Welding defect

In metalworking, a welding defect is any flaw that compromises the usefulness of a weldment. There are many different types of welding defects. Welding defects are classified according to ISO 6520, while their acceptable limits are specified in ISO 5817 and ISO 10042.
Major causes.
According to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), causes of welding defects can be broken down as follows: 41% poor process conditions, 32% operator error, 12% wrong technique, 10% incorrect consumables and 5% bad weld grooves.
Residual stresses.
The magnitude of stress that can be formed from welding can be roughly calculated using:
Where formula_2 is Young's modulus, formula_3 is the coefficient of thermal expansion, and formula_4 is the temperature change. This calculates approximately for steel.
Types.
Cracks.
Arc strikes.
An arc strike is a discontinuity resulting from an arc consisting of any localized remelted metal, heat-affected metal, or change in the surface profile of any metal object.
Arc strikes result in localized base metal heating and very rapid cooling. When located outside the intended weld area, they may result in hardening or localized cracking and may serve as potential sites for initiating fracture. In statically loaded structures, arc strikes need not be removed unless such removal is required in contract documents. However, in cyclically loaded structures, arc strikes may result in stress concentrations that would be detrimental to the serviceability of such structures, and arc strikes should be ground smooth and visually inspected for cracks.
Cold cracking.
Cold cracking, also known as delayed cracking, hydrogen-assisted cracking (HAC), or hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC), is a type of defect that often develops after solidification of the weld when the temperature starts to drop from about 190 °C (375 °F); the phenomenon often arises at room temperature, and it can take up to 24 hours to appear even after complete cooling. Some codes require testing on welded objects 48 hours after the welding process. This type of crack is usually observed in the heat affected zone (HAZ), especially for carbon steel which has limited hardenability. However, for other alloy steel with a high degree of hardenability, cold cracking could occur in both weld metal and the HAZ. This crack mechanism can also propagate between grains and through grains. Factors that can contribute to the occurrence of cold cracking are:
The alloy composition of the base metal also has an essential role in the likelihood of a cold crack since it relates to the hardenability of materials. With high cooling rates, the risk of forming a hard, brittle structure in the weld metal and HAZ is more likely. The hardenability of a material is usually expressed in terms of its carbon content or, when other elements are taken into account, it's carbon equivalent (CE) value.
Then, depending on the carbon content (with additional elements resulting in the carbon equivalent index), steels can be classified into three zones from their cold cracking behavior as shown in Graville diagram.
Crater crack.
Crater cracks occur when a welding arc is broken, a crater will form if adequate molten metal is available to fill the arc cavity.
Hat crack.
Hat cracks get their name from the shape of the weld cross-section, because the weld flares out at the face of the weld. The crack starts at the fusion line and extends up through the weld. They are usually caused by too much voltage or not enough speed.
Hot cracking.
Hot cracking, also known as solidification cracking, can occur with all metals, and happens in the fusion zone of a weld. Excess material restraint should be avoided to diminish the probability of this type of cracking, and a proper filler material should be utilized. Other causes include too high welding current, poor joint design that does not diffuse heat, impurities (such as sulfur and phosphorus), preheating, speed is too fast, and long arcs.
Underbead crack.
An underbead crack, also known as a heat-affected zone (HAZ) crack, is a crack that forms a short distance away from the fusion line; it occurs in low alloy and high alloy steel. The exact causes of this type of crack are not entirely understood, but it is known that dissolved hydrogen must be present. The other factor that affects this type of crack is internal stresses resulting from: unequal contraction between the base metal and the weld metal, restraint of the base metal, stresses from the formation of martensite, and highlights from the precipitation of hydrogen out of the metal.
Longitudinal crack.
Longitudinal cracks run along the length of a weld bead. There are three types: "check cracks", "root cracks", and "full centerline cracks". Check cracks are visible from the surface and extend partially into the weld. They are usually caused by high shrinkage stresses, especially on final passes, or by a hot cracking mechanism. Root cracks start at the root and extent part-way into the weld. They are the most common type of longitudinal crack because of the small size of the first weld bead. If this type of crack is not addressed, it will usually propagate into subsequent weld passes, which is how full cracks (a crack from the root to the surface) usually form.
Reheat cracking.
Reheat cracking is a type of cracking that occurs in HSLA steels, particularly chromium, molybdenum and vanadium steels, during post-heating. The phenomenon has also been observed in austenitic stainless steel. The poor creep ductility of the heat-affected zone causes it. Any existing defects or notches aggravate crack formation. Things that help prevent reheat cracking include heat treating first with a low-temperature soak and then with rapid heating to high temperatures, grinding or peening the weld toes, and using a two-layer welding technique to refine the HAZ grain structure.
Root and toe cracks.
A root crack is formed by the short bead at the root(of edge preparation) beginning of the welding, low current at the beginning, and due to improper filler material used for welding. The primary reason for these types of cracks is hydrogen embrittlement. These defects can be eliminated using a high current at the starting and proper filler material. Toe crack occurs due to moisture content in the welded area; it is a part of the surface crack so that it can be easily detected. Preheating and proper joint formation are a must for eliminating these types of defects.
Transverse crack.
Transverse cracks are perpendicular to the direction of the weld. These are generally the result of longitudinal shrinkage stresses acting on weld metal of low ductility. Crater cracks occur in the crater when the welding arc is terminated prematurely. Crater cracks are typically shallow, hot cracks, usually forming single or star cracks. These cracks usually start at a crater pipe and extend longitudinally in the crater. However, they may propagate into longitudinal weld cracks in the rest of the weld.
Distortion.
Welding methods that involve the melting of metal at the site of the joint necessarily are prone to shrinkage as the heated metal cools. Shrinkage then introduces residual stresses and distortion. Distortion can pose a major problem since the final product is not the desired shape. To alleviate certain types of distortion, the workpieces can be offset so that after welding, the product is the correct shape. The following pictures describe various types of welding distortion:
Gas inclusion.
Gas inclusions are a wide variety of defects, including "porosity", "blow holes", and "pipes" (or "wormholes"). The underlying cause for gas inclusions is gas entrapment within the solidified weld. Gas formation can be from any of the following causes- high sulphur content in the workpiece or electrode, excessive moisture from the electrode or workpiece, too short of an arc, or wrong welding current or polarity.
Inclusions.
There are two types of inclusions: "linear inclusions" and "rounded inclusions". Inclusions can be either "isolated" or "cumulative". Linear inclusions occur when there is slag or flux in the weld. Slag forms from the use of a flux, which is why this type of defect usually occurs in welding processes that use flux, such as shielded metal arc welding, flux-cored arc welding, and submerged arc welding, but it can also occur in gas metal arc welding. This defect usually occurs in welds that require multiple passes, and there is poor overlap between the welds. The poor overlap does not allow the slag from the previous weld to melt out and rise to the top of the new weld bead. It can also occur if the previous weld left an undercut or an uneven surface profile. To prevent slag inclusions, the slag should be cleaned from the weld bead between passes via grinding, wire brushing, or chipping.
Isolated inclusions occur when rust or mill scale is present on the base metal.
Lack of fusion and incomplete penetration.
Lack of fusion is the poor adhesion of the weld bead to the base metal; incomplete penetration is a weld bead that does not start at the root of the weld groove. Incomplete penetration forms channels and crevices in the root of the weld, which can cause serious issues in pipes because corrosive substances can settle in these areas. These types of defects occur when the welding procedures are not adhered to; possible causes include the current setting, arc length, electrode angle, and electrode manipulation. Defects can be varied and classified as critical or noncritical. Porosity (bubbles) in the weld are usually acceptable to a certain degree. Slag inclusions, undercut, and cracks are usually unacceptable. Some porosity, cracks, and slag inclusions are visible and may not need further inspection to require their removal. Liquid Penetrant Testing (Dye check) can verify minor defects. Magnetic Particle Inspection can discover Slag inclusions and cracks just below the surface. Deeper defects can be detected using Radiographic (X-rays) and/or Ultrasound (sound waves) testing techniques.
Lamellar tearing.
Lamellar tearing is a type of welding defect that occurs in rolled steel plates that have been welded together due to shrinkage forces perpendicular to the faces of the plates. Since the 1970s, changes in manufacturing practices limiting the amount of sulfur used have greatly reduced the incidence of this problem.
Lamellar tearing is caused mainly by sulfurous inclusions in the material. Other causes include excess hydrogen in the alloy. This defect can be mitigated by keeping the amount of sulfur in the steel alloy below 0.005%. Adding rare earth elements, zirconium, or calcium to the alloy to control the configuration of sulfur inclusions throughout the metal lattice can also mitigate the problem.
Modifying the construction process to use cast or forged parts in place of welded parts can eliminate this problem, as Lamellar tearing only occurs in welded parts.
Undercut.
Undercutting is when the weld reduces the base metal's cross-sectional thickness and reduces the strength of the weld and workpieces. One reason for this type of defect is excessive current, causing the edges of the joint to melt and drain into the weld; this leaves a drain-like impression along the length of the weld. Another reason is if a poor technique is used that does not deposit enough filler metal along the edges of the weld. A third reason is using an incorrect filler metal, which will create greater temperature gradients between the center of the weld and the edges. Other causes include too small of an electrode angle, a dampened electrode, excessive arc length, and slow speed.


Digital modeling and fabrication

Digital modeling and fabrication is a design and production process that combines 3D modeling or computing-aided design (CAD) with additive and subtractive manufacturing. Additive manufacturing is also known as 3D printing, while subtractive manufacturing may also be referred to as machining, and many other technologies can be exploited to physically produce the designed objects.
Modeling.
Digitally fabricated objects are created with a variety of CAD software packages, using both 2D vector drawing, and 3D modeling. Types of 3D models include wireframe, solid, surface and mesh. A design has one or more of these model types.
Machines for fabrication.
Three machines are popular for fabrication:
1. CNC router
2. Laser cutter
3. 3D Printer
CNC milling machine.
CNC stands for "computer numerical control". CNC mills or routers include proprietary software which interprets 2D vector drawings or 3D models and converts this information to a G-code, which represents specific CNC functions in an alphanumeric format, which the CNC mill can interpret. The G-codes drive a machine tool, a powered mechanical device typically used to fabricate components. CNC machines are classified according to the number of axes that they possess, with 3, 4 and 5 axis machines all being common, and industrial robots being described with having as many as 9 axes. CNC machines are specifically successful in milling materials such as plywood, plastics, foam board, and metal at a fast speed. CNC machine beds are typically large enough to allow 4' × 8' (123 cm x 246 cm) sheets of material, including foam several inches thick, to be cut.
Laser cutter.
The laser cutter is a machine that uses a laser to cut materials such as chip board, matte board, felt, wood, and acrylic up to 3/8 inch (1 cm) thickness. The laser cutter is often bundled with a driver software which interprets vector drawings produced by any number of CAD software platforms.
The laser cutter is able to modulate the speed of the laser head, as well as the intensity and resolution of the laser beam, and as such is able in both to cut and to score material, as well as approximate raster graphics.
Objects cut out of materials can be used in the fabrication of physical models, which will only require the assembly of the flat parts.
3D printers.
3D printers use a variety of methods and technology to assemble physical versions of digital objects. Typically desktop 3D printers can make small plastic 3D objects. They use a roll of thin plastic filament, melting the plastic and then depositing it precisely to cool and harden. They normally build 3D objects from bottom to top in a series of many very thin plastic horizontal layers. This process often happens over the course of several hours.
Fused deposition modeling.
Fused deposition modeling, also known as fused filament fabrication, uses a 3-axis robotic system that extrudes material, typically a thermoplastic, one thin layer at a time and progressively builds up a shape. Examples of machines that use this method are the Dimension 768 and the Ultimaker.
Stereolithography.
Stereolithography uses a high intensity light projector, usually using DLP technology, with a photosensitive polymer resin. It will project the profile of an object to build a single layer, curing the resin into a solid shape. Then the printer will move the object out of the way by a small amount and project the profile of the next layer. Examples of devices that use this method are the Form-One printer and Os-RC Illios.
Selective laser sintering.
Selective laser sintering uses a laser to trace out the shape of an object in a bed of finely powdered material that can be fused together by the application of heat from the laser. After one layer has been traced by a laser, the bed and partially finished part is moved out of the way, a thin layer of the powdered material is spread, and the process is repeated. Typical materials used are alumide, steel, glass, thermoplastics (especially nylon), and certain ceramics. Example devices include the Formiga P 110 and the Eos EosINT P730.
Powder printer.
Powder printers work in a similar manner to SLS machines, and typically use powders that can be cured, hardened, or otherwise made solid by the application of a liquid binder that is delivered via an inkjet printhead. Common materials are plaster of paris, clay, powdered sugar, wood-filler bonding putty, and flour, which are typically cured with water, alcohol, vinegar, or some combination thereof. The major advantage of powder and SLS machines is their ability to continuously support all parts of their objects throughout the printing process with unprinted powder. This permits the production of geometries not easily otherwise created. However, these printers are often more complex and expensive. Examples of printers using this method are the ZCorp Zprint 400 and 450.


Supply chain sustainability

Supply-chain sustainability is the impact a company’s supply chain can make in promoting human rights, fair labor practices, environmental progress and anti-corruption policies. There is a growing need for integrating sustainable choices into supply-chain management. An increasing concern for sustainability is transforming how companies approach business. Whether motivated by their customers, corporate values or business opportunity, traditional priorities such as quality, efficiency and cost regularly compete for attention with concerns such as working conditions and environmental impact. A sustainable supply chain seizes value chain opportunities and offers significant competitive advantages for early adopters and process innovators.
Background.
Supply chains are critical links that connect an organization’s inputs to its outputs. Traditional challenges have included lowering costs, ensuring just-in-time delivery, and shrinking transportation times to allow better reaction to business challenges. However, the increasing environmental, social and economic costs of these networks and growing consumer pressure for eco-friendly products has led many organizations to look at supply chain sustainability as a new measure of profitable logistics management. This shift is reflected by an understanding that sustainable supply chains mean profitable supply chains.
Many companies are limited to measuring the sustainability of their own business operations and are unable to extend this evaluation to their suppliers and customers. This makes determining their true environmental and social costs highly challenging. However much progress has been made in defining supply chain sustainability and benchmarking tools are now available that enable sustainability action plans to be developed and implemented. A study conducted in 2017 researched the correlation between supply chain position (how close or far the firm is from the end user in the supply chain) and firm performance. The study findings concluded that suppliers located farther upstream in the supply chain (farther from the end user), had the most to gain financially from sustainable supply chain management.
Environmental impact.
Climate change poses a new risk to supply chains and a need to increase their resilience. As companies are setting carbon footprint targets, suppliers’ operations are responsible for 65% to 95% of a company’s total emissions. These environmental impacts are evident across industries, for example, food and beverage companies are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change as changing weather patterns can disrupt agricultural production. Measuring supply chain resilience on factors such as natural resource availability, infrastructure, financial resources, and social safety networks among others, can help them respond to challenges and create better supply chains in the process.
Social impact.
Besides sustainability and resilience, an ethical supply chain is imperative to ensure corporate social responsibility and adhere to a supplier code of conduct. The work environment for the workers should be congenial and must not violate the basic human rights. For instance, companies like Nike and Apple, which outsource manufacturing of their products to other countries like China, have been under the scanner for workplace conditions and wages of their workers. Consumers increasingly demand transparency and traceability in supply chains, especially where disturbing social breakdowns occur, such as with forced labour and child labour for globally traded goods.
Forced labor, understood as work that is performed involuntarily or under coercion, occurs in different industries, often upstream in the supply chain with limited visibility to buyers, customers, and end-users.
For example, in the United States, the 2010 Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act requires manufacturers to audit their supply chains and report use of conflict minerals to the Securities and Exchange Commission.
Governance impact.
Governance practices in global supply chains can pose risks to supply chain sustainability, alongside social and environmental factors. Governance factors include guidelines and procedures for countries and corporations. Buyers screen their supply chains for appropriate governance practices such as a company’s purpose, the role and makeup of boards of directors, shareholder rights and how corporate performance is measured.
Stakeholders.
The purchasing power held by buyers, gives them significant influence over their vendors or suppliers’ business practices. Companies in the role of buyers acquire goods or services through organizational functions such as purchasing, procurement, or sourcing, typically for use or consumption in their own organization. Suppliers or vendors typically sell their goods or services to the next link in the supply chain. Buyers might thus interface with only one tier of their suppliers, while their supply chain spans across complex tiers of suppliers upstream. Progress has been made in the sustainable procurement space as companies help suppliers design and implement sustainability programs that directly support the companies’ own goals. Buyers are working to achieve sustainability goals by setting standards for their suppliers’ performance and treating sustainability performance similar to other business considerations such as cost, quality, and timeliness.
One of the key requirements of successful sustainable supply chains is collaboration. The practice of collaboration — such as sharing distribution to reduce waste by ensuring that half-empty vehicles do not get sent out and that deliveries to the same address are on the same truck — is not widespread because many companies fear a loss of commercial control by working with others. Investment in alternative modes of transportation — such as use of canals and airships — can play an important role in helping companies reduce the cost and environmental impact of their deliveries.
Drivers for supply chain sustainability.
As of 2021, a growing number of companies see supply chain sustainability as a strategic business matter. A business strategy for supply chain environmental performance can deliver measurable environmental benefits for the company and its stakeholders. A sustainable sourcing strategy positions the company for increasing demands of higher disclosure and investor scrutiny, more environmentally focused consumers, and scarce resources. Sustainable procurement is a key concern for investors, through movements such as socially responsible investing. Leading investment firms such as BlackRock use their influence to bring supply chain sustainability on the agenda. Customers and consumers also demand supply chain responsibility and sustainability as part of a company’s value proposition under a growing ethical consumerism movement. Consumers’ purchasing behaviors reflect this trend as 70% say they are willing to pay a 5% price premium for products produced by more-sustainable means. During global supply chain disruptions following the COVID-19 pandemic, sustainable supply chains have been shown to be more resilient and have lower supplier risk.
Application of supply chain sustainability.
Companies looking to implement sustainable strategies down its supply chain should also look upstream. To elaborate, if a company is able to choose between various suppliers, it can for example use its purchasing power to get its suppliers in compliance with its green supply chain standards. In managing suppliers, companies must measure that inputs from suppliers are of high quality, and the usage of water and energy is minimized leading to less pollution, defects and over production. They also must audit their supplier base and make sure that they are improving the supply chain metrics
When measuring sustainability in supply chains, consistent measurements which can be replicated and compared are crucial to encourage consumer trust. Environmental and social change often takes time to measure and must be considered by private companies or governments over a long term period to accurately assess the results. Some companies utilize supplier scorecards to determine suppliers’ sustainability performance.  This can be accomplished by conducting life-cycle assessments or surveys to help determine their sustainability practices. Another strategy is to award suppliers for their improvement on their sustainability performance, for instance, by developing new materials sourced from waste or by making operations more energy efficient.
Software.
Digital technology has increased companies’ capability to collaborate with large numbers of suppliers. As supply-chain sustainability becomes a more critical business issue, the need for reliable and robust data from suppliers increases. Whilst some existing business systems can collect some sustainability data, most large businesses will look to dedicated software providers for more specific sustainability functionality.
In order for businesses to determine the degree of sustainability impact of their business model, they must have the data to support it. Harvard Business School created the Impact-Weighted Accounts Initiative (IWAI) to assess the degree of impact that many large companies have on social, environmental, and economic areas. Impact data comes from long term research on specific, measurable topics that can be applied to future changes within a company or system. Impact data is often more sparse or inaccessible than it should be, which allows institutions such as HBS to hold companies accountable in their supply chains and encourage greater transparency. Transparency in the supply chain influences how consumers view and support companies, so improving data driven sustainability efforts can positively affect supply chain business. A company’s negative impact on environmental or social areas may show in their stock market value, exposing their true values to investors. While impact data is probably one of the better ways of assessing a company’s long term impacts, it is important to note that data collection for impact assessment is a lengthy process and not all companies can spend long periods of time measuring their impact without making changes. Because of this, simple, credible alternatives to long term impact assessments are necessary for some businesses.
On-site audits.
In addition to digital tools, on-site audits can be an effective tool to verify social and environmental compliance at supplier sites. On-site audits can certify a supplier’s compliance with an external standard, such as SA8000, ISO 14001, SMETA 4-Pillar, and others. Audits can also assess compliance with internal policies and guidelines set by a business partner, for example through a supplier code of conduct. Depending on the auditing standard, buyers might choose to audit their suppliers directly, or send auditors from a third-party auditing firm to supplier sites.
Challenges in achieving supply chain sustainability goals.
Despite companies being increasingly focused on working with suppliers that help them achieve their sustainability goals, challenges continue to persist. Suppliers further up the supply chain generally lack the maturity, tools, and capabilities to manage and drive environmental and social improvements. When faced with workplace issues such as sexual harassment, retaliation by superiors, and a hazardous environment, lower tiered suppliers typically have a poor response plan, or no plan at all. In cases where a plan is established, suppliers are unable to implement it and train their employees accordingly due to a workforce consisting of nearly 50% temporary workers. As you move further upstream in the supply chain, a company loses more oversight over suppliers. Companies do not directly operate with lower tiered suppliers, and there is generally no contractual relationship in place between the two. This makes it increasingly difficult for companies to manage sustainability upstream. Additionally, lower tiered suppliers operate in relative obscurity compared to the companies they supply, so they tend not to face the same level of scrutiny if failing to meet sustainability standards.
Many companies have thousands of suppliers, making it difficult for those in charge of driving supply chain sustainability to know where to begin and focus their efforts. They may not have access to the right data or may lack the authority to effect real change. Additionally, in striving to be more socially responsible, a company can inadvertently make it harder for smaller, diverse suppliers to compete with the larger, more established ones. Generally, the larger suppliers are better equipped to drive sustainability improvements compared with smaller ones. In rewarding the larger suppliers with larger contracts and reducing business or even severing ties with the smaller ones to achieve sustainability goals, companies make their supplier base less diverse and put the smaller suppliers at a disadvantage.


CNC router

A computer numerical control (CNC) router is a computer-controlled cutting machine which typically mounts a hand-held router as a spindle which is used for cutting various materials, such as wood, composites, metals, plastics, glass, and foams. CNC routers can perform the tasks of many carpentry shop machines such as the panel saw, the spindle moulder, and the boring machine. They can also cut joinery such as mortises and tenons.
A CNC router is very similar in concept to a CNC milling machine. Instead of routing by hand, tool paths are controlled via computer numerical control. The CNC router is one of many kinds of tools that have CNC variants.
Applications.
A CNC router can be used to produce items such as door carvings, interior and exterior decorations, wood panels, sign boards, wooden frames, moldings, musical instruments, furniture. In addition, they see use in industry in the thermoforming of plastics by automating the trimming process. CNC routers can help ensure part repeatability and sufficiently efficient output for production, or allow one-off designs to be made.
Use.
CNC routers are controlled by a computer. Coordinates are uploaded into the machine controller from a separate program. CNC router are often used with two software applications—one to make designs (CAD) and another to translate those designs into a G-code or M-code program of instructions for the machine (CAM) in vertical, horizontal and perpendicular coordinates. As with CNC milling machines, CNC routers can be controlled directly by manual programming, but CAD/CAM allows wider possibilities for contouring, speeding up the programming process and in some cases creating programs whose manual programming would be impractical. On some controllers the G-code can be loaded as a vector file on the router control panel. A vector file can be created from a picture file by using a drawing (CAD) software.
The human operator selects the machine tool (such as a -inch (6-MM) v-bit or a -inch core box bit), speed, cut depth and tool path. For cut path, most machines give the options of tracing the vectors, cutting outside the vectors, or cutting inside the vectors. The operator determines the center point of the part, clamps the part onto the table, moves the bit directly above the marked center and down to the face of the part, and marks this as the starting point. The operator moves the bit up a few inches and selects the run G-code function. The machine begins to cut the design.
Computer-aided manufacturing.
CAM software makes the CAD drawing/design into a code called G-code. The illustration shows what a bare-bones CNC machine might look like without its computer controller.
Sizes and configurations.
CNC routers come in many configurations, from small home-style D.I.Y. "desktop", to large industrial routers manufactured for commercial use. CNC routers are used in sign shops, cabinet making, aerospace and boat-making.
Although there are many configurations, most CNC routers have a few specific parts: a dedicated CNC controller, one or more spindle motors, servo motors or stepper motors, servo amplifiers, AC inverter frequency drives, linear guides, ball screws and a workspace bed or table.
In addition, CNC routers may have accessories such as vacuum pumps, with grid table tops or t-slot hold down fixtures to hold the parts in place for cutting. CNC routers are typically available in 3-axis and 5-axis CNC formats. Many manufacturers offer A and B axis for full 5-axis capabilities and rotary 4th axis. Common industrial CNC router sizes include 4 × 8 feet and 5 × 10 feet.
Many CNC routers today are made of aluminum extrusion which provide great flexibility as this can be shipped from almost anywhere unassembled but also provides size options. Some popular extrusion used are MakerSlide, V-Slot linear rail, and 8020 T-Slotted profile.
Materials.
Wood.
A CNC wood router is a computer-controlled router tool that carves/etches objects or images into the face of a piece of wood. The CNC Router is ideal for hobbies, engineering prototyping, product development, art, and production works. The CNC works on the Cartesian coordinate system (X, Y, Z) for 3D motion control; however, typical CNC operated systems can only make carvings on flat planes. The machine sits on a track and is not capable of making round or spherical cuts. Parts of a project can be designed in the computer with a CAD/CAM program, and then cut automatically using a router or other cutters to produce a finished part. In some instances, the table will not come with a router included. This allows the user to change out routers for different applications. For lighter strained cuts, they could use a lower grade router but for more intensive applications.
Metal.
Milling is the machining process of using rotary cutters to remove material from a workpiece advancing (or "feeding") in a direction at an angle with the axis of the tool. It covers a wide variety of operations and machines, on scales from small individual parts to large, heavy-duty gang milling operations. It is one of the most commonly used processes in industry and machine shops today for machining parts to precise sizes and shapes.
Stone.
A stone CNC router is a type of CNC router machine designed for marble, granite, artificial stone, tombstone, ceramic tiles, glass machining, polishing for arts and crafts, etc. Wood, metal and stone require different "bits" or "inserts". There is bit call as diamond tools with different diameter 4mm, 6mm, 8mm mainly used. For wood CNC-ing, bits with sharp cutting edges are used, while for Stone CNC-ing, the bits are made of a metal bar with a sintered layer of extremely hard but roughly shaped particles. Routing CNC is more like grinding than cutting.
Because stone dust is very abrasive, these routers also have much better protection for the guide rails(below cover). With "wood" routers the guide rails are often visible from the outside & unprotected, while stone routers are fully covered.
Stone routers also have a water recirculation system. A small jet of water is pointed at the router bit and this captures almost all fine stone dust in the water, which then flows to a collection reservoir where the stone particles settle on the bottom.
Polyurethane foam.
Polyurethane foam can also be cut using a CNC router in order to produce complex shapes which would otherwise be difficult or impossible to replicate by hand. Depending on the type of foam being converted, a CNC router would be able to cut through up to an 8lb density. By converting a CAD design file into a CAM file, the CNC Router is able to read relevant information and produce a highly accurate finished product.


Keystone module

A keystone module is a standardized snap-in package for mounting a variety of low-voltage electrical jacks or optical connectors into a keystone wall plate, face plate, surface-mount box, or a patch panel.
Keystone modules have a rectangular face of 14.5 mm wide by 16.0 mm high and are held in place with flexible tabs. This allows them to be snapped into a mounting plate with correspondingly-sized rectangular holes, called ports. Most keystones are interchangeable and replaceable. This provides much flexibility in arranging and mounting many different types of electrical jacks in one plate or panel without requiring customized manufacturing.
Some keystones use a pass-through type connector, where there is a jack on both the front face and the rear side. Others only have a jack on the front and employ a different mechanism for hard-wiring signal cables to the rear, such as a mini 110 block, an insulation-displacement connector, or a crimp or solder connection.
Types of modules available.
Many types of jacks are available in the keystone module format, limited mainly by their physical size, including:
History.
The origin of the "Keystone" module may be traced back to US Patent 4261633 of Aug 27, 1979 for a "Wiring module for telephone jack" - by Amp Incorporated.
The module referred to in that patent was affixed by "A pair of diagonally inclined mounting flanges (which) include stepped, panel bearing surfaces .. at the outer free ends thereof." The unit was "inserted through the panel opening, with the sides of the opening resiliently deflecting the (mounting flanges), until they pass through the opening and spring outwardly away from the remainder of the housing, with the panel bearing surfaces .. thereof seated against the front surface of the panel".
However, the current design (now called "Keystone") is first referenced in US Patent US 5624274 of Nov 7, 1995 for a "Telephone connector with contact protection block" - by International Connectors And Cable Corporation. In this design the module is affixed by a single diagonally inclined mounting flange, together with a protuberance (ramp) on the opposite side. In the patent description, it is stated that "the jack assembly may be mounted to a face plate by first inserting the bottom of the jack assembly into a jack opening until the ramp of the housing engages a mounting surface of the face plate. The jack assembly is then rotated and snapped into place due to deflection of the cantilever latch of the housing."


Work order

A work order is usually a task or a job for a customer, that can be scheduled or assigned to someone. Such an order may be from a customer request or created internally within the organization. Work orders may also be created as follow ups to inspections or audits. A work order may be for products or services.
A work order should include the following:
In a manufacturing environment, a work order is converted from a sales order to show that work is about to begin on the manufacture, building or engineering of the products requested by the customer. In a service environment, a work order can be equivalent to a service order where the WO records the location, date and time the service is carried out and the nature of work that is done. The type of personnel (e.g. job position) may also be listed on the WO. A rate (e.g. $/hr, $/week) and also the total number of hours worked and total value is also shown on the work order.
A work order may be a maintenance or repair request from students, faculty or staff in a university.
Orders received from outside an organization are often dispatched (reviewed and scheduled) before being executed. Work orders may be for preventive maintenance
Contractors may use a single job work order and invoice form that contains the customer information, describes the work performed, lists charges for material and labor, and can be given to the customer as an invoice.
A job order is an internal document extensively used by projects-based, manufacturing, building and fabrication businesses. A job order may be for products and/or services. In a manufacturing environment, a job order is used to signal the start of a manufacturing process and will most probably be linked to a bill of material. Hence, the job order will probably state:
In a service environment, a job order cannot be the equivalent to a work or service order where the job order records the location, date and time the service is carried out and the nature of service that was carried out, the work order does not. The type of personnel (e.g. job position) may also be listed on the job order. A rate (e.g. $/hr, $/week) and also the total number of hours worked and total value is also shown.


X-Y table

X-Y tables, also known as cross working tables or coordinate tables, help provide horizontal motion for automated machinery such as assembly robots in manufacturing facilities. Robotic arms and other automated machinery have only a limited range of motion while their bases remain stationary; X-Y tables allow these basis to move horizontally along X and Y axis. Also known as XY stages, XY tables are motorized linear slides with linear motion based in bearings which are driven by a drive mechanism, typically a linear motor. XY tables are built and configured to provide high-performance positioning along multiple axis.
Applications.
Serving industries including general machinery, pharmaceutical, manufacturing and semiconductor, XY tables offer precision-controlled automated movement. XY tables are broadly used in mechanical processes and applications including material handling, industrial automation equipment, machinery building and automated measurement.
Construction.
XY tables are flat surfaces mounted on ball bearing slides or roller slides with multiple linear bases and are composed of forcers and platens. The forcer glides over the platen on frictionless air bearings and moves continuously in a linear motion across the platen. To create multiple axis, linear bases are often stacked on top of one another, with the top "Y" axis acting both as a carriage to the bottom base and as the base which holds the table. Adjustable gibs can be attached on both axis. These types of XY tables, used frequently for the movement of robotic, are often called "positioning tables". Materials used to construct XY tables include stainless steel and cast iron as well as bronze for bearings and aluminum for frames.
Types.
Variations among XY tables include the ways and the drive mechanism. The ways determine load capacity, straight-line accuracy, and stiffness, or durability, while the drive mechanisms determine smoothness and speed. In general, XY tables require very little maintenance, and are considered to be highly accurate, easy-to-use and lightweight. However, depending on the weight of the load, ball bearings within XY ball bearing tables and slides can acquire a significant amount of wear and may need to be replaced regularly.


Small-outline transistor

A small outline transistor (SOT) is a family of small footprint, discrete surface mount transistor commonly used in consumer electronics. The most common SOT are SOT23 variations. SOT23-3 differs from SOT23 in a wider body of 1.6mm instead on 1.3mm, also manufacturers offer the nearly identical thin small outline transistor (TSOT) package, where lower height is important.
SOT23, SOT323, SOT416.
The SOT23 package is very popular and a common package for transistors, and is also used for diodes and voltage regulators.
SOT54.
SOT54 is an alternate designation for the JEDEC TO-92 package.
SOT89-3.
The SOT89-3 electrically only has three leads (contact/pin). The wide lead (tab) is physically part of the middle lead on the other side of the package. Some call this package a SOT89-4, since it visually appears to have four leads when looking down at the part.
SOT89-5.
The SOT89-5 electrically only has five leads (contact/pin). The middle lead is physically part of the middle lead on the other side of the package. Some call this package a SOT89-6, since it visually appears to have six leads when looking down at the part.
SOT223 (SOT223-4).
The SOT223-4 package is a popular package for voltage regulators. It was introduced by Philips.
SOT223-5.
The SOT223-5 package is a popular package for voltage regulators.
SOT223-8.
The SOT223-8 package is a popular package for bridged quad transistors.


Final good

A final good or consumer good is a final product ready for sale that is used by the consumer to satisfy current wants or needs, unlike an intermediate good, which is used to produce other goods. A microwave oven or a bicycle is a final good, but the parts purchased to manufacture them are intermediate goods.
When used in measures of national income and output, the term "final goods" includes only new goods. For example, gross domestic product (GDP) excludes items counted in an earlier year to prevent double counting based on resale of items. In that context, the economic definition of goods also includes what are commonly known as "services".
Manufactured goods are goods that have been processed in any way. They are distinct from raw materials but include both intermediate goods and final goods.
Law.
There are legal definitions. For example, the United States' Consumer Product Safety Act has an extensive definition of consumer product, which begins:
CONSUMER PRODUCT.--The term ‘‘consumer product’’ means any article, or component part thereof, produced or distributed (i) for sale to a consumer for use in or around a permanent or temporary household or residence, a school, in recreation, or otherwise, or (ii) for the personal use, consumption or enjoyment of a consumer in or around a permanent or temporary household or residence, a school, in recreation, or otherwise; but such term does not include—
(A) any article which is not customarily produced or distributed for sale to, or use or consumption by, or enjoyment of, a consumer,
It then goes on to list eight additional specific exclusions and further details.
Durability.
Final goods can be classified into the following categories:
Consumer durable goods usually have a significant lifespan, which tends to be at least one year, based on the guarantee or warranty period. The maximum life depends upon the durability of the product or goods. Examples include tools, cars, and boats. On the other hand, capital goods, which are tangible in nature, such as machinery or building or any other equipment that can be used in manufacturing of final product, are durable goods with limited lifespans that are determined by manufacturers before their sale. The longevity and the often-higher cost of durable goods usually cause consumers to postpone expenditures on them, which makes durables the most volatile (or cost-dependent) component of consumption.
Consumer nondurable goods are purchased for immediate use or for use very soon. Generally, the lifespan of nondurable goods is from a few minutes to up to three years: food, beverages, clothing, shoes and gasoline are examples. In everyday language, nondurable goods get consumed or "used up".
Consumer services are intangible in nature. They cannot be seen, felt or tasted by the consumer but still give satisfaction to the consumer. They are also inseparable and variable in nature: they are thus produced and consumed simultaneously. Examples are haircuts, medical treatments, auto repairs and landscaping.
Buying habits.
Final goods can be classified into the following categories, which are determined by consumers' buying habits:
Convenience goods, shopping goods, and specialty goods are also known as "red goods", "yellow goods", and "orange goods", respectively, under the yellow, red and orange goods classification system.
Convenience goods.
Convenience goods are regularly consumed and easily available. Generally, convenience goods come in the category of nondurable goods such as fast foods, cigarettes and tobacco with low value. Convenience goods are sold mostly by wholesalers or retailers to make them available to the consumers in goods or large volume. Convenience goods can further be divided into staple convenience consumer goods and impulse convenience consumer goods.
Staple convenience consumer goods are the basic necessities of the consumer. These goods are easily available and in large quantity: milk, bread, sugar, etc.
Impulse convenience consumer goods do not belong to the priority list of the consumer. They are purchased without any prior planning, just on the basis of the impulse: potato wafers, candies, ice creams, cold drinks, etc.
Shopping consumer goods.
Shopping consumer goods are the goods which take lot of time and proper planning before making purchase decision; in this case consumer does a lot of selection and comparison based on various parameters such as cost, brand, style, comfort etc., before buying an item. Shopping goods are costlier than convenience goods and are durable in nature. Consumer goods companies usually try to set up their shops and show rooms in active shopping areas to attract customer attention and their main focus is to do much advertising and promotion to attract more customers.
Examples include clothing items, televisions, radios, footwear, home furnishings, etc.
Specialty consumer goods.
Specialty goods are unique in nature; these are unusual and luxurious items available in the market. Specialty goods are mostly purchased by the upper classes of society as they are expensive in nature and difficult to afford for the middle and lower classes. Companies advertise their goods targeting the upper class. These goods do not fall under the category of necessity; rather they are purchased on the basis personal preference or desire. Brand name, uniqueness, and special features of an item are major attributes which attract customers and make them buy such products.
Examples include antiques, jewelry, wedding dresses, cars, etc.
Unsought consumer goods.
Unsought goods belong to neither the necessity group of consumer goods list nor to specialty goods. They are always available in the market but are purchased by very few consumers, either based on their interest or their need for some specific reasons. The general public does not purchase such goods often.
Examples include snowshoes, fire extinguishers, flood insurance, etc.
Mergers and acquisitions.
In the consumer product sector, there have been 107,891 deals announced between 1985 and 2018, which cumulates to a total value of around US$5,835 billion. 2007 was the year with the largest value (US$4,888 billion) followed by a steep slump in 2009 (-70.9%). After the first wave in 2007, now is the second big M&A wave in the consumer products sector, and a decline is expected.


Integrated device manufacturer

An integrated device manufacturer (IDM) is a semiconductor company which designs, manufactures, and sells integrated circuit (IC) products.
IDM is often used to refer to a company which handles semiconductor manufacturing in-house, compared to a fabless semiconductor company, which outsources production to a third-party semiconductor fabrication plant.
Examples of IDMs are Intel, Samsung, and Texas Instruments, examples of fabless companies are AMD, Nvidia, and Qualcomm, and examples of pure play foundries are GlobalFoundries, TSMC, and UMC.
Due to the dynamic nature of the semiconductor industry, the term IDM has become less accurate than when it was coined.
OSATs.
The term OSATs means "outsourced semiconductor assembly and test providers". OSATs have dominated IC packaging and testing.
Fabless operations.
The terms fabless (fabrication-less), foundry, and IDM are now used to describe the role a company has in a business relationship. For example, Freescale owns and operates fabrication facilities (fab) where it manufactures many chip product lines, as a traditional IDM would. Yet it is known to contract with merchant foundries for other products, as would fabless companies.
Manufacturers.
Many electronic manufacturing companies engage in business that would qualify them as an IDM:


Aligner (semiconductor)

An aligner, or mask aligner, is a system that produces integrated circuits (IC) using the photolithography process. It holds the photomask over the silicon wafer while a bright light is shone through the mask and onto the photoresist. The "alignment" refers to the ability to place the mask over precisely the same location repeatedly as the chip goes through multiple rounds of lithography. Aligners were a major part of IC manufacture from the 1960s into the late 1970s, when they began to be replaced by the stepper.
There are several distinct generations of aligner technology. The early contact aligners placed the mask in direct contact with the top surface of the wafer, which often damaged the pattern when the mask was lifted off again. Used only briefly, proximity aligners held the mask slightly above the surface to avoid this problem, but were difficult to work with and required considerable manual adjustment. Finally, the Micralign projection aligner, introduced by Perkin-Elmer in 1973, held the mask entirely separate from the chip and made the adjustment of the image much simpler. Through these stages of development, yields improved from perhaps 10% to about 70%, leading to a corresponding reduction in chip prices.
The stepper is similar to an aligner in concept, but with one key difference. The aligner uses a mask that holds the pattern for the entire wafer, which may require large masks. The stepper uses a mask on the wafer repeatedly, and steps across the surface to repeat the pattern of the chip layer. This reduces mask costs dramatically and allows a single wafer to be used for different mask designs in a single run. More importantly, by focussing the light source onto a single area of the wafer, the stepper can produce much higher resolutions, thus allowing for smaller features on chips (minimum feature size). The disadvantage to the stepper is that each chip on the wafer has to be individually imaged, and thus the process of exposing the wafer as a whole is much slower.


Reflective transformative design

The reflective transformative design process (RTDP) is a design method developed at Eindhoven University of technology department of Industrial design and proposes a more dynamic, and open design process compared to the more classical double diamond design process. Where the focus is on transforming society through design by continuously reflecting on your vision and the impact that the design will have. The sequence of the design path is not fixed, the focus is on reflection on the process and the result after each activity. It has overlap with the Lean startup method, in a way that it describes a cyclic, continuous process. It also has overlap with Action research, where research is done by actively participating in the research, in the case of RTDP the designer's artifact is participating in the context.
Elements of Reflective transformative design.
The main element of RTDP is ideating integrating, realizing which contains methods like prototyping, wizzard of ozz, sketching
The process is defined as a path though these actions, where the designer reflects on whether the design process is leading towards the envisioned goal.


Internal fan-cooled electric motor

An internal fan-cooled electric motor (colloquially, "fan-cooled motor") is a self cooling electric motor. Fan cooled motors feature an axial fan attached to the rotor of the motor (usually on the opposite end as the output shaft) that spins with the motor, providing increased airflow to the motor's internal and external parts which aids in cooling.
Uses.
Fan cooled motors have many common uses in motors that either produce a lot of heat or have poor airflow because they are always stationary or in an enclosed space and require a compact cooling system. They are common for industrial uses, household appliances such as blenders and mixers, power tools such as drills and rotary tools, and radio-controlled cars
Advantages.
Attaching an internal fan to a motor is a fairly simple way to cool it. Since a fan cooled motor always provides airflow over itself regardless of whether it is stationary or partially enclosed, it is more effective than using a heat sink in applications with poor airflow because heat sinks usually require air to be flowing over them for maximum effectiveness. Internal fan cooling also takes up far less space than external fan cooling or water cooling.
Disadvantages.
All fans generate noise, something that may not be desired in a motor, and drag on their power source. Also, like any device with a fan, increased airflow through the motor can cause increased dust build up, which could potentially hinder the motor's operation.


Plane strain compression test

The plane strain compression test is a specialized test used on some materials ranging from metals to soils.
Metals.
One variation of the test is also known as the "Watts-Ford test". It is an engineering test, and is a particularly specialized way of determining some of the material characteristics of the metal being tested, and its specialization can be summarized by this quote:
The test is useful when the sheet pieces are too small for a tensile test of a balanced biaxial test. It can give stress-strain curves up to considerably higher strains than tensile tests.
Plane-strain compression testing is typically used for measuring mechanical properties and for exploring microstructure development in the course of thermomechanical treatment. During the test the specimen is placed between the punches and the constrain plates. When the upper punch is pushed down during the material test, the specimen is extended to horizontal directions. Friction between the tool and the specimen can be reduced by applying lubricants, such as graphite, MoS2, glass or PTFE(Teflon).
The testing essentially consists of a thin metal bar being compressed by two equally wide compressive strips, which are located of opposite sides of the thin bar. Then, over a range of increasing loads on the bar, the compressive forces lead to the thickness of the metal bar being reduced. This change of thickness is then measured sequentially after each loading, and after some mathematics a stress-strain curve can be plotted.
The advantages of the Watts-Ford test are that it is convenient for testing thin sheets or strips, it is similar to a rolling process (in manufacturing analyses), frictional effects may be minimized, there is no 'barrelling' as would occur in a cylindrical compression test, and the plane strain deformation eases the analysis.
Stress-strain curve
The stress-strain curve is the relationship between the stress (force per unit area) and strain (resulting compression/stretching, known as deformation) that a particular material displays; stress–strain curves of various materials differ widely, and different tensile tests conducted on the same material yield different results depending upon the temperature of the specimen and the speed of the loading. When performing Watts-Ford tests, temperatures of the metal specimens will vary from 800-1100 °C and strain rates of (0.01- 10 s-1).
Pressure
The average pressure on a unit of area of the contact surface between the punch and the specimen is expressed as: P= F/(wb), where F is force, w is the punch width, b is the specimen width.


Shift time

Shift time refers to the time interval between gear changes in a transmission. This interval is the time in which power delivery is transferred to the next selected gear, and engine speed is reduced or increased to synchronize the speed of the next gear. Shift time is usually in reference to motor vehicles, but can apply to any gearbox.
Reducing shift time is important in performance and racing vehicles because upshifting generally interrupts power delivery to the wheels. Shift time in a manual gearbox is dependent on the driver, but in automatic or automated manual cars, the electronic or hydraulic control system must be calibrated and tuned to execute fast gear changes. Generally, a dual-clutch transmission shifts faster than a standard hydraulic automatic transmission with a torque converter or a single-clutch automated manual transmission. This is possible because the DCT can pre-select the next gear and switch between its two separate clutches to the next pre-determined gear, thus reducing shift times. Using a freewheel may reduce shift time, as it may not be necessary to use the clutch. A shift kit is also intended to reduce the shift time of a manual vehicle.
With a manual transmission, upshift time can be reduced by installing a lighter flywheel. During an upshift, the engine speed must decrease to synchronize with a higher gear; a lighter flywheel will allow the engine speed to drop more quickly, leading to shorter shift times.
Shift times.
Example upshift times.
Please note that manufacturers may have different definitions of shift times.


Hermle AG

Maschinenfabrik Berthold Hermle AG is a publicly traded German company with headquarters in Gosheim, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is one of the leading manufacturers of milling machines. There are over 20,000 Hermle-manufactured machines in use worldwide. The chief users are suppliers of medical technology, the optical industry, aviation, and the automotive industry and racing.
Most development and manufacturing is located in Gosheim. The universal milling machines and machining centers from Hermle are used to produce tools, molds, and production parts.
History.
In 1938 Berthold Hermle founded "Berthold Hermle Gosheim - Schraubenfabrik and Fassondreherei". In 1957 the company began production of milling machines. Hermle went public in 1990 and changed its name to "Maschinenfabrik Berthold Hermle AG"—previously, it was primarily known by its initials of BHG (for Berthold Hermle Gosheim).


Solder ring fitting

A solder ring fitting, also known by the trademarked name Yorkshire fitting, is a pre-soldered capillary connector for joining copper pipes used in plumbing.
Operation.
To obtain perfect joins, the inside of the fitting and the outside of the copper pipe are cleaned using coarse steel wool, flux paste is applied, the pipe is inserted into the fitting and heat applied from a portable propane torch until a ring of solder shows at the edges of the fitting. To obtain a durable joint, water must not be poured on the solder joint to cool it. Yorkshire fittings are now made with lead-free solder.
The fittings come in a great variety of configurations, such as Tee-pieces, straight couplers, elbows or bends, reducers (to join pipes of different diameters), stop-ends, and there are versions with screw threads (male or female) at one end to fit taps and galvanized iron pipes.
Valves such as stoptaps & gate valves are also available in solder ring configuration.


Die head

A die head is a threading die that is used in the high volume production of threaded fasteners.
Die heads are commonly used on lathes, turret lathes, screw machines and CNC lathes. They may be used for either cutting a thread or rolling a thread. They may also be used for internal or external thread cutting.
In operation, there are usually four moveable chasers that cut the thread then back away from the work to permit rapid removal of the tool. The lower picture at the right shows four sets of chasers. Each set of chasers is designed to cut a different thread. One set of chasers would be used at a time, each chaser is inserted into the die head (in the correct order) and the die head is closed bringing the chasers down to their cutting position. When sufficient length of thread has been cut the die head will open allowing for rapid retraction of the head without interference with the newly formed thread.
The die head shown cuts an outside thread. There are also collapsible die heads that are used to cut an internal thread.
The bottom picture shows a Die Head used for Thread Rolling. A Rolled Thread may have greater strength than a cut thread, though it usually requires more energy to roll a thread than cut one.


Renishaw plc

Renishaw plc is a British engineering company based in Wotton-under-Edge, England. The company's products include coordinate-measuring machines and machine tool products. It is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 250 Index.
History.
The company was founded by Sir David McMurtry and John Deer in 1973. McMurtry had needed to measure fuel pipes on a prototype jet engine: at the time, coordinate-measuring machine sensors featured rigid styli, which required manual positioning on the surface and which yielded poor repeatability when measuring delicate components. To meet this need, McMurtry invented a touch-trigger probe device, which he then patented. The probe featured an elegant 'kinematic' location for a spring-loaded stylus, providing a highly repeatable seated position for the stylus combined with the compliance needed to measure such components.
Renishaw was first listed on the London Stock Exchange in November 1984. In 2006 the Company bought 'itp', a German manufacturer of precision styli. In early 2009 the global recession reached Renishaw, resulting in a large proportion of the workforce being placed "at risk".
In 2010 Renishaw bought a stake (and subsequently took complete control) of Measuring Devices Ltd, a company providing a range of services in the field of surveying equipment. In 2011 Renishaw purchased the 400,000 sq ft Bosch plant in Miskin, Wales.
Operations.
The company's product portfolio includes touch probes for CNC machine tools, calibration systems that optimise the performance of CNC machinery, linear encoder systems, rotary encoder systems, additive manufacturing machines, dental CAD/CAM systems, Raman spectroscopy and medical devices for functional neurosurgery applications.
Locations.
Renishaw's main offices are situated in Gloucestershire in an old watermill, with several new buildings on a site. The company has a machine shop located at Stonehouse, Gloucestershire, and an assembly facility at Woodchester, both near Stroud. There are further assembly facilities in Dublin (Ireland) and Pune (India). Renishaw also has research facilities located in Wotton-under-Edge, Edinburgh and Ljubljana.
Sale of Renishaw.
On 2 March 2021, David McMurtry and John Deer indicated that they wished to dispose of their entire holdings in Renishaw, comprising some 53% of the shares, as 'we recognise that neither of us is getting any younger'. The Renishaw board then announced that it was launching a formal sale process for the entire company. This process was terminated on 7 July 2021, the board concluding that none of the proposals met their objectives.


Transient liquid phase diffusion bonding (TLPDB) is a joining process that has been applied for bonding many metallic and ceramic systems which cannot be bonded by conventional fusion welding techniques. The bonding process produces joints with a uniform composition profile, tolerant of surface oxides and geometrical defects. The bonding technique has been exploited in a wide range of applications, from the production and repair of turbine engines in the aerospace industry, to nuclear power plants, and in making connections to integrated circuit dies as a part of the microelectronics industry.
Process.
The process differs from diffusion bonding, in which diffusion occurs when a melting point represent element from an interlayer moves into lattice and grain boundaries of the substrates at the bonding temperature. Solid state diffusional processes lead to a change of composition at the bond interface and the dissimilar interlayer melts at a lower temperature than the parent materials. Thus a thin layer of liquid spreads along the interface to form a joint at a lower temperature than the melting point of either of the parent materials. This method differs from brazing in that it is "isothermally solidifying". While holding the temperature above the filler metal melting point, interdiffusion shifts the composition away from eutectic, so solidification occurs at the process temperature. If sufficient interdiffusion occurs, the joint will remain solid and strong well above the original melt process temperature. This is why it is termed "transient liquid phase." The liquid solidifies before cooling.
Interlayer.
In this technique it is necessary to select a suitable interlayer by considering its wettability, flow characteristics, high stability to prevent reactions with the base materials, and the ability to form a composition having a remelt temperature higher than the bonding temperature. The joining technique dates back to ancient times.
 For example, copper oxide painted as an interlayer and covered with tallow or glue to hold gold balls on to a gold article were heated in a reducing flame to form a eutectic alloy alloy at the bond area.
Kinetics.
There are many theories on the kinetics of the bonding process but the most common theory divides the process into four main stages.
 The stages are:


Blisk

A blisk (portmanteau of bladed disk) is a turbomachine component comprising both rotor disk and blades. It serves as a critical component of the engine compressor to allow a sufficient quantity of compressed air to enter the engine for combustion to occur. Blisks generally have better aerodynamics than conventional rotors with single blades and are lighter. Each blisk consists of a single part instead of a disk assembled with individual removable blades. They may be additively manufactured, integrally cast, machined from a solid piece of material, or made by welding individual blades to a rotor disk. The term is used mainly in aerospace engine design. "Blisks" may also be known as integrally bladed rotors (IBR).
History.
Blisk manufacturing has been used since the mid-1980s. It was first used by Sermatech-Lehr (now known as GKN Aerospace) in 1985 for the compressors of the T700 helicopter engine. Since then, its use has continued to increase in major applications for both compressors and fan blade rotors. Examples include the Rocketdyne RS-68 rocket engine and the General Electric F110 turbofan.
The F-35B variant of the Joint Strike Fighter uses blisks to achieve short take-off and vertical landing.
Engine manufacturer CFM International is using blisk technology in the compressor section of its Leap-X demonstrator engine program, which has completed full-scale rig testing. PowerJet SaM146 engines used on Sukhoi Superjet 100s are also equipped with blisks.
General Electric's Passport (formerly "TechX") engine uses blisks for both its main 52" fan as well as for 5 of its 10 high pressure turbine stages. The GEnx already uses blisks in some stages.
Advantages.
Instead of making bare compressor disks and attaching the blades later, blisks are single elements combining the two. This eliminates the need to attach the blades to the disk (via screws, bolts, etc.), thus decreasing the number of components in the compressor, while at the same time decreasing drag and increasing efficiency of air compression in the engine. The elimination of the dovetail attachment found on traditional turbine blades eliminates a source for crack initiation and subsequent propagation.
Efficiency improvements of up to 8% are possible.
Disadvantages.
Any damage to integrally bladed rotor blades beyond minor dents requires the full removal of the engine so that the rotor may be replaced or, if possible, replacement blades welded on. Maintenance of this nature cannot be done on the flightline and often must be performed at a specialized facility. Integrally bladed rotor blades must undergo rigorous harmonic vibration testing as well as dynamic balancing to an extremely high standard, since the natural damping of the dovetail attachment of a typical turbine blade is no longer present.
Process.
General.
Blisks can be produced with several different manufacturing processes, including CNC milling, investment casting, electro chemical machining, 3D printing, or welding. Research is being conducted to produce them using friction welding of "near net" part shapes that are then machined down to the final blisk shape.
Measurement and inspection.
The measurement and inspection of blisks is crucial for guaranteeing engine performance carried out at the end of the manufacturing processes. Traditionally this has been achieved using tactile devices, like CMMs, but as geometries and requirements increase, the trend in modern factories is to carry out 3D scanning using systems like ATOS ScanBox. This has advantages of the speed of measurement compared to tactile devices, whilst collecting 3D data to relate back to design characteristics. Using 3D data, parts can be catalogued in this way, often called digital twin, allowing monitoring of the product through its life-cycle.
Blisk repair using adaptive machining.
Engine-run blisks pose their own set of unique requirements. After parts have been in service in the engine, noticeable amounts of damage and wear will be observed. Provided that the damage and wear are within thresholds set by the design authority, it is possible that the blisks can repaired.
Repair of blisk components is complex and first requires an accurate 3D representation of the component. The quickest way to do this is by 3D scanning the product. After the part is scanned, an STL file can be passed to a CNC code generating software such as NX CAM. The tool paths are regenerated to suit the measured geometry and not the nominally generated CAD in a process known as adaptive machining.
The processes would typically involve removing part or all of a blade(s), followed by a weld back to approximate size before finishing by final machining back to the airfoil shape.


Cutting

Cutting is the separation or opening of a physical object, into two or more portions, through the application of an acutely directed force.
Implements commonly used for cutting are the knife and saw, or in medicine and science the scalpel and microtome. However, any sufficiently sharp object is capable of cutting if it has a hardness sufficiently larger than the object being cut, and if it is applied with sufficient force. Even liquids can be used to cut things when applied with sufficient force (see water jet cutter).
Cutting is a compressive and shearing phenomenon, and occurs only when the total stress generated by the cutting implement exceeds the ultimate strength of the material of the object being cut. The simplest applicable equation is:
formula_1 or formula_2
The stress generated by a cutting implement is directly proportional to the force with which it is applied, and inversely proportional to the area of contact. Hence, the smaller the area (i.e., the sharper the cutting implement), the less force is needed to cut something. It is generally seen that cutting edges are thinner for cutting soft materials and thicker for harder materials. This progression is seen from kitchen knife, to cleaver, to axe, and is a balance between the easy cutting action of a thin blade vs strength and edge durability of a thicker blade.
Metal cutting.
Cutting has been at the core of manufacturing throughout history. For metals many methods are used and can be grouped by the physical phenomenon used. It is the process of producing a work piece by removing unwanted material from a block of metal, in the form of chips.
Every method has its limitations in accuracy, cost, and effect on the material. For example, heat may damage the quality of heat treated alloys, and laser cutting is less suitable for highly reflective materials such as aluminum. Laser cutting sheet metal produces flat parts and etches and engraves parts from complex or simple designs. It is used over other cutting options for its quick process and customizable abilities.


Engineer to order

Engineer to order is a production approach characterized by:
To speed up delivery time, the adoption of concurrent engineering, integrated product team, and lean product development methodologies are used. The critical path methodology is also essential. To speed up the delivery time, many companies use customization approach (In SAP terminology it is called Variant configuration) where in, the most part of the BOM components and routing operation elements could be created automatically based on the design inputs received during quote/sales order stage. This approach speedup the BOM and routing creation process, there by help ETO companies to respond quickly to customer requirement.
Engineer to order environments must employ a flexible and adaptive, demand-driven approach to the manufacturing process. It is usually the right solution when details on a customer order are not provided and engineering development must be added to product lead time.
ETO is a technique that is leveraged to boost sales and improve margins for those companies with customers needing solutions that are tailored to fit their own unique environment. It begins with selling product concepts that don’t have fixed designs and are expected to result in a new, unique end product. This could be any product, from enterprise software applications to special aircraft to a pair of jeans. But the typical ETO environment usually deals with the design and build of unique custom engineered complex machinery and industrial equipment - one in which there is heavy involvement of the following engineering disciplines; mechanical, electrical, mechatronics, software, manufacturing and systems engineering. The ETO company works with its customers to develop new products that satisfy the customer’s requirements and specifications.
Engineer to order vs Make to Order.
The difference between the ETO approach to production and make to order products is that engineering original products to order includes the entire design process. In MTO companies typically have a fixed design and specifications to start with. The existing design is followed, even if the customer requests some customization of dimensions or materials. In engineering to meet unique customer orders, designs spring from collaboration with the customer, beginning with a need and a concept. Engineers do not know the final specifications, materials, or in software development, even the network or application platform until other primary concepts are ironed out. This is a much more creative process and requires a much closer relationship with clients, ultimately leading to a product that is unique.
Process Flow.
Engineers don’t always follow a smooth flow from step to step even in ordinary manufacturing. Most manufacturing design decisions tends to be highly iterative. It is common to create a design that meets customer approval, test it, make changes to meet specifications, and resubmit at certain stages or milestones in order for approval to proceed to the next stage. Engineer to order, due to its nature, is even more complex and client-centric. This requires on-going documentation, but the approach typically involves all of the following steps.
Quality.
Given the unique nature of the delivered product, clients may accept certain quality risks as a consequence of meeting delivery dates. Testing and trial periods may also be limited by the nature of the product, the manufacturing required, and the metrics established for quality controls. As each product is essentially a one of a kind prototype, smaller companies on either the manufacturer or client side may not have the expertise or resources to implement use-cases, user testing, or future quality guidelines. In MTO, quality is often defined as a lack of defects, but must meet minimal levels defined in the specifications. In Engineer to Order there is no original design. Where possible, prior similar products may provide some guidelines as to testing and precision, but the idea of re-designing or modifying an existing design is necessarily a core requirement of the engineer to order concept. It does however reduce costs and time if one can use previous designs.


Food packaging

Food packaging is a packaging system specifically designed for food and represents one of the most important aspects among the processes involved in the food industry, as it provides protection from chemical, biological and physical alterations. The main goal of food packaging is to provide a practical means of protecting and delivering food goods at a reasonable cost while meeting the needs and expectations of both consumers and industries. Additionally, current trends like sustainability, environmental impact reduction, and shelf-life extension have gradually become among the most important aspects in designing a packaging system.
History.
Packaging of food products has seen a vast transformation in technology usage and application from the stone age to the industrial revolution:
7000 BC: The adoption of pottery and glass which saw industrialization around 1500 BC.
1700s: The first manufacturing production of tinplate was introduced in England (1699) and in France (1720). Afterwards, the Dutch navy start to use such packaging to prolong the preservation of food products.
1804: Nicolas Appert, in response to inquiries into extending the shelf life of food for the French Army, employed glass bottles along with thermal food treatment. Glass has been replaced by metal cans in this application. However, there is still an ongoing debate about who first introduced the use of tinplates as food packaging.
1870: The use of paper board was launched and corrugated materials patented.
1880s: First cereal packaged in a folding box by Quaker Oats.
1890s: The crown cap for glass bottles was patented by William Painter.
1960s: Development of the two-piece drawn and wall-ironed metal cans in the US, along with the ring-pull opener and the Tetra Brik Aseptic carton package.
1970s: The barcode system was introduced in the retail and manufacturing industry. PET plastic blow-mold bottle technology, which is widely used in the beverage industry, was introduced.
1990s: The application of digital printing on food packages became widely adopted.
Plastic packaging saw its inaugural use during World War II, even though materials employed in its manufacturing (such as cellulose nitrate, styrene and vinyl chloride) were discovered in the 1800s.
Functions.
Packaging and package's labeling have several objectives:
Types.
Packaging design may vary largely depending on the function that are fashioned into different types of packages and containers, and depending on the food products and their function, such as:
Since almost all food products is packed in some fashion, food packaging is both fundamental and pervasive. Additionally, by enabling the creation and standardization of brands, it provides the opportunity to realized significant advertising, extensive distribution, and mass merchandising. Therefore, a distinction between the various type (or level) of packaging needs to be made.
Primary packaging.
Primary packaging is directly in contact with the food products, creating the ideal headspace for them while providing protection from external alteration. Additionally, primary packaging, also known as retail packaging or consumer units, is responsible for the marketing aspects of food packaging. Typically, the packaging materials used in the primary level include cardboard cartons, plastic trays, glass bottle and multi-layerd structure (Tetra Pak).
Secondary packaging.
Secondary packaging contains a number of primary packages into one box being made usually out of corrugated cardboard. Thus, the secondary level is a physical distribution carrier for the primary packages, making more easy to handle during the transportation. Occasionally it can be used as an aid in retail outlets or super market for the display of basic goods.
Tertiary packaging.
The outermost package, known as tertiary packaging, makes it easier to handle, store, and distribute both primary and secondary packages in bulk safely, providing further protection of the product while creating an easy way to transport large quantities of materials. The most familiar type of tertiary packaging comprises a wrapped pallet of corrugated case.
Packaging machines.
A choice of packaging machinery requires consideration of technical capabilities, labor requirements, worker safety, maintainability, serviceability, reliability, ability to integrate into the packaging line, capital cost, floorspace, flexibility (change-over, materials, etc.), energy usage, quality of outgoing packages, qualifications (for food, pharmaceuticals, etc.), throughput, efficiency, productivity, and ergonomics, at a minimum.
Packaging machines may be of the following general types:
Reduction of food packaging.
Reduced packaging and sustainable packaging are becoming more frequent. The motivations can be government regulations, consumer pressure, retailer pressure, and cost control. Reduced packaging often saves packaging costs.
In the UK, a Local Government Association survey produced by the British Market Research Bureau compared a range of outlets to buy 29 common food items, and found that small local retailers and market traders "produced less packaging and more that could be recycled than the larger supermarkets."
In the last decades, the growing demand from the consumers and governments for more sustainable and eco-friendly packaging design has driven the food industry to re-design and propose alternative packaging solutions. However, in designing a brand new packaging system, several variables need to be taken in consideration. An ideal packaging design should only use the right amount of the appropriate materials to provide the desired performance for a specific product. As shown in the optimum packaging design chart, the variety of situations in which product losses occur increases as the material weight or volume is decreased.
Such trend will eventually reach a situation in which the loss outweighs the cost savings from using less packing material. Beyond that point, any packing reduction increases the overall quantity of waste in the system, rendering it a false benefit. The goal of the optimal packaging design is to identify a weight below which the package can no longer be sold since it does not satisfy the specifications, while considering the environmental impact connected to the materials selection.
Recycling of food packaging.
Food packaging is created through the use of a wide variety of plastics and metals, papers, and glass materials. Recycling these products differs from the act of literally reusing them because the recycling process has its own algorithm which includes collecting, sourcing, processing, manufacturing and marketing these products. According to the Environmental Protection Agency of the United States, the recycling rate has been steadily on the rise, with data reporting that in 2005 40% of the food packaging and containers that were created were recycled.

The product's quality and safety are the package's most important responsibility. However, there have been growing demands for packaging to be designed, manufactured, consumed, and recycled in a more sustainable fashion due to the increasing pollution connected with packaging and food wastes. It has been estimated that only 10.33% of all municipal solid waste (MSW), which makes up to 30.3% of the total waste, is recycled into new products globally.
However, depending on the level of packaging and the materials that are being used during their manufacturing, the end-of-life of a package may differ completely. Despite the fact that a recycling process is usually the desired path, lots of complications may lead to less sustainable destines.
Food packaging barriers.
A critical requirement in food packaging is represented by the barrier properties against the permeation of gases, water vapor, and aroma compounds of the packaging system. In fact, the chemical interactions between the products and the environment are the principal reasons for improper shelf-life and spoilage phenomena. Therefore, the evaluation of the gas exchange by means of the permeation of gas molecules is a crucial aspect in designing a product.
The permeation of a gas molecule through a packaging system is a physical process made up of three independent phenomena: the adsorption of the molecule to the packaging's outer surface; the diffusion of the molecule through the packaging’s section; and the desorption in the internal headspace. Under the assumption of steady state condition, the physical processes involved in the permeation can be modeled by simple equations. Particularly, the diffusion of a permeant's molecule is dependent to the concentration difference between the two sides of the packaging system, which acts as a driving force, thus creating a diffusive flux following the first Fick's law of diffusion.
Furthermore, other assumptions are needed, such as the absence of chemical interaction between the penetrant and the packaging material and the fact that the diffusion flow must follow only one direction. The adsorption/desorption processes of a permeant's molecule normally exhibit a linear dependency with the partial pressure gradient across the barrier layer while keeping the assumption of steady-state transport condition and exhibiting a concentration lower than the penetrant's maximum solubility, thereby adhering to Henry's law of solubility.
The type of permeant, the barrier layer's thickness, the specific permeabilities of the packaging films against gases or vapors, the packaging's permeable area, the temperature, and the pressure or concentration gradient between the barrier's interior and external sides can all have an impact on a system's permeability.
The gas exchange occurring between the packaging system and the external environment has a significant impact on the quality and safety of food products. Uncontrolled physico-chemical and biological processes such as oxidation of vitamins, excessive microbial growth, and spoilage of the packed food may lead to improper conditions inside the packaging headspace, hence reducing their shelf-life. Therefore, the packaging system should be designed to create the ideal conditions for the selected product, avoiding excessive gas exchange.
Among the permeants that could affect the organoleptic properties of food, oxygen and water vapor represent the most important ones. These permeants affect several bio-chemical processes in food products, such as ripening, degradation, hydration/dehydration, microbial growth, vitamins oxidation; they also have an impact on the organoleptic properties, hence causing off-flavours, excessive weight loss, textural changing and generally shortening the shelf life.
To quantify the barrier properties of a packaging system, both oxygen and water vapor permeation are commonly assessed by measuring the oxygen transmission rate (OTR) and water vapor transmission rate (WVTR), respectively.
Oxygen barrier.
The oxygen transmission rate of a gas through the packaging is defined as the amount of oxygen permeating per unit of permeable area and unit of time in a packaging system considering standardized test conditions (23 °C and 1 atm partial pressure difference). It is an effective tool to estimate the barrier properties of a certain material. The determination of the OTR is usually carried out by means of a steady-state and isostatic method, reported by the ASTM D 3985 or ASTM F 1307, containing respectively standardized protocol for the measurements of the OTR of several kind of packaging.
The typical instrumentation consists in a permeation cell composed by two distinct chambers separated by the tested material; one of the chambers is then filled with a carrier gas (e.g., nitrogen), while the other one with oxygen, hence creating the necessary driving force to let the oxygen permeate across the barrier’s material.
Water vapor barrier.
Concurrently to the oxygen barrier property, the permeability of water vapor through a food packaging system should be minimized to effectively prevent physical and chemical changes connected to an excessive moisture content.The moisture barrier properties of a material can be assessed by measuring the water vapor transmission rate (WVTR), which can be defined as the amount of water vapor per unit of area and unit of time passing through the packaging film.
The WVTR measurements, like the OTR, adhere to the standards for standardized tests as outlined in the ASTM E96 (standard methods for water vapor transmission of materials). An impermeable test dish (such as a stainless steel cup) and a test chamber where temperature and relative humidity (RH) can be adjusted in accordance with the standard specification, make up the basic instrumentation used in such tests.
Other vapors.
Although both oxygen and water vapor represent the most studied permeants in food packaging application, other gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen (N2) have also great relevance in the preservation of food products. In fact, N2 and CO2 have been employed in modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) technology to establish the correct conditions inside the package's headspace to lessen food spoiling.
Food safety and public health.
It is critical to maintain food safety during processing, packaging, storage, logistics (including cold chain), sale, and use. Conformance to applicable regulations is mandatory. Some are country specific such as the US Food and Drug Administration and the US Department of Agriculture; others are regional such as the European Food Safety Authority. Certification programs such as the Global Food Safety Initiative are sometimes used. Food packaging considerations may include: use of hazard analysis and critical control points, verification and validation protocols, Good manufacturing practices, use of an effective quality management system, track and trace systems, and requirements for label content. Special food contact materials are used when the package is in direct contact with the food product. Depending on the packaging operation and the food, packaging machinery often needs specified daily wash-down and cleaning procedures.
Health risks of materials and chemicals that are used in food packaging need to be carefully controlled. Carcinogens, toxic chemicals, mutagens etc. need to be eliminated from food contact and potential migration into foods. Besides, the consumers need to be aware of certain chemical products that are packaged exactly like food products to attract them. Most of them have pictures of fruits and the containers also resemble food packages. However, they can get consumed by kids or careless adults and lead to poisoning.
Manufacturing.
Packaging lines can have a variety of equipment types: integration of automated systems can be a challenge. All aspects of food production, including packaging, are tightly controlled and have regulatory requirements. Uniformity, cleanliness and other requirements are needed to maintain Good Manufacturing Practices.
Product safety management is vital. A complete Quality Management System must be in place. Hazard analysis and critical control points is one methodology which has been proven useful. Verification and validation involves collecting documentary evidence of all aspects of compliance. Quality assurance extends beyond the packaging operations through distribution and cold chain management.