Flavor scalping

Flavor scalping is a term used in the packaging industry to describe the loss of quality of a packaged item due to either its volatile flavors being absorbed by the packaging or the item absorbing undesirable flavors from its packaging. A classic example is the absorption of various plastic flavors when soft drinks are stored in plastic bottles for an extended period.


Magma (company)

MAGMA Gießereitechnologie GmbH is a developer and supplier of software for casting process simulation.
Introduction.
The company was founded in 1988 and has its headquarters in Aachen, Germany. MAGMA's product and service portfolio includes simulation software MAGMASOFT, with the newest release MAGMA5, as well as engineering services for casting design and optimization. The software is used world-wide by foundries, casting buyers and designers, especially for the optimization of cast components in automotive and heavy industry applications. German newspaper Süddeutsche Zeitung cites MAGMA amongst the global market leaders for simulation software for casting processes.
Worldwide, MAGMA employs more than 200 people in software development, support, marketing, and administration, of which 90 are in Aachen. The company also has offices and subsidiaries in the United States, Singapore, Brazil, Korea, Turkey, India, China, and the Czech Republic.
MAGMA5.
MAGMA5 is used for the simulation of casting processes. The software stands for the prediction of the entire casting component quality and process chain by providing a better understanding of mold filling, solidification and cooling and allows the quantitative prediction of mechanical properties, thermal stresses and distortions of the resulting castings. The simulation describes a cast component's quality up-front before production starts and the casting method can be designed with respect to the required component properties. This results in a reduction in pre-production sampling as the precise layout of the complete casting system leads to energy, material, and tooling savings.
MAGMA5 consists of a base module and a set of additional modules that cover all steps of the casting production. The range of application of MAGMA solutions comprises all cast alloys, from cast iron to aluminum sand casting, permanent mold and die casting up to large steel castings. The software supports the user in the modeling of the component, the determination of melting practice and casting methoding through to model and mold making, heat treatment, and finishing.


Dynamic manufacturing network

Definition.
A dynamic manufacturing network (DMN) is a coalition, either permanent or temporal, comprising production systems of geographically dispersed small and medium enterprises and/or original equipment manufacturers that collaborate in a shared value-chain to conduct joint manufacturing.
The dynamic manufacturing networks are an approach that helps to manage risks and increase benefits in the manufacturing sector. The DMNs are a proposed solution to increase the efficiency and reduce the time needed to design and operate a new manufacturing network, or to reconfigure an existing one.
Applications.
Manufacturing networks have become increasingly common in applied research on manufacturing, since several manufacturing enterprises have shown interest for creating such networks and take advantage of them both for collaborative product development and for supply chain optimization.
During the last decade the effort is mainly focused on the dynamic management of the manufacturing networks, as proven by several studies published by Accenture, MIT
 and University of St. Gallen


Johnson's rule

In operations research, Johnson's rule is a method of scheduling jobs in two work centers. Its primary objective is to find an optimal sequence of jobs to reduce makespan (the total amount of time it takes to complete all jobs). It also reduces the amount of idle time between the two work centers.
The method minimizes the makespan in the case of two work centers. Furthermore, the method finds the shortest makespan in the case of three work centers if additional constraints are met.
Algorithm.
The technique requires several preconditions:
Johnson's rule is as follows:
Given significant idle time at the second work center (from waiting for the job to be finished at the first work center), job splitting may be used.
Example.
Each of five jobs needs to go through work center A and B. Find the optimum sequence of jobs using Johnson's rule.
So, the jobs must be processed in the order C → A → D → E → B, and must be processed in the same order on both work centers.


Dieline

A dieline is used in graphic design as a placeholder for assisting in the proper layout of a document that will be diecut as part of the finishing process. Dielines can also indicate perforation, cutting, and folding marks for flat packaging. It is usually placed into the graphic's computer file as a separate layer for sizing and orientation purposes. A dieline is usually not printed on the final piece but is used to determine correct layout. They are useful both for aesthetic purposes and to avoid manufacturing errors by acting as a blueprint. A Dieline can be created using graphic design software like Adobe Illustrator.
Dielines are traditionally used when designing:


Liquid Impact Forming

Liquid Impact Forming is a metalworking process in which the combined use of a stamping press and a liquid medium forms the desired shape on the workpiece. This technique is a synthesis of two metalworking processes; stamping (metalworking) and hydroforming. It is especially suited for the cold forming of tubular structural parts in automotive, railroad and aerospace industries.
The process is based on a patent by Stanley Ash from the Greenville Tool & Die Company in Greenville, Michigan.
Process.
Liquid impact forming uses the principles of hydroforming process with conventional stamping equipment. Even though hydroforming offers great advantages over conventional tube stamping through the reduction of manufacturing steps and the reduction of variation in workpieces, it still requires expensive mechanical equipment such as dies to withstand extreme pressures and pressurizing equipment such as pumps and intensifiers. As an alternative to this, the liquid impact forming utilizes the increase in the internal pressure of the liquid inside of a tube during the stamping process, eliminating the need for the use of above mentioned equipment.
The process includes the following stages:
1. A metal tube is filled with a liquid, preferably water and placed between lower and upper die sections of stamping dies.
2. The ends of the liquid-filled tube are sealed to confine the liquid within the tube at approximately atmospheric pressure.
3. The liquid-filled sealed tube is stamped in a conventional die to form the tube into a desired configuration, such as a box-shaped structural member. The compressive forces produced as the die closes to form stamped tube also compress the liquid within the interior of the sealed tube as it changes shape. Thus, the pressure of the liquid increases as the die closes. As the liquid resists compression, it forces the tube walls outwardly toward the interior surface of the die cavity. Once die sections are fully closed around the sealed tube, the tube walls take the shape of the die cavity.
4. The remaining liquid is drained from the formed tube.
Applications and Variations.
The liquid impact forming process is especially advantageous for the cold forming of tubular structural parts in automotive, railroad and aerospace industries. It may be used in the cold forming of cylindrical or non-cylindrical parts. It is limited for the applications requiring extensive metal flow or bulging because of the absence of external pressure utilization as in hydroforming.
One further variation of the liquid impact forming comprises the use of a change-of-state material in liquid state in order to prevent the tube wall from buckling or wrinkling during piercing. The change-of-state material can be water or a metallic lead-bismuth alloy. The liquid can be frozen before the stamping phase. After stamping, the liquid can be melted and drained from the shaped tube. Other applications of the process would be the piercing or bulging of tubes, which could also include the use of the change-of-state material.


Supply chain collaboration

In supply chain management, supply chain collaboration is defined as two or more autonomous firms working jointly to plan and execute supply chain operations. It can deliver substantial benefits and advantages to collaborators. It is known as a cooperative strategy when one or more companies or business units work together to create mutual benefits. There are two main types of supply chain collaboration: vertical collaboration and horizontal collaboration. Vertical collaboration is the collaboration when two or more organizations from different levels or stages in supply chain share their responsibilities, resources, and performance information to serve relatively similar end customers; while horizontal collaboration is an inter-organizational systemrelationship between two or more companies at the same level or stage in the supply chain in order to allow greater ease of work and cooperation towards achieving a common objective.
Supply chain collaboration should not be confused with 'Operational Collaboration'. Operational Collaboration is when a supplier checks in with a buying organization for example. Supplier Collaboration focuses on collaborative goals that deliver value to both the buying and selling organization.
Different forms and approaches of supply chain collaboration.
Collaborative communication.
Collaborative communication is the contact and message transmission process among supply chain partners in terms of frequency, direction, mode, and influence strategy. Open, frequent, balanced, two-way, multilevel communications indicate close inter-firm relationships.
Collaborative Execution.
Collaborative execution is the process of executing supply chain transactions in a collaborative manner. Suppliers will work with buyers to ensure the right quantity of materials is delivered in the right time as per the contract. As the purchase order goes through its life cycle of order to delivery, at each stage there needs to be a tight collaboration between the trading partners for correct and efficient execution.
Open Supply Chain Innovation.
Inspired by the Open Innovation approach, supply chain networks can facilitate innovation platforms where n-tier supplier chain actors and partners beyond the supply chain network can collaborate, co-create, and co-innovate. The open supply chain collaboration builds upon three ambidextrous capabilities: knowledge exploration and exploitation, horizontal and vertical collaboration, incremental and radical innovation.
Coordinating contract.
Coordinating contract is defined as a coordination mechanism that provides incentives to all of its members so that the decentralized supply chain behaves nearly or exactly the same as the integrated one, by specifying contract parameters such as quantity, price, quality and deadlines, contracts are designed to improve supplier-buyer relationship.
Information sharing.
Information sharing is the extent to which a firm shares a variety of relevant, accurate, complete, and confidential ideas, plans, and procedures with its supply chain partners in a timely manner.
Joint decision making.
Joint decision making refers to the process where supply chain partners orchestrate decisions in supply chain planning and operations that optimize supply chain benefits.
Joint knowledge creation.
Joint knowledge creation is the extent to which supply chain partners develop a better understanding of and response to the market and competitive environment by working together.
Resource sharing.
Resource sharing is the process of leveraging capabilities and assets and investing in capabilities and assets with supply chain partners.


Tool bit

In machining, a tool bit is a non-rotary cutting tool used in metal lathes, shapers, and planers. Such cutters are also often referred to by the set-phrase name of single-point cutting tool, as distinguished from other cutting tools such as a saw or water jet cutter. The cutting edge is ground to suit a particular machining operation and may be resharpened or reshaped as needed. The ground tool bit is held rigidly by a tool holder while it is cutting.
Geometry.
Back rake is to help control the direction of the chip, which naturally curves into the work due to the difference in length from the outer and inner parts of the cut. It also helps counteract the pressure against the tool from the work by pulling the tool into the work.
Side rake along with back rake controls the chip flow and partly counteracts the resistance of the work to the movement of the cutter and can be optimized to suit the particular material being cut. Brass for example requires a back and side rake of 0 degrees while aluminum uses a back rake of 35 degrees and a side rake of 15 degrees.
Nose radius makes the finish of the cut smoother as it can overlap the previous cut and eliminate the peaks and valleys that a pointed tool produces. Having a radius also strengthens the tip, a sharp point being quite fragile. Nose radius varies depending on the machining operations like roughing, semi-finishing or finishing and also on the component material being cut: steel, cast iron, aluminium and others.
All the other angles are for clearance in order that no part of the tool besides the actual cutting edge can touch the work. The front clearance angle is usually 8 degrees while the side clearance angle is 10-15 degrees and partly depends on the rate of feed expected.
Minimum angles which do the job required are advisable because the tool gets weaker as the edge gets keener due to the lessening support behind the edge and the reduced ability to absorb heat generated by cutting.
The rake angles on the top of the tool need not be precise in order to cut but to cut efficiently there will be an optimum angle for back and side rake.
Materials.
Steels.
Originally, all tool bits were made of high carbon tool steels with the appropriate hardening and tempering. Since the introductions of high-speed steel (HSS) (early years of the 20th century), sintered carbide (1930s), ceramic and diamond cutters, those materials have gradually replaced the earlier kinds of tool steel in almost all cutting applications. Most tool bits today are made of HSS, cobalt steel, or carbide.
Carbides and ceramics.
Carbide, ceramics (such as cubic boron nitride) and diamond, having higher hardness than HSS, all allow faster material removal than HSS in most cases. Because these materials are more expensive and brittler than steel, typically the body of the cutting tool is made of steel, and a small cutting edge made of the harder material is attached. The cutting edge is usually either screwed or clamped on (in this case it is called an insert), or brazed on to a steel shank (this is usually only done for carbide).
Inserts.
Almost all high-performance cutting tools use indexable inserts. There are several reasons for this. First of all, at the very high cutting speeds and feeds supported by these materials, the cutting tip can reach temperatures high enough to melt the brazing material holding it to the shank. Economics are also important; inserts are made symmetrically so that when the first cutting edge is dull they can be rotated, presenting a fresh cutting edge. Some inserts are even made so that they can be flipped over, giving as many as 16 cutting edges per insert. There are many types of inserts: some for roughing, some for finishing. Others are made for specialized jobs like cutting threads or grooves. The industry employs standardized nomenclature to describe inserts by shape, material, coating material, and size.
Form tools.
A form tool is precision-ground into a pattern that resembles the part to be formed. The form tool can be used as a single operation and therefore eliminate many other operations from the slides (front, rear and/or vertical) and the turret, such as box tools. A form tool turns one or more diameters while feeding into the work. Before the use of form tools, diameters were turned by multiple slide and turret operations, and thus took more work to make the part. For example, a form tool can turn many diameters and in addition can also cut off the part in a single operation and eliminate the need to index the turret. For single-spindle machines, bypassing the need to index the turret can dramatically increase hourly part production rates.
On long-running jobs it is common to use a "roughing tool" on a different slide or turret station to remove the bulk of the material to reduce wear on the form tool.
There are different types of form tools. Insert form tools are the most common for short- to medium-range jobs (50 to 20,000 pcs). Circular form tools are usually for longer jobs, since the tool wear can be ground off the tool tip many times as the tool is rotated in its holder. There is also a skiving tool that can be used for light finishing cuts. Form tools can be made of cobalt steel, carbide, or high-speed steel. Carbide requires additional care because it is very brittle and will chip if chatter occurs.
A drawback when using form tools is that the feed into the work is usually slow, 0.0005" to 0.0012" per revolution depending on the width of the tool. Wide form tools create more heat and usually are problematic for chatter. Heat and chatter reduces tool life. Also, form tools wider than 2.5 times the smaller diameter of the part being turned have a greater risk of the part breaking off. When turning longer lengths, a support from the turret can be used to increase turning length from 2.5 times to 5 times the smallest diameter of the part being turned, and this also can help reduce chatter. Despite the drawbacks, the elimination of extra operations often makes using form tools the most efficient option.
Toolholders.
By confining the expensive hard cutting tip to the part doing the actual cutting, the cost of tooling is reduced. The supporting tool holder can then be made from a tougher steel, which besides being cheaper is also usually better suited to the task, being less brittle than the cutting-edge materials.
The tool holders may also be designed to introduce additional properties to the cutting action, such as:
Note that since stiffness (rather than strength) is usually the design driver of a tool holder, the steel used doesn't need to be particularly hard or strong as there is relatively little difference between the stiffnesses of most steel alloys.
Holders used on lathes.
Bit holder and toolpost.
The "toolpost" is the part of a metalworking lathe which either holds the tool bit directly or holds a toolholder which contains the tool bit. There are a great variety of designs for toolposts (including basic toolposts, rocker toolposts, quick-change toolposts, and toolpost turrets) and toolholders (with varying geometry and features).
Box tool.
A box tool is mounted on the turret of a turret lathe or screw machine. It is essentially a toolpost that brings its follower rest along with it. A tool bit (or several tool bits) and a compact follower rest (usually V-shaped or with two rollers) are mounted opposite each other in a body which surrounds the workpiece (forms a "box" around it). As the tool bit puts a lateral deflecting force on the workpiece, the follower rest opposes it, providing rigidity. A different and popular type of box tool uses two rollers rather than a follower rest. One roller is called a "sizing roller" and the other roller is called a "burnishing roller". The rollers turn with the stock to reduce scarring on the finished turn. Opposing tool bits may be used (instead of a rest) to cancel each other's deflecting forces (called a "balanced turning tool"), in which case the box tool begins to overlap in form, function, and identity with a hollow mill.
Holders used on shapers, slotters, and planers.
Clapper box.
Shapers, slotters, and planers often employ a kind of toolholder called a "clapper box" that swings freely on the return stroke of the ram or bed. On the next cutting stroke, it "claps" back into cutting position. Its movement is analogous to that of a butterfly-style check valve.
Holders used on milling machines.
Fly cutters.
Fly cutters are a type of milling cutter in which one or two tool bits are mounted. The bits spin around with the rotation of the spindle, taking facing cuts. Fly cutters are an application of tool bits where the bits are part of a rotary unit (whereas most other tool bit use is linear).
History.
Tool bits have been used for centuries, yet their further technological development continues even today. Before about 1900, almost all tool bits were made by their users, and many machine shops had forges. In fact, good machinists were expected to have blacksmithing knowledge, and although the chemistry and physics of the heat treatment of steel were not well understood (as compared with today's sciences), the practical "art" of heat treatment was quite advanced, and something that most skilled metalworkers were comfortably acquainted with. Tool bits were made of carbon tool steels, which have high enough carbon content to take hardening well. Each bit was forged with a hammer, quenched, and then ground with a grindstone. The exact details of the heat treatment and tip geometry were a matter of individual experience and preference.
A substantial technological advance occurred in the 1890–1910 period, when Frederick Winslow Taylor applied scientific methods to the study of tool bits and their cutting performance (including their geometry, metallurgy, and heat treatment, and the resulting speeds and feeds, depths of cut, metal-removal rates, and tool life). Along with Maunsel White and various assistants, he developed high-speed steels (whose properties come from both their alloying element mixtures and their heat treatment methods). His cutting experiments chewed through tons of workpiece material, consumed thousands of tool bits, and generated mountains of chips. They were sponsored in large part by William Sellers (a principal of Midvale Steel and Cramp's shipyard) and later by Bethlehem Steel. Not only did Taylor develop new materials to make single-point cutters from, but he also determined optimum geometry (rake angles, clearance angles, nose radiuses, etc.). He developed Taylor's Equation for Tool Life Expectancy. After Taylor, it was no longer taken for granted that the black art of individual craftsmen represented the highest level of metalworking technology. This was part of a larger trend during the 19th and 20th centuries by which science was mixed with art in the material culture of everyday life (applied science).
Stellite soon joined high-speed steels as a material for single-point cutters. Although diamond turning had been around for a long time, it was not until these new, expensive metals came about that the idea of cutting inserts became commonly applied in machining. Before this, most single-point cutters were forged entirely of tool steel (then ground at the tip). Now it became more common to attach a separate tip (of one material) to a holder (of another). With the development of commercially available cemented carbide (1920s) and ceramic inserts (post-WWII), this trend accelerated, because carbide and ceramic are even more expensive and even less suited to serving as a shank. The technological development, however, did not immediately displace the older ways. Between 1900 and 1950, it was still not uncommon for a machinist to forge a tool from carbon tool steel.
Today, among the single-point cutters used in mass production (such as of automotive parts), insert tools using carbide and ceramic far outnumber HSS or cobalt steel tools. In other machining contexts (e.g., job shops, toolrooms, and hobbyist practice), the latter are still well represented. An entire system of industry-standard notation has been developed to name each insert geometry type. The number of carbide and ceramic formulations continues to expand, and diamond is used more than ever before. Speeds, feeds, depths of cut, and temperatures at the cutting interface continue to rise (the latter counterbalanced by copious cooling via liquid, air, or aerosols), and cycle times continue to shrink. Competition among product manufacturers to lower the unit costs of production continually drives technological development by the tool manufacturers, as long as the costs of R&D and tooling purchase amortization are lower than the amount of money saved by productivity increases (e.g., wage expense reduction).


Countersink

A countersink (symbol: ⌵) is a conical hole cut into a manufactured object, or the cutter used to cut such a hole. A common use is to allow the head of a countersunk bolt, screw or rivet, when placed in the hole, to sit flush with or below the surface of the surrounding material (by comparison, a counterbore makes a flat-bottomed hole that might be used with a socket-head capscrew). A countersink may also be used to remove the burr left from a drilling or tapping operation thereby improving the finish of the product and removing any hazardous sharp edges.
The basic geometry of a countersink (cutter) inherently can be applied to the plunging applications described above (axial feed only) and also to other milling applications (sideways traversal). Therefore, countersinks overlap in form, function, and sometimes name with chamfering endmills (endmills with angled tips). Regardless of the name given to the cutter, the surface being generated may be a conical chamfer (plunging applications) or a beveled corner for the intersection of two planes (traversing applications).
Types.
Machining.
A countersink may be used in many tools, such as drills, drill presses, milling machines, and lathes.
Cross-hole countersink cutter.
A cross-hole, "Weldon style" or "zero flute" countersink is a cone-shaped tool with a cutting edge provided by a hole that goes through the side of the cone. The intersection of the hole and cone form the cutting edge on the tool. The cone is not truly symmetrical as it is essential that the cone retreats away from the cutting edge as the tool rotates providing clearance. If this does not occur the cutting edge will lack clearance and rub rather than "bite" into the material. This clearance is referred to as cutting relief.
These tools are best used as deburring tools, where the burr from a previous machining operation needs to be removed for cosmetic and safety reasons, however they may be used in softer materials (such as wood or plastic) to create a countersunk hole for a screw.
Fluted countersink cutter.
The fluted countersink cutter is used to provide a heavy chamfer in the entrance to a drilled hole. This may be required to allow the correct seating for a countersunk-head screw or to provide the lead in for a second machining operation such as tapping. Countersink cutters are manufactured with six common angles, which are 60°, 82°, 90°, 100°, 110°, or 120°, with the two most common of those being 82° and 90°. Countersunk-head screws that follow the Unified Thread Standard very often have an 82° angle, and screws that follow the ISO standard very often have a 90° angle. Throughout the aerospace industry, countersunk fasteners typically have an angle of 100°.
Back countersink.
A "back countersink", also known as an "inserted countersink", is a two piece countersink used on tough to reach areas. One component is a rod that is inserted into the existing hole in the workpieces; the other component is the cutter, which is attached to the rod, or extends out of it, after it is in position. This is comparable to other types of "back-" machining, such as back-spotfacing, back-boring, back-counterboring, back-milling, and back-deburring. The common theme is accomplishing machining operations on the far side of the workpiece from the spindle face, which obviates a "second operation" setup. This reduces setup time and frustration in several ways. Not only does it obviate the flipping over, cleaning, reclamping, etc., but it also can allow effortless high concentricity, parallelism, and squareness with the first setup's datum without the hassle of reestablishing it on another setup (via painstaking indicating).
Speeds, feeds, and avoiding chatter.
It can often be difficult to avoid chatter when cutting with countersink cutters. As usual in machining, the shorter and more rigid the setup, the better. Better-quality fluted countersink cutters sometimes have the flutes (or at least one flute) at an irregular pitching. This variation in pitching reduces the chance of the cutting edges setting up a harmonic action and leaving an undulated surface. This surface ripple is also dependent on the surface speed of the cutting edges, material type, and applied pressure (or feed rate); once started it is hard to remove. Too light a feed tends to increase chatter risk. As in many other machining operations, an appropriate response to the chatter may be to decrease speed and increase feed. On a drill press, the slowest available spindle speed is usually best. With a variable-speed handheld power drill, the trigger is best squeezed lightly to yield a low spindle speed.
Good chatter-free results can usually be had by countersinking by hand (as opposed to running the tool in a powered spindle). The slow speed and sensitive feed tend to prevent chatter. With a quarter-inch-hex shank, the countersink cutter can be held with a screwdriver handle of the indexable-bit type.
Form countersinking.
Form countersinking, also known as "dimpling", is a countersink that is formed into sheet metal to increase the strength of a structure as the countersinks of multiple pieces nest together. There are two processes for producing formed countersinks: "coin dimpling" and "modified radius dimpling". Such dimples in fairly thick sheet can even be tapped to yield a threaded hardpoint on the sheet without the bother and expense of welding a nut to the sheet. This style of construction is often seen in modern household appliance design, because it allows the product to be lower-priced, and the quality can still be good as long as the sheet is thick enough.


Hand scraper

A hand scraper is a single-edged tool used to scrape metal or other materials from a surface. This may be required where a surface needs to be trued, corrected for fit to a mating part, needs to retain oil (usually on a freshly ground surface), or to give a decorative finish.
Surface plates were traditionally made by scraping. Three raw (plates that have been `seasoned` or residual stress relieved and received suitable surface treatments, but unfinished) cast surface plates, a flat scraper (as pictured at the top of the image) and a quantity of bearing blue (or red lead) were all that was required in the way of tools.
The scraper in the center of the image is a three corner scraper and is typically used to deburr holes or the internal surface of bush type bearings. Bushes are typically made from bronze or a white metal.
The scraper pictured at the bottom is a curved scraper. It has a slight curve in its profile and is also suitable for bush bearings, typically the longer ones.
One advantage of scraping is the ability to take the tool to the workpiece, this can be useful when the workpiece weighs several tons and is difficult to move.
It is done by using a precision surface such as a surface plate or a straight edge as a standard (a straight edge in this context is not a ruler; it is a miniature surface plate of extreme accuracy). The standard is coated with a very thin coating of a material such as Prussian blue. The work piece and standard are touched together by gravity alone and the high spots on the work piece will be colored by the dye on the standard. These high spots are scraped off and the process repeated until there is an even spread of high spots which total about 60% or more of the surface area. Coarse scraping gives a resulting surface with 5-10 points per square inch while fine scraping yields 24-36 points per square inch. If desired the surface can then be “Frosted”. A surface prepared in this way is superior in overall accuracy to any prepared by machining or grinding operations, although lapping can equal or exceed it over small distances. Grinding and machining stresses the metal thermally and mechanically, scraping and lapping do not.
Scraping is the only method for producing an original set of flat surfaces from which one can transfer that accuracy through to other surfaces by means of grinding. Lapping and grinding do not achieve the long distance flatness scraping can, as they act on the entire surface rather than local high or low spots.
With precision ground surfaces, any oil film applied to the surface will lack the means to adhere to the surface, especially between two mating parts of exceptional finish. The oil film will be swept away leaving nothing but bare metal and the risk of seizure. Carefully scraping the surface will leave the original high quality surface intact, but provide many shallow depressions where the oil film can maintain its depth and surface tension. When scraping is used for this purpose it is more accurately called "frosting", "spotting" or "flaking" as opposed to fully scraping an accurate surface. Typically a scraped surface is scraped to highly accurate flatness and then "frosting" is applied over it for oil retention. It is claimed to stop the so-called "stick-slip" phenomenon where a machine member might move in a jerky fashion rather than moving smoothly, allowing vibration and chatter.
Such frosting will definitely increase oil retention but will also drastically reduce bearing area and capacity. There is no possibility of achieving hydrodynamic bearing performance on normal sliding machine ways. The velocity is far too low. Most of the time the ways will run under boundary lubrication conditions while at the highest speeds it might achieve mixed lubrication. This makes oil additives important in ways lubrication. However, this view is somewhat contradicted by the external link "Scraping methods".
Hand scraping leaves a distinctive pattern on the surface that is scraped. This can be suggestive of a high level of precision in the ways, however, sometimes a surface can be marked to appear hand scraped, but it is really just a superficial surface treatment designed to give the impression of a scraped machine way.
Hand scraping can also be done by a power tool that has a reciprocating blade and is usually adjustable for stroke length and number of strokes per minute.


Hay's test

Hay's test, also known as Hay's sulphur powder test, is a chemical test used for detecting the presence of bile salts in urine.
Procedure.
Sulphur powder is sprinkled into a test tube with three millilitres of urine and if the test is positive, the sulphur powder sinks to the bottom of the test tube. Sulphur powder sinks because bile salts decrease the surface tension of urine.


NATURTRUCK

NATURTRUCK is a European project whose main objective is to develop injected plastic parts for the commercial vehicles industry (mainly cabin truck parts) made with thermoplastic composite materials from renewable resources (modified polylactic acid and natural fibres), with improved thermal, flame retardancy properties and high quality surface finishing to be used in car internal parts. Those biocomposites are meant to be a real alternative to low-gloss standard ABS grades at a competitive cost.
NATURTRUCK is addressed to allow SME’s partners, and consequently the EU industry, to fabricate new eco-friendly thermoplastic biocomposite products suitable to satisfy the commercial vehicles manufacture sector requirements, at a cost comparable to current ABS price, increasing their differentiation from competitors and creating significant market opportunities.
Partners.
NATURTRUCK consortium has been built up in order to join all the required technical and managerial expertise and capabilities and market complementarities and exploitation interests to streamline the achievement of Project results to solve the SME Participant (SMEP) needs and facilitate the exploitation of NATURTRUCK achievements, having representatives of the whole Project value chain. The consortium consists of 10 partners:


Kennebunk Manufacturing Company

Kennebunk Manufacturing Company
The Kennebunk Manufacturing Company made cases, boxes, valises, grips, and trunks from 1893 to 1906 in Kennebunk, Maine and from 1906 to 1936 in Milton, New Hampshire.
History.
The Kennebunk Manufacturing Company (KEMACO) was incorporated in Maine on July 23, 1893 with John R. Littlefield of Boston, Mass., President and J. B. Lara of Kennebunk, Me., Treasurer. The purpose of the Company was the “manufacturing and dealing in cases, boxes, valises, grips, and trunks.” The name, “Kennebunk Manufacturing Company” was the same name as that of an ill fated company that had tried to build a cotton mill at Kennebunk in 1825 and failed by 1828. The new Kennebunk Manufacturing Company merged with another Kennebunk manufacturer of similar travel items known as the Travelet Company after 1895. The merged companies were purchased by J. Spaulding & Sons Company in 1902 and its operations were moved to Milton, New Hampshire where they occupied the old N.B. Thayer & Co, shoe factory until 1936. While in Milton the Kennebunk Manufacturing Company, manufactured megaphones, radio speaker horns and violin cases in addition to its original line of lunch boxes and suit and sample cases.
In 1936 the operations of the Kennebunk Manufacturing Company were integrated with those of Spaulding & Perkins Company and the Spaulding Fibre Materials Handling Division was created at North Rochester, New Hampshire.


Lead frame

A lead frame (pronounced ) is a metal structure inside a chip package that carries signals from the die to the outside, used in DIP, QFP and other packages where connections to the chip are made on its edges.
The lead frame consists of a central die pad, where the die is placed, surrounded by leads, metal conductors leading away from the die to the outside world. The end of each lead closest to the die ends in a bond pad. Small bond wires connect the die to each bond pad. Mechanical connections fix all these parts into a rigid structure, which makes the whole lead frame easy to handle automatically.
Manufacturing.
Lead frames are manufactured by removing material from a flat plate of copper, copper-alloy, or iron-nickel alloy like alloy 42. Two processes used for this are etching (suitable for high density of leads), or stamping (suitable for low density of leads). The mechanical bending process can be applied after both techniques.
The die is glued or soldered to the die pad inside the lead frame, and then bond wires are attached between the die and the bond pads to connect the die to the leads. In a process called encapsulation, a plastic case is moulded around the lead frame and die, exposing only the leads. The leads are cut off outside the plastic body and any exposed supporting structures are cut away. The external leads are then bent to the desired shape.
Uses.
Amongst others, lead frames are used to manufacture a quad flat no-leads package (QFN), a quad flat package (QFP), or a dual in-line package (DIP).


Corma Inc.

Corma Inc. is a manufacturer of corrugated plastic pipe production systems headquartered near Toronto, Canada. The company's headquarters and principal manufacturing plant are located in Concord, Ontario. Corma also maintains its own aluminum alloy foundry, located in Forest, Ontario, where it forms the mold blocks used in its corrugators.
Corma is active in corrugated plastic pipe manufacturing and infrastructure projects in the developing world, particularly in established and emerging markets worldwide.
History.
Corma's first M600 corrugated plastic pipe-making machine, also known as a corrugator, was delivered to Akatherm in Saint John, New Brunswick, in 1974. In 1978, Corma applied for their first patents in double-wall pipe production and vacuum forming. Over the years Corma received patents for mold block technologies, Internal pipe cooling, inline coupling, and many other quality enhancing technologies. In total, Corma has applied for, and received, more than 300 patents since 1973.
In 2006, Corma established the Corma Shanghai Co. Ltd. sales/service office and manufacturing centre in the People's Republic of China. Corma Deutschland is expanded to become a full, sales and service center supporting customers in Europe, Africa and the Middle East.
Patents.
Corma Inc. holds over 300 patents related to corrugators. The company continues to defend its patents from infringement by other companies.


Gear bearing

A gear bearing is a type of rolling-element bearing similar to an epicyclic gear. Gear bearings consist of a number of smaller 'satellite' gears which revolve around the center of the bearing along a track on the outsides of the internal and satellite gears, and on the inside of the external gear. Each gear is in between two concentric rings. Therefore, the widths of the satellite gears must all be the same.
Engagement.
In order for the surfaces to provide efficient axial meshing, the teeth must either be beveled or made with engagement. This avoids misalignment, sticking, and reduces sliding friction in the bearing. For instance, the illustrations present implementations of bearing gears with beveled teeth and rollers on their adjacent end faces as well as a herringbone engagement to provide minimal axial shift due to opposite sloping teeth.
Work.
Neglecting clearance and assuming perfect accuracy, the engagement of bearing gears is aimed at maximum rolling with minimum sliding friction of conjugated profiles in movement. End rollers limit the gears radial shift at their contact points so that when the gears are engaged, slip-free rolling motion of their conjugated pairs is achieved. Adjacent end faces of teeth and rollers limit the axial shift of conjugated bearing gears in plane-parallel motion. In such a way, using bearing gears as sun, ring and more than two satellites uniformly distributed among them the entire gear bearing is arranged, and carrier may be used instead of ring or sun gearwheels, or it may act as a frame unit and transfer rotation from the satellites, whereas limitation of carrier degrees of freedom would form redundant constraints or serve as an additional basis for force distribution in the mechanism. In case less than three bearing satellite gearwheels are involved, at least axles of movable sun and/or of ring bearing gearwheels should be fixed relative to housing parts.
Usage.
Gear bearings could be used as a more efficient bearing when used as a planetary gear arrangement with simplified kinematic relations and/or suspension. It also possible to use double row planetary gear combinations. In particular, systems of direct analog indications such as measuring instruments and planetary watches.
Linear gear bearings can easily be made with straight tracks. One, cast in bronze, is used as the expansion joint in the centre of Kingsgate Bridge.
Implementations.
The implementation of gear bearings may be one-piece manufacturing or a fixed joint assembly using: screws, bracers, threaded connections, pressure coupling, soldering, welding, gluing, or friction coupling in the form of sliding safety clutch or friction connection. The gear bearing may also be assembled from separate sectional parts or by joining with optional elastic and/or thermal deformation in the manufacturing sequence.


Lapping

Lapping is a machining process in which two surfaces are rubbed together with an abrasive between them, by hand movement or using a machine.
Lapping often follows other subtractive processes with more aggressive material removal as a first step, such as milling and/or grinding.
Lapping can take two forms. The first type of lapping (traditionally often called grinding), involves rubbing a brittle material such as glass against a surface such as iron or glass itself (also known as the "lap" or grinding tool) with an abrasive such as aluminum oxide, jeweller's rouge, optician's rouge, emery, silicon carbide, diamond, etc., between them. This produces microscopic conchoidal fractures as the abrasive rolls about between the two surfaces and removes material from both.
The other form of lapping involves a softer material such as pitch or a ceramic for the lap, which is "charged" with the abrasive. The lap is then used to cut a harder material—the workpiece. The abrasive embeds within the softer material, which holds it and permits it to score across and cut the harder material. Taken to a finer limit, this will produce a polished surface such as with a polishing cloth on an automobile, or a polishing cloth or polishing pitch upon glass or steel.
Taken to the ultimate limit, with the aid of accurate interferometry and specialized polishing machines or skilled hand polishing, lensmakers can produce surfaces that are flat to better than 30 nanometers. This is one twentieth of the wavelength of light from the commonly used 632.8 nm helium neon laser light source. Surfaces this flat can be molecularly bonded (optically contacted) by bringing them together under the right conditions. (This is not the same as the wringing effect of Johansson blocks, although it is similar).
Operation.
A piece of lead may be used as the lap, charged with emery, and used to cut a piece of hardened steel. The small plate shown in the first picture is a hand lapping plate. That particular plate is made of cast iron. In use, a slurry of emery powder would be spread on the plate and the workpiece simply rubbed against the plate, usually in a "figure-eight" pattern.
The second picture is of a commercially available lapping machine. The lap or lapping plate in this machine is in diameter, about the smallest size available commercially. At the other end of the size spectrum, machines with plates are not uncommon, and systems with tables in diameter have been constructed. Referring to the second picture again, the lap is the large circular disk on the top of the machine. On top of the lap are two rings. The workpiece would be placed inside one of these rings. A weight would then be placed on top of the workpiece. The weights can also be seen in the picture along with two fiber spacer disks that are used to even the load.
In operation, the rings stay in one location as the lapping plate rotates beneath them. In this machine, a small slurry pump can be seen at the side, this pump feeds abrasive slurry onto the rotating lapping plate.
When there is a requirement to lap very small specimens (from down to a few millimetres), a lapping jig can be used to hold the material while it is lapped (see Image 3, Lapping machine and retention jig). A jig allows precise control of the orientation of the specimen to the lapping plate and fine adjustment of the load applied to the specimen during the material removal process. Due to the dimensions of such small samples, traditional loads and weights are too heavy as they would destroy delicate materials. The jig sits in a cradle on top of the lapping plate and the dial on the front of the jig indicates the amount of material removed from the specimen.
Two-piece lapping.
Where the mating of the two surfaces is more important than the flatness, the two pieces can be lapped together. The principle is that the protrusions on one surface will both abrade and be abraded by the protrusions on the other, resulting in two surfaces evolving towards some common shape (not necessarily perfectly flat), separated by a distance determined by the average size of the abrasive particles, with a surface roughness determined by the variation in the abrasive size. This yields closeness-of-fit results comparable to that of two accurately-flat pieces, without quite the same degree of testing required for the latter.
One complication in two-piece lapping is the need to ensure that neither piece flexes or is deformed during the process. As the pieces are moved past each other, part of each (some area near the edge) will be unsupported for some fraction of the rubbing movement. If one piece flexes due to this lack of support, the edges of the opposite piece will tend to dig depressions into it a short distance in from the edge, and the edges of the opposite piece are heavily abraded by the same action - the lapping procedure assumes roughly equal pressure distribution across the whole surface at all times, and will fail in this manner if the workpiece itself deforms under that pressure.
Accuracy and surface roughness.
Lapping can be used to obtain a specific surface roughness; it is also used to obtain very accurate surfaces, usually very flat surfaces. Surface roughness and surface flatness are two quite different concepts.
A typical range of surface roughness that can be obtained without resorting to special equipment would fall in the range of 1 to 30 units Ra (average roughness), usually microinches.
Surface accuracy or flatness is usually measured in helium light bands (HLB), one HLB measuring about . Again, without resort to special equipment accuracies of 1 to 3 HLB are typical. Though flatness is the most common goal of lapping, the process is also used to obtain other configurations such as a concave or convex surface.
Measurement.
Flatness.
The easiest method for measuring flatness is with a height gauge positioned on a surface plate. You must set up the part on three stands and find the minimum variation while adjusting them, just placing the part on the surface plate and using a dial indicator to find TIR on the opposite side of the part measures parallelism. Flatness is more easily measured with a co-ordinate measuring machine. But neither of these methods can measure flatness more accurately than about .
Another method that is commonly used with lapped parts is the reflection and interference of monochromatic light. A monochromatic light source and an optical flat are all that are needed. The optical flat – which is a piece of transparent glass that has itself been lapped and polished on one or both sides – is placed on the lapped surface. The monochromatic light is then shone down through the glass. The light will pass through the glass and reflect off the workpiece. As the light reflects in the gap between the workpiece and the polished surface of the glass, the light will interfere with itself creating light and dark fringes called Newton's rings. Each fringe – or band – represents a change of one half wavelength in the width of the gap between the glass and the workpiece. The light bands display a contour map of the surface of the workpiece and can be readily interpreted for flatness. In the past the light source would have been provided by a helium-neon lamp or tube, using the neon 632.8nm line,or mercury vapor green line but nowadays a more common source of monochromatic light is the low pressure sodium lamp. Today, Laser diodes and LEDs are used, both being inexpensive and narrow-band light sources. With semiconductor light sources, blue is an option, having a smaller wavelength than red.
For a more thorough description of the physics behind this measurement technique, see interference.
Roughness.
Surface roughness is defined by the minute variations in height of the surface of a given material or workpiece. The individual variances of the peaks and valleys are averaged (Ra value), or quantified by the largest difference from peak-to-valley (Rz). Roughness is usually expressed in microns. A surface that exhibits an Ra of 8 consists of peaks and valleys that average no more than 8 µm over a given distance. Roughness may be also measured by comparing the surface of the workpiece to a known sample. Calibration samples are available usually sold in a set and usually covering the typical range of machining operations from about 125 µm Ra to 1 µm Ra.
Surface roughness is measured with a profilometer, an instrument that measures the minute variations in height of the surface of a workpiece.


Industrial Ethernet

Industrial Ethernet (IE) is the use of Ethernet in an industrial environment with protocols that provide determinism and real-time control. Protocols for industrial Ethernet include EtherCAT, EtherNet/IP, PROFINET, POWERLINK, SERCOS III, CC-Link IE, and Modbus TCP. Many industrial Ethernet protocols use a modified Media Access Control (MAC) layer to provide low latency and determinism. Some microcontrollers such as Sitara provide industrial Ethernet support.
Industrial Ethernet can also refer to the use of standard Ethernet protocols with rugged connectors and extended temperature switches in an industrial environment, for automation or process control. Components used in plant process areas must be designed to work in harsh environments of temperature extremes, humidity, and vibration that exceed the ranges for information technology equipment intended for installation in controlled environments. The use of fiber-optic Ethernet variants reduces the problems of electrical noise and provides electrical isolation.
Some industrial networks emphasized deterministic delivery of transmitted data, whereas Ethernet used collision detection which made transport time for individual data packets difficult to estimate with increasing network traffic. Typically, industrial uses of Ethernet employ full-duplex standards and other methods so that collisions do not unacceptably influence transmission times.
Application environment.
Industrial use requires consideration of the environment in which the equipment must operate. Factory equipment must tolerate a wider range of temperature, vibration, physical contamination and electrical noise than equipment installed in dedicated information-technology wiring closets. Since critical process control may rely on an Ethernet link, economic cost of interruptions may be high and high availability is therefore an essential criterion. Industrial Ethernet networks must interoperate with both current and legacy systems, and must provide predictable performance and maintainability. In addition to physical compatibility and low-level transport protocols, a practical industrial Ethernet system must also provide interoperability of higher levels of the OSI model. An industrial network must provide security both from intrusions from outside the plant, and from inadvertent or unauthorized use within the plant.
When an industrial network must connect to an office network or external networks, a firewall system can be inserted to control exchange of data between the networks. This network separation preserves the performance and reliability of the industrial network.
Industrial environments are often much harsher, often subject to oil sprays, water sprays, and physical vibrations, so often industrial Ethernet requires a more rugged and watertight connector on one or both ends of the Cat 5 or Cat 6 cable, such as M12 connectors or M8 connectors, rather than the 8P8C connectors commonly used in homes and businesses.
Advantages and difficulties.
Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) communicate using one of several possible open or proprietary protocols, such as EtherNet/IP, EtherCAT, Modbus, Sinec H1, Profibus, CANopen, DeviceNet or FOUNDATION Fieldbus. The idea to use standard Ethernet makes these systems more interoperable.
Some of the advantages over other types of industrial network include:
Difficulties of using industrial Ethernet include:


2003–04 Moldovan Cup

The 2003–04 Moldovan Cup was the 13th season of the Moldovan annual football cup competition. The competition ended with the final held on 30 May 2004.
Round of 16.
The first legs were played on 1 October 2003. The second legs were played on 22 October 2003.
Quarter-finals.
The first legs were played on 5 November 2003. The second legs were played on 13 November 2003.
Semi-finals.
The first legs were played on 4 April 2004. The second legs were played on 14 April 2004.


1986 FIFA World Cup qualification (CAF)

Listed below are the dates and results for the 1986 FIFA World Cup qualification rounds for the African zone (CAF). For an overview of the qualification rounds, see the article "1986 FIFA World Cup qualification".
A total of 29 CAF teams entered the competition. The African Zone was allocated 2 places (out of 24) in the final tournament.
Format.
There would be four rounds of play:
First round.
"Egypt won 2–1 on agg. and advanced to the Second Round."
"Kenya won 5–4 on agg. and advanced to the Second Round."
"Malawi won 5–0 on agg. and advanced to the Second Round."
"Zambia won 3–1 on agg. and advanced to the Second Round."
"Sudan advanced to the Second Round on away goals after a draw 1–1 on agg."
"Morocco won 5–0 on agg. and advanced to the Second Round."
"Tunisia won 6–0 on agg. and advanced to the Second Round."
"Ivory Coast won 6–3 on agg. and advanced to the Second Round."
"Nigeria won 4–0 on agg. and advanced to the Second Round."
"Angola advanced to the Second Round on penalties after a draw won 1–1 on agg."
"Madagascar advanced to the Second Round, Lesotho withdrew."
"Libya advanced to the Second Round, Niger withdrew."
"Guinea advanced to the Second Round, Togo withdrew."
Second round.
"Zambia won 5–2 on agg. and advanced to the Third Round."
"Morocco won 2–0 on agg. and advanced to the Third Round."
"Algeria won 3–2 on agg. and advanced to the Third Round."
"Nigeria won 6–1 on agg. and advanced to the Third Round."
"Egypt advanced to the Third Round on penalties after a draw 1–1 on agg."
"Tunisia won 2–1 on agg. and advanced to the Third Round."
"Libya won 4–0 on agg. and advanced to the Third Round."
"Ghana won 2–0 on agg. and advanced to the Third Round."
Third round.
"Algeria won 3–0 on agg. and advanced to the Final Round."
"Libya won 2–0 on agg. and advanced to the Final Round."
"Tunisia won 2–1 on agg. and advanced to the Final Round."
"Morocco won 2–0 on agg. and advanced to the Final Round."
Final round.
"Algeria won 7–1 on agg. and qualified for the 1986 FIFA World Cup."
"Morocco won 3–1 on agg. and qualified for the 1986 FIFA World Cup."


1982 FIFA World Cup qualification (CAF)

Listed below are the dates and results for the 1982 FIFA World Cup qualification rounds for the African zone (CAF). For an overview of the qualification rounds, see the article "1982 FIFA World Cup qualification".
A total of 29 CAF teams entered the competition. However, Central African Republic was excluded by FIFA for not paying the entry fee. The African Zone was allocated 2 places (out of 24) in the final tournament. Finally 26 nations played at least one of the 46 games.
Format.
There would be four rounds of play:
First round.
"Morocco won 1–0 on agg. and advanced to the Second Round."
"Zaire won 7–3 on agg. and advanced to the Second Round."
"Cameroon won 4–1 on agg. and advanced to the Second Round."
"Guinea won 4–2 on agg. and advanced to the Second Round."
"Nigeria won on penalties after 2–2 on agg. and so advanced to the Second Round."
"Libya won 2–1 on agg. and advanced to the Second Round."
"Zambia won 4–0 on agg. and advanced to the Second Round."
"Niger advanced to the Second Round due on away goals after 1–1 on agg."
"Algeria won 5–3 on agg. and advanced to the Second Round."
"Tanzania won 6–3 on agg. and advanced to the Second Round."
"Egypt advanced to the Second Round, Ghana withdrew."
"Madagascar advanced to the Second Round, Uganda withdrew."
Second round.
"Algeria won 3–1 on agg. and advanced to the Third Round."
"Niger advanced to the Third Round due on away goals after a draw 2–2 on agg."
"Guinea won 1–0 on agg. and advanced to the Third Round."
"Cameroon won 2–1 on agg. and advanced to the Third Round."
"Morocco won on penalties after a draw 2–2 on agg. and advanced to the Third Round."
"Nigeria won 3–1 on agg. and advanced to the Third Round."
"Zaire won 4–3 on agg. and advanced to the Third Round."
"Egypt advanced to the Third Round, Libya withdrew."
Third round.
"Algeria won 4–1 on agg. and advanced to the Final Round."
"Nigeria won 2–1 on agg. and advanced to the Final Round."
"Morocco won 1–0 on agg. and advanced to the Final Round."
"Cameroon won 6–2 on agg. and advanced to the Final Round."
Final round.
Algeria won 4–1 on agg. and qualified for the 1982 FIFA World Cup.
Cameroon won 4–1 on agg. and qualified for the 1982 FIFA World Cup.


Lean CFP driven

Lean CFP (Complex Flow Production) Driven is a new approach which takes into account not only the widely implemented Lean manufacturing, but combines the principles of Lean with the Operating Curve, an approach based on the theoretical approach of queuing theory developed in academia in the 1970s. The goal of Lean CFP Driven is to eliminate waste in order to achieve higher quality, increase productivity and at the same time understand the relationship between utilization, lead time and variability in order to maximize performance within the semiconductor industry.
Lean CFP Driven – Lean Complex Flow Production Driven.
Background Semiconductor industry.
The semiconductor industry is one of the most productive and dynamic industries in the world. It faces a continuous and rapid advancement in technology which puts the companies under constant pressure to come up with superior and cheaper goods than those that were state-of-the-art only a few months ago. The market and development of the market is based on Moore's Law or More than Moore.
Customer demand in the semiconductor market evolves and changes at a swift pace which leads to the fact that a high level of flexibility is necessary to serve and meet the requirements of the customers. The semiconductor industry is furthermore very capital intensive based on the fact that the production equipment is highly complex, specialized and thus incredibly expensive. Challenges that the industry is facing are to continuously improve yield performance, achieve the highest possible return on the expensive equipment, speed and zero defects.
Lean CFP Driven and Traditional Lean.
Lean CFP Driven moves in a new direction from the traditional Lean because of the additional focus on utilization, cycle time and variability. The different characteristics of the semiconductor industry, e.g. production structure and production related costs compared to other industries, forms the need to approach the Lean philosophy in a new way in order to meet these specific characteristics.
There are five key characteristics for the semiconductor industry:
The complex production flow of a semiconductor fab is due to what is called a reentrance flow. A reentrant flow is a well-known attribute within a wafer fab and refers to the wafer visiting each tool not only once, but maybe 20 times during the course through the fab. To duplicate the expensive equipment and create a linear flow would make it even more challenging to get the highest possible return on the equipment and reach an optimized utilization of each tool, even though it results in a very complex production.
The reentrant flow does require a certain level of flexibility, which in terms of Lean, could be seen as muda (Waste). The necessary flexibility, also in order to meet fluctuations in customer demand, requires the companies to apply other tools to measure and forecast performance and this is what Lean CFP Driven provides to the Semiconductor Industry. Lean CFP Driven adds the Operating Curve to evaluate the factors "utilization", "cycle time" and "variability" which cannot be done through implementation of Traditional Lean.
Typical tools within the Traditional Lean which are also included in the new approach of Lean CFP Driven are as follows:
What distinguishes Lean CFP Driven from the traditional approach of Lean in terms of tools is that the new approach applies the tool Operating Curve in addition to the tools listed above. An example of how the Operating Curve could look like is shown in the figure below. The optimal operating point is indicated for different variabilities describing the non-uniformity of the production, formula_1. The great advantage of adding the Operating Curve tool is to maximize performance by optimizing both utilization and speed at the same time for the complex industry of Semiconductors by reducing the variability via the 4-partner method.
The Operating Curve is a tool initially developed in academia in the 1970s, based on the queuing theory, which uses the indicators Cycle Time and Utilization to benchmark and forecast a manufacturing line’s performance. The Operating Curve can be applied for different reasons, for example:
The Operating curve can be described by the following formula:
formula_2
where :
The flow factor can also be described as:
formula_3
Where:


Mark XIII

Mark XIII or Mark 13 often refers to the 13th version of a product, frequently military hardware. "Mark", meaning "model" or "variant", can be abbreviated "Mk."
Mark XIII or Mark 13 can specifically refer to:


Forging temperature

Forging temperature is the temperature at which a metal becomes substantially more soft, but is lower than the melting temperature, such that it can be reshaped by forging. Bringing a metal to its forging temperature allows the metal's shape to be changed by applying a relatively small force, without creating cracks. For most metals, forging temperature is approximately 70% of the absolute temperature (usually measured in kelvins) of its melting point.
Selecting the maximum forging temperature allows metals to be forged more easily, lowering the forging pressure and thus the wear on metal-forming dies. The temperature at which a metal is forged can affect the homogeneity in microstructure and mechanical properties of forged products, which can highly affect the performance of products used in manufacturing.


BSA Manufacturing

BSA Manufacturing Sdn Bhd formed in 1995, is a Malaysian manufacturer of aluminum alloy wheels. The company started as an importer of alloy wheels from Germany, Italy, England, Brazil, Japan, Thailand and Taiwan, and later manufactured its own products. The Company's line of business includes the manufacturing of motor vehicle parts and accessories
BSA became the first Malaysian company to combine the use of Japanese technology with Hi-Tech Robotic Casting machine for alloy wheels manufacturing. Its alloy wheels are used in over 62 countries, including in Europe, North and South America.
BSA sponsored Alex Yoong for his drive with the Minardi F1 team in 2002, along with other Malaysian companies.


Target costing

Target costing is an approach to determine a product's life-cycle cost which should be sufficient to develop specified functionality and quality, while ensuring its desired profit. It involves setting a target cost by subtracting a desired profit margin from a competitive market price. A target cost is the maximum amount of cost that can be incurred on a product, however, the firm can still earn the required profit margin from that product at a particular selling price. Target costing decomposes the target cost from product level to component level. Through this decomposition, target costing spreads the competitive pressure faced by the company to product's designers and suppliers. Target costing consists of cost planning in the design phase of production as well as cost control throughout the resulting product life cycle. The cardinal rule of target costing is to never exceed the target cost. However, the focus of target costing is not to minimize costs, but to achieve a desired level of cost reduction determined by the target costing process.
Definition.
Target costing is defined as "a disciplined process for determining and achieving a full-stream cost at which a proposed product with specified functionality, performance, and quality must be produced in order to generate the desired profitability at the product’s anticipated selling price over a specified period of time in the future." This definition encompasses the principal concepts: products should be based on an accurate assessment of the wants and needs of customers in different market segments, and cost targets should be what result after a sustainable profit margin is subtracted from what customers are willing to pay at the time of product introduction and afterwards.
The fundamental objective of target costing is to manage the business to be profitable in a highly competitive marketplace. In effect, target costing is a proactive cost planning, cost management, and cost reduction practice whereby costs are planned and managed out of a product and business early in the design and development cycle, rather than during the later stages of product development and production.
History.
Target costing was developed independently in both USA and Japan in different time periods. Target costing was adopted earlier by American companies to reduce cost and improve productivity, such as Ford Motor from 1900s, American Motors from 1950s-1960s. Although the ideas of target costing were also applied by a number of other American companies including Boeing, Caterpillar, Northern Telecom, few of them apply target costing as comprehensively and intensively as top Japanese companies such as Nissan, Toyota, Nippondenso. Target costing emerged from Japan from 1960s to early 1970s with the particular effort of Japanese automobile industry, including Toyota and Nissan. It did not receive global attention until late 1980s to 1990s when some authors such as Monden (1992), Sakurai (1989), Tanaka (1993), and Cooper (1992) described the way that Japanese companies applied target costing to thrive in their business (IMA 1994). With superior implementation systems, Japanese manufacturers are more successful than the American companies in developing target costing. Traditional cost-plus pricing strategy has been impeding the productivity and profitability for a long time. As a new strategy, target costing is replacing traditional cost-plus pricing strategy by maximizing customer satisfaction by accepted level of quality and functionality while minimizing costs.
Process of target costing.
The process of target costing can be divided into three sections: the first section involves in market-driven target costing, which focuses on studying market conditions to identify a product's allowable cost in order to meet the company's long-term profit at expected selling price; the second section involves performing cost reduction strategies with the product designer's effort and creativity to identify the product-level target cost; the third section is component-level target cost which decomposes the production cost to functional and component levels to transmit cost responsibility to suppliers.
Market-driven target costing.
Market driven target costing is the first section in the target costing process which focuses on studying market conditions and determining the company's profit margin in order to identify the allowable cost of a product. Market driven costing can go through 5 steps including: establish company's long-term sales and profit objective; develop the mix of products; identify target selling price for each product; identify profit margin for each product; and calculate allowable cost of each product.
Company's long-term sales and profit objectives are developed from an extensive analysis of relevant information relating to customers, market and products. Only realistic plans are accepted to proceed to the next step. Product mix is designed carefully to ensure that it satisfies many customers, but also does not contain too many products to confuse customers. Company may use simulation to explore the impact of overall profit objective to different product mixes and determine the most feasible product mix. Target selling price, target profit margin and allowable cost are identified for each product. Target selling price need to consider to the expected market condition at the time launching the product. Internal factors such as product's functionality and profit objective, and external factors such as company's image or expected price of competitive products will influence target selling price. Company's long-term profit plan and life-cycle cost are considered when determining target profit margin. Firms might set up target profit margin based on either actual profit margin of previous products or target profit margin of product line. Simulation for overall group profitability can help to make sure achieving group target. Subtracting target profit margin from target selling price results in allowable cost for each product. Allowable cost is the amount that can spent on a product to ensure its profit target is met if it is sold at its target price. It is the signal about the magnitude of cost saving that team need to achieve.
Product-level target costing.
Following the completion of market-driven costing, the next task of the target costing process is product-level target costing. Product-level target costing concentrates on designing products that satisfy the company's customers at the allowable cost. To achieve this goal, product-level target costing is typically divided into three steps as shown below.
The first step is to set a product-level target cost. Since the allowable cost is simply obtained from external conditions without considering the design capabilities of the company as well as the realistic cost for manufacturing, it may not be always achievable in practice. Thus, it is necessary to adjust the unachievable allowable cost to an achievable target cost that the cost increase should be reduced with great effort. The second step is to discipline this target cost process, including monitoring the relationship between the target cost and the estimated product cost at any point during the design process, applying the cardinal rule so that the total target costs at the component-level does not exceed the target cost of the product, and allowing exceptions for products violating the cardinal rule. For a product exception to the cardinal rule, two analyses are often performed after the launch of the product. One involves reviewing the design process to find out why the target cost was unachieved. The other is an immediate effort to reduce the excessive cost to ensure that the period of violation is as short as possible. Once the target cost-reduction objective is identified, the product-level target costing comes to the final step, finding ways to achieve it. Engineering methods such as value engineering (VE), design for manufacture and assembly (DFMA), and quality function deployment (QFD) are commonly adopted in this step.
Target costing and value engineering.
Value engineering (VE), also known as value analysis (VA), plays a crucial role in the target costing process, particularly at the product level and the component level. Among the three aforementioned methods in achieving the target cost, VE is the most critical one because not only does it attempt to reduce costs, but also aims to improve the functionality and quality of products. There are a variety of practical VE strategies, including zero-look, first-look and second-look VE approaches, as well as teardown approaches.
Regarding the complexity of problems in the real world, implementing the target costing process often relies on the computer simulation to reproduce stochastic elements. For example, many firms use simulation to study the complex relationship between selling prices and profit margins, the impact of individual product decisions on overall group profitability, the right mix of products to enhance overall profit, or other economic modeling to overcome organizational inertia by getting the most productive reasoning. In addition, simulation helps estimate results rapidly for dynamic process changes.
Factors affecting target costing.
The factors influencing the target costing process is broadly categorized based on how a company's strategy for a product's quality, functionality and price change over time. However, some factors play a specific role based on what drives a company's approach to target costing.
Factors influencing market-driven costing.
Intensity of competition and nature of the customer affect market-driven costing. Competitors introducing similar products has been shown to drive rival companies to expend energy on implementing target costing systems such as in the case of Toyota and Nissan or Apple and Google. The costing process is also affected by the level of customer sophistication, changing requirements and the degree to which their future requirements are known. The automotive and camera industry are prime examples for how customers affect target costing based on their exact requirements.
Factors influencing product-level costing.
Product strategy and product characteristics affect product-level target costing. Characteristics of product strategy such as number of products in line, rate of redesign operations and level of innovation are shown to have an effect. Higher number of products has a direct correlation with the benefits of target costing. Frequent redesigns lead to the introduction of new products that have created better benefits to target costing. It has to be noted that the value of historical information reduces with greater innovation, thereby, reducing the benefits of product level target costing.
The degree of complexity of the product, level of investments required and the duration of product development process make up the factors that affect the target costing process based on product characteristics. Product viability is determined by the aforementioned factors. In turn, the target costing process is also modified to suit the different degrees of complexity required.
Factors influencing component-level costing.
Supplier-Base strategy is the main factor that determines component-level target costing because it is known to play a key role in the details a firm has about its supplier capabilities. There are three characteristics that make up the supplier-base strategy, including the degree of horizontal integration, power over suppliers and nature of supplier relations. Horizontal integration captures the fraction of product costs sourced externally. Cost pressures on suppliers can drive target costing if the buying power of firms is high enough. In turn, this may lead to better benefits. More cooperative supplier relations have been shown to increase mutual benefits in terms of target costs particularly at a component level.
Applications.
Aside from the application of target costing in the field of manufacturing, target costing are also widely used in the following areas.
Energy.
An Energy Retrofit Loan Analysis Model has been developed using a Monte Carlo (MC) method for target costing in Energy Efficient buildings and construction. MC method has been shown to be effective in determining the impact of financial uncertainties in project performance.
Target Value Design Decision Making Process (TVD-DMP) groups a set of energy efficiency methods at different optimization levels to evaluate costs and uncertainties involved in the energy efficiency process. Some major design parameters are specified using this methods including Facility Operation Schedule, Orientation, Plug load, HVAC and lighting systems.
The entire process consists of three phases: initiation, definition and alignment. Initiation stage involves developing a business case for energy efficiency using target value design (TVD) training, organization and compensation. The definition process involves defining and validating the case by tools such as values analysis and bench marking processes to determine the allowable costs. By setting targets and designing the design process to align with those targets, TVD-DMP has been shown to achieve a high level of collaboration needed for energy efficiency investments. This is done by using risk analysis tools, pull planning and rapid estimating processes.
Healthcare.
Target costing and target value design have applications in building healthcare facilities including critical components such as Neonatal Intensive Care Units (NICUs). The process is influenced by unit locations, degree of comfort, number of patients per room, type of supply location and access to nature. According to National Vital Statistics Reports, 12.18% of 2009 births were premature and the cost per infant was $51,600. This led to opportunities for NICUs to implement target value design for deciding whether to build a single-family room or more open-bay NICUs. This was achieved using set-based design analysis which challenges the designer to generate multiple alternatives for the same functionality. Designs are evaluated keeping in mind the requirements of the various stakeholders in the NICU including nurses, doctors, family members and administrators. Unlike linear point-based design, set-based design narrows options to the optimal one by eliminating alternatives simultaneously defined by user constraints.
Construction.
About 15% construction project in Japan adopted target costing for their cost planning and management as recognized by Jacomit (2008). In the U.S., target costing research has been carried out within the framework of lean construction as target value design (TVD) method and have been disseminated widely over construction industry in recent years. Research has proven that if being applied systematically, TVD can deliver a significant improvement in project performance with average reduction of 15% in comparison with market cost.
TVD in construction project considers the final cost of project as a design parameter, similar to the capacity and aesthetics requirements for the project. TVD requires the project team to develop a target cost from the beginning. The project team is expected not to design exceeding the target cost without the owner's approval, and must use different skills to maintain this target cost. In some cases, the cost can increase but the project team must commit to decrease and must try their best to decrease without impacting on other functions of the project.


Weld nut

A weld nut is a special type of nut specifically designed to be welded to another object (spot welding). There are various types for different applications.
Types.
These nuts have a long threaded cylinder with a large circular base to make welding easy. They also sometimes have projections (known as weld nibs or bosses) to keep the nut from warping while welding with a high current.
These are very similar to the round base nuts, but with an obround, or slab shaped, base. These are used in channels, tubes, or other tight quarters.
Tab base nuts are designed for spot welding on flat workpieces. They have a locating boss around the threads to locate it in a pilot hole.
These nuts are very similar to standard square or hex nuts, but have a locating boss and welding projections. The bosses also keep weld spatter out of the threads.
Retainer weld nuts, also known as bridge weld nuts, have a floating nut retained inside a retainer to compensate for inconsistencies. The retainer is welded to the work piece while the nut is allowed to float.
Tube end nuts are sized to fit into the end of standard sized tubing, thus creating a threaded tube from standard stock.
Dual hole or twin piloted nuts are designed for use where there is a need for tapped holes close together.
Four Projection Weld Nuts
Four projections designed to fuse simultaneously so each projection flows and seats properly.
Single Tab Weld Nuts
Single button projection weld nut for use on heavier gage materials.
Material.
The vast majority of weld nuts are manufactured in low carbon steel or stainless steel. This is due to the methods currently available to spot weld or projection weld the hardware to joining material. Aftermarket products such as zinc plating are sometimes used to coat low carbon weld nuts giving it the rust resistant properties of stainless steel at a substantial cost saving.


Staking (manufacturing)

Staking is the process of connecting two components by creating an interference fit between the two pieces. One workpiece has a hole in it while the other has a boss that fits within the hole. The boss is very slightly undersized so that it forms a slip fit. A staking punch is then used to expand the boss radially and to compress the boss axially so as to form an interference fit between the workpieces. This forms a permanent joint.
Thermoplastic staking.
Thermoplastic staking, also known as heat staking, is the same process except that it uses heat to deform the plastic boss, instead of cold forming. A plastic stud protruding from one component fits into a hole in the second component. The stud is then deformed through the softening of the plastic to form a head which mechanically locks the two components together. It is a versatile technique benefiting from being quick, economical and consistent. Unlike welding techniques, staking has the capacity to join plastics to other materials (e.g. metal, PCB's) in addition to joining like or dissimilar plastics, and it has the advantage over other mechanical joining methods in eliminating the need for consumables such as rivets and screws.
Technology.
Thermoplastic staking can be performed with a wide variety of technologies including:


Stereolithography

Stereolithography (SLA or SL; also known as vat photopolymerisation, optical fabrication, photo-solidification, or resin printing) is a form of 3D printing technology used for creating models, prototypes, patterns, and production parts in a layer by layer fashion using photochemical processes by which light causes chemical monomers and oligomers to cross-link together to form polymers. Those polymers then make up the body of a three-dimensional solid. Research in the area had been conducted during the 1970s, but the term was coined by Chuck Hull in 1984 when he applied for a patent on the process, which was granted in 1986. Stereolithography can be used to create prototypes for products in development, medical models, and computer hardware, as well as in many other applications. While stereolithography is fast and can produce almost any design, it can be expensive.
History.
Stereolithography or "SLA" printing is an early and widely used 3D printing technology. In the early 1980s, Japanese researcher Hideo Kodama first invented the modern layered approach to stereolithography by using ultraviolet light to cure photosensitive polymers. In 1984, just before Chuck Hull filed his own patent, Alain Le Mehaute, Olivier de Witte and Jean Claude André filed a patent for the stereolithography process. The French inventors' patent application was abandoned by the French General Electric Company (now Alcatel-Alsthom) and CILAS (The Laser Consortium). Le Mehaute believes that the abandonment reflects a problem with innovation in France.
The term “stereolithography” (Greek: stereo-solid and lithography) was coined in 1984 by Chuck Hull when he filed his patent for the process. Hull patented stereolithography as a method of creating 3D objects by successively "printing" thin layers of an object using a medium curable by ultraviolet light, starting from the bottom layer to the top layer. Hull's patent described a concentrated beam of ultraviolet light focused onto the surface of a vat filled with a liquid photopolymer. The beam is focused onto the surface of the liquid photopolymer, creating each layer of the desired 3D object by means of crosslinking (generation of intermolecular bonds in polymers). It was invented with the intent of allowing engineers to create prototypes of their designs in a more time effective manner. After the patent was granted in 1986, Hull co-founded the world's first 3D printing company, 3D Systems, to commercialize it.
Stereolithography's success in the automotive industry allowed 3D printing to achieve industry status and the technology continues to find innovative uses in many fields of study. Attempts have been made to construct mathematical models of stereolithography processes and to design algorithms to determine whether a proposed object may be constructed using 3D printing.
Technology.
Stereolithography is an additive manufacturing process that, in its most common form, works by focusing an ultraviolet (UV) laser on to a vat of photopolymer resin. With the help of computer aided manufacturing or computer-aided design (CAM/CAD) software, the UV laser is used to draw a pre-programmed design or shape on to the surface of the photopolymer vat. Photopolymers are sensitive to ultraviolet light, so the resin is photochemically solidified and forms a single layer of the desired 3D object. Then, the build platform lowers one layer and a blade recoats the top of the tank with resin. This process is repeated for each layer of the design until the 3D object is complete. Completed parts must be washed with a solvent to clean wet resin from their surfaces.
It is also possible to print objects "bottom up" by using a vat with a transparent bottom and focusing the UV or deep-blue polymerization laser upward through the bottom of the vat. An inverted stereolithography machine starts a print by lowering the build platform to touch the bottom of the resin-filled vat, then moving upward the height of one layer. The UV laser then writes the bottom-most layer of the desired part through the transparent vat bottom. Then the vat is "rocked", flexing and peeling the bottom of the vat away from the hardened photopolymer; the hardened material detaches from the bottom of the vat and stays attached to the rising build platform, and new liquid photopolymer flows in from the edges of the partially built part. The UV laser then writes the second-from-bottom layer and repeats the process. An advantage of this bottom-up mode is that the build volume can be much bigger than the vat itself, and only enough photopolymer is needed to keep the bottom of the build vat continuously full of photopolymer. This approach is typical of desktop SLA printers, while the right-side-up approach is more common in industrial systems.
Stereolithography requires the use of supporting structures which attach to the elevator platform to prevent deflection due to gravity, resist lateral pressure from the resin-filled blade, or retain newly created sections during the "vat rocking" of bottom up printing. Supports are typically created automatically during the preparation of CAD models and can also be made manually. In either situation, the supports must be removed manually after printing.
Other forms of stereolithography build each layer by LCD masking, or using a DLP projector.
Materials.
The liquid materials used for SLA printing are commonly referred to as "resins" and are thermoset polymers. A wide variety of resins are commercially available and it is also possible to use homemade resins to test different compositions for example. Material properties vary according to formulation configurations: "materials can be soft or hard, heavily filled with secondary materials like glass and ceramic, or imbued with mechanical properties like high heat deflection temperature or impact resistance". Recently, some studies have tested the possibility to green or reusable materials to produce "sustainable" resins. It is possible to classify the resins in the following categories:
Uses.
Medical modeling.
Stereolithographic models have been used in medicine since the 1990s, for creating accurate 3D models of various anatomical regions of a patient, based on data from computer scans. Medical modelling involves first acquiring a CT, MRI, or other scan. This data consists of a series of cross sectional images of the human anatomy. In these images different tissues show up as different levels of grey. Selecting a range of grey values enables specific tissues to be isolated. A region of interest is then selected and all the pixels connected to the target point within that grey value range are selected. This enables a specific organ to be selected. This process is referred to as segmentation. The segmented data may then be translated into a format suitable for stereolithography. While stereolithography is normally accurate, the accuracy of a medical model depends on many factors, especially the operator performing the segmentation correctly. There are potential errors possible when making medical models using stereolithography but these can be avoided with practice and well trained operators.
Stereolithographic models are used as an aid to diagnosis, preoperative planning and implant design and manufacture. This might involve planning and rehearsing osteotomies, for example. Surgeons use models to help plan surgeries but prosthetists and technologists also use models as an aid to the design and manufacture of custom-fitting implants. For instance, medical models created through stereolithography can be used to help in the construction of Cranioplasty plates.
In 2019, scientists at Rice University published an article in the journal "Science", presenting soft hydrogel materials for stereolithography used in biological research applications.
Prototyping.
Stereolithography is often used for prototyping parts. For a relatively low price, stereolithography can produce accurate prototypes, even of irregular shapes. Businesses can use those prototypes to assess the design of their product or as publicity for the final product.
Advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages.
One of the advantages of stereolithography is its speed; functional parts can be manufactured within a day. The length of time it takes to produce a single part depends upon the complexity of the design and the size. Printing time can last anywhere from hours to more than a day. Prototypes and designs made with stereolithography are strong enough to be machined and can also be used to make master patterns for injection molding or various metal casting processes.
Disadvantages.
Although stereolithography can be used to produce virtually any synthetic design, it is often costly, though the price is coming down. Since 2012, however, public interest in 3D printing has inspired the design of several consumer SLA machines which can cost considerably less.
Beginning in 2016, substitution of the SLA and DLP methods using a high resolution, high contrast LCD panel has brought prices down to below 200. The layers are created in their entirety since the entire layer is displayed on the LCD screen and is exposed using UV LEDs that lie below. Resolutions of .01mm are attainable.
Another disadvantage is that the photopolymers are sticky, messy, and need to be handled with care. Newly made parts need to be washed, further cured, and dried. The environmental impact of all these processes requires more study to be understood, but in general SLA technologies have not created any biodegradable or compostable forms of resin, while other 3-D printing methods offer some compostable PLA options.