Soldering station

A soldering station is a multipurpose power soldering device designed for electronic components soldering. This type of equipment is mostly used in electronics and electrical engineering. Soldering station consists of one or more soldering tools connected to the main unit, which includes the controls (temperature adjustment), means of indication, and may be equipped with an electric transformer. Soldering stations may include some accessories – holders and stands, soldering tip cleaners, etc.
Soldering stations are widely used in electronics repair workshops, electronic laboratories, in industry. Sometimes simple soldering stations are used for household applications and for hobbies.
Soldering Station Components.
The main soldering station elements which determine its compatibilities are soldering tools. Different tools are used for different applications and soldering stations may be equipped with more than one of them at a time. The main tools for soldering are:
Soldering iron is the most common working tool of a soldering station. Some stations may use simultaneously several soldering irons to make the process quicker and more convenient, as there is no need to change the soldering tips or readjust the station or the soldering temperature. Some stations may use some specialized soldering irons, such as ultrasonic soldering irons or induction soldering irons.
Soldering Irons.
Soldering iron as a part of soldering station has a number of advantages.
Increased user comfort.
However, most soldering stations can only be used on your desktop. Also, it costs more than just a separate soldering iron.
Desoldering Tools.
Desoldering is a very important stage in PCB repair. It is often needed to disassemble some components just to make sure they work or check their condition. That is why it is important to detach the elements without any possible damage to them.
The means that may be integrated in soldering stations are:
SMD hot tweezers heat up and may not only melt the solder alloy but grab the needed component as well. They may have different types of tips for different applications.
Desoldering iron is usually made in a shape of a gun. It is capable of taking in the air (vacuum pickup) and solder alloy.
Non-contact heating tools include hot air and infrared heaters. They are used for SMT disassembling.
Hot Air Guns.
They use a hot air stream for heating up the components. Hot air is focused on the certain area using special hot air nozzles. Usually soldering hot air guns are capable of providing temperatures from 100 to 480 °C.
Infrared Heaters.
Soldering stations with infrared (IR) heaters are a separate type of soldering stations and differ a lot. Such stations provide high-precision soldering and the process is more like that in electronics industry. The temperature profile may be set based on the components being soldered. This minimizes the risk of components deformation or damage due to the temperature difference.
Soldering Station Classification.
Contact Soldering Stations.
This type requires a soldering iron equipped with an electronic temperature adjustment unit. The main technical parameter of the contact soldering station is the power. The power determines the operation convenience and soldering effectiveness. The modern stations have power from 10 to 200 W and more. The most common are the models with 50-80 W power. The higher is the power the more amount of heat you may transmit for the same time. It allows reducing the temperature on the heating element to the minimal possible value for melting the solder alloy. And vice versa – the lower is the power the higher temperature you need to melt the solder. High temperature means a risk of a component overheating. Especially it concerns semiconductor components or electrolytic conductors.
According to the solder alloy used these soldering stations may be divided into two subtypes:
Lead-free soldering stations.
This type of stations is characterized by heating element with a power up to 160 W. Lead-free solder alloys need higher temperatures to be melted, so the station needs more power. If the station is equipped with a temperature regulator, it may be used for operation with a traditional lead-containing solder.
Digital and analogue soldering stations.
The stations may be divided into digital and analogue according to the control unit operation method.
Analogue stations have a temperature stabilization that operates as follows:
The operation is ensured by the magnetoelectric relay. It is controlled by electronics and a temperature sensor. Analogue control system has an advantage – it is the cost. The disadvantage is a low operation precision that results in soldering tip overheating. This leads to problems like: electronic components overheating, often tip change.
Digital soldering station is operating using a PID regulator that is controlled by a microprocessor. Digital control method is more precise.
Induction soldering stations.
Induction soldering stations are characterized by high power and excellent thermal stability. They use the technology of heating and thermal stabilization based on Curie temperature.
American manufacturer Metcal is a leader in this market segment, however there are other brands.
Non-contact soldering stations.
Hot air soldering stations.
Stations with hot air guns are used in cases when just a soldering iron is not enough. Disassembling microchips requires a hot air gun. SMD components soldering with hot air is much more convenient. Hot air guns usually come with special nozzles for hot air stream regulation.
Popular manufacturers: Hakko, Quick, Accta, Goot, etc.
Rework systems.
For professional laptop, game console and other electronics repair, special repair systems are used. These repair systems usually combine several components: hot air gun, soldering iron, desoldering gun, etc. This equipment allows effective desoldering and soldering large BGAs. These operations require special approach and certain amount of process automation.
The most popular manufacturers: Ersa, Martin, Jovy Systems, Quick, Scotle.


Aeroxchange

Aeroxchange is a neutral purchasing portal for the aviation industry based in Irving, Texas. Founded in July 2000 and commenced operations a couple of months later on October 1, 2000. It is the only electronic business network that supports all MRO business processes within the aviation industry for buyer and sellers. Aeroxchange provides a complete lifecycle of electronic communication from order creation to final invoice. The Aeroxchange service accelerates repair, replenishment, sourcing, inventory pooling and other critical operations in the aviation supply chain. Aeroxchange automates the exchange of documents and information for commercial transactions. Its electronic platform dramatically reduces manual activity for transaction processed by fax, telephone and email, and increases the accuracy and timeliness of information and document exchange.
Founded by 13 airlines, Aeroxchange has been joined by 20 other airlines and several suppliers. The founders include Air Canada, Air New Zealand, All Nippon Airways, America West Airlines, Austrian Airlines Group, Cathay Pacific Airways, FedEx Express, Japan Airlines, KLM, Lufthansa, Northwest Airlines, Scandinavian Airlines System and Singapore Airlines.
The service focuses on the repair, replenishment, sourcing, consignment/VMI, inventory pooling and other critical operations in the aviation supply chain. It automates the exchange of documents and information for commercial transactions. Aeroxchange claims, “Our electronic platform dramatically reduces manual activity for transaction processed by fax, telephone and email, and increases the accuracy and timeliness of information and document exchange.”


Almen strip

An Almen strip is a thin strip of SAE 1070 steel used to quantify the intensity of a shot peening process.
Developed and patented by John O. Almen, the strip was originally supported by 2 knife edges; later improvements see it being supported on 4 small balls. The strip is placed in the chamber in place of the item to be shot peened, usually near to an area of the item where the result is deemed critical, sometimes located by a special fixture. Compressive stress introduced by the peening operation causes the strip to deform into an arch, which is measured using a gauge.
Almen strips are classified into 3 types: 'A', 'N', and 'C'. They differ in their thickness, while they have the same width and length.
Although similar, the specification for Almen strip dimensions of the same type slightly vary from one company/organization to another. The Almen strips are made from plain carbon steel SAE 1070 and have hardness about 45 HRC.
This test is widely used and the requirements for check are specified in standards.
The most rigid requirements are applicable for Almen strips and checking devices (Almen gauges) used in the aerospace industry. The generic requirements can be found in SAE specifications.
Another operation to gauge the intensity of a shot peening process is the use of an Almen round, developed by R. Bosshard.


Electroless copper plating

Electroless copper plating is a chemical process that deposits an even layer of copper on the surface of a solid substrate, like metal or plastic. The process involves dipping the substrate in a water solution containing copper salts and a reducing agent such as formaldehyde.
Unlike electroplating, electroless plating processes in general do not require passing an electric current through the bath and the substrate; the reduction of the metal cations in solution to metallic is achieved by purely chemical means, through an autocatalytic reaction. Thus electroless plating creates an even layer of metal regardless of the geometry of the surface – in contrast to electroplating which suffers from uneven current density due to the effect of substrate shape on the electric field at its surface. Moreover, electroless plating can be applied to non-conductive surfaces.
Process.
In a typical formulation of the process, the surfaces to be coated are primed with a palladium catalyst and then immersed in a bath containing copper ions , which are reduced by formaldehyde through the overall reactions
Applications.
Electroless copper plating is used in the manufacture of printed circuit boards (PCBs), in particular for the conductive layer on the walls of through holes and vias.


Silver mica capacitor

Silver mica capacitors are high precision, stable and reliable capacitors. They are available in small values, and are mostly used at high frequencies and in cases where low losses (high Q) and low capacitor change over time is desired.
History.
Mica has been used as a capacitor dielectric since the mid-19th century. William Dubilier invented a small mica capacitor in 1909 which was used in decoupling applications. They were put into large scale commercial production to meet military requirements in World War I. Mica is less prone to crack under mechanical shock than glass, a useful property for equipment subject to shellfire. Like glass, mica has a substantially higher permittivity than paper so capacitors can be made smaller. In 1920 Dubilier developed a capacitor consisting of a flaked sheet of mica coated on both sides with silver. He formed the Dubilier Condenser Company to manufacture them. Ceramic capacitors were also used in the 1920s due to a shortage of mica, but by the 1950s silver mica had become the capacitor of choice for small-value RF applications. This remained the case until the latter part of the 20th century when advances in ceramic capacitors led to the replacement of mica with ceramic in most applications.
Types.
There are 2 distinct types of mica capacitor.
Clamped mica capacitors.
Now obsolete, these were in use in the early 20th century. They consisted of sheets of mica and copper foil sandwiched together and clamped. These had even worse tolerance and stability than other clamped capacitors since the mica surface is not perfectly flat and smooth. References to mica capacitors from the 1920s often refer to this type.
Silver mica capacitors.
Commonly known as silver mica capacitors, these rendered clamped mica capacitors obsolete. Instead of being clamped with foils these are assembled from sheets of mica coated on both sides with deposited metal. The assembly is dipped in epoxy. The advantages are:
They are sometimes informally referred to as mica capacitors. Any modern reference to mica capacitors can be assumed to mean these, unless pre-World War II equipment is being discussed. Even though these capacitors are extremely useful, silver mica capacitors are less commonly used today due to bulkiness and high cost. There is a high level of compositional variation in the raw material leading to higher costs in relation to inspection and sorting. They are getting closer to obsolescence as advances are made in ceramic and porcelain materials.
Silver mica capacitors are still indispensable in some custom applications. Circuit designers still turn to mica capacitors for high-power applications such as RF transmitters and electric instruments and amplifiers because cheaper ceramic and porcelain capacitors can't withstand heat as well. Silver mica remains widely used in high-voltage applications, due to mica’s high breakdown voltage. Silver Mica capacitors are used at 100 V to 10 kV, ranging from a few pF up to a few nF, and the average temperature coefficient is around 50 ppm/°C.


New manufacturing economy

The new manufacturing economy (NME) describes the role of advanced manufacturing in the rise of the New Economy. The term describes manufacturing enabled by digital technologies, advanced systems and processes and a highly trained and knowledgeable workforce. The new manufacturing economy integrates networks, 3D printers and other proficiencies into business strategies to further develop manufacturing practices.
Thomas Friedman references Lawrence F. Katz that hubs of "universities, high-tech manufacturers, software/service providers and highly nimble start-ups" are a needed economic development strategy. This is very similar to NME thoughts even though that exact term is not used.
The Pillars of the new manufacturing economy.
Technology.
Focus on geographic expansion, information technology and internet commerce are on the rise for industrial manufacturing companies according to the PricewaterhouseCoopers Q4 2010 Manufacturing Barometer. Such conditions compel companies to incorporate new technologies into business plans and to concentrate on the application of open-source product development in the creation of physical goods as a form of competitive advantage.
New technologies influence various industries to emphasize innovation as a business tool . Advanced manufacturing is feasible due to continuous improvement investments and modernization of the workforce, technologies and supply chains in order to increase global competitiveness, environmental sustainability and product customization to meet consumer expectations.
Workforce.
Incorporating modern CNC equipment in new manufacturing processes requires better trained employees with more exacting skills than were previously required in heavy industry. Past manufacturing job consisted largely of physical labor and worker assembly line requirements, but in response to technological evolution are becoming tech-savvy and information intense with focus on creativity and resourcefulness.
Strategy.
The new manufacturing economy is centered around "niche" businesses who satisfy the needs of small consumer markets by offering what customers want, when they want it. The primary foundation of this strategy is selling less of more. Adopting the efficiencies of digital and Web-based technologies into current business strategies is an emerging trend in manufacturing practices.
Industries.
Advanced technology in the manufacturing marketplace has led to growth in areas such as software development and biotechnology and to emphasis on numerous industries such as:


Nesting (process)

In manufacturing industry, nesting refers to the process of laying out cutting patterns to minimize the raw material waste. Examples include manufacturing parts from flat raw material such as sheet metal, glass sheets, cloth rolls, cutting parts from steel bars, etc.
Such process can also be applied to additive manufacturing, such as 3D printing. Here the advantages sought can include minimizing tool movement that is not producing product, or maximizing how many pieces can be fabricated in one build session. One difference from nesting of cut pieces is that 3D parts often have a cross section that changes with height, which can cause interference between adjacent parts as they are built up.
Types.
The nesting process differs for different types of parts:
Process.
To minimize the amount of scrap raw material produced during cutting, companies use nesting software. It automates the calculation of ideal distribution of the cutting patterns to avoid waste. The process involves the analyses the parts (shapes) to be produced at a particular time. Using algorithms, it then determines how to lay these parts out in such a way as to produce the required quantities of parts, while minimizing the amount of raw material (or space) wasted.
Off-the-shelf nesting software packages address the optimization needs. While some cater only to rectangular nesting, others offer profile or shape nesting where the parts required can be any odd shape. These irregular parts can be created using popular computer-aided design (CAD) tools. Here, the nesting software may be utilized as the connection between CAD drawings and the cut output.
Most of the profile nesting software can read IGES or DXF profile files automatically, a few of them work with built-in converters. An important consideration in shape nesting is to verify that the software in question actually performs true profile nesting and not just block nesting (rectangular). In block nesting an imaginary rectangle is drawn around the shape and then the rectangles are laid side-by side which actually is not profile nesting. There remains scope for waste reduction.
Nesting software must take into account the limitations and features of the material and machining technology in use, such as:
Nesting software may also have to take into account material characteristics, such as:
Many machine manufacturers offer their own custom nesting software designed to offer ease of use and take full advantage of the features of their specific machines.
If a fabricator operates machines from more than one vendor, they may prefer to use an off-the-shelf nesting software package from a third-party vendor. They then have the potential to run jobs on any available machine, and their staff should not have to learn several different software packages.
See also.
Material may be cut using off-line blanking dies, lasers, plasma, punches, shear blades, ultrasonic knives and water jet cutters.


Slapt-get

slapt-get is an APT-like package management system for Slackware. Slapt-get tries to emulate the features of Debian's (codice_1) as closely as possible.
Released under the terms of the GNU General Public License, slapt-get is free software.
Features.
slapt-get builds functionality on top of the native Slackware package tools (installpkg, upgradepkg and removepkg) enabling package query, remote fetching, system updates, integrated changelog information, and many optional advanced features such as dependency resolution, package conflicts, suggestions, checksum and public key verification, and transfer resumption.
slapt-get uses the libcurl cURL library for transport. libcurl provides support for ftp, ftps, http, https, file:// and other resource types along with transfer resume for incomplete downloads. slapt-get also uses the GNU Privacy Guard library to validate signatures.
slapt-get provides a simple configuration file format that includes an exclusion mechanism for use with the system upgrade option as well as declarations for all desired package sources. Each package source can optionally be tagged with a specific priority in order to override the package version comparison and honor upstream software downgrades as might be the case when Slackware reverts to a previous version of a package.
Dependencies.
slapt-get does not provide dependency resolution for packages included within the Slackware distribution. It does, however, provide a framework for dependency resolution in Slackware compatible packages similar in fashion to the hand-tuned method APT utilizes. Several package sources and Slackware based distributions take advantage of this functionality. Hard, soft, and conditional dependencies along with package conflicts and complementary package suggestions can be expressed using the slapt-get framework.
Adding dependency information requires no modification to the packages themselves. Rather, the package listing file, PACKAGES.TXT, is used to specify these relationships. This file is provided by Patrick Volkerding and is similar to the Packages.gz file in use by Debian. Several scripts are available to generate the PACKAGES.TXT file from a group of packages. The file format used by Patrick Volkerding is extended by adding a few extra lines per package. slapt-get then parses this file during source downloads. Typically, third party packages store the dependency information within the package itself for later extraction into the PACKAGES.TXT. The inclusion of this information within the Slackware package format does not inhibit the ability for Slackware pkgtools to install these packages. This information is silently ignored and discarded after the package is installed.
Package sources.
slapt-get works with official Slackware mirrors and third party package repositories such as http://www.slacky.eu/. slapt-get looks for support files, PACKAGES.TXT and CHECKSUMS.md5, in the repository for package information. These files provide package names, versions, sizes (both compressed and uncompressed), checksums, as well as a package description. These files can be extended, as discussed in the previous section, to add dependency listings, conflict information, and package suggestions. These files can also proxy for other remote sources by specifying a MIRROR declaration for each package.
GSlapt.
GSlapt is a GTK+ frontend to libslapt, the slapt-get library which provides advanced package management for Slackware and its derivatives. Inspired by the functionality present in Synaptic, Gslapt aims to bring the ease of use enjoyed by Debian and its derivatives to the Slackware world.
GSlapt was written primarily to supersede the vlapt (x)dialog slapt-get frontend used by VectorLinux.
Distributions.
Besides Slackware, slapt-get and GSlapt are included by several other distributions, including:


Diamond turning

Diamond turning is turning using a cutting tool with a diamond tip. It is a process of mechanical machining of precision elements using lathes or derivative machine tools (e.g., turn-mills, rotary transfers) equipped with natural or synthetic diamond-tipped tool bits. The term single-point diamond turning (SPDT) is sometimes applied, although as with other lathe work, the "single-point" label is sometimes only nominal (radiused tool noses and contoured form tools being options). The process of diamond turning is widely used to manufacture high-quality aspheric optical elements from crystals, metals, acrylic, and other materials. Plastic optics are frequently molded using diamond turned mold inserts. Optical elements produced by the means of diamond turning are used in optical assemblies in telescopes, video projectors, missile guidance systems, lasers, scientific research instruments, and numerous other systems and devices. Most SPDT today is done with computer numerical control (CNC) machine tools. Diamonds also serve in other machining processes, such as milling, grinding, and honing. Diamond turned surfaces have a high specular brightness and require no additional polishing or buffing, unlike other conventionally machined surfaces.
Process.
Diamond turning is a multi-stage process. Initial stages of machining are carried out using a series of CNC lathes of increasing accuracy. A diamond-tipped lathe tool is used in the final stages of the manufacturing process to achieve sub-nanometer level surface finishes and sub-micrometer form accuracies. The surface finish quality is measured as the peak-to-valley distance of the grooves left by the lathe. The form accuracy is measured as a mean deviation from the ideal target form. Quality of surface finish and form accuracy is monitored throughout the manufacturing process using such equipment as contact and laser profilometers, laser interferometers, optical and electron microscopes. Diamond turning is most often used for making infrared optics, because at longer wavelengths optical performance is less sensitive to surface finish quality, and because many of the materials used are difficult to polish with traditional methods.
Temperature control is crucial, because the surface must be accurate on distance scales shorter than the wavelength of light. Temperature changes of a few degrees during machining can alter the form of the surface enough to have an effect. The main spindle may be cooled with a liquid coolant to prevent temperature deviations.
The diamonds that are used in the process are strong in the downhill regime but tool wear is also highly dependent on crystal anisotropy and work material.
The machine tool.
For best possible quality natural diamonds are used as single-point cutting elements during the final stages of the machining process. A CNC SPDT lathe rests atop a high-quality granite base with micrometer surface finish quality. The granite base is placed on air suspension on a solid foundation, keeping its working surface strictly horizontal. The machine tool components are placed on top of the granite base and can be moved with high degree of accuracy using a high-pressure air cushion or hydraulic suspension. The machined element is attached to an air chuck using negative air pressure and is usually centered manually using a micrometer. The chuck itself is separated from the electric motor that spins it by another air suspension.
The cutting tool is moved with sub-micron precision by a combination of electric motors and piezoelectric actuators. As with other CNC machines, the motion of the tool is controlled by a list of coordinates generated by a computer. Typically, the part to be created is first described using a computer aided design (CAD) model, then converted to G-code using a computer aided manufacturing (CAM) program, and the G-code is then executed by the machine control computer to move the cutting tool. The final surface is achieved with a series of cutting passes to maintain a ductile cutting regime.
Alternative methods of diamond machining in practice also include diamond fly cutting and diamond milling. Diamond fly cutting can be used to generate diffraction gratings and other linear patterns with appropriately contoured diamond shapes. Diamond milling can be used to generate aspheric lens arrays by annulus cutting methods with a spherical diamond tool.
Materials.
Diamond turning is specifically useful when cutting materials that are viable as infrared optical components and certain non-linear optical components such as potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KDP). KDP is a perfect material in application for diamond turning, because the material is very desirable for its optical modulating properties, yet it is impossible to make optics from this material using conventional methods. KDP is water-soluble, so conventional grinding and polishing techniques are not effective in producing optics. Diamond turning works well to produce optics from KDP.
Generally, diamond turning is restricted to certain materials. Materials that are readily machinable include:
The most often requested materials that are not readily machinable are:
Ferrous materials are not readily machinable because the carbon in the diamond tool chemically reacts with the substrate, leading to tool damage and dulling after short cut lengths. Several techniques have been investigated to prevent this reaction, but few have been successful for long diamond machining processes at mass production scales.
Tool life improvement has been under consideration in diamond turning as the tool is expensive. Hybrid processes such as laser-assisted machining have emerged in this industry recently. The laser softens hard and difficult-to-machine materials such as ceramics and semiconductors, making them easier to cut.
Quality control.
Despite all the automation involved in the diamond turning process, the human operator still plays the main role in achieving the final result. Quality control is a major part of the diamond turning process and is required after each stage of machining, sometimes after each pass of the cutting tool. If it is not detected immediately, even a minute error during any of the cutting stages results in a defective part. The extremely high requirements for quality of diamond-turned optics leave virtually no room for error.
The SPDT manufacturing process produces a relatively high percentage of defective parts, which must be discarded. As a result, the manufacturing costs are high compared to conventional polishing methods. Even with the relatively high volume of optical components manufactured using the SPDT process, this process cannot be classified as mass production, especially when compared with production of polished optics. Each diamond-turned optical element is manufactured on an individual basis with extensive manual labor.


Electrochemical machining

Electrochemical machining (ECM) is a method of removing metal by an electrochemical process. It is normally used for mass production and is used for working extremely hard materials or materials that are difficult to machine using conventional methods. Its use is limited to electrically conductive materials. ECM can cut small or odd-shaped angles, intricate contours or cavities in hard and exotic metals, such as titanium aluminides, Inconel, Waspaloy, and high nickel, cobalt, and rhenium alloys. Both external and internal geometries can be machined.
ECM is often characterized as "reverse electroplating", in that it removes material instead of adding it. It is similar in concept to electrical discharge machining (EDM) in that a high current is passed between an electrode and the part, through an electrolytic material removal process having a negatively charged electrode (cathode), a conductive fluid (electrolyte), and a conductive workpiece (anode); however, in ECM there is no tool wear. The ECM cutting tool is guided along the desired path close to the work but without touching the piece. Unlike EDM, however, no sparks are created. High metal removal rates are possible with ECM, with no thermal or mechanical stresses being transferred to the part, and mirror surface finishes can be achieved.
In the ECM process, a cathode (tool) is advanced into an anode (workpiece). The pressurized electrolyte is injected at a set temperature to the area being cut. The feed rate is the same as the rate of "liquefication" of the material. The gap between the tool and the workpiece varies within 80–800 micrometers (0.003–0.030 in.) As electrons cross the gap, material from the workpiece is dissolved, as the tool forms the desired shape in the workpiece. The electrolytic fluid carries away the metal hydroxide formed in the process.
Electrochemical machining, as a technological method, originated from the process of electrolytic polishing offered already in 1911 by a Russian chemist E.Shpitalsky.
As far back as 1929, an experimental ECM process was developed by W.Gussef, although it was 1959 before a commercial process was established by the Anocut Engineering Company. B.R. and J.I. Lazarenko are also credited with proposing the use of electrolysis for metal removal.
Much research was done in the 1960s and 1970s, particularly in the gas turbine industry. The rise of EDM in the same period slowed ECM research in the west, although work continued behind the Iron Curtain. The original problems of poor dimensional accuracy and environmentally polluting waste have largely been overcome, although the process remains a niche technique.
The ECM process is most widely used to produce complicated shapes such as turbine blades with good surface finish in difficult to machine materials. It is also widely and effectively used as a deburring process.
In deburring, ECM removes metal projections left from the machining process, and so dulls sharp edges. This process is fast and often more convenient than the conventional methods of deburring by hand or nontraditional machining processes.
Currents involved.
The needed current is proportional to the desired rate of material removal, and the removal rate in mm/minute is proportional to the amps per square mm.
Typical currents range from 0.1 amp per square mm to 5 amps per square mm. Thus, for a small plunge cut of a 1 by 1 mm tool with a slow cut, only 0.1 amps would be needed.
However, for a higher feed rate over a larger area, more current would be used, just like any machining process—removing more material faster takes more power.
Thus, if a current density of 4 amps per square millimeter was desired over a 100×100 mm area, it would take 40,000 amps (and much coolant/electrolyte).
Setup and equipment.
ECM machines come in both vertical and horizontal types. Depending on the work requirements, these machines are built in many different sizes as well. The vertical machine consists of a base, column, table, and spindle head. The spindle head has a servo-mechanism that automatically advances the tool and controls the gap between the cathode (tool) and the workpiece.
CNC machines of up to six axes are available.
Copper is often used as the electrode material. Brass, graphite, and copper-tungsten are also often used because they are easily machined, they are conductive materials, and they will not corrode.
Applications.
Some of the very basic applications of ECM include:


List of Toyota transmissions

Toyota Motor Corporation uses many different transmissions in their products. They can be divided into different families.
Automatic.
A-series.
The A-series are 2 to 8-speed automatic transmissions for front wheel drive, all wheel drive, or rear wheel drive use built by Aisin-Warner.
Models:
U-series.
The U-series is an automatic transmission for front wheel drive applications.
Models:
CVT.
K-series.
The K-series are CVT transmissions for front wheel drive.
Models:
Manual.
C-series.
The C-series is a manual transmission for transverse engine applications, front engine front wheel drive and mid-engine rear wheel drive applications, built by Aisin AI, as well in the Elise and Exige.
Models
E-series.
similar
The E-series transmission for front, mid-engine and all wheel drive applications.
Models:
EB-series.
The EB-series is a compact 6-speed transmission for front wheel drive applications.
Models:
EC-series.
The EC-series is a higher-strength compact 6-speed transmission for front and mid-engine applications.
Models:
G-series.
The G-series is a 4- and 5-speed manual transmission for rear wheel drive and all wheel drive applications, built by Aisin AI and Toyota Autoparts Philippines.
Models:
H-series.
The H-series is a 4- and 5-speed manual transmission for Land Cruisers and Coaster from 1967–present (?) .
Models:
J-series.
The J-series is a 6-speed manual transmission for rear-wheel drive applications, built by Aisin Seiki (Type AZ6). This transmission was used in the Altezza AS200 and RS200. The same Aisin AZ6 transmission is also found in other models such as the Mazda Miata/MX-5/Roadster, Nissan Silvia, Mazda RX-8, Lexus IS and Toyota 86/Scion FR-S/Subaru BRZ.
Models:
There was also a J30 3 speed manual transmission used in 1969-1975 Land Cruisers.
K-series.
The K-series is a 4- and 5-speed manual transmission for small cars.
Models:
L-series.
The L-series are 4- and 5-speed manual transmissions for rear wheel drive cars and trucks. Not to be confused with the L-series (HSD) hybrid transmissions.
Models:
P-series.
The P-series is a 5-speed manual transmission for rear wheel drive cars with Porsche-type synchronizers. Not to be confused with the P-series (HSD) hybrid transmissions.
Models:
R-series.
The R-series is a 5-speed manual transmission for RWD and 4WD vehicles built by Aisin AI, Toyota Autoparts Philippines and Toyota Kirloskar Auto Parts.
Models:
RA-series.
The RA-series is a 6-speed manual transmission for longitudinally-mounted engines in RWD and 4WD vehicles built by Aisin AI.
Models:
RC-series.
The RC-series is a 6-speed manual transmission for longitudinally-mounted engines in 4WD vehicles.
Models:
S-series.
The S-series is a 5-speed manual transmission for front and mid-engine drive applications.
Models:
T-series.
The T-series is a 4- or 5-speed manual transmission.
Models:
W-series.
The W-series is a 4- or 5-speed manual transmission built by Aisin AI
Models:
V-series.
The V-series is a 6-speed manual transmission built by Getrag.
Models:
Hybrid.
P-series (HSD).
The P-series (HSD) are Hybrid Synergy Drive transmissions used in Toyota and Lexus hybrids for FWD-based platforms.
Models:
L-series (HSD).
The L-series (HSD) are Hybrid Synergy Drive transmissions used in Toyota and Lexus hybrids for RWD-based platforms.
Models:


Precipitate-free zone

In materials science, a precipitate-free zone (PFZ) refers to microscopic localized regions around grain boundaries that are free of precipitates (solid impurities forced outwards from the grain during crystallization). It is a common phenomenon that arises in polycrystalline materials (crystalline materials with stochastically-oriented grains) where heterogeneous nucleation of precipitates is the dominant nucleation mechanism. This is because grain boundaries are high-energy surfaces that act as sinks for vacancies, causing regions adjacent to a grain boundary to be devoid of vacancies. As it is energetically favorable for heterogeneous nucleation to occur preferentially around defect-rich sites such as vacancies, nucleation of precipitates is impeded in the vacancy-free regions immediately adjacent to grain boundaries
History.
Pioneering studies on the theory and experimental observation of PFZs were made in the 1960s.
Effect on material properties.
PFZs are detrimental to the mechanical properties of materials. In particular, PFZs degrade the material's hardness, because the lack of precipitates in PFZs lead to these regions having fewer pinning sites. Dislocation motion – a condition necessary to cause a material to yield – will require an appreciably lower applied shear stress in PFZs, and consequently these locally weak zones will lead to plastic deformation. The width of PFZs have also been found to be negatively correlated with intergranular fracture
PFZs also accelerate pitting corrosion and stress corrosion cracking, significantly reducing the usable life of these materials in chemically aggressive environments.
Techniques to minimize.
It has been shown that PFZs can be minimized by quenching. First, quenching increases undercooling, favoring homogeneous nucleation in PFZs as it lowers the nucleation energy barrier even in the absence of potent nucleation sites. Additionally, low temperatures also lead to a reduction in diffusion rates, minimizing the loss of vacancies and premature growth of grain boundary precipitates. However, since diffusion rates at low temperatures are suppressed, the aging time (time taken for treatment to yield a desired grain size) would be long. Therefore, one processing technique to circumvent this is to increase the temperature slightly once a sufficient number of homogeneous nucleation sites have been formed.
Another technique to minimize PFZs is to introduce impurity elements, as they strongly interact with vacancies and allow for a more even distribution of vacancies in the material. One example would be to introduce Mg in Al alloys
Cyclic strengthening (CS), a process wherein a material is mechanically pushed and pulled repeatedly at room temperature, creates fine precipitates that is homogeneously distributed throughout the microstructure. It has been suggested as an alternative to conventional, precipitate hardened alloys as this process achieves strengthening effects without introducing PFZs.


Plastic milk container

Plastic milk containers are plastic containers for storing, shipping and dispensing milk. Plastic bottles, sometimes called jugs, have largely replaced glass bottles for home consumption. Glass milk bottles have traditionally been reusable while light-weight plastic bottles are designed for single trips and plastic recycling.
Materials.
Packaging of milk is regulated by regional authorities. Use of food contact materials is required: potential food contamination is prohibited. Strict standards of cleanliness and processing must be followed.
The most common material in milk packaging is high density polyethylene (HDPE), recycling code 2. Low density polyethylene (LDPE) and polyester (PET) are also in use. Polycarbonate had been considered but had concerns about potential contamination with bisphenol A.
Container forms.
Blow molded plastic milk bottles have been in use since the 1960s.
HDPE is the primary material but polyester is also used. A wide variety of milk bottle designs are available. Some have a round cross section while others have a more square or rectangular shape. A special flat-top square milk jug was recently developed to maximize shipping and storing efficiency but had some difficulties in dispensing. Many milk bottles have integral handles.
Milk bags are also in use. The milk is sold in a plastic bag and put into a pitcher for use. Larger bags are the inner bladder of a Bag-in-box, sometimes used for institutional dispensing.
Small individual containers of milk and cream are often thermoformed or injection molded and have a peelable lid. These are often used in restaurants.
Shelf life.
The shelf life of pasteurized milk in HDPE bottles and LDPE pouches has been determined to be between 10 and 21 days when stored at 4–8 °C. Other factors such as light and temperature abuse have effects. Shelf life can be extended by ultrapasteurisation and aseptic processing.
Volume control.
Milk containers for retail sale must contain the same amount of milk as indicated on the label. To be acceptable to consumers, the containers must also appear to be completely full. Therefore, the volume of the container must be precisely controlled.
The designer of a die for a blow moulded bottle can never be completely sure of how much the finished bottle will hold. Shrinkage always occurs after the item is released from the mould. The amount of shrinkage depends upon many factors, including cycle time, inflation air pressure, time in storage prior to filling, storage temperature, and more.
A volume adjuster insert is one way to slightly adjust the volume of a bottle, without building a completely new mould. A volume insert attaches to the inside of a mould, creating a circular indentation on the side of the finished bottle. Different size inserts can be used as manufacturing circumstances change, for example mould temperature or cooling rate. The volume of finished bottles is periodically measured, and volume inserts are changed as needed.
Environmental comparisons.
Many potential factors are involved in environmental comparisons of returnable vs non-returnable systems. Researchers have often used life cycle analysis methodologies to balance the many diverse considerations. Often the comparisons show benefits and problems with all alternatives. One recent life cycle study of one-way recyclable HDPE bottles indicated the importance of secondary packaging: returnable plastic crates can allow lower tare weight bottles.
Reuse of bottles requires a reverse logistics system, cleaning and, sanitizing bottles, and an effective Quality Management System. A key factor with glass milk bottles is the number of cycles of uses to be expected. Breakage, contamination, or other loss reduces the benefits of returnables. A key factor with one-way recyclables is the recycling rate: In the US, only about 30–35% of HDPE bottles are recycled.


Electronic kit

An electronic kit is a package of electrical components used to build an electronic device. Generally, kits are composed of electronic components, a circuit diagram (schematic), assembly instructions, and often a printed circuit board (PCB) or another type of prototyping board.
There are two types of kits. Some build a single device or system. Other types used for education demonstrate a range of circuits. These will include a solderless construction board of some type, such as:
The first type of kit for constructing a single device normally uses a PCB on which components are soldered. They normally come with extended documentation describing which component goes where into the PCB.
For advanced hobby projects, sometimes the kit may only consist of a printed circuit board and assembly instructions, and the purchaser may have to source all the parts independently; or, the vendor may provide hard-to-get or pre-programmed parts while expecting the purchaser to obtain the rest of the components.
People primarily purchase electronic kits to have fun and learn how things work. They were once popular as a means to reduce the cost of buying goods, but there is usually no cost saving in buying a kit today.
Some electronic kits were assembled to make complete complex devices such as color television sets, oscilloscopes, high-end audio amplifiers, amateur radio equipment, electric organs, and even computers such as the Heathkit H-8, and the LNW-80. Many of the early microprocessor computers were sold as either electronic kits or assembled and tested. Heathkit sold millions of electronic kits during its 45-year history.
Home assembly of common consumer electronics items no longer provides a cost advantage over commercially manufactured and distributed devices. People still build kits for custom devices and special-purpose electronics for professional and educational use and as a hobby.
Also emerging is a trend to simplify the complexity by providing preprogrammed or modular kits often provided by many suppliers online. The fun and thrill of making your own electronics have shifted, in many cases, from easy-to-comprehend applications and analog devices to more sophisticated digital devices.


Hole saw

A hole saw (also styled holesaw), also known as a hole cutter, is a saw blade of annular (ring) shape, whose annular kerf creates a hole in the workpiece without having to cut up the core material. It is used in a drill. Hole saws typically have a pilot drill bit (arbor) at their center to keep the saw teeth from walking. The fact that a hole saw creates the hole without needing to cut up the core often makes it preferable to twist drills or spade drills for relatively large holes (especially those larger than . The same hole can be made faster and using less power.
The depth to which a hole saw can cut is limited by the depth of its cup-like shape. Most hole saws have a fairly short aspect ratio of diameter to depth, and they are used to cut through relatively thin workpieces. However, longer aspect ratios are available for applications that warrant them. Common hole saw depths are 38, 45 and 60 mm and for drilling through e.g. (angled-) rooftop constructions also a depth 165 and 300 mm is possible.
Cutting with a hole saw is analogous to some machining operations, called "trepanning" in the trade, that swing a cutter analogous to a fly cutter in order to achieve a similar result of annular kerf and intact core.
Construction.
The saw consists of a metal cylinder, usually steel, mounted on an arbor. The cutting edge either has saw teeth formed in it or industrial diamonds embedded in it. The arbor can carry a drill bit to bore a centering hole. After the first few millimeters of cut, the centering mechanism may no longer be needed, although it will help the bit to bore without wandering in a deep hole. The sloping slots in the cylinder wall help carry the dust out. The kerf of the cut is designed to be slightly larger than the diameter of the rest of the hole saw so that it does not get jammed in the hole.
Holes saws for use with portable drills are commonly available in diameters from 6 to 130 mm, or in the US, ¼ to 6 inches. The only limit on the length of the cylinder, and thus depth of the hole, is the need to remove the bit from the hole to clear dust. A cylinder length is not uncommon, although shorter bits are usual. By breaking the core off from time to time and using a shank extension, a diamond core drill can drill to depths many times its length.
Saw teeth are used for most materials, such as wood, plastic, soft plaster, and metal. Diamond hole saws are used to bore holes in brick, concrete, glass, and stone.
Types.
Adjustable.
An adjustable hole saw consists of a number of thin metal saw blade-like strips, and a flat disc with a large number of grooves in one side and a shank on the other. By snapping the blades into different grooves on the disc, a hole saw of a wide variety of sizes can be constructed.
Circle cutter.
Another type of adjustable hole saw, also called a circle cutter, is formed by having one, two, or three adjustable teeth on a platform with a pilot bit. To cut out a hole of any size, the teeth need only be adjusted to the proper position. This type is available in sizes up to and larger, and can be used to accurately cut large circles.
Advantages and disadvantages.
The main advantage over conventional drill bits is the hole saw's efficiency, because very little of the total material being removed is actually cut, which ultimately reduces the overall power requirement. Another advantage over drill bits is the wider size capability. For example, a hole would require a huge twist drill or spade drill, unable to be properly driven by a pistol-grip drill or benchtop drill press; but it can be cut with a hole saw with relative ease.
Some disadvantages include:
Diamond drilling.
Diamond hole saws are also called diamond core drill bits. Laser welded diamond core drill bits can be used in wet and dry drilling, but not all materials to be drilled are suitable for dry drilling. Very hard materials like reinforced concrete normally should be drilled with water, otherwise the excessive heat generated during the drilling process may cause the diamonds on the core bit to become blunt, and then lead to poor drilling performance.
The bond materials welded diamond core drill bits usually are specially adjusted to fit the wet and dry drillings respectively. This can make the core bits perform better in drilling speed and/or lifespan.
Diamond hole saws will drill through tile, porcelain tiles, granite, marble, concrete, metals and any lapidary material.


Knockout punch

In metalworking, a knockout punch, also known as a chassis punch, panel punch, Greenlee punch, or a Q-max, is a hand tool used to punch a hole through sheet metal. It is a very simple tool that consists of a punch, die, and screw. There are three different drive systems: manual, ratchet, and hydraulic.
Operation.
First a pilot hole is drilled slightly larger than the screw of the knockout punch. Then the die is placed on the screw and the screw is inserted into the pilot hole. The screw is then threaded into the punch and the screw tightened until the punch is drawn completely through the sheet metal.
The manual system uses a screw that has a standard hex head or square head and is driven using an allen key or wrench. A manual knockout punch can handle holes from . The ratchet system has a custom ratcheting wrench that uses a ball screw to make the process faster and easier. This type of system has a mechanical advantage of approximately 220:1 and can punch holes up to in diameter in 10 gauge mild steel. A hydraulic system is much bulkier and heavier than the other systems but it is the easiest to use and can make holes up to in diameter. It is a two piece system where the dies are attached to the ram which is connected to the hydraulic unit via a flexible hose.
Size families and shapes.
There are several sizing systems for these punches. The two most common are those sized for standard electrical knockout sizes and those that are for true dimensional holes. A 3/4 inch conduit size punch actually punches a hole that is approximately 1.1 inches diameter for 3/4 nominal size conduit. A dimensional size punch makes a hole very close to the indicated size. Punch sets are available on both imperial and metric sizes.
Chassis punches are available in a number of shapes, round being the most common. Other shapes include square, hexagonal, and special shapes for thing such as holes with key tabs and D-sub connectors Special shapes often use bolts that are square or keyed and a separate nut on the punch end to ensure alignment of the punch and die.


Monomotor

A monomotor is a train design where a single traction motor powers two or three axles in the same bogie. Conventional bogie design involves either having one motor for each axle, or having one or more axles unpowered. The monomotor design causes the motor to give both axles the same number of revolutions per minute.
Advantages.
The monomotor design makes it relatively easy to fit a locomotive with two-speed gearing. Low gear is used when hauling freight trains and high gear is used when hauling express passenger trains.
Potential problems.
When both axle's wheels are equally worn, this gives good operating conditions but, as soon as one of the wheels becomes slightly more worn (as is inevitable with steel wheels on steel rails), there will be slippage which causes wear and waste of energy. The problem can be countered by keeping the wheels regularly ground to the same diameter.