Investment casting

Investment casting is an industrial process based on lost-wax casting, one of the oldest known metal-forming techniques. The term "lost-wax casting" can also refer to modern investment casting processes.
Investment casting has been used in various forms for the last 5,000 years. In its earliest forms, beeswax was used to form patterns necessary for the casting process. Today, more advanced waxes, refractory materials and specialist alloys are typically used for making patterns. Investment casting is valued for its ability to produce components with accuracy, repeatability, versatility and integrity in a variety of metals and high-performance alloys.
The fragile wax patterns must withstand forces encountered during the mould making. Much of the wax used in investment casting can be reclaimed and reused. Lost-foam casting is a modern form of investment casting that eliminates certain steps in the process.
Investment casting is so named because the process invests (surrounds) the pattern with refractory material to make a mould, and a molten substance is cast into the mold. Materials that can be cast include stainless steel alloys, brass, aluminium, carbon steel and glass. The cavity inside the refractory mould is a slightly oversized but otherwise exact duplicate of the desired part. Due to the hardness of refractory materials used, investment casting can produce products with exceptional surface qualities, which can reduce the need for secondary machine processes.
Water glass and silica sol investment casting are the two primary investment casting methods currently in use. The main differences are the surface roughness and cost of casting. Water glass method dewaxes into the high-temperature water, and the ceramic mould is made of water glass quartz sand. Silica sol method dewaxes into the flash fire, and silica sol zircon sand makes the ceramic mould. Silica sol method costs more but has the better surface than the water glass method.
The process can be used for both small castings of a few ounces and large castings weighing several hundred pounds. It can be more expensive than die casting or sand casting, but per-unit costs decrease with large volumes. Investment casting can produce complicated shapes that would be difficult or impossible with other casting methods. It can also produce products with exceptional surface qualities and low tolerances with minimal surface finishing or machining required.
Process.
Castings can be made from an original wax model (the direct method) or from wax replicas of an original pattern that need not be made from wax (the indirect method). The following steps describe the indirect process, which can take two to seven days to complete.
Disadvantages.
The main disadvantage is the overall cost, especially for short-run productions. Some of the reasons for the high cost include specialized equipment, costly refractories, and binders, many operations to make a mould, a lot of labor is needed and occasional minute defects occur. However, the cost is still less than producing the same part by machining from bar stock; for example, gun manufacturing has moved to investment casting to lower costs of producing pistols.
Additionally:
Counter-gravity casting.
The variation on the gravity pouring technique is to fill the mould using a vacuum. A common form of this is called the "Hitchiner" process after the Hitchiner Manufacturing Company that invented the technique. In this technique, the mould has a downward fill pipe that is lowered into the melt. A vacuum draws the melt into the cavity; when the important parts have solidified, the vacuum is released, and the unused material leaves the mould. The technique can use substantially less material than gravity pouring because the sprue and some gating need not solidify.
This technique is more metal efficient than traditional pouring because less material solidifies in the gating system. Gravity pouring only has a 15 to 50% metal yield compared to 60 to 95% for counter-gravity pouring. There is also less turbulence, so the gating system can be simplified since it does not have to control turbulence. The metal is drawn from below the top of the pool, so the metal is free from dross and slag (which are lower density (lighter) and float to the top of the pool). The pressure differential helps the metal flow into every intricacy of the mould. Finally, lower temperatures can be used, which improves the grain structure.
This process is also used to cast refractory ceramics under the term "vacuum casting".
Vacuum pressure casting.
"Vacuum pressure casting" ("VPC"), properly referred to as "vacuum assist direct pour", uses gas pressure and a vacuum to improve the quality of the casting and minimize porosity. Typically VPC machines consist of an upper and a lower chamber—the upper chamber, or melting chamber, housing the crucible, and the lower casting chamber housing the investment mould. Both chambers are connected via a small hole containing a stopper. A vacuum is pulled in the lower chamber, while pressure is applied in the upper, and then the stopper is removed. This creates the greatest pressure differential to fill the moulds. The most common materials for "vacuum casting process" are the high nickel-based alloy and super alloys. Turbocharger products are a common applications for this casting process, though it is also regularly used in the manufacture of silver and gold jewellery.
Details.
Investment casting is used with almost any castable metal. However, aluminium alloys, copper alloys, and steel are the most common. In industrial use, the size limits are to several hundred kilograms. The cross-sectional limits are to . Typical tolerances are 0.1 mm for the first 25 mm (0.005 in for the first inch) and 0.02 mm for the each additional centimeter (0.002 in for each additional inch). A standard surface finish is 1.3–4 micrometres (50–125 μin) RMS.
History.
The history of lost-wax casting dates back thousands of years. Its earliest use was for idols, ornaments and jewellery, using natural beeswax for patterns, clay for the moulds and manually operated bellows for stoking furnaces. Examples have been found across the world, such as in the Harappan Civilisation (2500–2000 BC) idols, Egypt's tombs of Tutankhamun (1333–1324 BC), Mesopotamia, Aztec and Mayan Mexico, and the Benin civilization in Africa where the process produced detailed artwork of copper, bronze and gold. By far, one of the earliest identified uses of the investment casting process was seen in objects found in the 'Cave of Treasure', discovered in Southern Israel. These items were identified as being made around 3700 BC using Carbon-14 dating techniques.
The earliest known text that describes the investment casting process (Schedula Diversarum Artium) was written around 1100 A.D. by Theophilus Presbyter, a monk who described various manufacturing processes, including the recipe for parchment. This book was used by sculptor and goldsmith Benvenuto Cellini (1500–1571), who detailed in his autobiography the investment casting process he used for the Perseus with the Head of Medusa sculpture that stands in the Loggia dei Lanzi in Florence, Italy.
Investment casting came into use as a modern industrial process in the late 19th century, when dentists began using it to make crowns and inlays, as described by Barnabas Frederick Philbrook of Council Bluffs, Iowa in 1897. Its use was accelerated by William H. Taggart of Chicago, whose 1907 paper described his development of a technique. He also formulated a wax pattern compound of excellent properties, developed an investment material, and invented an air-pressure casting machine.
In the 1940s, World War II increased the demand for precision net shape manufacturing and specialized alloys that could not be shaped by traditional methods, or that required too much machining. Industry turned to investment casting. After the war, its use spread to many commercial and industrial applications that used complex metal parts.
Applications.
Investment casting is used in the aerospace and power generation industries to produce turbine blades with complex shapes or cooling systems. Blades produced by investment casting can include single-crystal (SX), directionally solidified (DS), or conventional equiaxed blades.
Investment casting is also widely used by firearms manufacturers to fabricate firearm receivers, triggers, hammers, and other precision parts at low cost.
Karsten Solheim famously revolutionized golf club design through his company PING by incorporating investment casting for the first time for clubheads. Quickly the process became an industry standard to allow weight distribution around the perimeter of the clubhead.
Other industries that use standard investment-cast parts include military, aerospace, medical, jewelry, airline, automotive and golf clubs especially since the start of 3D printing technology.
With the increased availability of higher-resolution 3D printers, 3D printing has begun to be used to make much larger sacrificial moulds used in investment casting. Planetary Resources has used the technique to print the mould for a new small satellite, which is then dipped in ceramic to form the investment cast for a titanium space bus with integral propellant tank and embedded cable routing.


Sheet metal forming simulation

Today the metal forming industry is making increasing use of simulation to evaluate the performing of dies, processes and blanks prior to building try-out tooling. Finite element analysis (FEA) is the most common method of simulating sheet metal forming operations to determine whether a proposed design will produce parts free of defects such as fracture or wrinkling.
Sheet metal forming challenges.
Sheet metal forming, which is often referred to as stamping, is a process in which a piece of sheet metal, referred to as the blank, is formed by stretching between a punch and a die.
The most painful and most frequent defects are wrinkles, thinning, springback and splits or cracks. Few methods are being used around the industry to cope with the main defects, based on the experience of the technicians. However, the correct process is the most vital, since it involves the correct geometry followed by number of steps to reach at final geometry. Which demands for specific experience or higher number of iterations.
Deformation of the blank is typically limited by buckling, wrinkling, tearing, and other negative characteristics which makes it impossible to meet quality requirements or makes it necessary to run at a slower than desirable rate.
Wrinkling in a draw are series of ridges form radially in the drawn wall due to compressive buckling. Practically these are duo to low blank holder pressure due to which material slips and wrinkles formed. The optimum blank holding pressure is the key, however in certain cases it doesn't work. Then draw beads are the solutions, the location and shape of draw bead is the challenge, which can be analysed with FEA during design stage prior to tool manufacturing.
Crack in the vertical wall due to high tensile stresses, some small radius block the material flow and results in excessive thinning at that point usually more than 40% of the sheet thk. result in cracks. In some cases it may happen due to excessive blank holder pressure, which restrict the metal flow. Somewhere it might be due to wrong process design, like try to make a more deep draws in a single stage, which otherwise feasible only in two stages.
Thinning is a Excessive Stretching in the vertical wall due to high tensile stresses cause thickness reduction specifically on the small radius in the metal parts, however up to 20% thinning is allowed due to process limitations.
Springback is a particularly critical aspect of sheet metal forming. Even relatively small amounts of springback in structures that are formed to a significant depth may cause the blank to distort to the point that tolerances cannot be held. New materials such as high strength steel, aluminum and magnesium are particularly prone to springback.
Sheet metal forming is more of an art than a science. The design of the tooling, stamping process and blank materials and geometry are primarily done by trial and error.
Nowadays the simulation software's comes under CAE (computer aided engineering), used the finite element analysis to predict the common defects in design stage, prior to die manufacturing.
The traditional approach to designing the punch and die to produce parts successfully is to build try-out tools to check the ability of a certain tool design to produce parts of the required quality. Try-out tools are typically made of less expensive materials to reduce try-out costs yet this method is still costly and time-consuming.
History of sheet metal forming simulation.
The first effort at simulating metalforming was made using the finite difference method in the 1960s to better understand the deep drawing process. Simulation accuracy was later increased by applying nonlinear finite element analysis in the 1980s but computing time was too long at this time to apply simulation to industrial problems.
Rapid improvements over the past few decades in computer hardware have made the finite element analysis method practical for resolving real-world metal forming problems. A new class of FEA codes based on explicit time integration was developed that reduced computational time and memory requirements. The dynamic explicit FEA approach uses a central different explicit scheme to integrate the equations of motion. This approach uses lumped mass matrices and a typical time step on order of millionths of seconds. The method has proved to be robust and efficient for typical industrial problems.
As computer hardware and operating systems have evolved, memory limitations that prevented the practical use of Implicit Finite Element Methods had been overcome. Using the implicit method time steps are computed based on the predicted amount of deformation occurring at a given moment in the simulation, thus preventing unnecessary computational inefficiency caused by computing too small time steps when nothing is happening or too large a time step when high amounts of deformation are occurring.
Finite Element Analysis Methods.
Two broad divisions in the application of Finite Element Analysis method for sheet metal forming can be identified as Inverse One-step and Incremental.
Inverse One-step methods compute the deformation potential of a finished part geometry to the flattened blank. Mesh initially with the shape and material characteristics of the finished geometry is deformed to the flat pattern blank. The strain computed in this inverse forming operation is then inverted to predict the deformation potential of the flat blank being deformed into the final part shape. All the deformation is assumed to happen in one increment or step and is the inverse of the process which the simulation is meant to represent, thus the name Inverse One-Step.
Incremental Analysis methods start with the mesh of the flat blank and simulate the deformation of the blank inside of tools modeled to represent a proposed manufacturing process. This incremental forming is computed "forward" from initial shape to final, and is calculated over a number of time increments for start to finish. The time increments can be either explicitly or implicitly defined depending on the finite element software being applied. As the incremental methods include the model of the tooling and allow for the definition of boundary conditions which more fully replicate the manufacturing proposal, incremental methods are more commonly used for process validation. Inverse One-step with its lack of tooling and therefore poor representation of process is limited to geometry based feasibility checks.
Incremental analysis has filled the role previously completed through the use of proof tools or prototype tools. Proof tools in the past were short run dies made of softer than normal material, which were used to plan and test the metal forming operations. This process was very time consuming and did not always yield beneficial results, as the soft tools were very different in their behavior than the longer running production tools. Lessons learned on the soft tools did not transfer to the hard tool designs. Simulation has for the most part displaced this old method. Simulation used as a virtual tryout is a metal forming simulation based on a specific set of input variables, sometimes nominal, best case, worst case, etc. However, any simulation is only as good as the data used to generate the predictions. When a simulation is seen as a "passing result" manufacturing of the tool will often begin in earnest. But if the simulation results are based on an unrealistic set of production inputs then its value as an engineering tool is suspect.
Robustness Analysis.
Recent innovations in stochastic analysis applied to sheet metal forming simulations has enabled early adopters to engineer repeat-ability into their processes that might not be found if they are using single sets of simulations as "virtual tryout".
Uses of sheet metal forming simulation.
Chaboche type material models are sometimes used to simulate springback effects in sheet metal forming. These and other advanced plasticity models require the experimental determination of cyclic stress-strain curves. Test rigs have been used to measure material properties that when used in simulations provide excellent correlation between measured and calculated springback.
Many metal forming operation require too much deformation of the blank to be performed in a single step. Multistep or progressive stamping operations are used to incrementally form the blank into the desired shape through a series of stamping operations. Incremental forming simulation software platforms addresses these operations with a series of one-step stamping operations that simulate the forming process one step at a time.
Another common goal in design of metal forming operations is to design the shape of the initial blank so that the final formed part requires few or no cutting operations to match the design geometry. The blank shape can also be optimized with finite element simulations. One approach is based on an iterative procedure that begins with an approximate starting geometry, simulates the forming process and then checks deviation of the resulting formed geometry from the ideal product geometry. The node points are adjusted in accordance with the displacement filed to correct the blank edge geometry. This process is continued until the end blank shape matches the as-designed part geometry.
Metal forming simulation offers particular advantages in the case of high strength steel and advanced high-strength steel which are used in current day automobiles to reduce weight while maintaining crash safety of the vehicle. The materials have higher yield and tensile strength than conventional steel so the die undergoes greater deformation during the forming process which in turn increases the difficulty of designing the die. Sheet metal simulation that considers the deformation of not only the blank but also the die can be used to design tools to successfully form these materials.
Industrial applications.
Tata Motors engineers used metal forming simulation to develop tooling and process parameters for producing a new oil pump design. The first prototypes that were produced closed matched the simulation prediction.
Nissan Motor Company used metal forming simulation to address a tearing problem in a metal stamping operation. A simple simulation model was created to determine the effect of blank edge radius on the height to which the material could be formed without tearing. Based on this information a new die was designed that solved the problem.
There are lots of sheet metal programs available in the industry as SolidWorks and LITIO.
Nowadays FEA software's such as LS DYNA, AUTOFORM, HYPERFORM, PAMSTAMP are very good for virtual process simulations prior to product manufacturing. The defects such as Wrinkles, thinning and cracks can be seen in the design stage right just before the process design, results in correct process selection and reduction in lead time and save valuable money, which otherwise invested in hectic manufacturing iterations.


TRI-D (rocket engine)

TRI-D is a 3D printed metal rocket engine. Students from the Students for the Exploration and Development of Space at University of California, San Diego (SEDS at UC San Diego) built the metal rocket engine using a technique previously confined to NASA, using a GPI Prototype and Manufacturing Services printer via the Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) method. UCSD students were the first group in the world to 3D print a rocket engine of its size, other than NASA as of February 2014. The Tri-D engine cost US$6,800.
Development.
The Tri-D rocket engine was designed and built with the cooperation of NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center, to explore the feasibility of printed rocket components. It was designed to power the third stage of a Nanosat or Cubesat launcher, i.e. an engine capable of launching satellites that weigh less than 1.33 kg (2.93 lb).
Specifications.
Tri-D is around 17.7 cm long and weighs around 4.5 kg. It was fabricated using a chromium-cobalt alloy powder. The propellants are kerosene and liquid oxygen. The engine produces about thrust. According to Gizmag "the injector has a Fuel-Oxidizer-Oxidizer-Fuel inlet arrangement with two outer fuel orifices converging with two inner oxidizer orifices".
The engine has a regenerative cooling jacket that extends to the nozzle to prevent the engine from overheating while firing. The combustion chamber was designed to burn the propellants in the middle of the chamber and keep as much heat generated as possible away from its chamber walls, while at the same time insulating the wall with a film of cooler gases.
Printer.
The engine was printed with a GPI Prototype and Manufacturing Services printer using a technique called Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS). In the process of printing, a powder of the chromium-cobalt alloy is spread in a thin layer. Then computer-controlled laser fuses the powders into a cross section of the engine component. The machine then spreads a second layer of powder and the process continuously repeats until each component is complete. Any excess powder is removed as are temporary supports that were printed to hold the components together during printing process. Finally it is hardened, polished and assembled.
Test firing.
The test firing at Mojave went without any problems and the engine exhaust achieved thrust. The team claimed "it was a resounding success and could be the next step in the development of cheaper propulsion systems and a commercializing of space".
Injector test.
On a separate engine, a 3D printed injector was test fired in a conventionally manufactured engine. In the test of the injector on August 22, 2014, the engine generated thrust.


Solid Concepts 1911 DMLS

The Solid Concepts 1911 DMLS is a 3D printed improvised firearm version of the M1911 pistol. It was made public around November 2013 and was printed via the direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) method. It was created by Solid Concepts. The first gun, version 1.0, is made up of 34 3D-printed 17-4 stainless steel components.
Specifications.
It weighs when it is empty i.e is not filled with a magazine and the trigger pull weighs . The width is wide. The sight radius is and consists of a standard GI with a square notch rear. The ratio of the twist is 1:15.8; at 6=Lands 6=Grooves. The gun used Inconel 625 (a nickel-chromium alloy) material and stainless steel via the Direct Metal Laser Sintering method.
The Solid Concepts Browning M1911 replica, version 2.0, will be composed of 34 Inconel 625 components, (not including grips). The two carbon-fiber filled nylon 12 grips were also 3D printed. Unlike early 3D printed plastic guns, the barrel of the 1911 was rifled. None of the parts were machined during production, and assembly took less than seven minutes once the parts had been filed and hardened.
Printer.
The German EOSINT M270 Direct Metal 3D Printer used to create the weapon cost between $500,000 to $1,000,000 at the time the gun was created as of November 2013 and uses a commercial-grade power source. The printer requires argon and nitrogen gas
Capability and firing tests.
According to Sky News, during the initial test Solid Concepts stated: "It functions beautifully. Our resident gun expert has fired 50 successful rounds and hit a few bull's eyes at over 30 yards (27.43 metres)".
The Solid Concepts Pistol fired its 5000th round on 6 September 2014.


Chrysler Valiant (AP6)

The Chrysler Valiant AP6 is an automobile which was produced by Chrysler Australia from 1965 to 1966. It was the fourth Chrysler Valiant model produced in Australia.
Overview.
The Valiant AP6 was released in March 1965, replacing the Chrysler Valiant AP5. The basic styling was carried over from the AP5 but differed in having a new split grille, a new bonnet and new front mudguards. Mechanical changes included a redesigned camshaft, the introduction of self-adjusting brakes and the replacement of the push button gear selector on models with automatic transmission by a traditional lever system. Optional power brakes were made available across the range.
A coupe utility variant was added to the range in April 1965 and marketed as the Valiant Wayfarer. This was the first Valiant-based coupe utility to be produced by Chrysler Australia.
As with the previous AP5 model, station wagon rear styling varied depending on production dates. Early build wagons used 1965 US Plymouth Valiant wagon-style tail lights. At some time in the production run Chrysler Australia invested in new tooling for the wagon rear sheet metal, allowing the use of sedan rear doors. Later style wagons again used vertical style tail lights. The new pressings required revised rear cargo area side windows and rear bumpers were also redesigned. Changes occurred from build number AP6-2W-3107 (manual Safari), AP6-4W-2167 (automatic Safari), AP6-4HW-1418 (Regal Safari) and AP6-4WHV-209 (V8 Safari). The difference in sheet metal is most notable where the rear bumpers on the later versions finish. On early build cars the rear bumper ends lead into a pressing on the lower rear quarter panel sheet metal, whereas on later build cars the bumper has curved ends with a flat sheet metal surface on the lower rear quarters.
Valiant V8 models were released in August 1965. A V8 sedan and V8 Safari wagon were offered, both powered by a V8 engine with “TorqueFlite 8” automatic transmission. V8 models could be identified by V8 badges, with the V8 sedan having a vinyl roof and the V8 Safari wagon being fitted with a roof rack. Power-assisted brakes were standard equipment. Although it utilized Regal trim and equipment, the V8 was marketed as the Valiant V8, not as a Valiant Regal V8.
Model range.
The Valiant AP6 was offered in 4-door sedan, 5-door station wagon and 2-door coupé utility body styles in ten models.
Engines and transmissions.
A Straight-six engine was fitted to all models except the Valiant V8, which was powered by a V8 engine. Three speed manual and three speed automatic transmissions were offered.
Production and replacement.
A total of 43,344 Valiant AP6s were produced prior to its replacement by the Valiant VC in 1966.


Bottleneck (production)

In production and project management, a bottleneck is a process in a chain of processes, such that its limited capacity reduces the capacity of the whole chain. The result of having a bottleneck are stalls in production, supply overstock, pressure from customers, and low employee morale. There are both short and long-term bottlenecks. Short-term bottlenecks are temporary and are not normally a significant problem. An example of a short-term bottleneck would be a skilled employee taking a few days off. Long-term bottlenecks occur all the time and can cumulatively significantly slow down production. An example of a long-term bottleneck is when a machine is not efficient enough and as a result has a long queue.
An example is the lack of smelter and refinery supply which cause bottlenecks upstream.
Another example is in a surface-mount technology board assembly line with several pieces of equipment aligned. Usually the common sense strategy is to set up and shift the bottleneck element towards the end of the process, inducing the better and faster machines to always keep the printed circuit board (PCB) supply flowing up, never allowing the slower ones to fully stop; a strategy that could result in a deleterious (or damaging) and significant, overall drawback in the process.
Identifying bottlenecks.
Almost every system has a bottleneck, even if it is a minor one. If every system was running at full capacity, at least one machine would be accumulating processes. Identifying bottlenecks is critical for improving efficiency in the production line because it allows you to determine the area where accumulation occurs. The machine or process that accumulates the longest queue is usually a bottleneck, however this isn't always the case. Bottlenecks can be found through: identifying the areas where accumulation occurs, evaluating the throughput, assessing whether each machine is being used at full capacity, and finding the machine with the high wait time.
Accumulation.
When input comes in faster than the speed of the process, accumulation starts to occur. This means that the machine either does not have enough capacity, is not being fully utilized or has an under-qualified operator. This method is not effective at identifying bottlenecks where the queues are at several process steps, as there are multiple processes with accumulation.
Throughput.
Since the production line is directly linked to the output of the machines, it allows for the identifying of the main bottleneck in the manufacturing process. In changing each machines throughput, it will be possible to assess which machine affects the overall output the most, and hence determine the bottleneck in the chain of processes.
Full capacity.
By using the utilization percentage of each production unit, it is possible to determine the machine which uses the highest percentage of its capacity. This machine is bottlenecking the other machines by 'forcing' them to operate at a lower capacity. However, if all machines in the chain of processes are running at a similar capacity level, increasing the capacity of the lowest machine will not create a significant improvement to the total output.
Wait times.
In the case where several production units are already running at full capacity, tracking the down time of machines will allow you to identify which machine is being bottlenecked. Usually the machine prior the machine with the highest wait or down time in the chain of processes is a bottleneck. The result of this is a machine being under utilized.
Fishbone diagram (Cause and Effect Diagram).
A fishbone diagram is a graphical means for finding possible problems in a chain of processes. By collecting the different data related to the problem, and inputting them into the diagram, it becomes easier to analyze the data in the order it is used, and hence determine the root of the problem. This is commonly used to find the bottleneck in a chain of processes due to being able to pinpoint the machine precisely responsible for the delay in production.
Consequences of bottlenecks in production.
The consequences of having bottlenecks in production are possible stalls in production, supply overstock, fall in employee morale, and loss of customers. Bottlenecks can result in the overloading of a machine. Overloading a machine can lead to the machinery getting damaged or worn out, and the result of this would be potential stretches of downtime in the long term.
Stall in production.
A stall in production would be the result of one machine slowing down the entire chain of processes and consistently leaving the other machines unable to continue while it accumulates a large queue. This inefficiency significantly slows down production as many resources such as time, people, and machines are being paid to wait.
Supply overstock.
In the event of accumulation in the long-term, the capacity at which the bottlenecked machine is running could be so slow that the accumulated resources that are in the queue need to be stored. The cost of storing resources is significant as it takes resources to transport the materials back and forth as well as requiring space, another potential cost.
Fall in employee morale.
The result of bottlenecks could require more work from employees as well as longer hours. In addition, there's the factor of stress and frustration with the bottlenecked machine and its operator. This could result in loss of efficiency as employees may not be very motivated to work.
Managing bottlenecks.
Once the bottleneck has been identified, assessing the degree of the bottleneck is crucial for determining how to manage the bottleneck. The bottleneck could be either minor or severe. Minor bottlenecks may not need to be immediately addressed, whereas severe bottlenecks should be dealt with immediately. There are several ways to eliminate bottlenecks. Some means of doing so are: Adding resources to the bottleneck operation (more people), minimising downtime, eliminating non-value activities, investing in more machinery which completes the same action, and optimising the bottlenecks operation. Other sources similarly suggest that once the bottleneck has been identified it is best to ensure it is well maintained, to provide a constant buffer stock upstream of the bottleneck, to reduce time wasted in set ups and changeovers, and to train more operators for the bottlenecked machines. These are further explained below. Having production scheduled to optimise efficiency, is another means of effectively utilising the bottlenecked machine. This minimises the possibility that the production quota will not be met. Scheduling also reduces the number of situations where production is halted due to a lack of personnel, due to increased organisation and greater planned out production. It also allows for the full advantage of the time available to be taken, as pockets of time can be found to keep the machine running for as many hours as possible in a week.
Increasing number of operators or employees.
Increasing the number of operators or increasing the number of staff can be beneficial for multiple reasons. Increasing the number of operators can increase efficiency, as they can all work different timed shifts and hence the bottlenecked machine can run for longer hours. In addition, if one worker is sick, unable to work, or quits, there will always be someone available to replace him. Increasing the number of employees can be beneficial to increasing efficiency. This is because they can be reassigned to work on parts of the bottlenecked machines' operations which can be broken down into smaller activities and reassigned to reduce the work load of the machine, hence reducing the accumulation. Reassigning other work to different machines, allows less accumulation or delay for the bottlenecked machine. This significantly speeds up production, as it reduces the wait time of the machines farther along the chain of processes, increasing productivity.
Minimizing downtime, setup and changeover time.
To compensate for being the weakest link in the chain of processes, the bottleneck machine will have to run for longer periods of time. Changeover and setup time should be minimised to allow the machines to run for slightly longer, reducing the impact of the bottleneck. Minimizing downtime by having the bottlenecked machines run from earlier until later is a common strategy for working around the problem, however this does increase the likelihood for the machine to be overloaded and need regular maintenance.
Eliminating non-value activities.
In removing all non-value activities, you reduce the amount of redundant tasks performed by the bottlenecked machine and hence maximize efficiency. Removing the waste operations results in a shorter cycle time hence allowing the machine to complete each process in less time.
Provide a constant buffer stock upstream.
In order to optimise the usage of the machine, the machine should be kept running for as long as possible and hence should never have to wait for materials or stock, to increase productivity. This can be achieved by putting a buffer stock in place, so that the machine always has some task it can be doing. The down side to this strategy is that inventory space will be needed to store the buffer stock, for when the machine before it in the chain of processes, is working.
Preventing bottlenecks.
Preventing bottlenecks would be ideal to avoid having to manage and resolve them in the future. There are ways to work around them when planning the production environment. Giving employees free rein over minor decision making, will allow them to make the decision they feel is most efficient, and being operators of the machine, their experience will allow them to become specialised in the use of the machine over time. Cross-training employees will increase adaptability in the production line and therefore reduce potential downtime in the future. Hiring high performance employees will reduce the possibility for bottlenecks to be formed by underperforming employees who are inefficient at using their assigned machinery. Planning for a higher potential output when designing the production environment is crucial in the long run, for occurrences of larger orders when there is need to run all the machinery. Having all the machinery running at full capacity is not always ideal, due to situations where malfunctions occur and production is halted. Having inspiring leaders who have a strong understanding of how to keep production running smoothly, will allow greater control of all the different processes in the chain of production. Taking into account the layout of the different processes, can also increase efficiency as it minimises delay caused in the transportation stage. The use of a proper layout can reduce the overhead of machines and can reduce material handling time.
Establishment of standardized exchanged protocols, can minimise the potential for future bottlenecks to occur through minimising down time. This increases efficiency by reducing any potential confusion between different sectors and hence reduces the possibility for delays of the arrival of raw materials.
Static and dynamic systems and shifting bottlenecks.
A static bottleneck is where no random or unexpected fluctuations (such as those that would happen during either a changeover or a breakdown of the system) occur. A static system does not change in behavior and hence the system stays constant. Finding a bottleneck in a static system is very simple, it is simply the machine or process with the longest constant cycle time. Static systems do not exist in reality as no matter what, there will always be a slight fluctuation in cycle time. This is because there is no way to prevent all fluctuations from occurring to slow the system down. An example of this could be a power shortage or a natural disaster. The behavior of any system is vulnerable to any random event and hence all systems are dynamic. Dynamic systems can be divided into two main groups: Stable and unstable. The significant difference in the context of dynamic systems, is that the bottlenecks can shift. The speed of which a bottleneck shifts depending on the buffer between the processes. Bottlenecks shift when the location of the work center in the production area changes, and this leads to control problems due to the significant delay in output. Shifting bottlenecks are a result of inevitable, unexpected events, for which no planning is possible.
The steps suggested to avoid or prevent shifting bottlenecks are:
Step 1) Re-evaluate the maximum load of every machine, process or work center when accepting a new order.
Step 2) Find the bottleneck in the system and identify its surplus capacity.
Step 3) Fill the bottlenecks surplus capacity.
Step 4) Find out the release time of the material as a result of the new bottlenecks scheduling.
Through following these steps, the order production will be completed in the shortest possible time frame.


Gear manufacturing

Gear manufacturing refers to the making of gears. Gears can be manufactured by a variety of processes, including casting, forging, extrusion, powder metallurgy, and blanking. As a general rule, however, machining is applied to achieve the final dimensions, shape and surface finish in the gear. The initial operations that produce a semifinishing part ready for gear machining as referred to as blanking operations; the starting product in gear machining is called a gear blank.
Selection of materials.
The gear material should have the following properties:
Gear manufacturing processes.
There are multiple ways in which gear blanks can be shaped through the cutting and finishing processes.
Gear forming.
In gear form cutting, the cutting edge of the cutting tool has a shape identical with the shape of the space between the gear teeth. Two machining operations, milling and broaching can be employed to form cut gear teeth.
Form milling.
In form milling, the cutter called a form cutter travels axially along the length of the gear tooth at the appropriate depth to produce the gear tooth. After each tooth is cut, the cutter is withdrawn, the gear blank is rotated, and the cutter proceeds to cut another tooth. The process continues until all teeth are cut
Broaching.
Broaching can also be used to produce gear teeth and is particularly applicable to internal teeth. The process is rapid and produces fine surface finish with high dimensional accuracy. However, because broaches are expensive and a separate broach is required for each size of gear, this method is suitable mainly for high-quality production.
Gear generation.
In gear generation, the tooth flanks are obtained as an outline of the subsequent positions of the cutter, which resembles in shape the mating gear in the gear pair. There are two machining processes employed shaping and milling. There are several modifications of these processes for different cutting tool used.
Gear hobbing.
Gear hobbing is a machining process in which gear teeth are progressively generated by a series of cuts with a helical cutting tool. All motions in hobbing are rotary, and the hob and gear blank rotate continuously as in two gears meshing until all teeth are cut.
Finishing operations.
As produced by any of the process described, the surface finish and dimensional accuracy may not
be accurate enough for certain applications. Several finishing operations are available, including the
conventional process of shaving, and a number of abrasive operations, including grinding, honing, and lapping.


Vibrating feeder

A vibratory feeder is an instrument that uses vibration to "feed" material to a process or machine. Vibratory feeders use both vibration and gravity to move material. Gravity is used to determine the direction, either down, or down and to a side, and then vibration is used to move the material. They are mainly used to transport a large number of smaller objects.
A belt weigher are used only to measure the material flow rate but weigh feeder can measure the flow material and also control or regulate the flow rate by varying the belt conveyor speed.
Industries Served.
Versatile and rugged vibratory bowl feeders have been extremely used for automatic feeding of small to large and differently shaped industrial parts. They are the oldest but still commonly used automation machine available for aligning and feeding machine parts, electronic parts, plastic parts, chemicals, metallic parts, glass vials, pharmaceuticals, foods, miscellaneous goods etc.
Available in standard and custom designs, vibratory bowl feeders have been largely purchased by varied industrial sectors for automating high-speed production lines and assembly systems. Some of the industries that use the service of this automation machine include:
With these easy-to-use and high-performing part-feeding machines, customers from varied industrial sectors have achieved lower error rates, less power consumption, better profits, better rates of efficiency and less dependency on manpower.


SL Corporation

SL Corporation (hangul:에스엘코포레이션) is a multinational automotive components manufacturing company headquartered in Gyeongsan, South Korea. It has manufacturing plants in Asia-Pacific, India, Europe, and the United States.
Annual turn-over is around 1.8billion USD
as group basis.
History.
SL Corporation's origins date back to 1954 and the establishment of Samlip Motor Works as a manufacturer of bicycle parts. In 1968 the company was incorporated into Samlip Industrial Co. Ltd. (hangul:삼립산업) and in 1969 it began manufacturing head lamps for Hyundai Motors. The name was finally changed to SL Corporation in 2004 under the leadership of Lee Choong Kon, CEO. Currently SL Corporation manufactures various products for the automotive industry. SL Corporation received the GM Supplier of the Year award for sixteen straight years (1997–2012) as well as the Five Star quality certificate from Hyundai-Kia Motors.


Boe-Bot

BOE–Bot is short for Board of Education robot. It is the trade name of a robot kit that is used in junior high, high school and college robotics classes. It consists of a main circuit board (the Board of Education) and breadboard, a plug–in BASIC Stamp microcontroller, two servo motors to drive the wheels, and an aluminum chassis that the parts bolt onto. Students can use Erector set parts, Lego blocks, and additional servos to build custom projects. The BOE-bot has been manufactured and sold by Parallax Inc since 1998.
Main components.
The green detachable main circuit, mounted on the top of the robot is called the "Board of Education". The microcontroller which plugs into a socket on the green circuit board is called the BASIC Stamp . The BASIC Stamp is programmed in PBASIC. The rear wheel is a drilled polyethylene ball held in place with a cotter pin. Wheels are machined to fit on the servo spline and held in place with a screw. The BASIC Stamp is easy to program. The Boe–Bot is small, approximately four inches wide, and runs on four AA batteries. There is no soldering required for construction.
Features.
The Boe–Bot is a robot that can be used in a variety of ways including combining Microsoft Robotics Developer Studio software with the Boe–Bot to control the robot's movements. The BOE–Bot is programmed using the PBASIC language.


Electrogas welding

Electrogas welding (EGW) is a continuous vertical position arc welding process developed in 1961, in which an arc is struck between a consumable electrode and the workpiece. A shielding gas is sometimes used, but pressure is not applied. A major difference between EGW and its cousin electroslag welding is that the arc in EGW is not extinguished, instead remains struck throughout the welding process. It is used to make square-groove welds for butt and t-joints, especially in the shipbuilding industry and in the construction of storage tanks.
Operation.
In EGW, the heat of the welding arc causes the electrode and workpieces to melt and flow into the cavity between the parts being welded. This molten metal solidifies from the bottom up, joining the parts being welded together. The weld area is protected from atmospheric contamination by a separate shielding gas, or by the gas produced by the disintegration of a flux-cored electrode wire. The electrode is guided into the weld area by either a consumable electrode guide tube, like the one used in electroslag welding, or a moving head. When the consumable guide tube is used, the weld pool is composed of molten metal coming from the parts being welded, the electrode, and the guide tube. The moving head variation uses an assembly of an electrode guide tube which travels upwards as the weld is laid, keeping it from melting.
Electrogas welding can be applied to most steels, including low and medium carbon steels, low alloy high strength steels, and some stainless steels. Quenched and tempered steels may also be welded by the process, provided that the proper amount of heat is applied. Welds must be vertical, varying to either side by a maximum of 15 degrees. In general, the workpiece must be at least 10 mm (0.4 in) thick, while the maximum thickness for one electrode is approximately 20 mm (0.8 in). Additional electrodes make it possible to weld thicker workpieces. The height of the weld is limited only by the mechanism used to lift the welding head—in general, it ranges from 100 mm (4 in) to 20 m (50 ft).
Like other arc welding processes, EGW requires that the operator wear a welding helmet and proper attire to prevent exposure to molten metal and the bright welding arc. Compared to other processes, a large amount of molten metal is present during welding, and this poses an additional safety and fire hazard. Since the process is often performed at great heights, the work and equipment must be properly secured, and the operator should wear a safety harness to prevent injury in the event of a fall.
Equipment.
EGW uses a constant voltage, direct current welding power supply, and the electrode has positive polarity. The welding current can range from 100 to 800 A, and the voltage can range between 30 and 50 V. A wire feeder is used to supply the electrode, which is selected based on the material being welded. The electrode can be flux-cored to provide the weld with protection from atmospheric contamination, or a shielding gas—generally carbon dioxide—can be used with a solid wire electrode. The welding head is attached to an apparatus that elevates during the welding process. Also attached to the apparatus are backing shoes which restrain the weld to the width of the workpieces. To prevent them from melting, they are made of copper and are water-cooled. They must be fit tightly against the joint to prevent leaks.


Blister pack

A blister pack is any of several types of pre-formed plastic packaging used for small consumer goods, foods, and for pharmaceuticals.
The primary component of a blister pack is a cavity or pocket made from a formable web, usually a thermoformed plastic. This usually has a backing of paperboard or a lidding seal of aluminum foil or plastic. A blister that folds onto itself is often called a clamshell.
Blister packs are useful for protecting products against external factors, such as humidity and contamination for extended periods of time. Opaque blisters also protect light-sensitive products against UV rays.
Uses.
Blister packs are used to package products such as toys, hardware, medication, etc. Many blister packaging machines use heat and pressure via a die to form the cavity or pocket from a roll or sheet of plastic. In recent years, improvements in cold forming—specifically allowing steeper depth/angles during forming, which minimizes the amount of material used for each cavity—have helped this technology increase. The main advantages of the plastic-based blister pack are its more compact size compared to cold formed aluminum and its transparency to see the product.
Unit dose packaging of pharmaceuticals.
Blister packs are commonly used as unit-dose packaging for pharmaceutical tablets, capsules or lozenges. Blister packs can provide barrier protection for shelf life requirements, and a degree of tamper resistance. In the US, blister packs are mainly used for packing physician samples of drug products or for over-the-counter (OTC) products in the pharmacy. In other parts of the world, blister packs are the main packaging type since pharmacy dispensing and re-packaging are not common. A series of blister cavities is sometimes called a blister card or blister strip as well as blister pack. The difference between a strip pack and blister pack is that a strip pack does not have thermo-formed or cold formed cavities; the strip pack is formed around the tablet at a time when it is dropped to the sealing area between sealing moulds. In some parts of the world the pharmaceutical blister pack is known as a push-through pack (PTP), an accurate description of two key properties (i) the lidding foil is brittle, making it possible to press the product out while breaking the lidding foil and (ii) a semi-rigid formed cavity being sufficiently collapsible to be able to dispense the tablet or capsule by means of pressing it out with the thumb. Breaking the lidding foil with a fingernail for the appropriate tablet will make the pressing out easier.
The main advantages of unit-dose blister packs over other methods of packing pharmaceutical products are the assurance of product/packaging integrity (including shelf-life) of each individual dose and the ability to create a compliance pack or calendar pack by printing the days of the week above each dose.
Blister packs are created by means of a form-fill-seal process at the pharmaceutical company or designated contract packer. A form-fill-seal process means that the blister pack is created from rolls of flat sheet or film, filled with the pharmaceutical product and closed (sealed) on the same equipment. Such equipment is called a blisterline. There are two types of blister machine' design: rotary and flat-plate, depending on the mechanism for sealing the lidding foil.
Consumer goods.
Other types of blister packs consist of carded packaging where goods such as toys, hardware, and electrical items are contained between a specially made paperboard card and clear pre-formed plastic such as PVC. The consumer can visually examine the product through the transparent plastic. The plastic shell is vacuum-formed around a mold so it can contain the item snugly. The card is colored and designed depending on the item inside, and the PVC is affixed to the card using heat and pressure to activate an adhesive (heat seal coating) on the blister card. The adhesive is strong enough so that the pack may hang on a peg, but weak enough so that the package can be easily opened (in theory). Sometimes, with large items, the card (cold seal card) has a perforated window for access.
Clamshell.
A hinged blister is known as a clamshell, used for a variety of products. It can be used as a security package to deter package pilferage for small high-value items, such as consumer electronics. It consists of one sheet folded over onto itself and sometimes fused at the edges. They can be securely heat sealed, making them difficult to open by hand to deter tampering. A pair of scissors or a sharp knife is often required to open them (although these are often sold in similar packages). Trauma shears are also effective at opening packaging of this type. Care must be used to safely open some of these packages, as opening it without care can result in injury; 6,000 Americans are sent to the emergency room each year by injuries suffered in opening such packages.
Wrap rage is sometimes the result.
Medical blister trays.
Medical blister trays differ from pharmaceutical blister packs in that these are not push-through packs. The thermoformed base web is made of a thicker plastic sheet, generally between 500 and 1000 µg and can not be collapsed, thus forming a solid tray. The lidding film provides a peel-open feature and is generally porous to allow sterilization (such as the Dupont medical Tyvek material). Such medical blister packs are used for sterile medical devices, used in hospitals.
Methods.
Thermoforming.
In the case of thermoforming, a plastic film or sheet is unwound from the reel and guided though a pre-heating station on the blister line which will cause the plastic to soften and become pliable. The warm plastic will then arrive in a forming station where a large pressure (4 to 8 bar) will form the blister cavity into a negative mold. The mold is cooled such that the plastic becomes rigid again and maintains its shape when removed from the mold. In case of difficult shapes, the warm film will be physically pushed down partially into the cavity by a "plug-assist" feature. Plug-assist results in a blister cavity with more uniform wall distribution and is typically used when the cavity size and shape is larger than a small tablets and cables.
Cold forming.
In the case of cold forming, an aluminum-based laminate film is simply pressed into a mold by means of a stamp. The aluminum will be elongated and maintain the formed shape. In the industry these blisters are called cold form foil (CFF) blisters. The principal advantage of cold form foil blisters is that the use of aluminum offers a near complete barrier for water and oxygen, allowing an extended product expiry date. The principal disadvantages of cold form foil blisters are: the slower speed of production compared to thermoforming; the lack of transparency of the package (a therapy compliance disadvantage); and the larger size of the blister card (aluminum can not be formed with near 90-degree angles).
Thermo cold forming.
In thermo cold forming process, the first packing is done by thermoforming technique after which the product is repacked with a cold forming package.
Materials.
PVC.
The most basic material for the forming web is polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The principal advantages of PVC are the low cost and the ease of thermoforming. The main disadvantages are the poor barrier against moisture ingress and oxygen ingress. In the case of blister packaging the PVC sheet does not contain any plasticizer and is sometimes referred to as Rigid PVC or RPVC. In the absence of plasticizers, PVC blisters offer structural rigidity and physical protection for the pharmaceutical dosage form. On the other hand, the blister cavity must remain accessible by the push-through effect and the formed web may not be too hard to collapse when pressed upon; for this reason the PVC sheet thickness is typically chosen between 200µ to 300µ depending on the cavity size and shape. Most PVC sheets for pharmaceutical blisters are 250µ or 0.250 mm in thickness. Typical values for the Water Vapor Transmission Rate (WVTR or MVTR) of a 250µ PVC film are around 3.0 g/m2/day measured at 38 °C/90% RH and the Oxygen Transmission Rate (OTR) is around 20 mL/m2/day. In order to overcome the lack of barrier properties of PVC film, it can be coated with PVDC or laminated to PCTFE or COC to increase the protective properties. Multi-layer blister films based on PVC are often used for pharmaceutical blister packaging, whereby the PVC serves as the thermoformable backbone of the structure. Also, the PVC layer can be colored with pigments and/or UV filters. The European Pharmacopoeia (Ph Eur) references the requirements for PVC blister packs for pharmaceutical primary packaging in the monograph EP 3.1.11 "MATERIALS BASED ON NON-PLASTICISED POLY(VINYL CHLORIDE) FOR CONTAINERS FOR DRY DOSAGE FORMS FOR ORAL ADMINISTRATION". In order to be suitable for pharmaceutical blister packs, the PVC formulation also needs to comply with the US Pharmacopoeia ; EU food legislation; US 21.CFR and Japanese food contact requirements.
PVDC.
Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) can be coated onto a PVC film to obtain very high moisture and oxygen barrier properties depending on the coating weight. PVDC coated blister films are the most common and prevailing barrier films used for pharmaceutical blister packs. PVDC coatings are also the most economical method for adding water barrier and oxygen barrier properties to a PVC film. PVDC blister films are available in 2 or 3 layer specifications referred to as duplex or triplex. Since the PVDC is applied by a coating process, the coating weight is expressed in grams per square meter (gsm). Duplex structures are typically PVC/PVDC films, ranging from 250µPVC/40gsmPVDC to 250µPVC/120gsmPVDC with WVTR from 0,65 to 0,25 g/m2/d and OTR from 1 to 0,1 cc/m2/d. For very deep draw thermoformed cavities, the triplex specifications are used : PVC/PE/PVDC, where the PE layer assists when forming deeper cavities. The PE (polyethylene) forms a soft intermediate layer between the rigid PVC and PVDC layers. Triplex specifications exists in similar coating weights as duplex specifications: 250µPVC/25µPE/40gsmPVDC up to 250µPVC/25µPE/120gsmPVDC.
In order to obtain high barrier properties, PVDC is always applied using an emulsion coating process using a PVDC resin dispersed in water. The film producer applies the coating in several steps, drying-off the water between each coating station.
PVDC grades are available in 2 types of polymer: (I) the historic grades offering medium to high barrier properties and (II) a super barrier coating grade offering the highest barrier. The SBC grade has over two times the barrier to moisture and oxygen per gram coating weight compared to the historic grades. The most common structures using the super barrier PVDC are triplex configurations 250µ PVC/25µ PE/120gsm PVDC up to 250µ PVC/25µ PE/180gsm PVDC, with WVTR of 0,11 down to 0,06 g/m2/day and available from various suppliers.
PCTFE.
Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE) can be laminated to PVC to obtain very high moisture barrier. Typical constructions used for pharmaceutical products are 250µ PVC film laminated to 15µ-150µ PCTFE film. Duplex structures are PVC/PCTFE and triplex laminates are PVC/PE/PCTFE. Deeper cavities can be formed by using the triplex structures with PE. Typical WVTR values are 0.06–0.40 g/m2/day. PCTFE films have the lowest water vapor permeation compared to all other plastic films used in blister packaging and have thermoforming properties similar to plain PVC though it is also the most expensive. Despite narrow thermoforming temperatures and required cooling steps PP is increasingly popular. This popularity is due in part to it not suffering the environmental liability that PVC suffers in discharging hydrochloric acid during incineration. Unplasticised PVC has good thermoforming properties but may not provide good moisture protection for some products. After the forming process a 250 µm film will have a final thickness of 50 to 100 µm in some deep drawn pockets. The reduction in thickness will result in an increase in WVT.
COC.
Cyclic olefin copolymers (COC) or polymers (COP) can provide moisture barrier to blister packs, typically in multilayered combinations with polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), or glycol-modified polyethylene terephthalate (PETg). Cyclic olefin resins are generally amorphous and are noted for good thermoforming characteristics even in deep cavities, leading some to use COC in blister packaging as a thermoforming enhancer, particularly in combination with semicrystalline resins such as PP or PE. Films can be manufactured via coextrusion or lamination. WVTR values of commercial cyclic olefin-based pharmaceutical blister films typically range from 0.20 to 0.35 g/m2/day at 38 °C/90% RH. Unlike PVC and other common pharmaceutical barrier resins, cyclic olefin resins do not contain chlorine or other halogens in their molecular structure, being composed solely of carbon and hydrogen. Cyclic olefin resins are available which comply with pharmaceutical packaging guidelines in the US, Europe, and Japan.
Cold form foil.
Cold form foil film (or cold-formed foil) is made of a 3-layer laminate: PVC/Aluminum/Polyamide. The PVC side is on the inside in contact with the product.
Lidding foils.
Pharmaceutical blister packs are mostly closed by a push-through or peel-open lidding foil. The most common lidding foil with push-through features is 20µ hard tamper aluminum, which can be supplied pinhole-free from the producers. The lidding foil is coated with a heat-seal lacquer on the inside and a print primer on the outside.
Benefits.
Cost savings.
Blister packaging is a cost-effective way of showcasing a product. Due to the nature of the material and design, it makes it more cost-effective than other types of packages that are on the market. There are several different types of blister packaging – Face Seal, Trap, Mock, Slide and Interactive. Each one has its unique qualities and price points, from entry level to high end.
Advertising space.
There is a wide range of colors and finishes that blister packaging can be constructed to feature. Manufacturers can use that to help make their products stand out on shelves. Blister packaging allows either the manufacturer or retailer to include promotional materials or advertisements to help build a brand and increase customer loyalty.
Clear product display.
Blister packaging helps shoppers see product, further aiding in their purchase decision. More than half of shoppers believe it is important to see a product through its packaging.
Theft deterrent packaging.
To prevent retail theft, packages are specifically designed so that the customer cannot "touch and feel" the product. Clear, protective, and durable thermoformed plastic packaging enables the customer to fully view the product while maintaining the security of the product. Blister packaging can easily be sealed using heat sealing machinery.
Tamper evident.
A tamper-evident package, according to the regulations of the Food and Drug Administration (21 CFR § 211.132), "is one having one or more indicators or barriers to entry which, if breached or missing, can reasonably be expected to provide visible evidence to consumers that tampering has occurred". In addition, the indicator or barrier must be "distinctive by design", which means the tamper-evident feature is designed from material not readily available to the public. Therefore, it cannot be easily duplicated. The labeling must also include a description of the safety feature. For blister packaging, each tablet or capsule is individually sealed, so any form of tampering is immediately visible. The product label needs to include a statement similar to the following: "Do not use if blister is cut or broken".
Suicide prevention.
Medication placed in blister packs has reduced intentional overdoses.


Manettino dial

In automotive engineering, a manettino dial is a rotary switch part of some modern Ferrari cars first designed by Frank Stephenson, beginning with the Ferrari F430 in 2004. The adjustment dial is mounted on the steering wheel, usually just underneath the center of the wheel. The dial  is inspired by the controls found on , but have a more polished appearance.
The dial allows for the quick and simple adjustment of the electronics governing car suspension settings, traction control, electronic differential, and change speed of electronic gearbox.
A similar control system was employed on the Ferrari Enzo, but used individual buttons for different settings rather than a single rotary switch.


Firescale

Firestain is a layer of oxides that is visible on the surface of objects made of metal alloys containing copper when the object is heated, as by a jeweler heating a ring to apply solder during a repair. On copper-containing alloys of gold or of silver (such as sterling silver), it presents as a red or purple stain. This is because at high temperatures, oxygen mixes with the copper to form cuprous oxide and then cupric oxide, both of which disrupt the bright polished surface of the finished piece.
Attempts to reduce the problem of firestain include preventative and curative ones. Firestain can be largely prevented by heating the object in an atmosphere in which the oxygen has been replaced with another combustive gas such as hydrogen or ammonia.
On the curative side, firestain can sometimes be removed by polishing, sanding, grinding, filing, wire brushing, and the like. As the layer firestain is often not very deep, this approach, with sufficient effort and time, may be able to remove it. However, this inevitably results in a loss of material to the piece, and will cause any fine details to the piece to be lost. However, it does not involve the use of any special gasses or changes to the heating atmosphere around the piece.
As another cure, objects can also be "bombed" or electrostripped. This involves placing them in a bath of a usually cyanide-based solution (sometimes nitric acid may be used instead, as well as other solutions) and applying a high-density electric current arranged so that the work piece functions as an anode. Other approaches include electroplating the object with a layer of the principal metal of the alloy, as well as, for sterling and similar grades of silver, depletion silvering the piece, and for gold-copper alloys, a sodium dichromate pickle solution with a low percentage of sulfuric acid has been occasionally found effective. These approaches, however, are temporary fixes in that all they do is cover up the firestain: over time, it will almost always reemerge through the thin layer of overlying metal deposit. The only long-term techniques to prevent the appearance of firestain are through its time-consuming physical removal or preventing its formation in the first place, by using an oxygen-free environment (which is often expensive and requires specialized equipment), or by using an alloy which is resistant to firestain such as argentium.


Diamond tool

A diamond tool is a cutting tool with diamond grains fixed on the functional parts of the tool via a bonding material or another method. As diamond is a superhard material, diamond tools have many advantages as compared with tools made with common abrasives such as corundum and silicon carbide.
History.
In "Natural History", Pliny wrote "When an "adamas" is successfully broken it disintegrates into splinters so small as to be scarcely visible. These are much sought after by engravers of gems and are inserted by them into iron tools because they make hollows in the hardest materials without difficulty."
Advantages.
Diamond is one of the hardest natural materials on earth; much harder than corundum and silicon carbide. Diamond also has high strength, good wear resistance, and a low friction coefficient. So when used as an abrasive, it has many obvious advantages over many other common abrasives.
Advantages of diamond grinding tools.
Diamond can be used to make grinding tools, which have the following advantages:
Categories.
There are thousands of kinds of diamond tools. They can be categorized by their manufacturing methods and their uses.
Categories by manufacturing method.
According to their manufacturing methods or bond types, diamond tools can be categorized to the following way:
Categories by use.
If categorized by use, there are diamond grinding tools, diamond cutting tools (e.g., diamond coated twist drill bits), diamond drilling tools, diamond sawing tools (e.g., diamond saw blades), diamond drawing dies, etc.
Applications.
Applicable materials.
Diamond tools are suitable to process the following materials:
As diamonds can react with Fe, Co, Ni, Cr, V under the high temperatures generated in the grinding processes, normally diamond tools are not suitable to process steels, including common steels and various tough alloy steels, while the other superhard tool, cubic boron nitride (CBN) tool, is suitable to process steels. The tools made with common abrasives (e.g. corundum and silicon carbide) can also do the task.
Applied domains.
Diamond tools are used in the following domains:
Besides what are listed above, there are also other domains where diamond tools are applied, for example, in medicine, Venezuelan scientist Humberto Fernandez Moran invented the diamond knife for use in delicate surgeries in 1955.
Apart from its use as an abrasive due to its high hardness, diamond is also used to make other products for its many other good properties such as high heat-conductivity, low friction coefficient, high chemical stability, high resistivity and high optical performances. These applications include coatings on bearings and CDs, acting as lens and thermistors, making high-voltage switches and sensors, etc.
Some examples of diamond tools.
Diamond dressing tools.
Diamond dressers consist of single-point or multipoint tools brazed to a steel shank, and used for the trueing and dressing of grinding wheels. The tools come in several types, including: grit impregnated, blade type, crown type, and disc type. The advantages of multipoint over single-point tools are:
PCD cutting tools.
Polycrystalline diamond (PCD) is formed in a large High Temperature-High Pressure (HT-HP) press, as either a diamond wafer on a backing of carbide, or forming a "vein" of diamond within a carbide wafer or rod.
Most wafers are polished to a mirror finish, then cut with an electrical discharge machining (EDM) tool into smaller, workable segments that are then brazed onto the sawblade, reamer, drill, or other tool. Often they are EDM machined and/or ground an additional time to expose the vein of diamond along the cutting edge. These tools are mostly used for the machining of nonmetallic and nonferrous materials.
The grinding operation is combined with EDM for several reasons. For example, according to Modern Machine Shop, the combination allows a higher material removal rate and is therefore more cost effective. Also, the EDM process slightly affects the surface finish. Grinding is used on the affected area to provide a finer final surface. The Beijing Institute of Electro-Machining attributes a finer shaping and surface geometry to the combination of the two processes into one.
The process itself is accomplished by combining the two elements from each individual process into one grinding wheel. The diamond graphite wheel accomplishes the task of grinding, while the graphite ring around the existing wheel serves as the EDM portion. However, since diamond is not a conductive material, the bonding in the PCD work piece must be ample enough to provide the conductivity necessary for the EDG process to work.
Polycrystalline diamond tools are used extensively in automotive and aerospace industries. They are ideal for speed machining (9000 surface feet per minute or higher) in tough and abrasive aluminum alloys, and high-abrasion processes such as carbon-fiber drilling and ceramics. The diamond cutting edges make them last for extended periods before replacement is needed. High volume processes, tight tolerances, and highly abrasive processes are ideal for diamond tooling.
Polycrystalline diamond compacts.
In the late 1970s, General Electric pioneered the technology of polycrystalline diamond compacts (PDCs) as a replacement for natural diamonds in drill bits. PDCs have been used to cut through crystalline rock surfaces for extended periods of time in lab environments, and these capabilities have now been implemented in harsh environments throughout the world.
As of August 2000, the U.S. Department of Energy claimed that nearly one-third of the total footage drilled worldwide is being drilled with PDC bits, with a claimed savings of nearly $100,000 per PDC bit as compared to roller-core bits.
Diamond paste and slurry.
Diamond pastes are used for polishing materials that require a mirror finish. They are often used in metallurgical specimens, carbide dies, carbide seals, spectacle glass industry, and for polishing diamonds. Diamond paste is mainly used in industrial requirements for polishing and sharpening metal blades and other metal surfaces. The paste is not just to polish the metal blade but sharpen the cutting edge as well.
Diamond electroplated tools.
Diamond powder deposited through electroplating is used to make files (including nail files) and in small grinding applications.
Single point diamond turning tools.
Single point diamond turning (SPDT) utilizes a solid, flawless diamond as the cutting edge. The single crystalline diamond can be natural or synthetic, and is sharpened to the desired dimensions by mechanical grinding and polishing. The cutting edge of most diamond tools is sharp to tens of nanometers, making it very effective for cutting non-ferrous materials with high resolution. SPDT is a very accurate machining process, used to create finished aspherical and irregular optics without the need for further polishing after completion. The most accurate machine tool in the world, the LODTM, formerly at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, had a profile accuracy estimated at 28 nm, while most machines seek a roughness within that deviation.
SPDT is used for optics, for flat surfaces where both surface finish and unusually high dimensional accuracy are required, and when lapping would be uneconomical or impractical.
Diamond saw blades.
For high-speed gas powered cut-off saws, walk-behind saws, handheld grinders, bridge saws, table saws, tile saws, and other types of saws.
Diamond tipped grinding cups.
Typically used on hand grinders for grinding concrete or stone.
Diamond tipped core bit or holesaw.
Hollow steel tube with diamond tipped segments for drilling holes through concrete walls in the construction industry, porcelain tiles or granite worktops in the domestic industry, or also used for sample core extractions in the mining industry.
PCD tool insert.
Used in machine tools for machining ceramics and high speed aluminium.
PD tool insert.
Used in turning centers for optics and precision surfaces.
Polishing pads.
Pads with diamond crystals for polishing marble and other fine stone.
Diamond wire cutting.
Wire with diamond crystals for cutting.
Some of the features of Diamond Wire Cutting are:
Non-percussive, fumeless and quiet
Smooth cutting face
Unlimited cutting depth
Horizontal, vertical and angled cutting of circular openings up to 2500mm diameter
Plunge cutting facility which allows blind and rebated openings to be formed
Remote controlled operation for increased safety
Diamond saw chain.
For cutting stone, concrete and brick with a special chainsaw.


Bar stock

Bar stock, also (colloquially) known as blank, slug or billet, is a common form of raw purified metal, used by industry to manufacture metal parts and products. Bar stock is available in a variety of extrusion shapes and lengths. The most common shapes are round (circular cross-section), rectangular, square and hexagonal. A bar is characterised by an "enclosed invariant convex cross-section", meaning that pipes, angle stock and objects with varying diameter are not considered bar stock.
Bar stock is commonly processed by a sequence of sawing, turning, milling, drilling and grinding to produce a final product, often vastly different from the original stock. In some cases, the process is partially automated by specialized equipment which feeds the stock into the appropriate processing machine.
Process and types.
Most metal produced by a steel mill or aluminium plant is formed (via rolling or extrusion) into long continuous strips of various size and shape. These strips are cut at regular intervals and allowed to cool, each segment becoming a piece of bar stock. A good analogy is pasta-making, in which lumps of dough are extruded into various cross-sectional shapes; cut into lengths; and then dried in that form. The cross-sectional shapes of pasta vary from simple bar or tube shapes (such as linguine or penne) to more elaborate extrusions (such as rotelle, fiori, or rotini). The same is true of metal bar stock. The most common shapes are round bar (also called rod), rectangular bar (including square bar, the special case of equal sides), and hexagonal bar (usually called hex bar for short). Tube and pipe are similar, but have hollow centers and are traditionally not called "bar" in industrial usage. (However, a product called hollow bar, essentially tube but with custom-orderable OD and ID and thus custom wall thickness, is marketed for lathe bar work which can benefit from obviation of drilling and rough boring.) Also similar in concept, but not called "bar", are the common structural shapes such as angle stock and channel stock. These are commonly available in steel and aluminum; the names "angle iron" and "channel iron" are still commonly used (informally) even though their literal namesake, wrought iron, has been replaced by steel and aluminum for most uses.
In a machine shop, bar stock and plate are often called "billet", although in a rolling mill, that word refers to a piece of metal that has not yet been rolled into bar.
A machine shop typically has a storage area containing a large variety of bar stock. To create a metal component, a bar of sufficient volume is selected from storage and brought to the machining area. This piece may then be sawed, milled, drilled, turned, or ground to remove material and create the final shape. In turning, for large-diameter work (typically more than , although there is no universal threshold), a piece of the bar is cut off using a horizontal bandsaw to create a "blank" for each part. The blanks are then fed into a chucking lathe (chucker) which chucks each one in turn. For smaller-diameter work, the entire length of bar stock is more often fed through the spindle of the lathe. The entire bar rotates with the spindle during the part-machining cycle. When the cycle ends and one part is done, the chuck opens, the bar is pulled or pushed forward ("fed") by any of various automatic means, the chuck closes, and the next cycle begins. The last step of the cycle is to cut off the machined part from the bar, which is called "parting it off" and is achieved with a "cutoff" or "part-off" tool, a tool bit that grooves the bar all the way down to the centreline, causing the part to fall off. Then the cycle repeats.
The not-yet-cut bar protruding from the back of the spindle, rotating quickly, can present a safety hazard if it is sticking out too far and unconstrained from bending. Thus sometimes long bars must be sawn into shorter bars before being fed as "bar work" (which is the term for such work).
CNC lathes and screw machines have accessories called "bar feeders", which hold, guide, and feed the bar as commanded by the CNC control. More advanced machines may have a "bar loader" which holds multiple bars and feeds them one at a time into the bar feeder. Bar loaders are like magazines for part blanks (or pallets for milling work) in that they allow lights-out machining. The bar loader is filled with bars (or the magazine or pallet with part blanks) during working hours, and then it runs during the night unattended. Given that there is no human around to detect if something went wrong and the machine should stop, there are various kinds of sensors that are used to detect this, such as load meters, infrared beams, and, in recent years, webcams, which are placed inside the machine tool's enclosure and allow remote viewing of the cutting action.
Uses of bar stock.
Bar stock is widely used in many industries and can be seen in many different industrial processes. These processes include forging, extrusion, machining, and many more. In forging, billets are heated to high temperatures before a press pushes the workpiece into the shape on the die. These presses operate at very high forces to make the desired changes to the product. Extrusion uses rollers that push the heated bar stock through a set of dies which will determine the shape of the workpiece. Machining is a subtractive process that utilizes bar stock and various cutters and tools to make intricate details that are not possible through other processes.
Standard sizes throughout a supply chain.
To stock every possible size of bar stock (every possible fraction of a millimeter or inch in diameter or thickness) is impossible. Thus, bar stock is stocked by metals supply houses in various standard sizes, arrayed in discrete steps. For example, round bar with diameters of even millimeters (or in the US, on the eighths of an inch) can usually be ordered from standing stock. Bar diameters of nonstandard sizes can also be obtained, but only as a separate mill run from the rolling mill. Thus they are much more expensive than the standard sizes, can take much longer delivery time, and are not desirable as inventory for the supply house or the machine shop (because the chance of selling or using any particular custom size is slim).
Sometimes it is necessary that the bar not be very much larger than the intended part, because the metallurgical properties of some metal alloys in some finishing processes may vary by how far inside the bar the metal lies. Thus an engineering drawing will specify a certain size (or a maximum size) that the bar may start out as. These specs face the aforementioned limitation of stocking sizes versus custom mill runs; standard sizes are used wherever possible to avoid wasted expense and needless delays.
Drill rod.
A drill rod is tool steel round stock ground to a tight tolerance diameter; it is usually ± . In the UK the name "silver steel" is often synonymous and sometimes hyponymous. Its origin was in reference to the shiny ground appearance (not to any silver alloying content). Drill rod diameters range from ; in the United States diameters smaller than th of an inch  are made in letter drill sizes and number drill sizes, in addition to fractional sizes. Lengths are usually . It is commonly used to make drill bits, taps, reamers, punches, dowel pins, and shafts. Note that the numbered sizes are different from the drill numbered sizes starting at 52. These sizes are:
Drill blanks have an undersize tolerance of +0/−, while reamer blanks have an oversize tolerance of −0/+0.
Some mills also sell square stock that is held to the same tolerances under the name "drill rod".
Commonly available material grades in the U.S. are A2, D2, M2, M42, O1, S7, W1, and high speed steel (including M2/M7).
Ground flat stock.
"Ground flat stock" is annealed steel that has been ground to close tolerances (compare to drill rod). There are four types of materials available: O-1 tool steel, A-2 tool steel, A-6 tool steel, and 1018 steel (low-carbon or low-carb steel). Lengths are either long, various widths up to are available, and thicknesses range from .
Some geometrical sizes are known as "".
References.


MazaCAM

MazaCAM is a CNC programming system for the Mazak CNC (Numerical control) machine-tools (see Yamazaki Mazak Corporation), sold and supported by SolutionWare Corporation.
MazaCAM differs from most other CNC programming systems in that it can generate CNC programs in both Mazatrol and G-code .
References.
Other Sources of Notability


Sirris

Sirris is a non-profit scientific organisation in Belgium. It is an important collaborative centre for the Belgian technology industry. Until 2007, Sirris was known as "CRIF-WTCM", which was founded in 1949 by Fabrimetal (now known as Agoria, the Belgian federation of technology industries).
Mission.
The mission of Sirris is to support its members and clients in order to increase their competitive position on the international market through technological innovation. The organization carries out applied research and development in close cooperation with industry. Sirris participates in development projects at different levels, from European Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development to regional ones.
COPTURN.
One of the biggest achievements of Sirris so far is the Cutting Optimisation Program, or COPTURN for short. It is a software package that is used to calculate the optimal cutting conditions, the program then calculates the job time and cost.
Development fields.
Additive manufacturing.
Sirris performs researches on mains additive manufacturing technologies such as selective laser melting, 3D printing, laser cladding, stereolithography, selective laser sintering, Aero Jet Printing and paste polymerization (ceramic + polymer).
All these technologies start from a CAD file to build it in metal, polymer or ceramic. In November 2019, Sirris inaugurates an additive production line demonstrator combining design and production processes by additive manufacturing and principles and processes 4.0.
Product Development Hub.
In 2018, Sirris invested 850,000 euros in a new infrastructure focused on three areas: light products, miniaturisation and product connectivity in order to enable companies to enable prototyping quickly for industrialization.


Porosity sealing

Porosity sealing is done through the process of vacuum impregnation. Vacuum impregnation is a preferred OEM process that seals porosity and leak paths in metal castings, sintered metal parts and electrical castings that form during the casting or molding process. Vacuum impregnation stops casting porosity (a phenomenon that occurs in the die-cast manufacturing process and allows manufacturers to use parts that would otherwise be scrapped.)
Porosity occurs naturally and is found in most materials. In metal castings, porosity is typically considered any void found in the casting. Casting porosity can be caused by gas formation or solidification while the metal is being moved from a liquid state to a solid state. This porosity can range in size, from sub-micron to voids greater than 10 mm, depending on the casting.
Casting defects caused by porosity can affect the part’s structural integrity, creating a failure point. Porosity can also prevent the part from being pressure tight. This will impact performance if the part is designed to hold gases or fluids.
Process Standards.
Vacuum impregnation is governed by Military Standard MIL-I-17563C and MIL-STD-276A as well as numerous proprietary and customer specifications. MIL-I-17563 tests the impregnation sealant. MIL-I-17563C demonstrates a sealant is compatible with the application and that the sealant will not degrade or fail over the life of the part. MIL-STD-276A tests the impregnation process. MIL-STD-276A provides the standards for processing to seal parts and testing process effectiveness.
Process.
The vacuum impregnation process seals internal leak paths to make it leak free and suitable for use. In the course of sealing castings against porosity, the parts would be processed through the following four stations:
Vacuum impregnation should be done prior to final assembly. Specifically for metal castings, vacuum impregnation should be done after final machining. Final machining may expose any porosity, creating a leak path. These paths can cause fluids and gases to leak from the casting, causing it to be non-conforming and unusable.
Common Applications.
Porosity is inherent to most manufacturing processes. Porosity is only considered a defect if it is interconnected and creates a leak path can affect the part's structural integrity and performance. Vacuum impregnation seals porosity and leak paths for the following reasons.
Seal Leak Paths.
This is the main reason why vacuum impregnation is used on any material-die cast, powder metal, plastic, wire harnesses. Vacuum impregnation prevents fluids or gases from leaking by sealing the porosity and leak paths. If the leak paths are not sealed, then fluids or gases may leak from the part.
Improve Machinability.
Impregnation is used to improve machinability on powder metallurgy. Secondary machine operations, such as drilling, tapping, or cutting, are only marginally successful because voids between the particles cause tool chatter, reducing tool life and finish quality. Vacuum impregnation stabilizes and supports the individual powdered metal granules during machining. Vacuum impregnation improves machinability by making it more efficient, eliminating tool chatter, and improving the machined finish.
Prohibit Corrosion.
Plating operations submerge the parts in acid solutions. The residual acid can seep into the porosity, which causes corrosion. Sealing the components before plating eliminates corrosion.
Enhance Secondary Finishing.
The porosity may absorb oils, fluids, deburring fluids, pre-plating cleaners, and acids. If not sealed, then any gases or fluids may affect the finish by outgassing or bleeding out. Sealing the leak paths before secondary finishes will eliminate any failure mode that could develop from outgassing, chemical compatibility, or bleed out of pretreatments.
Improve Part Integrity.
Vacuum impregnation can be used to part the integrity of additive manufacturing parts. An additive manufacturing part is not as dense — and thus not as strong — as a part made from traditional manufacturing processes. Vacuum impregnation can be used to strengthen the material. As the vacuum impregnation sealant cures within the perforations, it creates a bond between the part layers. This enhances the part by increasing density.
Common Materials.
Additive Manufacturing.
Parts created through the additive manufacturing process are susceptible to the same porosity that plagues those created through more traditional methods. The porosity is inherent to the properties of the material and technology. The two primary materials that vacuum impregnation seals are plastic and sintered metal.
Die Castings.
Die castings and permanent mold castings commonly contain internal porosity. This porosity is generally localized to the deepest cross-sections of the part and does not extend to the outer skin. However, if the part is also machined, the internal porosity will be exposed and the part will leak if pressurized. Machined die castings that need to hold fluids (intake manifolds, coolant connectors, transmission cases, pump housings and fluid power components) are routinely sealed for life using acrylic resins. Because the sealant is internal to the part, the exterior dimensions and appearance of the part are unchanged.
Electronics.
In these parts, metal pins and wires are embedded in the plastic housing. When the parts experience heat during manufacturing or normal use, the plastic and metal expand at different rates. This expansion creates microscopic voids between the materials. While these leak paths are unavoidable, they can cause a field failure if not sealed.
Powder metallurgy.
Powder metallurgy (PM) components are sealed for four main reasons.
The first is that PM parts are sealed to prevent fluids or gases from leaking under pressure. PM applications for compressed air, fuel handling or hydraulic housings are common and effective; however, they must be sealed first. If not sealed, then fluids or gases will leak from the part. Sealing the parts will not change the component's dimensional or functional characteristics.
PM parts are sealed prior to plating and to reduce internal corrosion. Plating operations typically involve submerging the parts in acid solutions. After plating, residual acid internal to the part can promote corrosion and/or preclude an acceptable plating finish. The solution to this problem is to seal the internal voids prior to plating. As explained above, the porosity is saturated with monomer and is then rinsed completely clear of the surface. The resin cures to a durable polymer. Thus, the exposed surface metal is free to be plated while the interior spaces are sealed dry.
Powder metal is also impregnated to enhance maintainability. PM parts are generally difficult to machine and some compositions may not be machinable without ruining the cutting tool. Secondary machine operations, such as drilling, tapping, or cutting, are impaired as the voids between the particles cause tool chatter, reducing tool life and degrading the finish quality. Vacuum impregnation stabilizes and supports the individual powdered metal granules during machining. This improves machinability by making it more efficient, eliminating tool chatter, and improving the machined finish.
Powder metal porosity absorbs oils, fluids, deburring fluids, pre-plating cleaners, and acids. If the porosity is not sealed, fluids may bleed out and negatively affect the finish. Sealing the porosity before secondary finishes will eliminate any failure mode that could develop from bleed out of pretreatments.


Avery Weigh-Tronix

Avery Weigh-Tronix is a subsidiary of Illinois Tool Works specialising in industrial weighing machines. Its headquarters stands on the site of the Soho Foundry in Smethwick, West Midlands, England. The company additionally has a United States-based manufacturing and retail manufacturing plant. The company is one of the largest suppliers of weighing devices. The company is registered as Avery Weigh-Tronix, Ltd. in the UK and Avery Weigh-Tronix, LLC in the US.
History.
The company was formed in June 2000 when the U.S.-based weighing company Weigh-Tronix acquired the Avery Berkel group of companies. Avery Berkel was the result of the merger between GEC Avery (formally W & T Avery) and Berkel.
Avery Weigh-Tronix was the parent company in the group with every other company (including Avery Berkel) being brands of Avery Weigh-Tronix. Avery Weigh-Tronix was used as the industrial brand of the company.
In September 2007, Illinois Tool Works acquired Avery Berkel from Avery Weigh-Tronix.
In September 2008, Illinois Tool Works acquires Avery Weigh-Tronix, Avery Berkel and Avery Weigh-Tronix were kept separate with Avery Weigh-Tronix focusing more on the industrial and commercial and Avery Berkel focusing on retail.