popular Waterloo Boy Tractor. No relationship between the companies exists.
History.
In the 1920s and 30's Waterloo Mfg served as Canadian distributors for many U.S.-built brands including Hart Parr, Rock Island Heider, Rock Island, Belle City, Twin Cities, Minneapolis-Moline.
Waterloo Manufacturing continues to sell and service industrial boilers.


Packsize

Packsize is an American corrugated material manufacturer and on-demand packaging system provider for businesses with complex corrugated packaging needs. The business is headquartered in Salt Lake City, Utah and has operations in United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Germany, and the Scandinavia . It serves customers in 21 countries.
History.
Packsize International LLC was founded in the USA in 2002. In 2007, Intermountain West investment firm Peterson Partners made a $4.6 million investment in Packsize. Packsize founder Hanko Kiessner received the Ernst & Young Entrepreneur of the Year Award 2008 in the Manufacturing/Distribution category in the Pacific Northwest. In 2020, Rod Gallaway was appointed CEO of Packsize. In September of 2022, the company added Greg Caldwell as its first Chief Marketing Officer.
Business model.
Packsize established Right-sized Packaging on Demand as its business model. Through this model, Packsize retains ownership of its technology giving the company a long-term stake in its customers’ packaging performance as well as continued revenue. p . T
Packsize’s Right-sized Packaging on Demand business model includes using its On Demand Packaging system. Packsize coined the term On Demand Packaging to identify and distinguish its unique system from typical box systems. The On Demand Packaging system eliminates the need for large inventories of pre-ordered cardboard boxes and minimizes the amount of packaging filler needed, if any. Packsize’s On Demand Packaging system includes a box-making machine, software and corrugated material. Product dimensions are entered into the box-making machine. The machine cuts, creases and scores the corrugated material to the exact specifications to create a customized box specifically optimized for the product. As a result, less packaging material and void fill are required to safely package items. The On Demand Packaging system also reduces the space required for packaging material inventory and shipping costs.


PTE technique

The Photothermoelectric (PTE) effect is based on the Seebeck effect, where the heating is achieved by absorbing light on a thermoelectric (TE) material. Synonymous to PPE technique for thermal characterization of materials, PTE can be used to thermally characterize both thermoelectrics (acts as sensor and sample) and other sample materials (while acting as a sensor).
An advantage of such sensors stems from their wide temperature range of applicability since pyromaterials are limited to its curie temperature. On the other hand, in order to obtain a useful signal from TE material, depends on its Seebeck coefficient, comparatively large amount of heat (light excitation) has to be deposited on the material. As far as now, Frequency domain PTE technique is in its preliminary stage for the thermal characterization of materials. Advances were done in liquid thermoelectrics as well on PTE.


Candace A. Yano

Candace A. Yano is Professor and Chair at Haas School of Business's Operations and Information Technology Management Group, and Professor and former Head of Department of Industrial Engineering & Operations Research, both at University of California, Berkeley. She is also a senior technical consultant on operations management issues for Yano Accountancy Corporation (YAC).
Academic work.
Yano is known for her work in Inventory Theory, Logistics Management, Supply Chain Management, Service Management, Production-Quality Interface Issues, and Marketing-Production Interface Issues, and serves or has served on the editorial board of IIE Transactions, Interfaces, Management Science, Manufacturing & Service Operations Management, Naval Research Logistics, Operations Research, and Productions and Operations Management.
Career.
Prior to joining University of California, Berkeley, Yano was on the faculty at Department of Industrial & Operations Engineering, University of Michigan from 1983 to 1993, and served as a member of the technical staff at Bell Labs from 1981 to 1982.
Awards.
In 2006, Yano was named a Fellow of Institute of Industrial Engineers (IIE). As one of the earliest female scholars in the field of Operations Research, Yano received 2008 WORMS Award for the Advancement of Women in OR/MS. She is a past President of the Technical Section on Manufacturing Management of ORSA—which has evolved to today's MSOM Society—and won the MSOM Society's first Distinguished Service Award in 1997.
In 2014, Yano was elected as an INFORMS Fellow in honor of her lifetime achievement in Operations Research and the Management Sciences and in recognition of her role as "a leader in operations management research who has provided significant service to the field as program chair, editor, adviser, teacher, and mentor."
In 2018, Yano was awarded the George E. Kimball Medal in recognition of her service to INFORMS, and the field of Operations Research and Management Sciences.


Gold–aluminium intermetallic

A gold–aluminium intermetallic is an intermetallic compound of gold and aluminium that occurs at contacts between the two metals.
These intermetallics have different properties from the individual metals, which can cause problems in wire bonding in microelectronics. The main compounds formed are Au5Al2 (white plague) and AuAl2 (purple plague), which both form at high temperatures.
White plague is the name of the compound Au5Al2 as well as the problem it causes. It has low electrical conductivity, so its formation at the joint leads to an increase of electrical resistance which can lead to total failure. Purple plague (sometimes known as "purple death" or Roberts-Austen's "purple gold") is a brittle, bright-purple compound, AuAl2, or about 78.5% Au and 21.5% Al by mass. AuAl2 is the most stable thermally of the Au–Al intermetallic compounds, with a melting point of 1060°C (see phase diagram), similar to that of pure gold. The process of the growth of the intermetallic layers causes reduction in volume, and hence creates cavities in the metal near the interface between gold and aluminium.
Other gold–aluminium intermetallics can cause problems as well. Below 624°C, purple plague is replaced by Au2Al, a tan-colored substance. It is a poor conductor and can cause electrical failure of the joint that can lead to mechanical failure. At lower temperatures, about 400–450°C, an interdiffusion process takes place at the junction. This leads to formation of layers of several intermetallic compounds with different compositions, from gold-rich to aluminium-rich, with different growth rates. Cavities form as the denser, faster-growing layers consume the slower-growing ones. This process, known as Kirkendall voiding, leads to both increased electrical resistance and mechanical weakening of the wire bond. When the voids are collected along the diffusion front, a process aided by contaminants present in the lattice, it is known as Horsting voiding, a process similar to and often confused with Kirkendall voiding.
All problems caused by gold–aluminium intermetallics can be prevented either by using bonding processes that avoid high temperatures (e.g. ultrasonic welding), or by designing circuitry in such a way as to avoid aluminium-to-gold contact using aluminium-to-aluminium or gold-to-gold junctions.


Virtual prototyping

Virtual prototyping is a method in the process of product development. It involves using computer-aided design (CAD), computer-automated design (CAutoD) and computer-aided engineering (CAE) software to validate a design before committing to making a physical prototype. This is done by creating (usually 3D) computer generated geometrical shapes (parts) and either combining them into an "assembly" and testing different mechanical motions, fit and function. The assembly or individual parts could be opened in CAE software to simulate the behavior of the product in the real world.
Background.
The product design and development process used to rely primarily on engineers' experience and judgment in producing an initial concept design. A physical prototype was then constructed and tested in order to evaluate its performance. Without any way to evaluate its performance in advance, the initial prototype was highly unlikely to meet expectations. Engineers usually had to re-design the initial concept multiple times to address weaknesses that were revealed in physical testing.
Move towards virtual prototypes.
Today, manufacturers are under pressure to reduce time to market and optimize products to higher levels of performance and reliability. A much higher number of products are being developed in the form of virtual prototypes in which engineering simulation software is used to predict performance prior to constructing physical prototypes. Engineers can quickly explore the performance of thousands of design alternatives without investing the time and money required to build physical prototypes. The ability to explore a wide range of design alternatives leads to improvements in performance and design quality. Yet the time required to bring the product to market is usually reduced substantially because virtual prototypes can be produced much faster than physical prototypes.
End-to-end prototyping.
End-to-end prototyping accounts fully for how a product or a component is manufactured and assembled, and it links the consequences of those processes to performance. Early availability of such physically realistic virtual prototypes allows testing and performance confirmation to take place as design decisions are made; enabling the acceleration of the design activity and providing more insight on the relationship between manufacturing and performance than can be achieved by building and testing physical prototypes. The benefits include reduced costs in both design and manufacturing as physical prototyping and testing is dramatically reduced/eliminated and lean but robust manufacturing processes are selected.
Effects.
The research firm Aberdeen Group reports that best-in-class manufacturers, who make extensive use of simulation early in the design process, hit revenue, cost, and launch date and quality targets for 86% or more of their products. Best-in-class manufacturers of the most complex products get to market 158 days earlier with $1.9 million lower costs than all other manufacturers. Best-in-class manufacturers of the simplest products get to market 21 days earlier with $21,000 fewer product development costs.
Examples.
Fisker Automotive used virtual prototyping to design the rear structure and other areas of its Karma plug-in hybrid to ensure the integrity of the fuel tank in a rear end crash as required for Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS) 301 certification. Agilent Technologies used virtual prototyping to design cooling systems for the calibration head for a new high-speed oscilloscope. Miele used virtual prototyping to improve the development of its washer-disinfector machines by simulating their operational characteristics early in the design cycle. Several CAE software solutions (for example, Working Model and SimWise) offer the possibility to check the benefits of virtual prototyping even for students and small companies, and collection of case studies are available since 1996.


Hybrid III

The Hybrid III is the standard crash test dummy for frontal crash tests as of the beginning of the 21st century. It was initially only a 50th percentile male (equal in height and weight to the average North American male at the time of its development).
Hybrid III, the 50th percentile male dummy which made its first appearance in 1976, is the familiar crash test dummy. If he could stand upright, he would be 5' 9" tall and would have a mass of approximately 78 kg (172 lb). He occupies the driver's seat in all the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) 65 km/h (40 mph) offset frontal crash tests.
Hybrid III has a "big brother" model, the 95th percentile Hybrid III, at 188 cm (6'2") and 100 kg (223 lb). The 'female' Hybrid III is a 5th percentile dummy that is based on the same male body shape as the others, at a diminutive 152 cm (5 ft) tall and 50 kg (110 lb). The two Hybrid III child dummies represent a 21 kg (47 lb) six-year-old and a 15 kg (33 lb) three-year-old. The child models are recent additions to the crash test dummy family; because so little hard data are available on the effects of accidents on children, and such data are very difficult to obtain, these models are based in large part on estimates and approximations.
External links.
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Edible ink printing

Edible ink printing is the process of creating preprinted images with edible food colors onto various confectionery products such as cookies, cakes and pastries. Designs made with edible ink can be either preprinted or created with an edible ink printer, a specialty device which transfers an image onto a thin, edible paper.
Edible paper is made of starches and sugars and printed with edible food colors. Some edible inks and paper materials have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration and carry its generally recognized as safe certification.
Paper.
The first papers of this process used rice paper, while modern versions use frosting sheets. The first U.S. patent for food printing, as it applied to edible ink printing, was filed by George J. Krubert of the Keebler Company and granted in 1981. Such paper is eaten without harmful effects. Most edible paper has no significant flavor and limited texture. Edible paper may be printed on by a standard printer and, upon application to a moist surface, dissolves while maintaining a high resolution. The end effect is that the image (usually a photograph) on the paper appears to be printed on the icing.
Edible inks.
Edible printer inks have become prevalent and are used in conjunction with special ink printers. Ink that is not specifically marketed as being edible may be harmful or fatal if swallowed. Edible toner for laser printers is not currently available. Any inkjet or bubblejet printer can be used to print, although resolution may be poor, and care should be taken to avoid contaminating the edible inks with previously used inks. Inkjet or bubblejet printers can be converted to print using edible ink, and cartridges of edible ink are commercially available. It is always much safer to use a dedicated inkjet printer for edible ink printing.
Some edible inks are powdered, but if they are easily soluble in water they can also be used as any other edible ink without reducing quality. Edible paper is used on cakes, cookies, cupcakes and marshmallows.


Military supply-chain management

Military supply-chain management is a cross-functional approach to procuring, producing and delivering products and services for military materiel applications. Military supply chain management includes sub-suppliers, suppliers, internal information and funds flow.
Supply.
A supply is the procurement, distribution, maintenance while in storage, and salvage of supplies, including the determination of kind and quantity of supplies. The producer phase of a military supply extends from determination of procurement schedules to acceptance of finished supplies by the military services. The consumer phase of a military supply extends from receipt of finished supplies by the military services, through issue for use or consumption.
Supply chain.
The supply chain is the linked activities associated with providing material from a raw material stage to an end user as a finished good. Supply control
is the process by which an item of supply is controlled within the supply system, including requisitioning, receipt, storage, stock control, shipment, disposition, identification, and accounting. The supply point is a location where supplies, services and materials are located and issued. These locations are temporary and mobile, normally being occupied for up to 72 hours.
Logistics.
Military logistics is the science of planning and carrying out the movement and maintenance of armed forces. In its most comprehensive sense, those aspects of military operations that deal with: a. design and development, acquisition, storage, movement, distribution, maintenance, evacuation, and disposition of materiel; b. movement, evacuation, and hospitalization of personnel; c. acquisition or construction, maintenance, operation and disposition of facilities; and d. acquisition or furnishing of services.
Logistics versus supply-chain management.
The major difference between the concept of logistic management and supply-chain management is the level of information gathered, processes, analysed and used for decision making. An SCM-based organization not only having concerns with its immediate clients but also handles and forecasts the factors affecting directly or indirectly their supplier or suppliers or on their client or clients. If we exclude this information part out of supply chain model then we can see the logistic management part of the business.
Limitations of military supply chain.
Unlike standard supply-chain management practices world-wide, some major concepts are not supported in the military domain. For example, the "just-in-time" (JIT) model emphasizes holding less (or no) inventory, whereas in military supply chains, due to the high costs of a stock-out (potentially placing lives in danger), keeping huge inventory is a more acceptable practice. Some examples of these are the ammunition dump and oil depot.
Likewise, the military procurement process has much different criteria than the normal business procurement process. Military needs call for reliability of supply during peace and war, as compared to price and technology factors.


Automated X-ray inspection

Automated inspection (AXI) is a technology based on the same principles as automated optical inspection (AOI). It uses as its source, instead of visible light, to automatically inspect features, which are typically hidden from view.
Automated X-ray inspection is used in a wide range of industries and applications, predominantly with two major goals:
Whilst AOI is mainly associated with electronics manufacturing (due to widespread use in PCB manufacturing), AXI has a much wider range of applications. It ranges from the quality check of alloy wheels to the detection of bone fragments in processed meat. Wherever large numbers of very similar items are produced according to a defined standard, automatic inspection using advanced image processing and pattern recognition software (Computer vision) has become a useful tool to ensure quality and improve yield in processing and manufacturing.
Principle of Operation.
While optical inspection produces full color images of the surface of the object, x-ray inspection transmits x-rays through the object and records gray scale images of the shadows cast. The image is then processed by image processing software that detects the position and size/ shape of expected features (for process optimization) or presence/ absence of unexpected/ unintended objects or features (for anomaly detection).
X-rays are generated by an x-ray tube, usually located directly above or below the object under inspection. A detector located the opposite side of the object records an image of the x-rays transmitted through the object. The detector either converts the x-rays first into visible light which is imaged by an optical camera, or detects directly using an x-ray sensor array. The object under inspection may be imaged at higher magnification by moving the object closer to the x-ray tube, or at lower magnification closer to the detector.
Since the image is produced due to the different absorption of x-rays when passing through the object, it can reveal structures inside the object that are hidden from outside view.
Applications.
With the advancement of image processing software the number applications for automated x-ray inspection is huge and constantly growing. The first applications started off in industries where the safety aspect of components demanded a careful inspection of each part produced (e.g. welding seams for metal parts in nuclear power stations) because the technology was expectedly very expensive in the beginning. But with wider adoption of the technology, prices came down significantly and opened automated x-ray inspection up to a much wider field- partially fueled again by safety aspects (e.g. detection of metal, glass or other materials in processed food) or to increase yield and optimize processing (e.g. detection of size and location of holes in cheese to optimize slicing patterns).
In mass production of complex items (e.g. in electronics manufacturing), an early detection of defects can drastically reduce overall cost, because it prevents defective parts from being used in subsequent manufacturing steps. This results in three major benefits: a) it provides feedback at the earliest possible state that materials are defective or process parameters got out of control, b) it prevents adding value to components that are already defective and therefore reduces the overall cost of a defect, and c) it increases the likelihood of field defects of the final product, because the defect may not be detected at later stages in quality inspection or during functional testing due to the limited set of test patterns.
Use of AXI in the Food Industry.
Foreign body detection, fill level control, and process control are the three main areas for the use of AXI in the food industry. Especially in packaged goods at the end of the filling and packaging line the use of X-ray scanners has become the norm, rather than the exception. It is often used in combination with other QA measures, especially inline check weighers.
Most of it is limited to a good/ bad check, i.e. it produces rejects after the AXI station, but in some applications it is directly used for process control where the data from the AXI are fed to the process and can control other variables. An often cited example is the control of the thickness of cheese slices after an AXI determined the distribution and position of 'holes' inside the cheese block. (to ensure consistent total package weight).
Recently, automated methods have been developed for X-ray inspection of food passing by on a conveyor belt.
Use of AXI in electronics manufacturing.
The increasing usage of ICs (integrated circuits) with packages such as BGAs (ball grid array) where the connections are underneath the chip and not visible, means that ordinary optical inspection is impossible. Because the connections are underneath the chip package there is a greater need to ensure that the manufacturing process is able to accommodate these chips correctly. Additionally the chips that use BGA packages tend to be the larger ones with many connections. Therefore, it is essential that all the connections are made correctly.
AXI is often paired with the testing provided by boundary scan test, in-circuit test, and functional test.
Process.
As BGA connections are not visible, the only alternative is to use a low level inspection. AXI is able to find faults such as opens, shorts, insufficient solder, excessive solder, missing electrical parts, and mis-aligned components. Defects are detected and repaired within short debug time.
These inspection systems are more costly than ordinary optical systems, but they are able to check all the connections, even those underneaths the chip package.
To achieve highest throughput, AXI machines use single 2D X-ray images where possible to make a decision. However, as the density of components on both sides of the PCB increases, it is harder to achieve a clear 2D image that is not obscured by other components. Techniques such as Tomosynthesis are often used to filter out background components by first creating a 3D model from multiple X-ray images taken from different angles.
Related technologies.
The following are related technologies and are also used in electronic production to test for the correct operation of electronics printed circuit boards.


Ethylene vinyl alcohol

Ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) is a formal copolymer of ethylene and vinyl alcohol. Because the latter monomer mainly exists as its tautomer acetaldehyde, the copolymer is prepared by polymerization of ethylene and vinyl acetate to give the ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) copolymer followed by hydrolysis. EVOH copolymer is defined by the mole % ethylene content: lower ethylene content grades have higher barrier properties; higher ethylene content grades have lower temperatures for extrusion.
The plastic resin is commonly used as an oxygen barrier in food packaging. It is better than other plastics at keeping air out and flavors in, is highly transparent, weather resistant, oil and solvent resistant, flexible, moldable, recyclable, and printable. Its drawback is that it is difficult to make and therefore more expensive than other food packaging. Instead of making an entire package out of EVOH, manufacturers keep costs down by coextruding or laminating it as a thin layer between cardboard, foil, or other plastics.
It is also used as a hydrocarbon barrier in plastic fuel tanks and pipes.
Industrial production.
Because of the high capital cost to build an EVOH plant, and the complexity of making a food grade product, only a few companies produce EVOH:
Kuraray produces EVOH resin under the name "EVAL," with a 10,000 ton plant in Okayama, Japan; a 58,000 ton plant in the U.S. (near Houston, TX) under its subsidiary Kuraray America; and a 35,000 ton plant in Belgium under its subsidiary EVAL Europe.
Nippon Gohsei produces EVOH under the trade name Soarnol. It has production sites in Mizushima, Japan; La Porte, Texas in the USA; and at Salt End, Hull, England.
Chang Chun Petrochemical produces EVOH under the trade name EVASIN. It has a single site in Taipei, Taiwan.
Food packaging.
Due to its strong barrier against oxygen and gas, food packaging manufacturers use EVOH in their packaging structure to extend the shelf life of food products.
Medical applications.
EVOH is used in a liquid embolic system in interventional radiology, e.g. in Onyx. Dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and mixed with a radiopaque substance, ethylene vinyl alcohol copolymer is used to embolize blood vessels.


E&F Miler Industries

E&F Miler Industries (formerly Miler Coaster, Inc. and Miler Manufacturing) is a family-owned roller coaster manufacturing firm based in Portland, Oregon, United States. The company specialises in smaller children's roller coasters; however, it has manufactured some larger family roller coasters in the past.
History.
In the late 1940s Carl Miler founded Miler Manufacturing. The company built a variety steel roller coasters aimed at children and families such as Wild Mouse roller coasters. Miler Manufacturing roller coasters were popular in the 1950s. Production of new roller coasters by Miler Manufacturing stopped in the mid 1970s.
Carl Miler's son, Fred Miler, reopened Miler Manufacturing in 1989. The company changed its name to Miler Coaster, Inc. in 1992 when its first new roller coaster was built. The company's name was later changed to E&F Miler Industries. As of 2013, Fred Miler operates the company with his son, Eric Miler.
List of roller coasters.
As of 2019, E&F Miler Industries have manufactured a total of 58 roller coasters which have operated at 89 different locations. Under the Miler Manufacturing name they have manufactured a total of 30 roller coasters which have operated at 38 different locations. Aside from installing new roller coasters, E&F Miler Industries has performed work on restoring some of Miler Manufacturing's original rides. The majority of the company's contracts come from the International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions' (IAAPA) annual trade show.


Design for lean manufacturing

Design for lean manufacturing is a process for applying lean concepts to the design phase of a system, such as a complex product or process. The term describes methods of design in lean manufacturing companies as part of the study of Japanese industry by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. At the time of the study, the Japanese automakers were outperforming the American counterparts in speed, resources used in design, and design quality. Conventional mass-production design focuses primarily on product functions and manufacturing costs; however, design for lean manufacturing systematically widens the design equation to include all factors that will determine a product's success across its entire value stream and life-cycle. One goal is to reduce waste and maximize value, and other goals include improving the quality of the design and the reducing the time to achieve the final solution. The method has been used in architecture, healthcare, product development, processes design, information technology systems, and even to create lean business models. It relies on the definition and optimization of values coupled with the prevention of wastes before they enter the system. Design for lean manufacturing is system design.
History.
Not to be confused with "Lean Design" (copyrighted and patented by Munro & Associates, of Michigan), design for lean manufacturing builds on the set of principles that emerged from design for the customer value and design for manufacturability. Since some lean tools are used in the practice of design for lean manufacturing, it borrows the first word in its name from lean manufacturing as exemplified by the Toyota Production System. Design for lean manufacturing was first coined by Womack, Jones, and Roos after studying the differences between conventional development at American automotive companies and lean methods at Japanese automobile producers. While lean manufacturing focuses on optimization of the production stream and removal of wastes (commonly referred to as muda, mura, and muri) once the value stream has been created, Lean Design ® (Munro & Associates) concerns itself with methods and techniques to create a lean solution from the start, resulting in more value and fewer wastes across the value stream. Lean design ® seeks to optimize the development process through rapid learning cycles to build and test multiple concepts early. Managing the knowledge value stream, systematic problem solving with analysis of the trade-offs between various design options, and solutions generated from ideas filtered by systematic innovation methods are viewed as methods within the lean design process.
Design for lean manufacturing overview.
Design for lean manufacturing is based on the premise that product and process design is an ongoing activity and not a one-time activity; therefore design for lean manufacturing should be viewed as a long-term strategy for an organization. Design for lean manufacturing must be sustainable and holistic unlike other lean manufacturing or Six Sigma approaches that either tackle only a part of the problem or tackle the problem for a short period of time. Design for lean manufacturing also relates to system thinking as it considers all aspects (or the full circle) and takes the system conditions into consideration when designing products and services, delivering them according to customer needs. ® (Munro & Associates) drives prevention of waste by adopting a systematic process to improve the design phase during development. An organizational focus is required for the implementation of Lean Design ® principles, which includes efficient and sustainable design team. Initial studies of the Japanese approach to design for lean manufacturing noted four principles; leadership of projects by a (or project boss), tightly knit teams, communication on all of the difficult design trade-offs, and simultaneous development between engineering and manufacturing. Further study showed additional depth to the principles, citing 13 principles specific to the Toyota design for lean manufacturing methods in product and process development in the areas of process, skilled people, and tools and technology. As the practice of design for lean manufacturing has expanded in its depth and breadth of application, additional principles have been integrated into the method.
The dimensions of lean in design and development.
To be successful, a corporate wide design for lean manufacturing implementation typically includes the following dimensions:
When the dimensions are fully deployed in an organization, design for lean manufacturing enhances the performance levels with respect to design and innovation. Shingo assessments measure lean implementations in all parts of the organization, including the design methodology. The Shingo Prize for Excellence in Manufacturing is given annually for operational excellence in North America. Using design for lean manufacturing practices helps organizations move toward Shingo excellence.


Hudson-Sharp Machine Company

Hudson-Sharp Machine Company is active in the design and manufacture of plastic bag making machinery, pouch making equipment, and reclosable packaging solutions.
Company profile.
The Hudson-Sharp Machine Company is involved in the design and manufacture of plastic bag making machinery, pouch making equipment, and reclosable packaging solutions. With manufacturing and sales throughout the world, Hudson-Sharp has been in business for over 100 years. A partial list of product categories include:
History.
1870
A small machine shop began operation along the East River in what is now the city of Green Bay, WI, United States. The company repaired steamboats and manufactured parts for sawmill machinery.
1910
David Hudson & Alexander Sharp took over the small shop and expanded the company into developing equipment for paper mills, winders for toilet tissue, and produced high-speed folders for tissue and napkins.
1925
Hudson-Sharp began manufacturing printing presses and manufactured the first central impression aniline press built in the United States.
1947
S.J. Campbell purchased the Hudson-Sharp Machine Company and conceived, designed, and patented the Campbell Wrapper, the world's first horizontal form, fill, and seal machine. Variations of the Campbell Wrapper are still used today throughout the world in wrapping candy, cheese, bakery products, and other various items.
1956
FMC Corporation acquired Hudson-Sharp as a part of the Packaging Machinery Division with divisional headquarters in Horsham, PA. Over the next decade, the company continued to grow by introducing several innovative packaging machinery lines. The first side-weld bag machine produced was nicknamed the "Flyswatter". Also, the first wicket stacker machine was developed.
Besides innovations, Hudson-Sharp introduced their products into new regions around the globe, specifically the Australia/Asia region. Those regions are still supported to this day.
1967
Support began in European markets as operations began in Aalst, Belgium. The Aalst facility was responsible for the sales and service of plastic bag converting equipment, the manufacture of machinery for cardboard and plastic set-up boxes, horizontal packaging machinery, and paper tissue machines.
1970
Wicketer development continues and Servo technology was introduced.
1978
High-speed rotary side-weld machines for the production of large trash bags were introduced.
1986
Plastic grocery bag line introduced.
1989
The first commercially-produced, servo-driven wicketer was introduced.
1997
Hudson-Sharp introduces INNO-LOK pre-zippered film reclosable packaging.
1998
Divestiture from FMC becomes The Hudson-Sharp Machine Company once again.
2000
Hot melt glue patch handle line introduced.
2004
Hudson-Sharp acquires Amplas and expands the product offering of bottom-seal technology.
2006
Side Gusset Bottom Seal Pouch Machine with patented Inno-Lok transverse direction zipper applicator introduced.
2007
NTR800 Roll to Roll Machine introduced.
2008
Hudson-Sharp introduces new generation servo pouch machinery.
A new packaging design was introduced called, Pour & Lok. It is a side gusseted, pour spout packaging application for pre-zippered roll stock.
2009
Hudson-Sharp is acquired by Thiele Technologies, part of the family of Barry-Wehmiller Companies. Thiele Technologies acquires certain assets of RO-AN through a secured third-party sales transaction.
2010
100-year anniversary of the Hudson-Sharp Machine Company.
2019
The Hudson-Sharp Machine Company joins the PCMC family and continues to be involved in the design and manufacture of plastic bag-making machinery, pouch-making equipment, and reclosable packaging solutions.


Organic solderability preservative

Organic solderability preservative or OSP is a method for coating of printed circuit boards. It uses a water-based organic compound that selectively bonds to copper and protects the copper until soldering.
The compounds typically used are from the azole family such as benzotriazoles, imidazoles, benzimidazoles. These adsorb on copper surfaces, by forming coordination bonds with copper atoms and form thicker films
through formation of copper (I) – N–heterocycle complexes. The typical film thickness used is in the tens to hundreds of nanometers.


Bearing reducer

A Bearing reducer in engineering is a bearing that designates the full integration of high-precision reduction gear and high-precision radial-axial bearing in a compact unit. This transmission system allows the utilization of the bearing reducer in several technics, such as robotics and automation, machine tools, measuring equipment, navigation systems, the aircraft industry, the military and medicine field, the woodworking field, the printers branch, the machines for the textile industry and glass treatment, and the filling machines.


Manufacturing operations management

Manufacturing operations management (MOM) is a collection of systems for managing end-to-end manufacturing processes with a view to optimizing efficiency.
There are many types of MOM software, including for production management, performance analysis, quality and compliance, and human machine interface (HMI). Production management software provides real-time information about jobs and orders, labor and materials, machine status, and product shipments. Performance analysis software displays metrics at the machine, line, plant and enterprise level for situational or historical analysis. Quality and compliance software is used to promote compliance with standards and specifications for operational processes and procedures. HMI software is a form of manufacturing operations management (MOM) software that enables operators to manage industrial and process control machinery using a computer-based interface.
Emerging Software Trends
Advancements in technology and market demands are enabling new capabilities in MOM software platforms, gradually closing gaps in end-user needs.


Hot metal gas forming

Hot metal gas forming (HMGF) is a method of die forming in which a metal tube is heated to a pliable state, near to but below its melting point, then pressurized internally by a gas in order to form the tube outward into the shape defined by an enclosing die cavity. The high temperatures allow the metal to elongate, or stretch, to much greater degrees without rupture than are possible in previously utilized cold and warm forming methods. In addition, the metal can be formed into finer details and requires less overall forming force than traditional methods.
History and comparison with previous techniques.
HMGF is an evolution in the cost effectiveness and applicability of several existing commercial processes: superplastic forming, hot blow forming, and hydroforming.
Complex tubes can be made from multiple sheet components formed and welded together, but this adds unnecessary cost and creates quality concerns at the joints. Hydroforming uses liquid under extreme pressures to form metal tubes. It was developed for the plumbing industry and by 1990 achieved production efficiencies suited for high volume autos. Typically hydroforming is done at ambient temperatures, and limits the forming elongation of metals to 8–12% diameter increase for aluminum, and 25–40% for steel. This limits the part shape complexity that can be produced. In addition, the workcenters and tooling can be large and expensive because of the internal fluid pressures required to form ambient tubes. HMGF is able to form tubes with larger shape complexity in only one forming step and generally at a lower internal pressure than in conventional tube hydroforming.
Blow forming started with glass long ago, and is now a widespread method for forming plastic into hollow structures. Again, the heated material properties provide for many processing advantages. Warm forming has been the subject of extensive research in the past decades. It is defined as forming above ambient but below the recrystallization temperature of an alloy, and using hydroform principles, can be done on tubes. Temperatures are typically limited due to safety concerns surrounding the heated forming fluids. At these temperatures, cycle times may still be relatively long, and elongations still do not approach that of hot forming.
Superplastic forming is often applied in the aerospace industry, but it requires the use of very fine grain metal alloys, deformed up to very large strain values, but at a very low strain rate. HMGF is therefore potentially faster than superplastic forming.
As a natural evolution, the need for HMGF created research starting in the 1990s. Fast cycle times, inexpensive tooling and machinery resulting from pressures an order of magnitude lower than hydroforming, and extreme forming ratios due to high temperature forming create a compelling business case for high volume low cost manufacturing.
In 1999, development of the HMGF techniques began as an Advanced Technology Program (ATP) project funded by the US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). This project completed in 1993 and research showed up to 150% expansion ratios for aluminum and 50% with steel were possible, with further expansion capabilities by use of end feeding of material to minimize wall thinning.
In order to keep pace with the US research, a European project was funded by the Research Fund for Coal and Steel (RFCS). Starting in July 2004, with a duration of 3 years, this project further investigated the HMGF process. By 2007, the consortium of European research and commercial entities proved concepts of simpler heating and die construction, and while focusing on the more demanding steel alloys, illustrated free deformation of 140% by use of end feeding to control wall thinning and delay rupture. The method used in these experiments is patented under .
Also in Europe, parallel research yielded an innovative approach to the concept. By 2006, the HEATform method of hot metal gas forming showed evidence of unique metal shapes that had "historically only been possible in the domain of glass blowing and blow molded parts" with aluminum forming in excess of 270% expansion ratio at a production intended cycle time of 20 seconds. Citing that hardening and subsequent breakage will limit forming of the aluminum alloy below , the best flow behavior was observed at . This is significantly higher than the capabilities of warm liquid or warm gas pressure forming. The HEATform techniques of end feeding control achieved uniform wall thickness up to 300% strain values.
While significant research into material compatibility and predictive analysis techniques is ongoing, hot metal gas forming has been commercialized by at least one company who is providing hot expansion coupled with material end feeding.
Applications.
Typical applications are in the automotive and aerospace industries where the precursor technology of hydroforming is well known. Other applications include sports equipment and furniture. The multi-material capability are used in decorative workpieces and plumbing fixtures.
Materials.
The HMGF process is compatible with almost any metal. The most significant benefit of HMGF is that cold form resistant materials become viable for complex forming. Often, alloys are enhanced with expensive materials to enable cold forming and increase machinability, however with HMFG a less expensive alloy can be used, which reduces piece prices. One example is the use of ferritic stainless steels, like the 1.4512 alloy for exhaust components. Typically, the more expensive austenitic stainless is chosen, like the 1.4301 alloy, for parts requiring complex forming due to its 40% advantage in ambient formability (38.5% vs. 27.4% typical A%).
Hardenable metal alloys (e.g. boron steels) can be used in HMGF. In this case the die can be used not only as a shaping tool, but also as a tempering tool, so that the final hardness of the formed tube after forming and cooling is increased. The process is often called "press hardening" in this case.


Austempered Ductile Iron

Austempered Ductile Iron (ADI) is a form of ductile iron that enjoys high strength and ductility as a result of its microstructure controlled through heat treatment. While conventional ductile iron was discovered in 1943 and the austempering process had been around since the 1930s, the combination of the two technologies was not commercialized until the 1970s.
Microstructure.
Like all ductile iron, ADI is characterized by its spheroidal graphite nodules spaced within the matrix. These nodules reduce microsegregation of solutes within the material. For ADI, the material has been austempered such that the matrix is transformed into ausferrite, or a mixture of acicular ferrite and austenite. The microstructure is used to classify ADI into grades, which depend on the heat treatment process and not the composition of the material.
Mechanical properties.
The high strength and ductility of ADI are a direct result of its microstructure. Specifically, the ductility of ductile irons is a result of the lack of bainite in the matrix. Rather, the austempering process forms acicular ferrite and austenite. The latter of these has a face-centered cubic (FCC) structure. The FCC has 12 slip systems that allow for dislocations motion, resulting in high ductility in the austenitic phase of ADI. This ductility also translates to relatively high toughness in ADI.
The increase in ductility that ADI exhibits over other form of cast iron also comes as a result of the spheroidal graphite. As compared to the flake-like graphite present in gray iron, for example, the spheroidal graphite nodes are relatively easy for dislocations to bypass, increasing the ductility of the material. These nodules also decrease the stress concentration compared to flakes, as stress at the tip of an inclusion is proportional to the radius of curvature. The large radius prevents the propagation of cracks in the material, further resulting in high ductility and good fatigue properties in the material.
Some of the austenite phase mentioned above is mechanically metastable and will form martensite when subjected to high stress. The combination of hard, wear-resistant martensite with ausferrite results in good wear properties, as the regions near a crack tip strengthen and prevent further propagation. This is not an example of work hardening, which multiplies dislocations that inhibit each other's growth and result in higher strength. Rather, a phase transformation is taking place as a result of applied stress.
The mechanical properties of ADI are extremely dependent on processing. Wide ranges in strength and ductility are possible. High temperature heat treatment (>400C) results in high ductility, good impact toughness, with a yield strength around 500 MPa. Lower temperatures (~260C) results in a higher yield strength of 1400 MPa and high hardness but much lower ductility.


Design culture

Design culture is an organizational culture focused on approaches that improve customer experiences through design. In every firm, the design is significant since it allows the company to understand users and their needs. Integration of design culture in any organisation aims at creating experiences that add value to their respective users. In general, design culture entails undertaking design as the forefront of every operation in the organisation, from strategy formulation to execution. Every organisation is responsible for ensuring a healthy design culture through the application of numerous strategies. For instance, an organisation should provide a platform that allows every stakeholder to engage in design recesses. Consequently, everyone needs to incorporate design thinking, which is associated with innovation and critical thinking.
Moreover, design culture has many characteristics that create a conducive integration within that work environment. It offers freedom to fail that presents an opportunity for design experimentation. Design process entails taking risks that are mistake bounded. Therefore, individuals involving in design processes learn from their mistakes and become more innovative. Hence design culture encourages risk taking in design processes that facilitate innovation and creativity in an organisation. Proactivity in design culture has an impact on the organisation, specifically on decision making and problem-solving. Design culture allows designers to engage in constructive tasks. In the process, designers can solve problems in an organisation and make crucial decisions towards innovations of the organisation. Design culture is concerned with the human side of the respective organisation. In the recent past, organisations have been running based on data-driven mentality with the success of the organisation measured through the level of efficiency in the operations. In contrast, design culture is interested in the participation of human in determining the success of the organisation through the level of innovation facilitated by their involvement. In return, design culture concerned with improving an organisation's culture into a pleasant and change have driven culture.
Developing a design culture.
Creation of a design culture for an organisation leads to a better transformation of the organisation. According to a study conducted by Forrester Research Consulting in the year 2016, to investigate whether the design-led cultures gave companies a significant advantage in the business or not, it was evident that most of the enterprises that analysed during the research had digital experiences that outpaced competition. The study proved that focusing on design strengthens an organisation from the inside as well as from the outside.
In a design-led enterprise, the design permeates the organisation beyond the product teams that embedded in the culture and such organisations; there is always an ambition to do better.
These companies typically support a variety of skills from the more oriented designers to the junior designers or the more tactical designers. The teams use collaborative processes and tools in unifying the working groups of the organisation. An organisation driven by design is more proactive rather than reactive, and they tend to confirm the next challenge rather than waiting until the challenge presents itself. This is made possible by the values that built based on, which is done through collaboration, experimentation, empathy as well as user researches.
Furthermore, developing design culture requires a definition of the design and the necessary resources that will facilitate its integration into the organisation. This follows an evaluation of the organisation's stakeholders who will be involved in the design process. The evaluation depends on the organisation's culture, which is the defining aspect of an organisation's life. Consequently, identifying the designers to be involved in the designing process requires an in-depth understanding of the purpose of the design towards the organisation's culture and innovation as well.
Additionally, building a design culture entails creating an environment that presents a platform that ensures that every individual obtains solutions to some problems present in the organisation. There exist several factors necessary for developing a design culture in any organisation. Cultivating culture is the first approach towards developing design culture. This step entails identifying individuals, their characters, and including them into the design process. The management involved in the design process needs to set the tone for the organisation's culture. Besides, design culture needs to develop an organisation's value in line with the design and ensure that every member of the design team incorporates them in the field of interest.
Developing design culture require incorporation of skilled personnel, innovative and creative individuals as well. However, identifying such individuals, it takes a process that will present an effective design process. Therefore, the management needs to integrate an effective interview process that will help in the selection of the best skills. Also, it will require motivation for the personnel involved and be in line with the organisation's values. The design culture needs to foster social capital that is responsible for higher information flow, effective collaboration and collective action of the team. Therefore, building a design culture should facilitate the creation of employees values, recognition of their achievements, enhance communication in the organisation and establish a firm organisation.
Addressing markets and society.
Design culture plays a significant role in marketing systems and the surrounding society. It addresses market externalities and internalises associated with the overall performance of the organisations. In addition, design culture allows an organisation to understand users in the society and their needs hence playing a significant role in the business. Through design culture, the organisation supports more strategically oriented designers from the society that ensure effective operation in the business. A design-driven organisation tends to be more proactive in the market by defining challenges and strategically working to improve its overall performance. Design culture facilitates the growth of a firm from tiny startups to legacy enterprises. Therefore, in markets and societies, design culture aims at improving an organisation's output to the excellent quality of products, services and the overall societal relationships.
Additionally, design culture needs to consider the aspects of the surrounding society and ensure that the design process is incorporative of the values and culture that is in line with the societal culture defining the surrounding community. The society plays a significant role in the design culture by presenting skilled personnel who can be recruited into the design process. In relation to society, design culture aims at designing a brand for everyone. I. Moreover, the community presents a ready market for the brands designed by the organisation. Consequently, the branding process should consider all the necessary qualities that will maintain the brand in the market. This enhanced through consideration of the values defining the surrounding society. Moreover, the organisation's culture should be at per with the societal culture in order to promote collaboration.
Design culture aims at enhancing collaboration in the market with the respective stakeholders. Therefore, introducing design into the market requires intense research and planning that will facilitate the production of a brand that fits the requirements for all. The design process needs to be aware of the market trends and branded products with the aim of solving an existing problem in the market. In addition, the design process should involve designing a brand that provides a solution to various situations in the society. Addressing the market, design culture is concerned about developing a brand that meets the best competitive qualities. Through innovation, the organisation involved in the design process conducts research on different market trends and comes up with refined approaches to be integrated into the design process. Moreover, the organisation needs to maintain its culture that uniquely defines its operations and products in the market. Concerned about the future trend of the design, the management responsible for the design process need to ensure that necessary qualities are met in the design process
Positioning design professions.
As a guiding truth towards the successful firm organisation, design culture takes a psychological approach to different operations of the business. Positioning design professions entails defining numerous approaches necessary for building a healthy design culture. In addition, it focuses on professional strategies that get prospects and customers preferences that enable a business to stand firm in a competitive market. A design-centric organisation is usually biased against leaving anything to chance. A healthy design culture applies professional not only to the product but also to the organisation itself.  Products usually reflect the structure as well as the character of the organisation that is responsible for their production. A well-designed enterprise is capable of producing well-designed products and services. In a healthy design culture, everyone has a feeling of empowerment towards participation in the design process. Employees are usually encouraged to carry out experimentations with the understanding that they will often lead to mistakes, and this should not be a hindrance.
Design culture has innovation as one of the cultural traits. Therefore, the design profession is crucial in the design process as it incorporates necessary branding skills, design skills and knowledge of the design process. The process of cultivating culture requires skills necessary for analysing the surrounding society and determining the required skills for the design process. Setting the tone for an organisation is a professional approach that requires the development of an organisation's values. The design management needs to demonstrate knowledge and an understanding of the conduct of the design team and the level of innovation necessary for the design process.
Furthermore, positioning the design profession requires increased diversity that facilitates innovation. Gender diversity should be maintained in determining the team that will be involved in the design process. In addition, diversity brings individuals together who have varying skills, creativity and knowledge that help in branding different products. Branding a product for everyone in society requires extensive research. As a result, the research requires a professional approach that will help in identifying the cultural aspects defining the society. Moreover, identification of the market trends requires in-depth analysis approaches that are in line with design professions. Therefore, the design management team need to ensure an effective and strong position in the design culture that enhances innovation in the design process
Locating Design culture.
Effective design culture has to be made with intention and put into practice consistently. This requires the definition of approaches necessary for locating design culture. Discovering design culture is facilitated by the need to obtain a solution to a given challenge or the need to major on problem-solving approaches. Locating design culture is done through experimentation, collaboration, user research and empathy. It is a common characteristic for many companies to build a third design culture through trial and error. For example, a company such as Apple has been fine-tuning its design culture for about three decades, a corny though a relevant adage. Locating design culture require an effective definition of the characteristics of a robust design culture. It requires frequent experimentation that allow individuals to explore numerous solutions as possible that result in successful launches. In addition, locating design culture entails implementation of a system that provides answers for questions raised concerning the design culture. Moreover, it involves locating different tools that encourage collaboration allowing a given team to formulate plans, design presentations and work together for successful design culture. Concerning idea generation, it is a norm for every organisation to keep coming up with new ideas now and then, and this allows the organisation to iterate and even receive feedback more efficiently and in a short time


Raise the Roof (producer)

Raise the Roof is a Broadway producing entity. It is composed of the producers Harriet Leve, Jennifer Isaacson, and the members of WalkRunFly Productions: Brandon Victor Dixon and Warren Adams.
The group was founded by Jean Doumanian, Elaine Krauss, Harriet Leve, and Jennifer Isaacson. Their first venture together was "Burn the Floor" as Raise the Roof 1. Next, Krauss, Leve, and Manocherian came together as Raise the Roof 2 to produce the recent Broadway production of "Superior Donuts" by Tracy Letts, the Pulitzer Prize winning playwright of "". Doumanian was a lead producer on that production. In 2010, the group, as Raise the Roof 3, produced the Tony nominee for Best Revival, "A Little Night Music", starring Catherine Zeta Jones (who won a Tony for this performance) and Angela Lansbury (who was nominated for a Tony for this performance). On July 13, 2010, Broadway legends Bernadette Peters and Elaine Stritch joined the cast and assumed those roles. They were also represented, as Raise the Roof 4, by the Tony Award winning Best Revival of "La Cage Aux Folles", starring Kelsey Grammer (who was nominated for a Tony for this performance) and Douglas Hodge (who won a Tony for this performance).
Productions.
La Cage Aux Folles [Revival, Musical]
A Little Night Music [Revival, Musical]
Superior Donuts [Original, Play]
Burn the Floor [Dance]
Awards and nominations.
La Cage Aux Folles.
TONY AWARDS
2010 Tony Award Best Revival of a Musical [WINNER]
2010 Tony Award Best Leading Actor in a Musical
2010 Tony Award Best Featured Actor in a Musical
2010 Tony Award Best Direction of a Musical
2010 Tony Award Best Choreography
2010 Tony Award Best Orchestrations
2010 Tony Award Best Scenic Design of a Musical
2010 Tony Award Best Costume Design of a Musical
2010 Tony Award Best Lighting Design of a Musical
2010 Tony Award Best Sound Design of a Musical
DRAMA DESK AWARDS
2010 Drama Desk Award Outstanding Revival of a Musical [WINNER]
2010 Drama Desk Award Outstanding Actor in a Musical
2010 Drama Desk Award Outstanding Featured Actor in a Musical
2010 Drama Desk Award Outstanding Director of a Musical
2010 Drama Desk Award Outstanding Choreography in a Musical
2010 Drama Desk Award Outstanding Costume Design
2010 Drama Desk Award Outstanding Sound Design in a Musical
A Little Night Music.
TONY AWARDS
2010 Tony Award Best Revival of a Musical [nominee]
2010 Tony Award Best Leading Actress in a Musical
2010 Tony Award Best Featured Actress in a Musical
2010 Tony Award Best Sound Design of a Musical
DRAMA DESK AWARDS
2010 Drama Desk Award Outstanding Revival of a Musical [nominee]
2010 Drama Desk Award Outstanding Actress in a Musical
2010 Drama Desk Award Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical
Superior Donuts.
TONY AWARDS
2010 Tony Award Best Featured Actor in a Play


First-pass yield

First-pass yield (FPY), also known as throughput yield (TPY), is defined as the number of units coming out of a process divided by the number of units going into that process over a specified period of time.
Example.
Consider the following:
You have a process that is divided into four sub-processes: A, B, C and D. Assume that you have 100 units entering process A. To calculate first time yield (FTY) you would:
For example:
(# units leaving the process as good parts) / (# units put into the process) = FTY
The total first time yield is equal to FTYofA * FTYofB * FTYofC * FTYofD or 0.9000 * 0.8889 * 0.9375 * 0.9333 = 0.7000.
You can also get the total process yield for the entire process by simply dividing the number of good units produced by the number going into the start of the process. In this case, 70/100 = 0.70 or 70% yield.
The same example using first pass yield (FPY) would take into account rework:
First pass yield is only used for an individual sub-process. Multiplying the set of processes would give you Rolling throughput yield (RTY). RTY is equal to FPYofA * FPYofB * FPYofC * FPYofD = 0.8500 * 0.8889 * 0.8125 * 0.8267 = 0.5075
Notice that the number of units going into each next process does not change from the original example, as that number of good units did, indeed, enter the next process. Yet the number of FPY units of each process counts only those that made it through the process as good parts that needed no rework to be good parts. The calculation of RTY, rolling throughput yield, shows how good the overall set of processes is at producing good overall output without having to rework units.


Hydroforming

Hydroforming is a cost-effective way of shaping ductile metals such as aluminium, brass, low alloy steel, and stainless steel into lightweight, structurally stiff and strong pieces. One of the largest applications of hydroforming is the automotive industry, which makes use of the complex shapes made possible by hydroforming to produce stronger, lighter, and more rigid unibody structures for vehicles. This technique is particularly popular with the high-end sports car industry and is also frequently employed in the shaping of aluminium tubes for bicycle frames.
Hydroforming is a specialized type of die forming that uses a high pressure hydraulic fluid to press room temperature working material into a die. To hydroform aluminium into a vehicle's frame rail, a hollow tube of aluminium is placed inside a negative mold that has the shape of the desired result. High pressure hydraulic pumps then inject fluid at very high pressure inside the aluminium tube which causes it to expand until it matches the mold. The hydroformed aluminium is then removed from the mold.
Hydroforming allows complex shapes with concavities to be formed, which would be difficult or impossible with standard solid die stamping. Hydroformed parts can often be made with a higher stiffness-to-weight ratio and at a lower per unit cost than traditional stamped or stamped and welded parts. Virtually all metals capable of cold forming can be hydroformed, including aluminium, brass, carbon and stainless steel, copper, and high strength alloys.
If electrodes are used to vaporize the fluid explosively in an arc this would describe a similar process known as electrohydraulic forming.
Main process variants.
Sheet hydroforming.
This process is based on the 1950s patent for hydramolding by Fred Leuthesser, Jr. and John Fox of the Schaible Company of Cincinnati, Ohio in the United States. It was originally used in producing kitchen spouts. This was done because in addition to the strengthening of the metal, hydromolding also produced less "grainy" parts, allowing for easier metal finishing.
In sheet hydroforming there are bladder forming (where there is a bladder that contains the liquid; no liquid contacts the sheet) and hydroforming where the fluid contacts the sheet (no bladder). Bladder forming is sometimes called flexforming. Flexforming is mostly used for low volume productions, as in the aerospace field.
Forming with the fluid in direct contact with the part can be done either with a male solid punch (this version is sometimes called hydro-mechanical deep drawing) or with a female solid die.
In hydro-mechanical deep drawing, a work piece is placed on a draw ring (blank holder) over a male punch then a hydraulic chamber surrounds the work piece and a relatively low initial pressure seats the work piece against the punch. The punch then is raised into the hydraulic chamber and pressure is increased to as high as 100 MPa (15000 psi) which forms the part around the punch. Then the pressure is released and punch retracted, hydraulic chamber lifted, and the process is complete.
Among these techniques hydraulic bulge testing allows for an increased work hardening of sheet material by distinctive stretching operations and provides better shape accuracy for complex parts. Hence, by selecting proper material and the forming parameters for hydraulic sheet bulging study one can determine Forming Limit Curves (FLCs).
Significance
Tube hydroforming.
In tube hydroforming there are two major practices: high pressure and low pressure.
With the high pressure process the tube is fully enclosed in a die prior to pressurization of the tube. In low pressure the tube is slightly pressurized to a fixed volume during the closing of the die (this used to be called the Variform process). Historically, the process was patented in the '50s, but it was industrially spread in the 1970s for the production of large T-shaped joints for the oil and gas industry. Today it is mostly used in the automotive sector, where many industrial applications can be found. With the rise of the electric bicycle it is now a method of choice for e-bicycle manufacturers. Especially down tubes and top tubes are favorably made with hydroforming in order to fit the battery for the electric bicycle. Newest applications in the bicycle industry are now hydroformed handlebars to improve aero dynamics and ergonomics.
In tube hydroforming pressure is applied to the inside of a tube that is held by dies with the desired cross sections and forms. When the dies are closed, the tube ends are sealed by axial punches and the tube is filled with hydraulic fluid. The internal pressure can go up to a few thousand bars and it causes the tube to calibrate against the dies. The fluid is injected into the tube through one of the two axial punches. Axial punches are movable and their action is required to provide axial compression and to feed material towards the center of the bulging tube. Transverse counterpunches may also be incorporated in the forming die in order to form protrusions with small diameter/length ratio. Transverse counter punches may also be used to punch holes in the work piece at the end of the forming process.
Designing the process has in the past been a challenging task, since initial analytical modeling is possible only for limited cases. Advances in FEA and FEM in recent years has enabled hydroform processes to be more widely engineered for varieties of parts and materials. Often FEM simulations must be performed in order to find a feasible process solution and to define the correct loading curves: pressure vs. time and axial feed vs. time. In the case of more complex tube hydroformed parts the tube must be pre-bent prior to loading into the hydroforming die. Bending is done sequentially along the length of the tube, with the tube being bent around bending discs (or dies) as the tube length is fed in. Bending can be done with or without mandrels. This additional complexity of process further increases the reliance on FEM for designing and evaluating manufacturing processes. The feasibility of a hydroforming process must take into consideration the initial tube material properties and its potential for variation, along with the bending process, hydraulic pressure throughout the forming process, in inclusion of axial feed or not, in order to predict metal formability.
Typical tools.
Tools and punches can be interchanged for different part requirements.
One advantage of hydroforming is the savings on tools. For sheet metal only a draw ring and punch (metalworking) or male die is required. Depending on the part being formed, the punch can be made from epoxy, rather than metal. The bladder of the hydroform itself acts as the female die eliminating the need to fabricate it. This allows for changes in material thickness to be made with usually no necessary changes to the tool. However, dies must be highly polished and in tube hydroforming a two-piece die is required to allow opening and closing.
Geometry produced.
Another advantage of hydroforming is that complex shapes can be made in one step. In sheet hydroforming with the bladder acting as the male die almost limitless geometries can be produced. However, the process is limited by the very high closing force required in order to seal the dies, especially for large panels and thick hard materials. Small concave corner radii are difficult to be completely calibrated, i.e. filled, because too large a pressure would be required. in fact, the die closing force can be very high, both in tube and sheet hydroforming and may easily overcome the maximum tonnage of the forming press. In order to keep the die closing force under prescribed limits, the maximum internal fluid pressure must be limited. This reduces the calibration abilities of the process, i.e. it reduces the possibility of forming parts with small concave radii.
Limits of the sheet hydroforming process are due to risks of excessive thinning, fracture, wrinkling and are strictly related to the material formability and to a proper selection of process parameters (e.g. hydraulic pressure vs. time curve). Tube hydroforming can produce many geometric options as well, reducing the need for tube welding operations. Similar limitations and risks can be listed as in sheet hydroforming; however, the maximum closing force is seldom a limiting factor in tube hydroforming.
Tolerances and surface finish.
Hydroforming is capable of producing parts within tight tolerances including aircraft tolerances where a common tolerance for sheet metal parts is within 0.76 mm (1/30th of an inch). Metal hydroforming also allows for a smoother finish as draw marks produced by the traditional method of pressing a male and female die together are eliminated.
While springback has long been a topic of discussion for sheet metal forming operations it has been far less of a topic of research for tube hydroforming. This may in part be a result of the relatively low levels of springback naturally occurring when deforming the tubes into their closed section geometries. Tube Hydroformed sections by the nature of their closed sections are very rigid and do not display high degrees of elastic deformation under load. For this reason it is likely that negative residual stress induced during tube hydroforming might be insufficient to deform the part elastically after the completion of forming. However, as more and more tubular parts are being manufactured using high strength steel and advanced high strength steel parts, springback must be accounted for in the design and manufacture of closed section tube hydroformed parts.
Examples.
Notable examples include:
References.


Job shop

Job shops are typically small manufacturing systems that handle job production, that is, custom/bespoke or semi-custom/bespoke manufacturing processes such as small to medium-size customer orders or batch jobs. Job shops typically move on to different jobs (possibly with different customers) when each job is completed. Job shops machines are aggregated in shops by the nature of skills and technological processes involved, each shop therefore may contain different machines, which gives this production system processing flexibility, since jobs are not necessarily constrained to a single machine. In computer science the problem of job shop scheduling is considered strongly NP-hard.
A typical example would be a machine shop, which may make parts for local industrial machinery, farm machinery and implements, boats and ships, or even batches of specialized components for the aircraft industry. Other types of common job shops are grinding, honing, jig-boring, gear manufacturing, and fabrication shops.
The opposite would be continuous continuous-flow manufacturing, such as textile, steel, food manufacturing and manual labor.
Advantages.
Compare to transfer line.
Disadvantages.
Compare to transfer line.


Project manufacturing

Project manufacturing is an operation designed to produce large, expensive, specialized products such as custom homes, defense weapons such as aircraft carriers and submarines, and aerospace products such as passenger planes, and the Space Shuttle.
Project manufacturing is highly flexible, because each project is usually significantly different from the one before it, even if the project’s size and expense and high degree of customization, project manufacturing can take an extremely long time to complete.
Project Manufacturing is an operation designed to produce unique but similar products. It takes advantage of common manufacturing requirements (and therefore efficiencies), while allowing for customization into “unique” combinations. Unique orders may be managed like a project. The more components of that order that are common to other unique orders the more they may be manufactured – taking advantage of manufacturing methodology. Project Manufacturing then is the melding of Manufacturing and Project Management at a level where the most advantage may be gleaned from each to the financial advantage of the company.


Microflex Inc.

Microflex Inc. is an international corporation manufacturing flexible metal products based in Ormond Beach, Florida and supplying a wide range of industries, with customers including NASA. It was founded in 1975 by Josif and Gjorgjija 'George' Atanasoski. It was originally located in New Haven, Connecticut, however it was relocated to Ormond Beach, Florida in 1980.
Microflex Inc. manufacture metal hose and braid, metallic expansion joints, bellows, and automotive products.
Microflex Inc. hold the following certificates: ASME Certification, ISO Certification, and PED Certification.