Behavioral operations management

Behavioral operations management (often called behavioral operations) examines and takes into consideration human behaviors and emotions when facing complex decision problems. It relates to the behavioral aspects of the use of operations research and operations management. In particular, it focuses on understanding behavior in, with and beyond models. The general purpose is to make better use and improve the use of operations theories and practice, so that the benefits received from the potential improvements to operations approaches in practice, that arise from recent findings in behavioral sciences, are realized. Behavioral operations approaches have heavily influenced supply chain management research among others.
Overview.
Operations management involves a wide range of problem–solving skills aiming to help individuals or organizations to make more rational decisions as well as improving their efficiency. However, operations management often assumes that agents involved in the process or operating system, such as employees, consumers and suppliers, make fully rational decisions. Their decisions are not affected by their emotions as well as their surroundings and that they are able to react and distinguish between different types of information. In reality, this is not always true; human behavior has an important role in decision making and worker motivation, and therefore should be considered in the study of operations. This has led to the rise of behavioral operations management, which is defined as the study of impacts that human behavior has on operations, design and business interactions in different organizations. Behavioral operations management aims to understand the decision making of managers and tries to make improvements to the supply chain using the insight obtained. Behavioral operations management includes knowledge from a number of fields, such as economics, behavioral science, psychology and other social sciences. Traditional operations management and behavioral operations management have a common intellectual goal, aiming to make differences in operations outcomes, such as flexibility, efficiency and productivity.
Theoretical influence.
Humans have limitations in their ability to collect and react to relevant information. When a decision or conclusion has to be made through complex information, human decision-makers often fail to comply with normative decision theories. Moreover, a person's lifestyle, social interactions and collective behaviors have a clear influence on their decisions.
Cognitive psychology.
This is a relatively new branch of psychology which focuses on humans' ability to make decisions, solve problems, learning, attention, memory and forgetting. These are only a few of the practical applications of this science, to some extent it is also related to motivation and emotion. Cognitive psychology is interested in what is happening within the mind when new information is received, how people respond to this information, and how this response affects their behavior and emotions. Cognitive psychology is considered to be one of the dominant theoretical force in behavioral science.
Social psychology.
People often react and behave differently when they are put into different social situations. The aim of social psychology is to understand the nature and causes of individual behaviors. It questions or provides an insight of how human behavior relies on the physical environment. Social psychology theories attempt to explain why there are competition between individuals, why it is often the case that individuals or organisations seek to protect and maintain their status, and why it has been observed that individuals and organisations are willing to sacrifice efficiency to achieve their goal of staying at a higher hierarchical position. In addition to status, social psychology also includes people's behavior towards goal setting, feedback and controls, interdependence, and reciprocity.
Organizational behavior.
The use of psychology in behavioral operations research links to the idea of judging the relationship between people's mental health and wellbeing and their behavior at work. Psychology experts often set up indicators to evaluate how an employee's surroundings, such as working environment and noise, can affect their productivity. Organizational behavior is the study of ways people react or behave when they are organized in groups. The purpose of these studies is to improve business productivity, trying to create a more efficient business organization. Organizational behavior theories are applied towards human resource trying to maximize the output from individual group members. The study of organization behavior can be broken down into different sections, including personality, job satisfaction and reward management, leadership, authority, power and politics.
Main streams of research.
There are four main streams of research that can be considered a part of behavior operations research. These give us an idea of the weakness of the current operations research model and the effectiveness of behavioral operations research in predicting human decisions and reactions when facing different situations.
Socio-technical view of technology management.
Physical technologies can be defined as a socio-technology system, which consists of humans, human activity, spaces, artifacts, tools, and communications media. This theory suggests that social interaction at the workplace is determined by the technology and techniques used at work. Therefore, a change in technology used at work can lead to unexpected consequences. This may include differences in motivation.
Human factor engineering.
Human factor engineering can be applied to improve workplaces, working systems and products aiming to reduce human errors during operations as well as improving human efficiency, productivity and operational performance. It often involves improvements of large machineries to reduce accidents during work. It is believed that behavior operations research can be related to human factor engineering as systematic errors, which happens very often technology and different machineries, can affect people's decision making and their interaction with the operating system.
The bullwhip effect.
The bullwhip effect happens along the supply chain as the result of information asymmetry between the organisations involved. The classic scenario is a sudden increase in customer demand as shown in the figure to the right. The sudden demand hike depletes the retailer's stock resulting in lost sales. To avoid this happen in the future, the retailer does not only increase its next order to the wholesaler by the additional customer demand observed in this period, but by a little bit more just to be safe. That is because the retailer knows it takes time for the wholesaler to deliver the larger order. This fear of losing out in future sales is the behavioral component of the inventory problem causing the bullwhip effect. Faced with an unexpectedly larger order by the retailer, the wholesaler will forward an even larger order to the manufacturer. The manufacturer in turn makes a non-reversible decision to increase its production level even more in the nearer future. However, because of the delay in information flow from customers to manufactures, the latter is not aware for several order periods that its production level actually exceeds customer demand considerably. The result of the bullwhip effect in this classic application is an excessive amount of stock held by retailers, wholesalers and manufacturer. The more tiers a supply chain has, the larger the magnitude of the bullwhip effect becomes.
System dynamics models in operations contexts.
System dynamics models in operations contexts focuses on the importance of how components in a system interact with each other as well as providing an overview of the processes that takes place within the system. Behavioral operations research often benefits from the development of comprehensive systems models as they are able to analyse and provide an insight of the operational system. This allows the study of behavioral operations to understand how people in these settings or work conditions think about the context in which they operate. In an operations system, it often involves levers for managers to manipulate the components involved in the system. The uses of these levers are determined by human behaviors and these behaviors include feelings of stress and fear.
Related problems.
Newsvendor problem.
The newsvendor model (or newsboy or single-period or perishable) is a mathematical model used in operations management and applied economics to determine optimal level products or services to keep in stock when the demand is unknown. This model is also known as the newsvendor problem by analogy with the situation faced by a newspaper vendor who must make on time stocking decision of how many copies of newspaper to keep in stock when facing uncertain demand. If the newspaper vendor stocks too much, these newspaper may end up worthless by the end of the day as they are no longer up-to-date. However, if the newspaper vendor stocks too little, he misses the opportunity to make more profit and suffers loss of goodwill.
Assignment problem.
The assignment problem is a complex optimization problem. The problem involves number of agents and a number of tasks. The purpose is to assign each agent with a task. All agents are expected or aimed to be allocated in a way that will maximize productivity and efficiency and minimize the total cost of the assignment.
Secretary problem.
The secretary problem can also be called the optimal stopping theory. It focuses heavily on applied probability, statistics and decision theory. The idea behind the secretary problem is that to make the best decisions when there is a pool of different options, other options are unknown, details of other options will only be given if the currently existing option is given up. The problem comes down to the idea of optimal strategy, maximizing the probability of selecting the best option.


Injection molding of liquid silicone rubber (LSR) is a process to produce pliable, durable parts in high volume.
Liquid silicone rubber is a high purity platinum cured silicone with low compression set, good stability and ability to resist extreme temperatures of heat and cold ideally suitable for production of parts, where high quality is required. Due to the thermosetting nature of the material, liquid silicone injection molding requires special treatment, such as intensive distributive mixing, while maintaining the material at a low temperature before it is pushed into the heated cavity and vulcanized.
Chemically, silicone rubber is a family of thermoset elastomers that have a backbone of alternating silicon and oxygen atoms and methyl or vinyl side groups. Silicone rubbers constitute about 30% of the silicone family, making them the largest group of that family. Silicone rubbers maintain their mechanical properties over a wide range of temperatures and the presence of methyl-groups in silicone rubbers makes these materials extremely hydrophobic, making them suitable for electrical surface insulations.
Typical applications for liquid silicone rubber are products that require high precision such as seals, sealing membranes, electric connectors, multi-pin connectors, infant products where smooth surfaces are desired, such as bottle nipples, medical applications as well as kitchen goods such as baking pans, spatulas, etc. Often, silicone rubber is overmolded onto other parts made of different plastics. For example, a silicone button face might be overmolded onto a Nylon 6,6 housing.
Equipment.
In order for the liquid injection molding process to fully occur, several mechanical components must be in place. Typically, a molding machine requires a metered pumping device in conjunction with an injection unit—a dynamic or static mixer is attached. An integrated system can aid in precision and process efficiency. The critical components of a liquid injection molding machine include:
Injectors. An injecting device is responsible for pressurizing the liquid silicone to aid in the injection of the material into the pumping section of the machine. Pressure and injection rate can be adjusted at the operator's discretion.
Metering Units. Metering units pump the two primary liquid materials, the catalyst and the base forming silicone, ensuring that the two materials maintain a constant ratio while being simultaneously released.
Supply Drums. Supply drums, also called plungers, serve as the primary containers for mixing materials. Both the supply drums and a container of pigment connect to the main pumping system.
Mixers. A static or dynamic mixer combines materials after they exit the metering units. Once combined, pressure is used to drive the mixture into a designated mold.
Nozzle. To facilitate the deposition of the mixture into the mold, a nozzle is used. Often, the nozzle features an automatic shut-off valve to help prevent leaking and overfilling the mold.
Mold Clamp. A mold clamp secures the mold during the injection molding process, and opens the mold upon completion.
Characteristics of LSR.
Biocompatibility: Under extensive testing, liquid silicone rubber has demonstrated superior compatibility with human tissue and body fluids. In comparison to other elastomers, LSR is resistant to bacteria growth and will not stain or corrode other materials. LSR is also tasteless and odorless and can be formulated to comply with stringent FDA requirements. The material can be sterilized via a variety of methods, including steam autoclaving, ethylene oxide (ETO), gamma, e-beam and numerous other techniques, meeting all required approvals such as BfR XV, FDA 21 CFR 177.2600, USP Class VI.
Durable: LSR parts can withstand extreme temperatures, which makes them an ideal choice for components under the hood of cars and in close proximity to engines. Parts fabricated via liquid silicone rubber injection molding are fire retardant and will not melt.
Chemical resistance: Liquid silicone rubber resists water, oxidation and some chemical solutions such as acids and alkali.
Temperature resistance: Compared to other elastomers, silicone can withstand a wide range of high/low temperature extremes.
Mechanical properties: LSR has good elongation, high tear and tensile strength, excellent flexibility and a hardness range of 5 to 80 Shore A.
Electrical properties: LSR has excellent insulating properties, which offer an appealing option for a host of electrical applications. Compared to conventional insulating material, silicone can perform in far higher and lower temperatures.
Transparency and pigmentation: LSR possesses a natural transparency. This attribute makes it possible to produce colorful, custom, molded products
Injection molding process.
Liquid silicone rubbers are supplied in barrels. Because of their low viscosity, these rubbers can be pumped through pipelines and tubes to the vulcanization equipment. The two components are pumped through a static mixer by a metering pump. One of the components contains the catalyst, typically platinum based. A coloring paste as well as other additives can also be added before the material enters the static mixer section. In the static mixer the components are well mixed and are transferred to the cooled metering section of the injection molding machine. The static mixer renders a very homogeneous material that results in products that are not only very consistent throughout the part, but also from part to part. This is in contrast to solid silicone rubber materials that are purchased pre-mixed and partially vulcanized. In contrast, hard silicone rubbers are processed by transfer molding and result in less material consistency and control, leading to higher part variability. Additionally, solid silicone rubber materials are processed at higher temperatures and require longer vulcanization times.
Liquid silicone has a very low viscosity index and requires perfect seals of the mould cavity in order to guarantee a burr-free finished product.
As injections are carried out at high temperature, steel dilation and natural shrinkage of materials must be considered at the design stage of the LSR injection tooling.
From the metering section of the injection molding machine, the compound is pushed through cooled sprue and runner systems into a heated cavity where the vulcanization takes place. The cold runner and general cooling results in no loss of material in the feed lines. The cooling allows production of LSR parts with nearly zero material waste, eliminating trimming operations and yielding significant savings in material cost.
Liquid silicone rubbers are supplied in a variety of containers, from tubes to 55 gallon drums. Because of their viscous nature, these liquids are pumped at high pressures (500 - 5000 psi) based on the durometer of the material. The raw materials are shipped in two separate containers (known in the industry as a kit) identified as "A" and B" compounds, with the "B" side usually containing the catalyst, but may vary based on the brand of silicone used. The two (A and B) compounds must be mixed in a 1 to 1 ratio, usually by way of a static mixer, adding pigment during the mixing process before the curing process begins. Once the two components come together the curing process begins immediately. A chiller supplying cold water to jacketed fittings is typically used to retard the curing process prior to the materials introduction to the mold. A color pigment can be added via a color injector used in conjunction with the material pump (closed loop metering system) before the material enters the static mixer section.
In a cold deck scenario, the 1 to 1 mixed compound is pumped through cooled sprue and runner systems into a heated cavity where the vulcanization takes place. The cold runner and general cooling results in minimal loss of material as the injection occurs directly into the part or cavity, saving on overall material costs and using high consistency rubber. The cooling allows production of LSR parts with nearly zero material valve gate waste, however this does not guarantee a "flash free" finished part. Molds and tooling are varying in design, execution and cost. A good cold runner is expensive as compared to conventional hot runner tooling, and has the potential to provide a high level of performance.


Micro-loop heat pipe

A micro-loop heat pipe or MLHP is a miniature loop heat pipe in which the radius of curvature of the liquid meniscus in the evaporator is in the same order of magnitude of the micro grooves' dimensions; or a miniature loop heat pipe which has been fabricated using microfabrication techniques.


Laser peening

Laser peening (LP), or laser shock peening (LSP), is a surface engineering process used to impart beneficial residual stresses in materials. The deep, high-magnitude compressive residual stresses induced by laser peening increase the resistance of materials to surface-related failures, such as fatigue, fretting fatigue, and stress corrosion cracking. Laser shock peening can also be used to strengthen thin sections, harden surfaces, shape or straighten parts (known as laser peen forming), break up hard materials, compact powdered metals and for other applications where high-pressure, short duration shock waves offer desirable processing results.
History.
Discovery and development (1960s).
Initial scientific discoveries towards modern-day laser peening began in the early 1960s as pulsed-laser technology began to proliferate around the world. In an early investigation of the laser interaction with materials by Gurgen Askaryan and E.M. Moroz, they documented pressure measurements on a targeted surface using a pulsed laser. The pressures observed were much larger than could be created by the force of the laser beam alone. Research into the phenomenon indicated the high-pressure resulted from a momentum impulse generated by material vaporization at the target surface when rapidly heated by the laser pulse. Throughout the 1960s, a number of investigators further defined and modeled the laser beam pulse interaction with materials and the subsequent generation of stress waves. These, and other studies, observed that stress waves in the material were generated from the rapidly expanding plasma created when the pulsed laser beam struck the target. Subsequently, this led to interest in achieving higher pressures to increase the stress wave intensity. To generate higher pressures it was necessary to increase the power density and focus the laser beam (concentrate the energy), requiring that the laser beam-material interaction occur in a vacuum chamber to avoid dielectric breakdown within the beam in air. These constraints limited study of high-intensity pulsed laser–material interactions to a select group of researchers with high-energy pulsed lasers.
In the late 1960s a major breakthrough occurred when N.C. Anderholm discovered that much higher plasma pressures could be achieved by confining the expanding plasma against the target surface. Anderholm confined the plasma by placing a quartz overlay, transparent to the laser beam, firmly against the target surface. With the overlay in place, the laser beam passed through the quartz before interacting with the target surface. The rapidly expanding plasma was now confined within the interface between the quartz overlay and the target surface. This method of confining the plasma greatly increased the resulting pressure, generating pressure peaks of , over an order of magnitude greater than unconfined plasma pressure measurements. The significance of Anderholm's discovery to laser peening was the demonstration that pulsed laser–material interactions to develop high-pressure stress waves could be performed in air, not constrained to a vacuum chamber.
Laser shocking as a metallurgical process (1970s).
The beginning of the 1970s saw the first investigations of the effects of pulsed laser irradiation within the target material. L. I. Mirkin observed twinning in ferrite grains in steel under the crater created by laser irradiation in vacuum. S. A. Metz and F. A. Smidt, Jr. irradiated nickel and vanadium foils in air with a pulsed laser at a low power density and observed voids and vacancy loops after annealing the foils, suggesting that a high concentration of vacancies was created by the stress wave. These vacancies subsequently aggregated during post-iradiation annealing into the observed voids in nickel and dislocation loops in vanadium.
In 1971, researchers at Battelle Memorial Institute in Columbus, Ohio began investigating whether the laser shocking process could improve metal mechanical properties using a high-energy pulsed laser. In 1972, the first documentation of the beneficial effects of laser shocking metals was published, reporting the strengthening of aluminum tensile specimens using a quartz overlay to confine the plasma. Subsequently, the first patent on laser shock peening was granted to Phillip Mallozzi and Barry Fairand in 1974. Research into the effects and possible applications of laser peening continued throughout the 1970s and early 1980s by Allan Clauer, Barry Fairand, and coworkers, supported by funding from the National Science Foundation, NASA, Army Research Office, U.S. Air Force, and internally by Battelle. This research explored the in-material effects in more depth and demonstrated the creation of deep compressive stresses and the accompanying increase in fatigue and fretting fatigue life achieved by laser peening.
Practical laser peening (1980s).
Laser shocking during the initial development stages was severely limited by the laser technology of the time period. The pulsed laser used by Battelle encompassed one large room and required several minutes of recovery time between laser pulses. To become a viable, economical, and practical industrial process, the laser technology had to mature into equipment with a much smaller footprint and be capable of increased laser pulse frequencies. In the early 1980s, Wagner Castings Company located in Decatur, Illinois became interested in laser peening as a process that could potentially increase the fatigue strength of cast iron to compete with steel, but at a lower cost. Laser peening of various cast irons showed modest fatigue life improvement, and these results along with others, convinced them to fund the design and construction of a pre-prototype pulsed laser in 1986 to demonstrate the industrial viability of the process. This laser was completed and demonstrated in 1987. Although the technology had been under investigation and development for about 15 years, few people in industry had heard of it. So, with the completion of the demonstration laser, a major marketing effort was launched by Wagner Castings and Battelle engineers to introduce laser peening to potential industrial markets.
Also in the mid 1980s, Remy Fabbro of the Ecole Polytechnique was initiating a laser shock peening program in Paris. He and Jean Fournier of the Peugeot Company visited Battelle in 1986 for an extended discussion of laser shock peening with Allan Clauer. The programs initiated by Fabbro and carried forward in the 1990s and early 2000s by Patrice Peyre, Laurent Berthe, and co-workers have made major contributions, both theoretical and experimental, to the understanding and implementation of laser peening. In 1998, they measured using VISAR (Velocimeter Interferometer System for Any Reflector) pressure loadings in water confinement regime as function of wavelength. They demonstrate the detrimental effect of breakdown in water limiting maximum pressure at the surface of material.
Creation of an industry (1990s).
In the early 1990s, the market was becoming more familiar with the potential of laser peening to increase fatigue life. In 1991, the U.S. Air Force introduced Battelle and Wagner engineers to GE Aviation to discuss the potential application of laser peening to address a foreign object damage (FOD) problem with fan blades in the General Electric F101 engine powering the Rockwell B-1B Lancer Bomber. The resulting tests showed that laser peened fan blades severely notched after laser peening had the same fatigue life as a new blade. After further development, GE Aviation licensed the laser shock peening technology from Battelle, and in 1995, GE Aviation and the U.S. Air Force made the decision to move forward with production development of the technology. GE Aviation began production laser peening of the F101 fan blades in 1998.
The demand for industrial laser systems required for GE Aviation to go into production attracted several of the laser shock peening team at Battelle to start LSP Technologies, Inc. in 1995 as the first commercial supplier of laser peening equipment. Led by founder Jeff Dulaney, LSP Technologies designed and built the laser systems for GE Aviation to perform production laser peening of the F101 fan blades. Through the late 1990s and early 2000s, the U.S. Air Force continued to work with LSP Technologies to mature the laser shock peening production capabilities and implement production manufacturing cells.
In the mid 1990s, independent of the laser peening developments ongoing in the United States and France, Yuji Sano of the Toshiba Corporation in Japan initiated the development of a laser peening system capable of laser peening welds in nuclear plant pressure vessels to mitigate stress corrosion cracking in these areas. The system used a low-energy pulsed laser operating at a higher pulse frequency than the higher powered lasers. The laser beam was introduced into the pressure vessels through articulated tubes. Because the pressure vessels were filled with water, the process did not require a water overlay over the irradiated surface. However, the beam had to travel some distance through the water, necessitating using a shorter wavelength beam, 532 nm, to minimize dielectric breakdown of the beam in the water, instead of the 1054 nm beam used in the United States and France. Also, it was impractical to consider using an opaque overlay. This process is now known as Laser Peening without Coating (LPwC). It began to be applied to Japanese boiling water and pressurized water reactors in 1999.
Also in the 1990s a significant laser peening research group was formed at the Madrid Polytechnic University by José Ocaña. Their work includes both experimental and theoretical studies using low-energy pulsed lasers both without and with an opaque overlay.
Supplier foundation and industry growth (1990s – 2000s).
With the major breakthrough of commercial application of laser peening on the F101 engine to resolve a major operational problem, laser peening attracted attention around the globe. Researchers in many countries and industries undertook investigations to extend understanding of the laser shock peening process and material property effects. As a result, a large volume of research papers and patents were generated in the United States, France, and Japan. In addition to the work being done in these countries and Spain, laser peening programs were initiated in China, Britain, Germany and several other countries. The continuing growth of the technology and its applications led to the appearance of several commercial laser shock peening providers in the early 2000s.
GE Aviation and LSP Technologies were the first companies performing laser peening commercially, having licensed the technology from Battelle. GE Aviation performed laser peening for its aerospace engine components and LSP Technologies marketed laser shock peening services and equipment to a broader industrial base. In the late 1990s, Metal Improvement Company (MIC is now part of Curtis Wright Surface Technologies) partnered with Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) to develop its own laser peening capabilities. In Japan, Toshiba Corporation expanded the commercial applications of its LPwC system to pressurized water reactors, and in 2002 implemented fiber optic beam delivery to the underwater laser peening head. Toshiba also redesigned the laser and beam delivery into a compact system, enabling the entire system to be inserted into the pressure vessel. This system was ready for commercial use in 2013 MIC developed and adapted laser shock peening for forming the wing shapes on the Boeing 747-8.
The growth of industrial suppliers and commercial proof of laser peening technology lead to many companies adopting laser peening technology to solve and prevent problems. Some of the companies who have adopted laser peening include: GE, Rolls-Royce, Siemens, Boeing, Pratt & Whitney, and others.
In the 1990s and continuing through present day, laser peening developments have targeted decreasing costs and increasing throughput to reach markets outside of high-cost low-volume components. High costs in the laser peening process were previously attributable to laser system complexity, processing rates, manual labor and overlay applications. Numerous ongoing advancements addressing these challenges have reduced laser peening costs dramatically: laser peening systems are designed to handle robust operations; pulse rates of laser systems are increasing; routine labor operations are increasingly automated; application of overlays are automated in many cases. These reduced operational costs of laser peening have made it a valuable tool for solving an extended range of fatigue and related applications.
Process description.
Laser peening uses the dynamic mechanical effects of a shock wave imparted by a laser to modify the surface of a target material. It does not utilize thermal effects. Fundamentally, laser peening can be accomplished with only two components: a transparent overlay and a high-energy pulsed laser system. The transparent overlay confines the plasma formed at the target surface by the laser beam. It is also often beneficial to use a thin overlay, opaque to the laser beam, between the water overlay and the target surface. This opaque overlay can provide either or each of three benefits: protect the target surface from potentially detrimental thermal effects from the laser beam, provide a consistent surface for the laser beam-material interaction and, if the overlay impedance is less than that of the target surface, increase the magnitude of the shock wave entering the target. However, there are situations where an opaque overlay is not used; in the Toshiba process, LPwC, or where the tradeoff between decreased cost and possibly somewhat lowered surface residual stress allows superficial grinding or honing after laser peening to remove the thin thermally effected layer.
The laser peening process originated with high-energy Nd-glass lasers producing pulse energies up to 50 J (more commonly 5 to 40 J) with pulse durations of 8 to 25 ns. Laser spot diameters on target are typically in the range of 2 to 7 mm. The processing sequence begins by applying the opaque overlay on the workpiece or target surface. Commonly used opaque overlay materials are black or aluminum tape, paint or a proprietary liquid, RapidCoater. The tape or paint is generally applied over the entire area to be processed, while the RapidCoater is applied over each laser spot just before triggering the laser pulse. After application of the opaque overlay, the transparent overlay is placed over it. The transparent overlay used in production processing is water; it is cheap, easily applied, readily conforms to most complex surface geometries, and is easily removed. It is applied to the surface just before triggering the laser pulse. Quartz or glass overlays produce much higher pressures than water, but are limited to flat surfaces, must be replaced after each shot and would be difficult to handle in a production setting. Clear tape may be used, but requires labor to apply and is difficult to conform to complex surface features. The transparent overlay allows the laser beam to pass through it without appreciable absorption of the laser energy or dielectric breakdown. When the laser is triggered, the beam passes through the transparent overlay and strikes the opaque overlay, immediately vaporizing a thin layer of the overlay material. This vapor is trapped in the interface between the transparent and opaque overlays. The continued delivery of energy during the laser pulse rapidly heats and ionizes the vapor, converting it into a rapidly expanding plasma. The rising pressure exerted on the opaque overlay surface by the expanding plasma enters the target surface as a high-amplitude stress wave or shock wave. Without a transparent overlay, the unconfined plasma plume moves away from the surface and the peak pressure is considerably lower. If the amplitude of the shock wave is above the Hugoniot Elastic Limit (HEL), i.e., the dynamic yield strength, of the target, the material plastically deforms during passage of the shock wave. The magnitude of the plastic strain decreases with distance from the surface as the peak pressure of the shock wave attenuates, i.e., decreases, and becomes zero when the peak pressure falls below the HEL. After the shock wave passes, the residual plastic strain creates a compressive residual stress gradient below the target surface, highest at or immediately below the surface and decreasing with depth. By varying the laser power density, pulse duration, and number of successive shots on an area, a range of surface compressive stress magnitudes and depths can be achieved. The magnitude of surface stresses are comparable to shot peening, but the depths are much greater, ranging up to 5 mm when using multiple shots on a spot. Generally spot densities of about 10 spots/cm2 to 40 spots/cm2 are applied. The compressive stress depth achieved with the most common processing parameters ranges from deep. The deep compressive stresses are due to the shock wave peak pressure being maintained above the HEL to greater depths than for other peening technologies.
There may be instances where it is cost effective not to apply the opaque overlay and laser peen the bare surface of the work piece directly. When laser peening a bare, metallic surface a thin, micrometer-range, layer of surface material is vaporized. The rapid rise in temperature causes surface melting to a depth dependent on pulse energy and duration, and target melting point. On aluminum alloys this depth is nominally 10–20 μm, but on steels and other higher melting point alloys the depths may be just a few micrometers. Due to the short duration of the pulse, the in-depth heating of the surface is limited to a few tens of micrometers due to the rapid quenching effect of the cold substrate. Some superficial surface staining of the work piece may occur, typically from oxidation products. These detrimental effects of bare surface processing, both aesthetic and metallurgical, can be removed after laser peening by light grinding or honing. With an opaque overlay in place, the target surface experiences temperature rises of less than on a nanosecond time scale.
Laser pulses are generally applied sequentially on the target to treat areas larger than the laser spot size. Laser pulse shapes are customizable to circular, elliptical, square, and other profiles to provide the most convenient and efficient processing conditions. The spot size applied depends on a number of factors that include material HEL, laser system characteristics and other processing factors. The area to be laser peened is usually determined by the part geometry, the extent of the fatigue critical area and considerations of moving the compensating tensile stresses out of this area.
The more recently developed laser peening process, the Toshiba LPwC process, varies in significant ways from the process described above. The LPwC process utilizes low-energy high-frequency producing pulse energies of and pulse durations of , using spot sizes diameter. Because the process originally was intended to operate in large water-filled vessels, the wave frequency was doubled to halve the wavelength to 532 nm. The shorter wavelength decreases the absorption of beam energy while traveling through water to the target. Due to access constraints, no opaque overlay is applied to the target surface. This factor, combined with the small spot size, requires many shots to achieve a significant surface compressive stress and depths of 1 mm. The first layers applied produce a tensile surface stress due to surface melting, although a compressive stress is developed below the melt layer. However, as more layers are added, the increasing subsurface compressive stress "bleeds" back through the melted surface layer to produce the desired surface compressive stress. Depending on material properties and the desired compressive stresses, generally about 18 spots/mm2 to 70 spots/mm2 or greater spot densities are applied, about 100 times the spot densities of the high-pulse-energy process. The effects of the higher spot densities on processing times are compensated for in part by the higher pulse frequency, 60 Hz, of the low-energy lasers. Newer generations of these laser systems are projected to operate at higher frequencies. This low-energy process achieves compressive residual stress magnitudes and depths equivalent to the high-energy process with nominal depths of . However, the smaller spot size will not permit depths deeper than this.
Quality systems for laser peening.
The laser peening process using computer control is described in AMS 2546. Like many other surface enhancement technologies, direct measuring of the results of the process on the workpiece during processing is not practical. Therefore, the process parameters of pulse energy and duration, water and opaque overlays are closely monitored during processing. Other quality control systems are also available that rely on pressure measurements such as electromagnetic acoustic transducers (EMAT), Velocity Interferometer System for Any Reflector (VISAR) and PVDF gauges, and plasma radiometers. Almen strips are also used, but they function as a comparison tool and do not provide a definitive measure of laser peening intensity. The resultant residual stresses imparted by the laser peening process are routinely measured by industry using x-ray diffraction techniques for the purposes of process optimization and quality assurance.
Laser peening systems.
The initial laser systems used during the development of laser peening were large research lasers providing high-energy pulses at very low pulse frequencies. Since the mid-late 1990s, lasers designed specifically for laser peening featured steadily smaller size and higher pulse frequencies, both of these more desirable for production environments. The laser peening systems include both rod laser systems and a slab laser system. The rod laser systems can be separated roughly into three primary groups, recognizing that there is some overlap between them: (1) high-energy low-repetition rate lasers operating typically at 10–40 J per pulse with 8–25 ns pulse length at nominally 0.5–1 Hz rep rate, nominal spot sizes of 2 to 8 mm; (2) intermediate energy, intermediate repetition rate lasers operating at 3–10 J with 10–20 ns pulse width at 10 Hz rep rate, nominal spot sizes of 1–4 mm; (3) low-energy, high-repetition rate lasers operating at per pulse with ≤10 ns pulse length at 60+ Hz rep rate, spot size. The slab laser system operates in the range of 10–25 J per pulse with 8–25 ns pulse duration at 3–5 Hz rep rate, nominal spot sizes of 2–5 mm. The commercial systems include rod lasers represented by all three groups and the slab laser system.
For each laser peening system the output beam from the laser is directed into a laser peening cell containing the work pieces or parts to be processed. The peening cell contains the parts handling system and provides the safe environment necessary for efficient commercial laser peening. The parts to be processed are usually introduced into the cell in batches. The parts are then picked and placed in the beam path by robots or other customized parts handling systems. Within the work cell, the beam is directed to the surface of the work piece via an optical chain of mirrors and/or lenses. If tape is used, it is applied before the part enters the work cell, whereas water or RapidCoater overlays are applied within the cell individually for each spot. The workpiece, or sometimes the laser beam, is repositioned for each shot as necessary via a robot or other parts handling system. When the selected areas on each part have been processed, the batch is replaced in the work cell by another.
Process effect.
The shockwave generated coldwork (plastic strain) in the workpiece material creates compressive and tensile residual stresses to maintain an equilibrium state of the material. These residual stresses are compressive at the workpiece surface and gradually fade into low tensile stresses below and surrounding the laser peened area. The cold work also work hardens the surface layer. The compressive residual stresses, and to a lesser extent, the cold work, from laser peening have been shown to prevent and mitigate high cycle fatigue (HCF), low cycle fatigue (LCF), stress corrosion cracking, fretting fatigue, and, to some degree, wear and corrosion pitting. It is outstanding at mitigating foreign object damage in turbine blades.
The plastic strain introduced by laser peening is much lower than that introduced by other impact peening technologies. As a result, the residual plastic strain has much greater thermal stability than the more heavily cold worked microstructures. This enables the laser peened compressive stresses to be retained at higher operating temperatures during long exposures than is the case for the other technologies. Among the applications benefiting from this are gas turbine fan and compressor blades and nuclear plant components.
By enhancing material performance, laser peening enables more-efficient designs that reduce weight, extend component lifetimes, and increase performance. In the future, it is anticipated that laser peening will be incorporated into the design of fatigue critical components to achieve longer life, lighter weight, and perhaps a simpler design to manufacture.
Other applications of laser peening technologies.
Originally, the use of laser-induced shock waves on metals to achieve property or functional benefits was referred to as laser shock processing, a broader, more inclusive term. As it happened, laser peening was the first commercial aspect of laser shock processing. However, laser-induced shock waves have found uses in other industrial applications outside of surface enhancement technologies.
One application is for metal shaping or forming. By selectively laser shocking areas on the surface of metal sheets or plates, or smaller items such as airfoils, the associated compressive residual stresses cause the material to flex in a controllable manner. In this way a particular shape can be imparted to a component, or a distorted component might be brought back into the desired shape. Thus, this process is capable of bringing manufactured parts back into design tolerance limits and form shaping thin section parts.
Another variation is to use the shock wave for spallation testing of materials. This application is based on the behavior of shockwaves to reflect from the rear free surface of a work piece as a tensile wave. Depending on the material properties and the shock wave characteristics, the reflected tensile wave may be strong enough to form microcracks or voids near the back surface, or actually "blow-off" or spall material from the back surface. This approach has some value for testing ballistic materials.
Use of laser shocks to measure the bond strength of coatings on metals has been developed over a period of years in France called LASAT for Laser Adhesion Test. This application is also based on the behavior of shockwaves to reflect from the rear free surface of a work piece as a tensile wave. If the back surface is coated with an adherent coating, the tensile wave can be tailored to fracture the bond upon reflection from the surface. By controlling the characteristics of the shock wave, the bond strength of the coating can be measured, or alternatively, determined in a comparative sense.
Careful tailoring of the shockwave shape and intensity has also enabled the inspection of bonded composite structures via laser shocking. The technology, termed Laser Bond Inspection initiates a shockwave that reflects off the backside of a bonded structure and returns as a tensile wave. As the tensile wave passes back through the adhesive bond, depending on the strength of the bond and the peak tensile stress of the stress wave, the tensile wave will either pass through the bond or rupture it. By controlling the pressure of the tensile wave this procedure is capable of reliably locally testing adhesion strength between bonded joints. This technology is most often found in application to bonded fiber composite material structures but has also been shown to be successful in evaluating bonds between metal-composite material. Fundamental issues are also studied to characterize and quantify the effect of shock wave produced by laser inside these complex materials.


Generative design

Generative design is an iterative design process that generates outputs that meet specified constraints to varying degrees. In a second phase, designers can then provide feedback to the generator that explores the feasible region by selecting preferred outputs or changing input parameters for future iterations. Either or both phases can be done by humans or software. One method is to use a generative adversarial network, which is a pair of neural networks. The first generates a trial output. The second provides feedback for the next iteration.
The output can be items such as images, sounds, architectural models, animation, and industrial parts. It is used in design fields such as art, architecture, communication design, and product design.
Computers can explore orders of magnitude more permutations, exploring the interactions of the enormous numbers of design elements in small increments.It mimics nature’s evolutionary approach to design through genetic variation and selection. These techniques are available even for designers with little programming experience. It is supported by commercially available CAD packages. Tools leveraging generative design as a foundation are available.
Compared with traditional top-down design approaches, generative design addresses design problems by using a bottom-up paradigm. The solution itself then evolves to a good, if not optimal, solution.
Generative design involves rule definition and result analysis which are integrated with the design process. By defining parameters and rules, the generative approach is able to provide optimized solution for both structural stability and aesthetics. Possible design algorithms include cellular automata, shape grammar, genetic algorithm, space syntax, and most recently, artificial neural network. Due to the high complexity of the solution generated, rule-based computational tools, such as finite element method and topology optimisation, are more preferable to evaluate and optimise the generated solution. The iterative process provided by computer software enables the trial-and-error approach in design, and involves architects interfering with the optimisation process.
The software then begins iterating, changing things a bit at a time, much like random mutations try out new combinations of animal DNA, and testing it against the necessary performance targets, much like life tests its DNA mutations. Over millions of generations, the software adds a little metal here, removes a little there, and checks if the part is stronger or weaker, lighter or heavier than its predecessors.
Within a surprisingly short time (a couple of hours, if given access to high-powered cloud processing), it comes back with shapes humans could never have directly designed. But they're strikingly similar to the work of nature; where there's more stress to be dealt with, they gradually become thicker. Where there's less stress, they get thinner. Support structures waste away where they're not needed, and tend to line up with the load path. In short, they start looking weirdly bony and organic.
Applications.
Architecture and Industrial Design.
Generative Design is a morphogenetic process using algorithms structured as not-linear systems for endless unique and unrepeatable results performed by an idea-code, as in Nature. (C.Soddu 1992) url=https://generativedesign.com
Architecture.
Generative design has been applied in architecture. Architectural design has long been regarded as a wicked problem. The advantage of using generative design as a design tool is that it does not construct fixed geometries, but take a set of design rules that can generate an infinite set of possible design solutions. The generated design solutions can be more sensitive, responsive, and adaptive to the wicked problem.
Historical precedent work includes Antoni Gaudí's Sagrada Família, which used rule-based geometrical forms for structures, and Buckminster Fuller's Montreal Biosphere where the rules to generate individual components is designed, rather than the final product.
More recent generative design cases includes Foster and Partners' Queen Elizabeth II Great Court, where the tessellated glass roof was designed using a geometric schema to define hierarchical relationships, and then the generated solution was optimized based on geometrical and structural requirement.
Component design.
NASA has begun using generative design in its parts. What they call "evolved structures" weigh less and stress concentrations common in human designs. Weights go down by as much as two thirds, while stress factors are nearly 10 times lower. Such parts are often made via additive manufacturing. Design and manufacturing can take as little as one week. Parts appear in projects such as the Mars Sample Return mission, space telescopes, weather monitors, planetary instruments, and balloon observatories.


Rotating disk viscometer

The Rotating disk viscometer, or "Mooney Machine" as it is sometimes referred to in the rubber industry, is the standard viscometer for measuring material viscosity and scorch time for rubber before vulcanization. It was developed in the 1930s by Melvin Mooney. For a specific temperature, scorch time describes how long it will take the material to vulcanize. For example, a scorch time at ambient temperature indicates the rubber will be able to remain unvulcanized at room temperature for an extended period of time.
Overview.
The Mooney machine itself consists of a cylindrical, serrated, metal disk designed to hold a material sample without slippage during rotation. This disk is surrounded by a die chamber where the rubber is pressed with 2500 pounds of force. The rubber is then warmed for two minutes. Next, the serrated disk is rotated, in one direction only, at a speed of 2 revolutions per minute, while the torque required to rotate the disk is recorded. The torque decrease per time can be directly related to viscosity.
As the material further warms during initial rotation of the serrated disk and the rubber begins to shear, the viscosity lowers and torque required decreases. Eventually, the torque will reach an inflection point, where the rubber begins to vulcanize and torque begins increasing. A shear pin on the machine prevents damage as the testing material stiffens. Comparing the torque versus time curves for different materials allows direct correlation of material viscosity and scorch time.


Nanotech metallurgy

Nanotech metallurgy (also called nanotechnology enabled metallurgy, or nanometallurgy) is an emerging interdisciplinary domain of materials science and engineering (especially metallurgy), manufacturing, and nanoscience and engineering to study how nanophases (both ex situ and in situ) can be applied to significantly improve the processing/manufacturing, micro/nano-structures, and physical/chemical/mechanical behaviors of metals and alloys. This definition was first proposed by Xiaochun Li at the University of California, Los Angeles in 2018.
High performance metals and alloys offer potential to improve energy efficiency and system performance. While conventional metallurgical methods have reached certain limits, nanotech metallurgy has the potential to break the traditional barriers in the metals processing and manufacturing technologies. It has a wider scientific and technological reach beyond the concept of metal matrix nanocomposites (MMNCs), as the study of MMNCs normally focuses on how nanoparticles (generally of high volume fractions) are used to tune material properties only. With the development of more scalable methods of nanophase synthesis, incorporation, and dispersion for mass manufacturing, the metals and alloys produced by nanotech metallurgy are becoming more and more economical. Recently the discovery of a nanoparticle self-dispersion and stabilization mechanism in molten metals gives a scientific and technical foundation for scalable manufacturing in nanotech metallurgy.
Fundamental concepts.
Nanotech metallurgy covers research areas such as nanophase effects on processing/manufacturing, materials properties (e.g. mechanical, physical and chemical properties), synthesis and production of nanophases (both in situ and ex situ), interaction between nanophases and molten metal, solidification, and thermomechanical processing of metals containing nanophases.
Nanophase effects on metals processing and manufacturing.
Nanophases can be effectively used to tune microstructures of metals and alloys during solidification and thermomechanical deformation, to control recrystallization at elevated temperatures, and to break traditional metallurgical barriers, thus creating exciting new spaces in processing and manufacturing, such as in casting, thermoplastic deformation, welding/joining, heat treatment, and machining, etc..
Nanophase effects on materials properties.
Nanophases have significant effects on mechanical, physical and chemical properties of metals. As compared with conventional metal matrix composites (MMCs) that are reinforced by micro-scale phases, the addition of nanophases is promising to overcome many disadvantages of MMCs such as poor ductility, machinability and low fracture toughness. For example, a super-strong but lightweight metal with extremely high specific strength and modulus was developed by disperse ceramic silicon carbide nanoparticles in magnesium.
Nanophases synthesis and production.
Nanotech metallurgy covers the synthesis, production and incorporation of nanophases (e.g. nanoparticles, nanowires, nanosheets, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene, etc.). To utilize the cutting edge nanotechnology to metallurgy, the scalability and cost of the nanophases are the major concerning factors to evaluate the feasibility. It is worth to mention that, with the rapid development of nanophase synthesis, production, incorporation, and dispersion, the cost of nanophases are becoming increasingly economical for metallurgy. Recent studies (e.g. molten salt reaction, in-situ reaction etc.) on molten salt based nanophase synthesis and incorporation indicatefurther ways to reduce the cost of nanophases and open up wider applications
Nanoparticles and molten metal interactions.
The interactions between nanophases and molten metal include wetting, incorporation, mixing and dispersion.
Solidification of metals containing nanophases.
Researchers have utilized the nanoparticles to refine the grain for different alloys(e.g. Al alloy, Mg alloy, etc.) during solidification including casting, welding, 3D printing, etc. They can modify the grain size by serving as heterogeneous nucleation site or inhibiting grain growth during solidification. Nanoparticles can help to refine the secondary phase as well.
Applications.
Nanotech metallurgy can be applied to a wide range applications including automobile, sports, biomedical, electrical and electronics, aerospace, and defense s, etc.


Schoenflies displacement

Schoenflies (or Schönflies) displacement (or motion) named after Arthur Moritz Schoenflies is a rigid body motion consisting of linear motion in three dimensional space plus one orientation around an axis with fixed direction. In robotic manipulation this is a common motion as many pick and place operations require moving an object from one plane and placing it with a different orientation onto another parallel plane ("e.g.", placement of components on a circuit board). These robots are commonly called Schoenflies-motion generators.
Because the SCARA manipulator was one of the first manipulators providing similar motion, this is often referred to as SCARA-type motion. Today, many robotic manipulators, including some with parallel kinematic architecture, are used in industry for applications ranging from the manufacture of electronics to food processing and packaging industry.


Robocasting

Robocasting (also known as robotic material extrusion) is an additive manufacturing technique analogous to Direct Ink Writing and other extrusion-based 3D-printing techniques in which a filament of a paste-like material is extruded from a small nozzle while the nozzle is moved across a platform. The object is thus built by printing the required shape layer by layer. The technique was first developed in the United States in 1996 as a method to allow geometrically complex ceramic green bodies to be produced by additive manufacturing. In robocasting, a 3D CAD model is divided up into layers in a similar manner to other additive manufacturing techniques. The material (typically a ceramic slurry) is then extruded through a small nozzle as the nozzle's position is controlled, drawing out the shape of each layer of the CAD model. The material exits the nozzle in a liquid-like state but retains its shape immediately, exploiting the rheological property of shear thinning. It is distinct from fused deposition modelling as it does not rely on the solidification or drying to retain its shape after extrusion.
Process.
Robocasting begins with a software process. One method is importing an STL file and slicing that shape into layers of similar thickness to the nozzle diameter. The part is produced by extruding a continuous filament of material in the shape required to fill the first layer. Next, either the stage is moved down or the nozzle is moved up and the next layer is deposited in the required pattern. This is repeated until the 3D part is complete. Numerically controlled mechanisms are typically used to move the nozzle in a calculated tool-path generated by a computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software package. Stepper motors or servo motors are usually employed to move the nozzle with precision as fine as nanometers.
The part is typically very fragile and soft at this point. Drying, debinding and sintering usually follow to give the part the desired mechanical properties.
Depending on the material composition, printing speed and printing environment, robocasting can typically deal with moderate overhangs and large spanning regions many times the filament diameter in length, where the structure is unsupported from below. This allows intricate periodic 3D scaffolds to be printed with ease, a capability which is not possessed by other additive manufacturing techniques. These parts have shown extensive promise in fields of photonic crystals, bone transplants, catalyst supports, and filters. Furthermore, supporting structures can also be printed from a "fugitive material" which is easily removed. This allows almost any shape to be printed in any orientation.
Mechanical behavior.
One key advantage of the robocasting additive manufacturing technique is its ability to utilize a wide range of feedstock “inks,” as shear-thinning ability is the only inherently required material property. As such, robocasting has seen diverse application among many disparate materials classes such as metallic foams, pre-ceramic polymers, and biological tissues. This allows for a wide range of mechanical characteristics to be accessible through this technique, with additional tailoring possible through the use of ink fillers and varying extrusion parameters.
Filler effects.
Micro- and nano-scale filler materials are commonly used to create composite feedstocks for robocasting and are available in a wide range of compositions, with morphologies typically falling into the broad categories of spheres, platelets, and filaments/tubes. Both composition and morphology play significant roles in the mechanical characteristics imparted by the filler. For example, the inclusion of stiff boron nitride nanobarbs within epoxy feedstock has been demonstrated to anisotropically increase overall composite strength and stiffness along the direction of fiber orientation due to their shape asymmetry, while the inclusion of hollow glass microspheres within the same epoxy feedstock has been demonstrated to isotropically improve specific strength by significantly reducing total density of the composite.
In addition to shape, differing size regimes within fillers of the same morphology have been demonstrated to yield significant changes in mechanical properties. For epoxy-carbon fiber composite systems of identical composition, flexural strength has been shown to generally decrease with decreasing fiber length. However, shorter fibers have also been demonstrated to produce better overall printing behavior during the robocasting process as increasing length also increases the likelihood of jamming within the extruder; higher print fidelity as seen for the shorter fibers generally results in greater reproducibility of mechanical behavior. In addition, very long fibers have exhibited a tendency to break during extrusion, essentially imparting a de facto size cap on filament-type fillers used in robocasting.
Extrusion effects.
Extrusion phenomena inherently tied into the robocasting technique have been shown to have appreciable effects on the mechanical behavior of resulting parts. One of the most significant is the alignment of filler materials within composite feedstocks during deposition, which is enhanced as filler anisotropy increases. This alignment phenomenon also becomes more pronounced with decreasing nozzle diameter and increasing ink deposition speed, as these factors increase the effective shearing experienced by fillers suspended within the feedstock in accordance with Jeffrey-Hamel flow theory. Fillers are thus driven to align parallel to the extrusion pathway, imparting significant anisotropic character within the finished part. This anisotropy can be further enhanced by prescribing extrusion pathways that remain parallel throughout the manufacturing process; conversely, prescribing extrusion pathways that exhibit differing orientations, such as 90° “logpile” rotation between layers, can mitigate this effect.
Selection of deposition pathing can also be exploited to alter mechanical characteristics of robocasting products, such as in the case of non-dense and graded components. The creation of open lattice-type structures via robocasting is widespread and enables optimization of specific strength and stiffness by reducing the cross-sectional footprint of a given feedstock material while retaining much of its bulk mechanical integrity. In addition, the creation of unique deposition pathing via finite element analysis of a desired structure can generate dynamically-graded geometries optimized for specific applications.
Applications.
The technique can produce non-dense ceramic bodies which can be fragile and must be sintered before they can be used for most applications, analogous to a wet clay ceramic pot before being fired. A wide variety of different geometries can be formed from the technique, from solid monolithic parts to intricate microscale "scaffolds", and tailored composite materials. A heavily-researched application for robocasting is in the production of biologically compatible tissue implants. "Woodpile" stacked lattice structures can be formed quite easily which allow bone and other tissues in the human body to grow and eventually replace the transplant. With various medical scanning techniques the precise shape of the missing tissue was established and input into 3D modelling software and printed. Calcium phosphate glasses and hydroxyapatite have been extensively explored as candidate materials due to their biocompatibility and structural similarity to bone.
Other potential applications include the production of specific high surface area structures, such as catalyst beds or fuel cell electrolytes. Advanced metal matrix- and ceramic matrix- load bearing composites can be formed by infiltrating woodpile bodies with molten glasses, alloys or slurries.
Robocasting has also been used to deposit polymer and sol-gel inks through much finer nozzle diameters (less than 2 μm) than is possible with ceramic inks.


Boriding

Boriding, also called boronizing, is the process by which boron is added to a metal or alloy. It is a type of surface hardening. In this process boron atoms are diffused into the surface of a metal component. The resulting surface contains metal borides, such as iron borides, nickel borides, and cobalt borides, As pure materials, these borides have extremely high hardness and wear resistance. Their favorable properties are manifested even when they are a small fraction of the bulk solid. Boronized metal parts are extremely wear resistant and will often last two to five times longer than components treated with conventional heat treatments such as hardening, carburizing, nitriding, nitrocarburizing or induction hardening. Most borided steel surfaces will have iron boride layer hardnesses ranging from 1200-1600 HV. Nickel-based superalloys such as Inconel and Hastalloys will typically have nickel boride layer hardnesses of 1700-2300 HV.
Methods.
Boriding can be achieved in several ways, but commonly the metal piece is packed with a boriding mixture and heating at 900 °C. Typical boriding mixture consists of boron carbide powder diluted with other refractory materials. The process converts some of the Fe to iron boride, consisting of two phases: FeB concentrated near the surface, and diiron boride (Fe2B). Boride layer depths can range from 0.001 - 0.015 inches (25.4 - 38 µm) depending on base material selection and treatment.
Materials.
It is often used on steel, but is applicable to a variety of alloys and cermet materials. A wide range of materials suitable for treatment including plain carbon steels, alloy steels, tool steels, nickel-based super alloys, cobalt alloys, and stellite.
Properties conferred.
Boriding gives the material the following desirable properties: wear resistance, improved hardness (1300-2000HV is possible), thermal stability, resistance to corrosion by acids, reduced coefficient of friction, and increased galling/cold-welding resistance. It is possible to combine boriding with other heat treatments such as carburizing, hardening or induction hardening to create deeper wear layers or high core hardness.


Jewelry wire

Jewelry wire is wire, usually copper, brass, nickel, aluminium, silver, or gold, used in jewelry making.
Wire is defined today as a single, usually cylindrical, elongated strand of drawn metal. However, when wire was first invented over 2,000 years BC, it was made from gold nuggets pounded into flat sheets, which were then cut into strips. The strips were twisted and then rolled into the round shape we call wire. This early wire, which was used in making jewelry, can be distinguished from modern wire by the spiral line along the wire created by the edges of the sheet.
Modern wire is manufactured in a different process that was discovered in Ancient Rome. In this process, a solid metal cylinder is pulled through a draw plate with holes of a defined size. Thinner sizes of wire are made by pulling wire through successively smaller holes in the draw plate until the desired size is reached.
When wire was first invented, its use was limited to making jewelry. Today, wire is used extensively in many applications including fencing, the electronics industry, electrical distribution, and the making of wire wrapped jewelry.
Wire hardness.
All metals have a property called hardness, which is the property of the metal that resists bending. Soft metals are pliable and easy to bend while hard metals are stiff and hard to bend. The hardness of metals can be changed by annealing with heat treatment, or by work hardening a wire by bending it.
Most modern manufacturers of jewelry wire make the wire with a defined hardness, generally a hardness of 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4. Historically, these numbers were associated with the number of times that the wire was pulled through a draw plate, becoming harder or stiffer each time it was drawn through the drawplate. A hardness of 0 meant that the wire had been drawn through only once and was as soft and as pliable as possible. A hardness of 4 meant that the wire had been drawn through five or more times and the wire was as stiff and as hard as possible. Most jewelry wire that is sold now is designated dead soft, half-hard, or hard, where dead soft is wire that is manufactured with a hardness of 0, half-hard is wire manufactured with a hardness of 2, and fully hardened wire is wire with a hardness of 4.
Dead soft wire is extremely soft and pliable. It can be easily bent and is excellent for making rounded shapes such as spirals. It is also excellent for wrapping wire around beads to make them look as though they are encased. The disadvantage of using soft wire is that the finished piece can be bent out of shape if not properly handled.
Half-hard wire is slightly stiffer than dead soft wire. Half-hard wire is excellent for making tight, angular bends, for making loops in wire, and for wrapping wire around itself. However, it is not very useful for making spirals. Finished pieces made with half-hard wire are usually more permanent than pieces made with soft wire.
Hard wire is very stiff and tends to spring back after being bent, making it harder to work with when using a jig; it cannot be used to make a spiral. Pieces made with hard wire have the advantage that they are not easily accidentally deformed.
As in many things, no single wire is perfect for all applications. Soft wire is easy to bend and shape, but the finished product may be bent out of shape if squeezed. Hard wire is difficult to bend but makes permanent shapes. Half-hard wire is a compromise between the two. Wire-wrapped jewelry can be made by wire which is initially soft, simplifying fabrication, but later hardened by hammering or by work hardening.
Wire shape.
Historically, all wire was round. Advances in technology now allow the manufacture of jewelry wire with different cross-sectional shapes, including circular, square, and half-round. Half round wire is often wrapped around other pieces of wire to connect them. Square wire is used for its appearance: the corners of the square add interest to the finished jewelry. Square wire can be twisted to create interesting visual effects.
Wire size.
For jewelry applications, gauges 12–28 are most common. The size of wire is defined by one of two measuring systems. The American wire gauge (AWG) and the Standard wire gauge (SWG) systems. AWG is usually, but not always the standard for defining the sizes of wire used in the United States, and SWG is usually, but not always the standard wire sizing system used in the United Kingdom. With both the AWG and SWG systems, the larger the number, the smaller the gauge. For example: 2-gauge wire is large (like a pencil) and 30-gauge wire is fine, like thread. In much of the world wire diameter is often expressed in millimeters.
For making jump rings, 10- to 18-gauge wire (2.5 to 1.3 mm) is used. Bracelet and necklace wire components are generally made out of wire that is 16-, 18- or 20-gauge (1.3 to 0.8 mm). Earring wires are usually made out of 18- or 20-gauge wire (1.0 to 0.8 mm). When making wire wrapped jewelry, these components are connected to one another with wire that is generally 20- to 26-gauge (0.8 to 0.4 mm). Frequently the connections between wire components will include a bead on the wire connector in a technique called a wire-wrapped loop. Most glass beads (but not all) are manufactured with a hole that is 1 mm in size. This will accommodate 20-gauge wire, but will probably not accommodate 18-gauge wire. Some glass beads, almost all freshwater pearls and some gemstone beads will have smaller holes and will require the use of wire thinner than 20-gauge. (The largest wire that can go through the beads is generally chosen. Beads and gemstones are much harder than the wire, and will over time saw into the wire; so thicker wire will last longer.)
Thick wire, of 16-gauge and heavier, is harder to bend and requires more expert handling. Hammering wire with a plastic or rawhide mallet will harden wire without changing its shape. Hammering wire with a metal jeweler's hammer (chasing hammer) will harden and flatten wire.
For thickness of body jewelry sizes, gauges of all sizes can be found, notably with stretching.


2021–22 Albanian Cup

2021–22 Albanian Cup  was the seventieth season of Albania's annual cup competition, the Albanian Cup. Vllaznia defended the trophy, winning their eighth title in the competition.
Format.
Ties were played in a two-legged format similar to those of European competitions. If the aggregate score was tied after both games, the match was decided by extra time and a penalty shoot-out, if necessary.
Preliminary round.
In order to reduce the number of participating teams for the First round to 32, a preliminary tournament is played. In contrast to the main tournament, the preliminary tournament is held as a single-leg knock-out competition. The matches were played on 11 September 2021.
Luzi 2008 advanced to the first round.
Labëria advanced to the first round.
First round.
All 30 eligible teams of the 2021–22 Kategoria Superiore and 2021–22 Kategoria e Parë will enter in this round along with 6 teams from Kategoria e Dytë. The matches were played on 22 September 2021, 13 and 14 October 2021.
Teuta advanced to the second round.
Partizani advanced to the second round.
Tirana advanced to the second round.
Skënderbeu advanced to the second round.
Bylis advanced to the second round.
Dinamo Tirana advanced to the second round.
Besëlidhja advanced to the second round.
Korabi advanced to the second round.
Vllaznia advanced to the second round.
Laçi advanced to the second round.
Kukësi advanced to the second round.
Kastrioti advanced to the second round.
Flamurtari advanced to the second round.
Egnatia advanced to the second round.
Tomori advanced to the second round.
Pogradeci advanced to the second round.
Second round.
All the 16 qualified teams from the First Round progressed to the Second Round. The first legs were played on 3 November 2021 and the second legs took place on 17 and 18 November 2021.
Teuta advanced to the quarter finals.
Partizani advanced to the quarter finals.
Dinamo Tirana advanced to the quarter finals.
Skënderbeu advanced to the quarter finals.
Vllaznia advanced to the quarter finals.
Laçi advanced to the quarter finals.
Egnatia advanced to the quarter finals.
Flamurtari advanced to the quarter finals.
Quarter-finals.
All eight qualified teams from the second round progressed to the quarter-finals. The first legs were played on 26 and 27 January 2022 and the second legs took place on 9 and 10 February 2022.
Teuta advanced to the semi finals.
Partizani advanced to the semi finals.
Vllaznia advanced to the semi finals.
Laçi advanced to the semi finals.
Semi-finals.
The first legs were played on 30 and 31 March and the second legs were played on 13 April 2022.
Vllaznia advanced to the final.
Laçi advanced to the final.


Ultrasonic welding

Ultrasonic welding is an industrial process whereby high-frequency ultrasonic acoustic vibrations are locally applied to work pieces being held together under pressure to create a solid-state weld. It is commonly used for plastics and metals, and especially for joining dissimilar materials. In ultrasonic welding, there are no connective bolts, nails, soldering materials, or adhesives necessary to bind the materials together. When used to join metals, the temperature stays well below the melting point of the involved materials, preventing any unwanted properties which may arise from high temperature exposure of the metal.
History.
Practical application of ultrasonic welding for rigid plastics was completed in the 1960s. At this point only hard plastics could be welded. The patent for the ultrasonic method for welding rigid thermoplastic parts was awarded to Robert Soloff and Seymour Linsley in 1965. Soloff, the founder of Sonics & Materials Inc., was a lab manager at Branson Instruments where thin plastic films were welded into bags and tubes using ultrasonic probes. He unintentionally moved the probe close to a plastic tape dispenser and observed that the halves of the dispenser welded together. He realized that the probe did not need to be manually moved around the part, but that the ultrasonic energy could travel through and around rigid plastics and weld an entire joint. He went on to develop the first ultrasonic press. The first application of this new technology was in the toy industry.
The first car made entirely out of plastic was assembled using ultrasonic welding in 1969. The automotive industry has used it regularly since the 1980s, and it is now used for a multitude of applications.
Process.
For joining complex injection molded thermoplastic parts, ultrasonic welding equipment can be easily customized to fit the exact specifications of the parts being welded. The parts are sandwiched between a fixed shaped nest (anvil) and a sonotrode (horn) connected to a transducer, and a ~20 kHz low-amplitude acoustic vibration is emitted. (Note: Common frequencies used in ultrasonic welding of thermoplastics are 15 kHz, 20 kHz, 30 kHz, 35 kHz, 40 kHz and 70 kHz). When welding plastics, the interface of the two parts is specially designed to concentrate the melting process. One of the materials usually has a spiked or rounded energy director which contacts the second plastic part. The ultrasonic energy melts the point contact between the parts, creating a joint. Ultrasonic welding of thermoplastics causes local melting of the plastic due to absorption of vibrational energy along the joint to be welded. In metals, welding occurs due to high-pressure dispersion of surface oxides and local motion of the materials. Although there is heating, it is not enough to melt the base materials.
Ultrasonic welding can be used for both hard and soft plastics, such as semicrystalline plastics, and metals. The understanding of ultrasonic welding has increased with research and testing. The invention of more sophisticated and inexpensive equipment and increased demand for plastic and electronic components has led to a growing knowledge of the fundamental process. However, many aspects of ultrasonic welding still require more study, such as relating weld quality to process parameters. Ultrasonic welding continues to be a rapidly developing field.
Scientists from the Institute of Materials Science and Engineering (WKK) of University of Kaiserslautern, with the support from the German Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft), have succeeded in proving that using ultrasonic welding processes can lead to highly durable bonds between light metals and carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) sheets.
The benefit of ultrasonic welding is that the drying time is much shorter than conventional adhesives or solvents, so the workpieces do not need to remain in a fixture for long time until the joint dries or cures. The welding can easily be automated, making clean and precise joints; the site of the weld is very clean and rarely requires any touch-up work. The low thermal impact on the materials involved enables a greater number of materials to be welded together. The process is a good automated alternative to glue, screws or snap-fit designs. It is typically used with small parts (e.g. cell phones, consumer electronics, disposable medical tools, toys, etc.) but it can be used on parts as large as a small automotive instrument cluster. Ultrasonics can also be used to weld metals, but are typically limited to small welds of thin, malleable metals, e.g. aluminum, copper, nickel. Ultrasonics would not be used in welding the chassis of an automobile or in welding pieces of a bicycle together, due to the power levels required.
Components.
All ultrasonic welding systems are composed of the same basic elements:
Applications.
The applications of ultrasonic welding are extensive and are found in many industries including electrical and computer, automotive and aerospace, medical, and packaging. Whether two items can be ultrasonically welded is determined by their thickness. If they are too thick this process will not join them. This is the main obstacle in the welding of metals. However, wires, microcircuit connections, sheet metal, foils, ribbons and meshes are often joined using ultrasonic welding. Ultrasonic welding is a very popular technique for bonding thermoplastics. It is fast and easily automated with weld times often below one second and there is no ventilation system required to remove heat or exhaust. This type of welding is often used to build assemblies that are too small, too complex, or too delicate for more common welding techniques.
Computer and electrical industries.
In the electrical and computer industry ultrasonic welding is often used to join wired connections and to create connections in small, delicate circuits. Junctions of wire harnesses are often joined using ultrasonic welding. Wire harnesses are large groupings of wires used to distribute electrical signals and power. Electric motors, field coils, transformers and capacitors may also be assembled with ultrasonic welding. It is also often preferred in the assembly of storage media such as flash drives and computer disks because of the high volumes required. Ultrasonic welding of computer disks has been found to have cycle times of less than 300 ms.
One of the areas in which ultrasonic welding is most used and where new research and experimentation is centered is microcircuits. This process is ideal for microcircuits since it creates reliable bonds without introducing impurities or thermal distortion into components. Semiconductor devices, transistors and diodes are often connected by thin aluminum and gold wires using ultrasonic welding. It is also used for bonding wiring and ribbons as well as entire chips to microcircuits. An example of where microcircuits are used is in medical sensors used to monitor the human heart in bypass patients.
One difference between ultrasonic welding and traditional welding is the ability of ultrasonic welding to join dissimilar materials. The assembly of battery components is a good example of where this ability is utilized. When creating battery and fuel cell components, thin gauge copper, nickel and aluminium connections, foil layers and metal meshes are often ultrasonically welded together. Multiple layers of foil or mesh can often be applied in a single weld eliminating steps and costs.
Aerospace and automotive industries.
For automobiles, ultrasonic welding tends to be used to assemble large plastic and electrical components such as instrument panels, door panels, lamps, air ducts, steering wheels, upholstery and engine components. As plastics have continued to replace other materials in the design and manufacture of automobiles, the assembly and joining of plastic components has increasingly become a critical issue. Some of the advantages for ultrasonic welding are low cycle times, automation, low capital costs, and flexibility. Ultrasonic welding does not damage surface finish because the high-frequency vibrations prevent marks from being generated, which is a crucial consideration for many car manufacturers, .
Ultrasonic welding is generally utilized in the aerospace industry when joining thin sheet gauge metals and other lightweight materials. Aluminum is a difficult metal to weld using traditional techniques because of its high thermal conductivity. However, it is one of the easier materials to weld using ultrasonic welding because it is a softer metal and thus a solid-state weld is simple to achieve. Since aluminum is so widely used in the aerospace industry, it follows that ultrasonic welding is an important manufacturing process. With the advent of new composite materials, ultrasonic welding is becoming even more prevalent. It has been used in the bonding of the popular composite material carbon fiber. Numerous studies have been done to find the optimum parameters that will produce quality welds for this material.
Medical industry.
In the medical industry ultrasonic welding is often used because it does not introduce contaminants or degradation into the weld and the machines can be specialized for use in clean rooms. The process can also be highly automated, provides strict control over dimensional tolerances and does not interfere with the biocompatibility of parts. Therefore, it increases part quality and decreases production costs. Items such as arterial filters, anesthesia filters, blood filters, IV catheters, dialysis tubes, pipettes, cardiometry reservoirs, blood/gas filters, face masks and IV spike/filters can all be made using ultrasonic welding. Another important application in the medical industry for ultrasonic welding is textiles. Items like hospital gowns, sterile garments, masks, transdermal patches and textiles for clean rooms can be sealed and sewn using ultrasonic welding. This prevents contamination and dust production and reduces the risk of infection.
Packaging industry.
Ultrasonic welding is often used in packaging applications. Many common items are either created or packaged using ultrasonic welding. Sealing containers, tubes and blister packs are common applications.
Ultrasonic welding is also applied in the packaging of dangerous materials, such as explosives, fireworks and other reactive chemicals. These items tend to require hermetic sealing, but cannot be subjected to high temperatures. One example is a butane lighter. This container weld must be able to withstand high pressure and stress and must be airtight to contain the butane. Another example is the packaging of ammunition and propellants. These packages must be able to withstand high pressure and stress to protect the consumer from the contents.
The food industry finds ultrasonic welding preferable to traditional joining techniques, because it is fast, sanitary and can produce hermetic seals. Milk and juice containers are examples of products often sealed using ultrasonic welding. The paper parts to be sealed are coated with plastic, generally polypropylene or polyethylene, and then welded together to create an airtight seal. The main obstacle to overcome in this process is the setting of the parameters. For example, if over-welding occurs, then the concentration of plastic in the weld zone may be too low and cause the seal to break. If it is under-welded, the seal is incomplete. Variations in the thicknesses of materials can cause variations in weld quality. Some other food items sealed using ultrasonic welding include candy bar wrappers, frozen food packages and beverage containers.
Experimental.
"Sonic agglomeration", a combination of ultrasonic welding and molding, is used to produce compact food ration bars for the US Army's Close Combat Assault Ration project without the use of binders. Dried food is pressed into a mold and welded for an hour, during which food particles become stuck together.
Safety.
Hazards of ultrasonic welding include exposure to high temperatures and voltages. This equipment should be operated using the safety guidelines provided by the manufacturer to avoid injury. For instance, operators must never place hands or arms near the welding tip when the machine is activated. Also, operators should be provided with hearing protection and safety glasses. Operators should be informed of government agency regulations for the ultrasonic welding equipment and these regulations should be enforced.
Ultrasonic welding machines require routine maintenance and inspection. Panel doors, housing covers and protective guards may need to be removed for maintenance. This should be done when the power to the equipment is off and only by the trained professional servicing the machine.
Sub-harmonic vibrations, which can create annoying audible noise, may be caused in larger parts near the machine due to the ultrasonic welding frequency. This noise can be damped by clamping these large parts at one or more locations. Also, high-powered welders with frequencies of 15 kHz and 20 kHz typically emit a potentially damaging high-pitched squeal in the range of human hearing. Shielding this radiating sound can be done using an acoustic enclosure.


People Powered Vehicle

The People Powered Vehicle, or PPV, was a two-person pedal-powered car introduced in the United States during the oil crisis of the early 1970s. Manufactured by EVI of Sterling Heights, Michigan, it sold for less than $400. Although it offered luggage space and was marketed as a fun and practical vehicle, it offered limited weather protection and was not fast enough to substitute for a car.
The PPV may be considered a forerunner of the modern velomobile. This tricycle was manufactured with a three-speed, floor shift, open type transmission with a single-wheel drive. Either the driver or the passenger could pedal independently or as a team. Reverse was accomplished by reaching outside and turning one of the rear wheels by hand. At one time, a rear-hinged, surrey top was available. Most were manufactured with a dark blue bottom and a white hood. Red or yellow bottoms with white tops were also offered. Sometimes bicycle accessories were added, e.g. squeeze bulb horn and a rear view mirror.
The PPV was designed for two adult riders, and with frame and body the total weight could approach three times that of a conventional single-rider bicycle. However, the PPV was fitted with just one brake, of a type intended to be just one of two brakes on a conventional single-rider bicycle (an Atom drum brake built in to the front wheel). Thus, even at relaxed speeds on level ground, the PPV brakes were dangerously inadequate.
An upgraded version of this vehicle is currently (2011) being offered by the International Surrey Company Ltd. under the trade name Impello.


CNC wood router

A CNC wood router is a CNC router tool that creates objects from wood. CNC stands for "computer numerical control". The CNC works on the Cartesian coordinate system (X, Y, Z) for 3D motion control. Parts of a project can be designed in the computer with a CAD/CAM program, and then cut automatically using a router or other cutters to produce a finished part.
The CNC router is ideal for hobbies, engineering prototyping, product development, art, and production work.
Operation.
A CNC wood router uses CNC (computer numerical control) and is similar to a metal CNC mill with the following differences:
A wood router is controlled in the same way as a metal mill, but there are CAM and CAD applications such as Artcam, Mastercam, Bobcad, and AlphaCam, which are specifically designed for use with wood routers.
Wood routers are frequently used to machine other soft materials such as plastics.
Typical three-axis CNC wood routers are generally much bigger than their metal shop counterparts. 5' x 5', 4' x 8', and 5' x 10' are typical bed sizes for wood routers. They can be built to accommodate very large sizes up to, but not limited to 12' x 100'. The table can move, allowing for true three axis (xyz) motion, or the gantry can move, which requires the third axis to be controlled by two slaved servo motors.
Advantages.
The advantages of CNC wood router (compared to general machine) as follows,
Components.
Separate heads.
Some wood routers have multiple separate heads that can come down simultaneously or not. Some routers have multiple heads that can run complete separate programs on separate tables all while being controlled by the same interface.
Dust collection / vacuum collector.
The wood router typically has 6"-10" air ducts to suck up the wood chips and dust created. They can be piped to a stand-alone or full shop dust collection system.
Some wood routers are specialized for cabinetry and have many drills that can be programmed to come down separately or together. The drills are generally spaced 32 mm apart on centres - a spacing system called 32 mm System. This is for the proper spacing of shelving for cabinets. Drilling can be vertical or horizontal (in the Y or X axis from either side/end of the workpiece) which allows a panel to be drilled on all four edges as well as the top surface. Many of these machines with large drilling arrays are derived from CNC point-to-point borers.
Securing the workpiece.
Suction systems.
The wood router typically holds wood with suction through the table or pods that raise the work above the table. Pods may be used for components which require edge profiling (or undercutting), are manufactured from solid wood or where greater flexibility in production is required. This type of bed requires less extraction with greater absolute vacuum.
A second type hold down uses a spoil board. This allows vacuum suction through a low density table and allows the placement of parts anywhere on the table. These types of tables are typically used for nest-based manufacturing (NBM) where multiple components are routed from a single sheet. This type of manufacturing precludes edge drilling or undercut edge work on components.
Vacuum pumps are required with both types of tables where volume and "strength" are determined based on the types of materials being cut.
Maintenance.
Proper operation and maintenance in right way can greatly extend machine's life and reduce the incidence of failures.


Pinout

In electronics, a pinout (sometimes written "pin-out") is a cross-reference between the contacts, or "pins", of an electrical connector or electronic component, and their functions. "Pinout" now supersedes the term "basing diagram" which was the standard terminology used by the manufacturers of vacuum tubes and the RMA. The RMA started its standardization in 1934, collecting and correlating tube data for registration at what was to become the EIA. The EIA (Electronic Industries Alliance) now has many sectors reporting to it and sets what is known as EIA standards where all registered pinouts and registered jacks can be found.
Purpose.
The functions of contacts in electrical connectors, be they power- or signaling-related, must be specified for connectors to be interchangeable. Each connector contact must mate with the contact on the other connector with the same function. If contacts of disparate functions are allowed to make contact, the connection may fail, and damage may result. Therefore, pinouts are a vital reference when building and testing connectors, cables, and adapters.
Suppose one has specified wires within a cable (for instance, the colored Ethernet cable wires in ANSI/TIA-568 T568A). In that case, the order in which different color wires are attached to pins of an electrical connector defines the wiring scheme. In any multi-pin connector, there are multiple ways to map wires to pins, so different configurations may be created that superficially look identical but function differently. Pinouts define these configurations. Many connectors have multiple standard pinouts in use for different manufacturers or applications.
Terminology.
While one usage of the word "pin" is to refer to electrical contacts of, specifically, the male gender, its usage in "pinout" does not imply gender: the contact-to-function cross-reference for a connector that has only female socket contacts is still called a "pinout".
Representation.
The pinout can typically be shown as a table or diagram. However, it is necessary to clarify how to view the diagram, stating if it shows the backside of the connector (where wires are attached) or the "mating face" of the connector. Published pinouts, which are particularly important when different manufacturers want to interconnect their products using open standards, are typically provided by the connector or equipment manufacturer. However, some pinouts are provided by 3rd parties since the manufacturer does not well document some connectors.
While repairing electronic devices, an electronics technician uses electronic test equipment to "pin out" each component on a PCB. The technician probes each pin of the component in turn, comparing the expected signal on each pin to the actual signal on that pin.
Example pinouts.
USB pinout.
Viewed from the front (outside) of Female Type A USB receptacle: