Intermediate good

Intermediate goods, producer goods or semi-finished products are goods, such as partly finished goods, used as inputs in the production of other goods including final goods. A firm may make and then use intermediate goods, or make and then sell, or buy then use them. In the production process, intermediate goods either become part of the final product, or are changed beyond recognition in the process.
This means intermediate goods are resold among industries.
Intermediate goods are not counted in a country's GDP, as that would mean double counting, as the final product only should be counted, and the value of the intermediate good is included in the value of the final good.
The value-added method can be used to calculate the amount of intermediate goods incorporated into GDP. This approach counts every phase of processing included in production of final goods.
Characterization of intermediate goods as physical goods can be misleading, since, in advanced economies, about half of the value of intermediate inputs consist of services.
Intermediate goods generally can be made and used in three different ways. First, a company can make and use its own intermediate goods. Second, a company can manufacture intermediate goods and sell them to others. Third, a company can buy intermediate goods to produce either secondary intermediate goods or final goods.


Operations engineering

Operations engineering is a branch of engineering that is mainly concerned with the analysis and optimization of operational problems using scientific and mathematical methods. More frequently it has applications in the areas of Broadcasting/Industrial Engineering and also in the Creative and Technology Industries.
Operations engineering is considered to be a subdiscipline of Operations Research and Operations Management.


Quadrac

A QUADRAC is a special type of "thyristor" which combines a DIAC and a TRIAC in a single package. The DIAC is the triggering device for the TRIAC. Thyristors are four-layer (PNPN) semiconductor devices that act as switches, rectifiers or voltage regulators in a variety of applications. When triggered, thyristors turn on and become low-resistance current paths. They remain so even after the trigger is removed, and until the current is reduced to a certain level (or until they are triggered off). Diacs are bi-directional diodes that switch AC voltages and trigger triacs or silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs). Except for a small leakage current, diacs do not conduct until the breakover voltage is reached. Triacs are three-terminal, silicon devices that function as two SCRs configured in an inverse, parallel arrangement. They provide load current during both halves of the AC supply voltage. By combining the functions of diacs and triacs, QUADRACs eliminate the need to buy and assemble discrete parts.
QUADRACs are used in lighting control, speed control, and temperature modulation control applications. They carry performance specifications such as peak repetitive off voltage, peak repetitive reverse voltage, root mean square (RMS) on-state current, and temperature junction. Peak repetitive off voltage is the maximum, instantaneous value of the off-state voltage that occurs across a thyristor, including all repetitive transient voltages and excluding all non-transient voltages. Peak repetitive reverse voltage is the maximum peak reverse voltage that may be applied continuously to the main terminals (anode and cathode) of QUADRACs. RMS on-state current is the maximum RMS current allowed for the specified use-case temperature. Temperature junction for QUADRACs is expressed as a full-required range.
Packages.
QUADRACs are available in a variety of integrated circuit (IC) package types with different numbers of pins. Basic IC packages types for QUADRACs include discrete packaging (DPAK), power packaging (PPAK), and in-line packaging (IPAK). Other IC package types include diode outline (DO), transistor outline (TO), and small outline transistor (SOT). QUADRACs that use metal electrode leadless face (MELF) packaging have metallized terminals at each end of a cylindrical body. Other available package types for QUADRACs include thin small outline package (TSOP), thin shrink small outline L-leaded package (TSSOP), and thin small outline J-lead (TSOJ) package.


Thermosonic bonding

Thermosonic bonding is widely used to wire bond silicon integrated circuits into computers. Alexander Coucoulas was named "Father of Thermosonic Bonding" by George Harman, the world's foremost authority on wire bonding, where he referenced Coucoulas's leading edge publications in his book, "Wire Bonding In Microelectronics". Owing to the well proven reliability of thermosonic bonds, it is extensively used to connect the central processing units (CPUs), which are encapsulated silicon integrated circuits that serve as the "brains" of today's computers.
Description.
A thermosonic bond is formed using a set of parameters which include ultrasonic, thermal and mechanical (force) energies. A thermosonic bonding machine includes a magnetostrictive or piezoelectric-type transducer which is used to convert electrical energy into vibratory motion which is known as piezoelectricity. The vibratory motion travels along the coupler system, a portion which is tapered to serve as the velocity transformer. The velocity transformer amplifies the oscillatory motion and delivers it to a heated bonding tip. It is akin to a friction bond, since the introduction of ultrasonic energy (via a bonding tool vertically attached to an ultrasonic transformer or horn) simultaneously delivers a force and vibratory or scrubbing motion to the interfacial contact points between a pre-heated deforming lead-wire and the metallized pads of a silicon integrated circuit. In addition to the delivery of thermal energy, the transmission of ultrasonic vibratory energy creates an ultrasonic softening effect by interacting at the atomic lattice level of the preheated lead wire. These two softening effects dramatically facilitates the lead wire deformation by forming the desirable contact area using relatively low temperatures and forces. As a result of the frictional action and ultrasonic softening induced in the preheated lead wire during the bonding cycle, thermosonic bonding can be used to reliably bond high melting point lead wires (such as gold and lower cost aluminum and copper) using relatively low bonding parameters. This ensures that the fragile and costly silicon integrated circuit chip is not exposed to potentially damaging conditions by having to use higher bonding parameters (ultrasonic energy, temperatures or mechanical forces) to deform the lead wire in forming the required contact area during the bonding process.
Background.
A thermosonic bond falls in the category of a solid state metallic bond which is formed by mating two metal surfaces well below their respective melting points. Coucoulas introduced Thermosonic bonding which significantly improved upon the bond-reliability produced by available commercial solid-state bonding machines where he pre-heated the lead wire (and/or metallized silicon chip) prior to introducing an ultrasonic energy cycle. In addition to thermal softening the lead wire, the subsequent delivery of ultrasonic energy produced further softening by interacting at the atomic lattice level of the heated wire (known as ultrasonic softening). These two independent softening mechanisms (pre-heating lead wire and delivering the ultrasonic energy at the atomic lattice level) eliminated the incidences of cracking the fragile and costly silicon chip which were observed by Coucoulas when using earlier commercially available solid-state bonding machines. The improvement occurs because pre-heating and ultrasonic softening the lead-wire dramatically facilitated its deformation in forming the required contact area while using a relatively low set of bonding parameters. Depending on the temperature level and material properties of the lead wire, the onset of recrystallization (metallurgy) or hot working of the deforming wire can occur while it is forming the required contact area. Recrystallization takes place in the strain hardening region of the lead wire where it aids in the softening effect. If the wire was ultrasonically deformed at room temperature, it would tend to extensively strain hardened (cold working) and therefore tend to transmit damaging mechanical stresses to the silicon chip. Thermosonic bonding, initially referred to as Hot Work Ultrasonic Bonding by Alexander Coucoulas, was found to bond a wide range of conductive metals such as aluminum and copper wires to tantalum and palladium thin films deposited on aluminum oxide and glass substrates all of which simulated the metallized silicon chip.
Applications.
At present, the majority of connections to the silicon integrated circuit chip are made using thermosonic bonding because it employs lower bonding temperatures, forces and dwell times than thermocompression bonding, as well as lower vibratory energy levels and forces than ultrasonic bonding to form the required bond area. Therefore the use of thermosonic bonding eliminates damaging the relatively fragile silicon integrated circuit chip during the bonding cycle. The proven reliability of thermosonic bonding has made it the process of choice, since such potential failure modes could be costly whether they occur during the manufacturing stage or detected later, during an operational field-failure of a chip which had been connected inside a computer or a myriad of other microelectronic devices.
Thermosonic bonding is also used in the flip chip process which is an alternate method of electrically connecting silicon integrated circuits.
Josephson effect and superconducting interference (DC SQUID) devices use the thermosonic bonding process as well. In this case, other bonding methods would degrade or even destroy YBaCuO7 microstructures, such as microbridges, Josephson junctions and superconducting interference devices (DC SQUID).
When electrically connecting light-emitting diodes with thermosonic bonding techniques, an improved performance of the device has been shown.


Demand-chain management

Demand-chain management (DCM) is the management of relationships between suppliers and customers to deliver the best value to the customer at the least cost to the demand chain as a whole. Demand-chain management is similar to supply-chain management but with special regard to the customers.
Demand-chain-management software tools bridge the gap between the customer-relationship management and the supply-chain management. The organization's supply chain processes are managed to deliver best value according to the demand of the customers. DCM creates strategic assets for the firm in terms of the overall value creation as it enables the firm to implement and integrate marketing and supply chain management (SCM) strategies that improve its overall performance. A study of the university in Wageningen (the Netherlands) sees DCM as an extension of supply chain management, due to its incorporation of the market-orientation perspective on its concept.
Demand-driven supply network.
A "Demand-driven supply network (DDSN)" is one method of supply-chain management which involves building supply chains in response to demand signals. The main force of DDSN is that it is driven by customers demand. In comparison with the traditional supply chain, DDSN uses the pull technique. It gives DDSN market opportunities to share more information and to collaborate with others in the supply chain.
DDSN uses a capability model that consist of four levels. The first level is "Reacting", the second level is "Anticipating", the third level is "Collaborating" and the last level is "Orchestrating". The first two levels focus on the internal supply chain while the last two levels concentrate on external relations throughout the Extended Enterprise.
In a demand-driven chain, a customer activates the flow by ordering from the retailer, who reorders from the wholesaler, who reorders from the manufacturer, who reorders raw materials from suppliers. Orders flow backward, up the chain, in this structure.
Many companies are trying to shift from a build-to-forecast to a build-to-order discipline. The property of being demand-driven is one of degree: Being "0 percent" demand-driven means all production/inventory decisions are based on forecasts, and so, all products available for sale to the end user is there by virtue of a forecast. This could be the case of fashion goods, where the designer may not know how buyers will react to a new design, or the beverage industry, where products are produced based on a given forecast. A "100 percent" demand-driven is one in which the order is received before production begins. The commercial aircraft industry match to this description. In most cases, no production occurs until the order is received.
Competitive advantages.
To create sustainable competitive advantages with DDSN, companies have to do deal with three conditions: "Alignment" (create shared incentives), "Agility" (respond quickly to short-term change) and "Adaptability" (adjust design of the supply chain).
Misconceptions.
There are five commonly-made misconceptions of demand driven (DDSN):
An important component of DDSN is DDM ("real-time" demand driven manufacturing). DDM gives customers the opportunity to say what they want, where and when.
Demand-driven execution.
Demand-chain management is the same as supply chain management, but with emphasis on consumer pull vs. supplier push. The demand chain begins with customers, then funnels through any resellers, distributors, and other business partners who help sell the company's products and services. The demand chain includes both direct and indirect sales forces. Customers demand is hard to detect because out of stock situations (OOS) falsify data collected from POS-Terminals. According to studies of Corsten/Gruen (2002, 2008) the OOS-rate is about 8%. For products under sales promotion OOS rates up to 30% exist. Reliable information about demand is necessary for DCM therefore lowering OOS is a main factor for successful DCM.
Corsten and Gruen describe key factors for lowering OOS-rates:
Implementation of system supported processes leads to the new technology Extreme Transaction Processing described by Gartner Research. This technology allows to process the huge amount of data (POS, RFID) in real time providing information for store managers, shelve managers and the supply chain.
According to studies of Ayers, in order to find appropriate methods which fitting different kinds of companies, the first thing companies should do is to assess their progress toward achieving world-class levels of supply chain management. In order to raise demand-driven levels, companies need to undertake a systematic effort that has three elements:
Demand-driven supply-chain assessment.
Companies must have an appropriate performance-measurement system to be applied on a regular basis to identify areas to be improved in order to establish a sustainable continuous improvement process. According to Dale and Ritchie, to use self-assessment process is very important. The self-assessment will allow organizations to discern its strengths and gaps, and define improvement actions linked to the business planning process. There are some necessary criteria for a successful self-assessment process:
The importance of supply chain and operations audit process which represents a fundamental step to support improvement projects. According to study of Salama, the core element of audits is the diagnostic stage and that no audit can be considered successful unless it really provides a thorough understanding of how the constituent elements of an organization interact with one another (e.g., people, processes and technologies), that is the interactions which constrain the system, and how these interactions are reflected on the market-driven performance. The provided a set of features and requirements for an audit methodology that can be considered when developing a DDSC assessment:


Showa Aircraft Industry

is a Japanese company. Its headquarters are at Akishima-shi, Tokyo Prefecture, a region of Tokyo Metropolis. It was established in 1937 as a manufacturer of military aircraft in Akishima-shi. In World War II it was one of two companies manufacturing the Showa/Nakajima L2D, a license-built Douglas DC-3 variant. It also manufactured other military aircraft.


Costimator

Costimator is an American series of cost estimating software developed by Thomas Charkiewicz in 1982 and is designed to model manufacturing costs. The software is designed, developed and marketed by MTI of West Springfield, MA.
History.
Costimator was designed by Thomas Charkiewicz, a former machinist and manufacturing manager who studied computer-aided manufacturing at the University of Massachusetts. Costimator was released in late 1982, designed to model manufacturing costs.
In 2002, IBM bought Costimator OEM from MTI Systems, Inc. Many of the products on the market focused on machine shop operations. Costimator had its roots in the machining industry, but later branched out to include several other manufacturing processes.
John Kagan, the former manager of PC Cost Management at IBM and Lenovo estimated that between 2003 and 2004, IBM saved more than $10 million using Costimator.
Costimator also includes a function known as IQ builder which customers can use to model their own manufacturing process based on historical data. The data was derived from the company’s customers in addition to various independent industry sources. Labor costs come from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
In 2009, MTI Systems, Inc. reached an agreement with European distributor Premier Manufacturing Solutions, LTD (Stockport, UK) to market its flagship products Costimator OEM and Costimator JS to companies throughout Europe. In February 2011, Cimtronics and MTI Systems, Inc. also agreed to terms on a distribution partnership.


Hydrogen gas porosity

Hydrogen gas porosity is an aluminium casting defect in the form of a porosity or void in an aluminium casting caused by a high level of hydrogen gas (H2) dissolved in the aluminium at liquid phase. The solubility of hydrogen in solid aluminium is much smaller than in liquid aluminium. As the aluminium freezes, some of the hydrogen comes out of solution and forms bubbles, creating porosity in the solid aluminium.
Aluminium foundries want to produce high-quality aluminum castings with minimum porosity. Hydrogen porosity can be reduced by reducing the amount of hydrogen in the liquid aluminium alloy, by degassing or sparging. (Sometimes a small hydrogen concentration is intentionally maintained; some very fine hydrogen porosity can be preferable to internal voids caused by shrinkage.) Directional solidification can drive impurities to one end of the casting.
The hydrogen problem.
Hydrogen forms whenever molten aluminium comes into contact with water vapor, and easily dissolves into the melt. The gas tends to come out of the solution and forms bubbles when the melt solidifies.
The detrimental effects arising from the presence of an excess of dissolved hydrogen in aluminium are numerous. Hydrogen causes porosity in aluminum products leading to many casting defects, reduced mechanical properties like fatigue and lower corrosion resistance. Several methods are used to reduce the amount of dissolved hydrogen from the melt, such as furnace fluxing prior to the casting process or using in-line degassing equipment during the casting process.
Direct hydrogen measurement.
An on-line method of measuring hydrogen in aluminum is then required to characterize and optimize the process, which helps ensure the quality of outgoing products and monitors the performance of these degassing processes. Traditional laboratory methods, such as hot extraction, are too expensive for routine quality assurance, and too slow for effective process control. The Reduced Pressure Test (RPT) is often used on the foundry floor. The RPT is a semi-quantitative method with limited accuracy that provides an indication of the hydrogen level.
Hydrogen analyzer.
A hydrogen analyzer can be used for direct measurement of hydrogen in liquid aluminium. Direct monitoring of hydrogen is possible using an on-line quantitative measurement technology based on a closed-loop gas recirculation method though a porous ceramic probe.
Since its introduction in 1989, this gas recirculation method has been increasingly used by major aluminum producers.
An example of analyzer for direct hydrogen measurement in liquid aluminium is the Accurity. It works with a probe immersed in liquid aluminium and it uses the closed-loop recirculation method.
Operation principle.
The closed loop recirculation is a proven method of directly monitoring hydrogen in molten aluminium. A small volume of carrier gas, usually nitrogen, is brought in contact with the melt by means of an immersed probe, and is continuously recirculated in the closed loop until its hydrogen content reaches equilibrium with the vapor pressure of H2 in the melt. The H2 concentration in the gas is measured and converted into a reading of the gas concentration in the metal. This method is fast, reproducible, and accurate, and can be used online on the factory floor.
The amount of H2 in the gas loop of the instrument is determined by a thermal conductivity sensor, which provides high reproducibility and a broad measurement range.


Fillet weld

Fillet welding refers to the process of joining two pieces of metal together when they are perpendicular or at an angle. These welds are commonly referred to as tee joints, which are two pieces of metal perpendicular to each other, or lap joints, which are two pieces of metal that overlap and are welded at the edges. The weld is triangular in shape and may have a concave, flat or convex surface depending on the welder's technique. Welders use fillet welds when connecting flanges to pipes and welding cross sections of infrastructure, and when bolts are not strong enough and will wear off easily.
There are two main types of fillet weld: transverse fillet weld and parallel fillet weld.
Aspects.
There are 5 pieces to each fillet weld known as the root, toe, face, leg and throat. The root of the weld is the part of deepest penetration which is the opposite angle of the hypotenuse. The toes of the weld are essentially the edges or the points of the hypotenuse. The face of the weld is the outer visual or hypotenuse that you see when looking at a fillet weld. The legs are the other two sides of the triangular fillet weld. The leg length is usually designated as the size of the weld. The throat of the weld is the distance from the center of the face to the root of the weld. Typically the depth of the throat should be at least as thick as the thickness of metal you are welding.
Notation.
Fillet welding notation is important to recognize when reading technical drawings. The use of this notation tells the welder exactly what is expected by the fabricator. The symbol for a fillet weld is in the shape of a triangle. This triangle will lie either below a flat line or above it with an arrow coming off of the flat line pointing to a joint. The flat line is called "reference line". The side on which the triangle symbol is placed is important because it gives an indication which side of the joint is to be intersected by the weld. It is recognized that there are two different approaches in the global market to designate the arrow side and other side on drawings; a description of the two approaches is contained in International Standard ISO 2553, they are called "A-System" (which is more commonly used in Europe) and "B-System" (which is basically the ANSI/AWS system used in the US). In "A-System" two parallel lines are used as reference line: one is a continuous line, the other is a dashed line. In the "B-System", there is only one reference line, which is a continuous line. If there is a single reference line (B-System) and the triangle is positioned below the line, then the weld is going to be on the arrow side. If there is a single reference line ("B-System") and the triangle is positioned above the line, then the weld is going to be on the opposite side of the arrow. When you find an arrow pointing to a joint with two triangles, one sitting below and one sitting above the line even with each other, then there is intended to be a fillet weld on the arrow side of the joint as well as the opposite side of the joint. If the weld is to be continuous around a piece of metal such as a pipe or square, then a small circle will be around the point where the flat line and arrow pointing to the joint are connected. Manufacturers also include the strength that the weld must be. This is indicated by a letter and number combination just before the flat line. Examples of this are "E70" meaning the arc electrode must have a tensile strength of . There are also symbols that describe the aesthetics of the weld. A gentle curve pointing away from the hypotenuse means a concave weld is required, a straight line parallel with the hypotenuse calls for a flat faced weld, and a gentle curve towards the hypotenuse calls for a convex weld. The surface of the weld can be manipulated either by welding technique or by use of machining or grinding tools after the weld is completed. When reading a manufacturers technical drawings, you might also come across weld dimensions. The weld can be sized in many different ways such as the length of the weld, the measurements of the legs of the weld, and the spaces between welds. Along with a triangle, there will usually be a size for the weld for example (”x”) to the left of the triangle. This means that the vertical leg of the weld is to be ” whereas the horizontal leg is to ”. To the right of the triangle, there will be a measurement of exactly how long the weld is supposed to be.
If the measurements of the drawing are in mm the welds are likewise measured in mm. For example, the weld would be 3 x 10, the mm being understood automatically.
Intermittent fillet welds.
An intermittent fillet weld is one that is not continuous across a joint. These welds are portrayed as a set of two numbers to the right of the triangle instead of just one. The first number as mentioned earlier refers to the length of the weld. The second number, separated from the first by a “-”, refers to the pitch. The pitch is a measurement from midpoint to midpoint of the intermittent welds. Intermittent welding is used when either a continuous weld is not necessary, or when a continuous weld threatens the joint by warping. In some cases intermittent welds are staggered on both sides of the joint. In this case, the notation of the two triangles are not directly on top of each other. Instead, the side of the joint to receive the first weld will have a triangle further to the left than the following side’s triangle notation. As an end result of alternating intermittent fillet welds at each side, the space between welds on one side of the joint will be the midpoint of the opposite side’s weld.


Solid ground curing

Solid ground curing (SGC) is a photo-polymer-based additive manufacturing (or 3D printing) technology used for producing models, prototypes, patterns, and production parts, in which the production of the layer geometry is carried out by means of a high-powered UV lamp through a mask. As the basis of solid ground curing is the exposure of each layer of the model by means of a lamp through a mask, the processing time for the generation of a layer is independent of the complexity of the layer. SGC was developed and commercialized by Cubital Ltd. of Israel in 1986 in the alternative name of Soldier System. While the method offered good accuracy and a very high fabrication rate, it suffered from high acquisition and operating costs due to system complexity. This led to poor market
acceptance. While the company still exists, systems are no longer being sold. Nevertheless, it's still an interesting example of the many technologies other than stereolithography, its predeceasing rapid prototyping process that also utilizes photo-polymer materials. Though Objet Geometries Ltd. of Israel retains intellectual property of the process after the closure of Cubital Ltd. in 2002, the technology is no longer being produced.
Technology.
Solid ground curing utilizes the general process of hardening of photopolymers by a complete lighting and hardening of the entire surface, using specially prepared masks. In SGC process, each layer of the prototype is cured by exposing to an ultra violet (UV) lamp instead of by laser scanning. So that, every portion in a layer are simultaneously cured and do not require any post-curing processes. The process contains the following steps.
Advantages and disadvantages.
The primary advantage of the solid ground curing system is that it does not require a support structure since wax is used to fill the voids, highly accurate products can be obtained. The model produced by SGC process is comparatively accurate in the Z-direction because the layer is milled after each light-exposure process. Although it offers good accuracy coupled with high throughput, it produces too much waste and its operating costs are comparatively high due to system complexity.


Localized pulsed electrodeposition

Localized pulsed electrodeposition (L-PED) is a technique for direct 3D printing of free-standing and layer-by-layer micro/nano-scale metallic structures at the tip of an electrolyte containing nozzle. The method follows the same principle for metal deposition as the traditional electrodeposition (electroplating), however the area of deposition is limited by the size of a liquid bridge (meniscus) formed between the nozzle tip and the substrate. The unique advantage of the L-PED process is the possibility of the control over the spatial microstructure of the printed metal in 3D geometries by adjusting deposition parameters (peak current density, on time, off time, etc.). This method can be used in various applications in nanotechnology, in particular for 3-dimensional electronics and sensors.
3D Printing Process.
A nozzle with a few microns to sub-micron tip, containing the electrolyte of the metal of interest, works as the printing tool bit. When the nozzle approaches the substrate, the meniscus is formed at the nozzle tip, and functions as a confined electrodeposition bath. A two-electrode configuration was employed for the L-PED process, consists of a working electrode (the substrate) and a counter electrode (a metal wire which is inserted within the micropipette). The metal ions are reduced at the growth front within the meniscus area and deposited at the substrate by application of an appropriate pulsed electric potential between the electrodes. The precise and controlled motion of the relative position of the nozzle and the substrate results in printing of desired 3D pure metallic objects.
Involved Mechanisms.
The L-PED involves several ionic transport mechanisms including convection (driven by evaporation), diffusion and migration. These transport mechanisms are affected by short duration ON-pulses, and longer duration OFF-pulses. Subsequently, the ion concentration and the current density constantly change in each pulse cycle. These parameters eventually regulate the printing rate and the microstructure of the printed metal in L-PED.
Historical background.
The localized electrodeposition was first reported by a group at University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 2006, and was used to fabricate high-density and high quality interconnects and wire bonds. A research group at University of Texas at Dallas studied the process further and determined that through the application of a pulsed voltage, nanotwinned metals can be 3D-printed. They demonstrated the ambient environment L-PED process for direct printing of 3D free-standing nanotwinned Cu nanostructures for the first time.


Electrofusion welding

Electrofusion welding is a form of resistive implant welding used to join pipes. A fitting with implanted metal coils is placed around two ends of pipes to be joined, and current is passed through the coils. Resistive heating of the coils melts small amounts of the pipe and fitting, and upon solidification, a joint is formed. It is most commonly used to join polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) pipes. Electrofusion welding is the most common welding technique for joining PE pipes. Because of the consistency of the electrofusion welding process in creating strong joints, it is commonly employed for the construction and repair of gas-carrying pipelines. The development of the joint strength is affected by several process parameters, and a consistent joining procedure is necessary for the creation of strong joints.
Advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages of electrofusion welding:
Disadvantages of electrofusion welding:
Equipment.
Electrofusion welds are performed by attaching a controlled power supply to the electrofusion fitting. There are typically two modes of operation.
Constant voltage is typically used for high pressure pipelines such as mains gas and water. Fittings are fitted with a barcode specified to an ISO standard.
Typically fittings will be welded at 39.5v, but manufacturers can choose voltages in whole numbers from 8 to 48v. The welding time is specified on the label in seconds or minutes
Accessories.
Electrofusion welding employs fittings that are placed around the joint to be welded. Metal coils are implanted into the fittings, and electric current is run through the coils to generate heat and melt part of the pipes, forming a joint upon solidification. There are two possible fittings used in electrofusion welding: couplers and tapping tees (saddles). Coupler fittings contain two separate regions of coils, creating two distinct fusion zones during welding. The inner diameter of the coupler is typically slightly larger than the outer diameter of the pipes. This is to increase the ease of assembly in the field and allows for minor inconsistencies in pipe diameter. Proper insertion of the pipes in the coupler is critical for the creation of a strong joint. Incorrect placement of the coupler can cause the coils to move and lead to the extrusion of molten polymer material from the joint, reducing the joint's strength. Tapping tees, or saddles, are less common but operate under the same principles as a coupler. They require clamping to ensure a proper fit up with the pipes.
Fitting installation.
Installation of couplers and tapping tee fittings require slightly different procedures. Common installation steps for each are given below.
Power requirements.
Electrofusion welding requires electrical current to be passed through the coils implanted in the fittings. Since the electrical energy input is an excellent indicator of the joint strength that develops during fusion, it is necessary to have consistent electrical power input. Energy input during the joining process is typically measured by controlling the time it takes for the current to pass through the fitting. However, energy input can also be monitored by controlling overall temperature, molten polymer temperature, or molten polymer pressure.
A control box takes electrical power from a generator and converts it into an appropriate voltage and current for electrofusion joining. This provides consistent energy input for each application. The most common input voltage for electrofusion welding fittings is 39.5V, as it provides the best results without risking operator safety. The current is input as an alternating current (AC) waveform.
Welding process.
Stages during welding.
Electrofusion welding is characterized by 4 distinct stages that occur during the welding process:
During the incubation period, heat is introduced into the joint as current is passed through the coil. Although there is no joint strength at this point, the polymer expands and the joint gap is filled. During joint formation and consolidation, melting begins. Melt pressure has begun to build, and the majority of the joint's strength is developed during this stage. The strength increase is due primarily to the constraint of the increasing molten material by the cold zones in the surrounding fitting. The plateau region signals the stabilization of the joint strength. Despite this, the heat of the joint is still increasing with time during this stage. The cooling period occurs after current is no longer applied to the coils. The molten polymer material solidifies and forms the joint.
Current during welding.
Most electrofusion welding power supplies are constant voltage machines. Constant current machines would provide more consistent energy input due to the smaller fluctuations in current applied to the coils during welding. However, this additional consistency is generally not worth the higher cost of these machines. When a constant voltage machine is used, the value of the applied current slowly decreases throughout the welding process. This effect is due to the increasing resistance of the coils as energy is applied. As heat is generated in the coils, their temperature increases, leading to a higher electrical resistance in the coils. This increased electrical resistance causes a smaller current to be generated from the same voltage level as the process progresses. The extent of the current decrease is determined by the material used for the coil. The energy input per unit area can be calculated and used to monitor the process. Typical values for this range from 2-13 J/mm2, with a value of 3.9 J/mm2 having been found to produce the strongest joints.
Temperature during welding.
Large temperature gradients exist in the electrofusion joint during the fusion cycle. The low thermal conductivity of polymers is the main cause of these large gradients. Recent efforts to model the thermal history at various locations using finite element modeling have been successful.
Pressure during welding.
As the temperature in the joint increases, polymer begins to melt and a fusion zone is formed. The molten polymer in the fusion zone exerts an outward force on the surrounding solid polymer material, referred to as "cold zones". These cold zones cause a pressure to develop in the molten fusion zone. The pressure in the fusion zone takes some time to reach its maximum value, usually not reaching the peak until about a quarter of the way into the joining process. After the current is shut off and cooling begins, the pressure slowly decreases until the joint is uniform temperature.
Properties of joints.
The strength of an electrofusion joint is measured using tensile and peel tests on coupons taken from the fusion zone of the joint. Two methods have been developed to assess the effect of fusion time on joint strength:
The strength of the joint develops throughout the welding process, and this development is affected by the fusion time, joint gap, and pipe material. These are detailed below.
Effect of fusion time on joint strength.
As fusion time begins, there is an incubation period where no strength develops. Once enough time has passed for the molten material to begin solidifying, the joint strength begins to develop before plateauing at the maximum strength. If power is applied after full joint strength is achieved, the strength will start to decline slowly.
Effect of joint gap on joint strength.
The joint gap is the distance between the electrofusion fitting and the pipe material. When no joint gap is present, the resulting joint strength is high but not maximum. As joint gap increases, the joint strength increases to a point, then begins to decline fairly sharply. At larger gaps sufficient pressure cannot build during the fusion time, and the joint strength is low. The effect of joint gap on strength is why the scraping of the pipes before welding is a critical step. Uneven or inconsistent scraping can result in areas where the joint gap is large, leading to low joint strength.
Effect of pipe material on joint strength.
Pipe materials with higher molecular weights (MW), or densities, will have slower material flow rates when in the molten state during fusion. Despite the differences in flow rates, the final joint strength is generally consistent over a fairly wide range of pipe molecular weights.


FAA Order 8100.8

FAA Order 8100.8, Designee Management Handbook, establishes "policy and procedures for the selection, appointment, orientation, training, oversight, renewal tracking, and termination of certain representatives of the Administrator" of the Federal Aviation Administration. In particular, it is a resource for individuals interested in becoming a Designated Engineering Representative (DER).
DERs are not employees of the FAA. FAA employees must resign from the FAA before obtaining DER certification.
Subject to FAA Notice 8000.372 "Manufacturing Designee Management System Implementation" (2014), all Designated Airworthiness Representatives for Manufacturing (DAR-Fs) and Designated Manufacturing Inspection Representatives (DMIRs) are subject to the policy in FAA Order 8000.95, "Designee Management Policy". Order 8100.8 is no longer applicable to these two designations.


Automobile repair shop

An automobile repair shop (also known regionally as a garage or a workshop) is an establishment where automobiles are repaired by auto mechanics and technicians. The customer interface is typically a service advisor, traditionally called a service writer.
Types.
Automotive garages and repair shops can be divided into following categories:
Service station.
First appearing in the early 1900s, many filling stations offered vehicle repair services as part of their full service operation. This once popular trend has declined significantly over the years as many locations found it more profitable to exchange vehicle service bays for grocery isles, which ultimately lead to the emergence of the quick oil change industry.
Lubrication/safety shop.
Commonly referred to as a quick lube or express service shop, this type of facility specializes in preventive maintenance and safety inspections rather than repairs. Product sales are typically limited to automotive fluids, belts and hoses. With a focus on basic procedures, labor is often performed by entry-level technicians which simplifies the business overhead resulting in a less expensive service as compared to a traditional automotive workshop.
New car dealership.
In the United States, new car dealerships have service departments that are certified by their respective OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer) to perform warranty and recall repairs. Customer-pay repairs can also be completed, however most service departments tend to only work on the vehicle brand of which they are a dealer. Dealership technicians must complete additional training provided by the OEM, and in doing so become specialized and certified for that particular vehicle make.
Independent auto repair shop.
Independent auto repair shops are businesses that are independently owned and operated. In states regulating a smog or emission test, often, independent auto repair shops offer these tests as well. These may also include regional or national chains and franchises. It is rather common for a dealership technician to start this type of competing business after leaving the employment of a new car dealership. Independent automobile repair shops in the US may also achieve OEM certification through manufacturer sponsored programs. European Union law (The EC Block Exemption Regulation 1400/2002 (October 2003)) permits motorists more flexibility in selecting where their car is serviced. Maintenance and service work does not have to be done by the dealership providing that the independent garage uses Original Equipment 'Matching Quality' parts and follows the manufacturer's service schedules. The Block Exemption Regulation (BER) covers service and maintenance during the warranty period and prohibits vehicle manufacturers' warranties from including restrictive conditions.
Fleet shop.
A shop that is dedicated to repairing and maintaining a particular group of vehicles is called a fleet shop. Common examples of a fleet include taxi cabs, police cars, mail trucks and rental vehicles. Similar to a lubrication/safety shop, a fleet shop focuses primarily on preventative maintenance and safety inspections, and will often outsource larger or more complex repairs to another repair facility.
Engine machine shop.
Shops that specialize in cylinder head and cylinder block machining are called engine machine shops. These facilities utilize large electromechanical machines that are not found in the average automotive repair shop. Engine machining is typically performed by an ASE certified machinist in order to correct worn or damaged engine components as an alternative to component replacement. Performance engine building is another popular service frequently offered by this type of workshop.
Tire and wheel shop.
Some repair shops specialize in tires and wheels. These businesses usually have a large inventory of tires and aftermarket wheels, some of which may be on display while others require special ordering. In addition to parts, common labor services include tire rotation, balancing and repair as well as wheel alignment which can prevent premature tire wear.
In the Philippines, roadside tire repair shops are called vulcanizing shops in Philippine English. They specialize in quickly and cheaply repairing flat tires by patching punctures with a rubber compound patch.
Muffler shop.
A muffler shop, also called an exhaust shop, is a business model that concentrates solely on the engine exhaust system. These facilities utilize large tubing benders which allow a technician to fabricate a new exhaust system out of otherwise straight lengths of pipe. Welding is often necessary in this line of work.
Auto body.
Automotive repair shops that specialize in bodywork repair are known as body shops. Auto body technicians can perform paintwork repairs to scratches, scuffs and dents, as well as repairs to the bodies of vehicles damaged by collisions. Many body shops now offer paintless dent repair and auto glass replacement. Automotive repair shops that specialize in auto glass repair are known as auto glass repair shops. They offer auto glass repairs to chips, cracks and shattered glass. The types of glass they repair include windshields, car windows, quarter glass and rear windows. This type of damage is often caused by hail, stones, wild animals, fallen trees, automobile theft and vandalism.
Mobile mechanics.
Mobile mechanics provide doorstep repair services and home delivery of new and used auto parts of different late model and classic cars whose parts are not widely available in the market.
In countries such as the UK, the mobile car body repair sectors has experienced high growth by way of mobile SMART Repair companies providing mobile car body repair services, such as Bumper Repairs, auto body repair, paintless dent repair and paintwork defect repairs to private and commercial consumers, typically within the industry framework of refinishing vehicle damage on a localised basis, where the area of damage being repaired is not in excess of an A4 sheet of paper.


Škoda-Kauba SK 257

The Škoda-Kauba Sk 257 was a Czechoslovakian-built fighter trainer monoplane built by Škoda-Kauba Flugzeugbau for the Luftwaffe.
Development.
V4 prototypes.
The Škoda-Kauba Flugzeugbau produced the Škoda-Kauba V4 as a single-seat low-wing cantilever monoplane powered by a 240 hp (179 kW) Argus As 10C-3 engine with a retractable tailwheel landing gear. The first prototype proved very fast for its low power. The second included a number of changes and, despite increased power, was not as fast. A third was also completed.
Sk 257 trainer.
The potential for development was recognized and the German Reichsluftfahrtministerium ordered four prototypes of an enlarged aircraft with a more powerful 485 hp Argus As 410 engine and allocated the designation Sk 257. The four prototypes performed well and the type was ordered into production but the build quality of the prototypes did not pass the Luftwaffe quality control inspections and after only five production aircraft had been built the order was cancelled.
V5 fighter project.
Even before work on the Sk 257 began, Otto Kauba had begun work on a full-fledged fighter to have a 1,750 hp Daimler Benz DB-603 engine. Though it was in direct competition with the Focke-Wulf Ta 152, the RLM were not interested.


Service chain optimization

Service chain optimization is the application of processes and tools that embrace all functions for improving the efficiency, productivity and, eventually, the profitability of service organizations.
In this regard, profitability of a service organization is measured by the revenue generated from service demand (in the form of service work orders being carried out), and by the costs due to activity of the enterprise's human resources (who provide the service). Service chains consider the full life-cycle of service demand from early stages of forecasting, through planning, scheduling, dispatch, execution and post-analysis.
Service chain optimization is closely related to the fields of workforce management and field service management; the activity performed by field service resources is managed through the latter while being planned and optimized through the former. This relationship is analogous to the relation between supply chain optimization and supply chain management in the domain of manufacturing. In this regard, the service chain benefits from demand forecasting, resource planning and scheduling, and long term analysis activities similarly to the manner these contribute in the supply chain (being typically managed by ERP systems and optimized by supply chain optimization systems).
Origin.
The term "service chain optimization" was coined by ClickSoftware in 1996. ClickSoftware received a patent, US 6.985.872 B2, for continuous planning and scheduling (service chain optimization). The term refers to field service management optimization, workforce productivity, improving customer service, and reducing operating costs.
Modules.
Most commonly, a service chain optimization system is made up of the following units:
The cycle is completed by feeding the result of analysis back into the forecasting module.
External links.
"(Links below no longer work as of Aug 2016. Highlighting so someone from Aberdeen perhaps can correct these.)"


Reuse of bottles

A reusable bottle is a bottle that can be reused, as in the case as by the original bottler or by end-use consumers. Reusable bottles have grown in popularity by consumers for both environmental and health safety reasons. Reusable bottles are one example of reusable packaging.
History.
Early glass bottles were often reused, such as for milk, water, beer, soft drinks, yogurt, and other uses. Mason jars, for example, were developed and reused for home canning purposes.
With returnable bottles, a retailer would often collect empty bottles or would accept empty bottles returned by customers. Bottles would be stored and returned to the bottler in reusable cases or crates. Glass milk bottles were transported in milk crates and would be picked up by a milkman. At the bottler, the bottles would be inspected for damage, cleaned, sanitized, and refilled.
Beginning in the second half of the 20th century, many bottles were designed for single-use, eliminating the cost of collection. This often allows for thinner glass bottles and less expensive plastic bottles and aluminum beverage cans.
Though Sweden has had a standard glass bottle recycling system since 1884, in response to the increased litter from single-use containers, container deposit laws have been adopted in many developed countries (sometimes by provincial and municipal governments) starting in the 1970s. These laws mandate that retailers must charge a deposit on certain types of containers or for certain products; retailers are then required to accept empty bottles or cans for recycling and refund the deposit. A government fund mediates any imbalances caused by buying containers at one retailer and returning them to another, and also retains the profit from unreturned containers. Reverse vending machines are often used to automate this process. The machines scan the bar code on cans and bottles to verify that a deposit was paid, shred or crush the container for compact storage, and dispense cash or a voucher that can be redeemed at the store's checkout registers.
In Germany, reusable glass or plastic (PET) bottles are available for many drinks, especially beer and carbonated water as well as soft drinks ("Mehrwegflaschen"). The deposit per bottle ("Pfand") is €0.08-€0.15, compared to €0.25 for recyclable but not reusable plastic bottles. There is no deposit for glass bottles which do not get refilled, but there are many glass bottles that do get refilled - best known is the "Normbrunnenflasche", a 0.7l bottle used for carbonated drinks with a deposit of €0.15. It was introduced after a 1969 decision by the German mineral water industry, and more than five billion bottles have been produced used for an estimated quarter of a trillion refillings since then.
Environmental consequences.
The reuse of containers is often thought of as being a step toward more sustainable packaging. Reuse sits high on the waste hierarchy. When a container is used multiple times, the material required per use or per filling cycle is reduced.
Many potential factors are involved in environmental comparisons of returnable vs. non-returnable systems. Researchers have often used life cycle analysis methodologies to balance the many diverse considerations. Some comparisons show no clear winner but rather show a realistic view of a complex subject.
Arguments in favor of reusing bottles, or recycling them into other products, are compelling. It is estimated that in the U.S. alone, consumers use 1,500 plastic water bottles every single second. But only about 23% of PET plastic, which is the plastic used in disposable plastic water bottles, gets recycled. Thus, about 38 billion water bottles are thrown away annually, equating to roughly $1 billion worth of plastic. The average American spends $242 per year per person on disposable, single use plastic water bottles. The environmental and cost consequences associated with disposable plastic water bottles are a strong argument for reusing bottles.
Bottles intended for reuse by households.
Reusable drinking bottles for water, coffee, salad dressing, soup, baby formula, and other beverages have gained in popularity by consumers in recent years, due to the costs and environmental problems associated with single use plastic bottles. Common materials used to make reusable drinking bottles include glass, aluminum, stainless steel, and plastic. Reusable bottles include both single and double wall insulated bottles. Some baby bottles have an inner bag or bladder that can be replaced after each use.


JIS encoding

In computing, JIS encoding refers to several Japanese Industrial Standards for encoding the Japanese language. Strictly speaking, the term means either:
In practice, "JIS encoding" usually refers to JIS X 0208 character data encoded with JIS X 0202. For instance, the IANA uses the codice_1 label to refer to JIS X 0202, and the codice_2 label to refer to the profile thereof defined by .
Other encoding mechanisms for JIS characters include the Shift JIS encoding and EUC-JP. Shift JIS adds the kanji, full-width hiragana and full-width katakana from JIS X 0208 to JIS X 0201 in a backward compatible way. Shift JIS is perhaps the most widely used encoding in Japan, as the compatibility with the single-byte JIS X 0201 character set made it possible for electronic equipment manufacturers (such as cash register manufacturers) to offer an upgrade from older cheaper equipment that was not capable of displaying kanji to newer equipment while retaining character-set compatibility.
EUC-JP is used on UNIX systems, where the JIS encodings are incompatible with POSIX standards.
A more recent alternative to JIS coded characters is Unicode (UCS coded characters), particularly in the UTF-8 encoding mechanism.
Encoding comparison.
The following table compares the features of the three main encoding schemes for JIS X 0208.


Teardrop (electronics)

A teardrop is typically drop-shaped feature on a printed circuit board and can be found on the junction of vias or contact pads.
Purpose.
The main purpose of teardrops is to enhance structural integrity in presence of thermal or mechanical stresses, for example due to vibration or flexing. Structural integrity may be compromised, e.g., by misalignment during drilling, so that too much copper may be removed by the drill hole in the area where a trace connects to the pad or via. An extra advantage is the enlarging of manufacturing tolerances, making manufacturing easier and cheaper.
While a typical shape of a teardrop is straight-line tapering, they may be concave. This type of teardrop is also called "filleting" or "straight". To produce a "snowman"-shaped teardrop, a secondary pad of smaller size is added at the junction overlapping with the primary pad (hence the nickname).
Necking.
For similar reasons, a technique called "trace necking" reduces (or "necks down") the width of a trace that approaches a narrower pad of a surface-mounted device or a through-hole with a diameter that is less than the width of the trace, or when the trace passes through bottlenecks (for example, between the pads of a component).


IATF 16949

IATF 16949:2016 is a technical specification aimed at the development of a quality management system which provides for continual improvement, emphasizing defect prevention and the reduction of variation and waste in the automotive industry supply chain and assembly process. It is based on the ISO 9001 standard and the first edition was published in June 1999 as ISO/TS 16949:1999. IATF 16949:2016 replaced ISO/TS 16949 in October 2016.
The standard was prepared by the International Automotive Task Force (IATF) and the "Technical Committee" of ISO. It harmonises the country-specific regulations of quality management systems.
About 30 percent of the more than 100 existing motorcar manufacturers follow the requirements of the norm but especially the large Asian manufacturers have differentiated and have their own requirements for the quality management systems of their corporate group and their suppliers.
IATF 16949 applies to the design/development, production and, when relevant, installation and servicing of automotive-related products.
The requirements are intended to be applied throughout the supply chain. For the first time vehicle assembly plants will be encouraged to seek IATF 16949 [certification].
Historical background.
Many suppliers (OEMs) were asked by the car manufacturers to build and certify their quality management system according to the rules and regulations of their own country organizations, such as:
But due to this regulation a supplier needed to provide two different certificates for Daimler and Chrysler (VDA 6.1 for Germany and QS 9000 America), even though the supplier delivered only to a single company. These complexities accelerated the need for harmonization.
Contents of the specification.
The aim of the standard is to improve the system and process quality to increase customer satisfaction, to identify problems and risks in the production process and supply chain, to eliminate their causes and to examine and take corrective and preventive measures for their effectiveness. The focus is not on the discovery, but on the avoidance of errors.
The ten main chapters of the standards are:
The process-oriented approach to business processes that is addressed in the ISO 9001:2015 is the base of the standard. It looks at the business processes in a process environment in which there are interactions and interfaces that need to be recognized, mapped and controlled by the quality management system. Additionally the gateways to the exterior (to sub-suppliers, customers and to remote locations) are defined. The Standard distinguishes between customer-oriented processes, supporting processes and management processes. This process-oriented approach is intended to improve the overview of the whole process. This is not an isolated process, but a combination of all interacting business processes which affect the quality performance of a firm.
A key requirement of IATF 16949:2016 is the fulfillment of customer-specific requirements, set up by the automotive manufacturer in addition to the quality management system of their suppliers. This may have decisively contributed to the worldwide recognition of the IATF standard by many manufacturers.
Certification.
The IATF 16949 standard can be applied throughout the supply chain in the automotive industry. Certification takes place on the basis of the certification rules issued by the International Automotive Task Force (IATF). The certificate is valid for three years and must be confirmed annually (as a minimum) by an IATF certified auditor (3rd Party Auditor) of an IATF recognized certification body. Re-certification is required at the expiry of the three-year period. Certification pursuant to IATF 16949 is intended to build up or enforce the confidence of a (potential) customer towards the system and process quality of a (potential) supplier. Today, a supplier without a valid certificate has little chance of supplying a Tier 1 supplier and certainly no chance of supplying a car manufacturer with standard parts, if indeed that OEM is a participating member of the IATF (most Japan OEM are members of JAMA and not members of the IATF).
Certification bodies include:


Design engineer

A design engineer is an engineer focused on the engineering design process in any of the various engineering disciplines (including civil, mechanical, electrical, chemical, textiles, aerospace, nuclear, manufacturing, systems, and structural /building/architectural) and design disciplines like Human-Computer Interaction.
Design engineers tend to work on products and systems that involve adapting and using complex scientific and mathematical techniques. The emphasis tends to be on utilizing engineering physics and other applied sciences to develop solutions for society.
A design engineer usually works with a team of other engineers and other types of designers (e.g. industrial designers), to develop conceptual and detailed designs that ensure a product functions, performs, and is fit for its purpose. They may also work with marketers to develop the product concept and specifications to meet customer needs, and may direct the design effort. In many engineering areas, a distinction is made between the "design engineer" and other engineering roles (e.g. planning engineer, project engineer, test engineer). Analysis tends to play a larger role for the latter areas, while synthesis is more paramount for the former; nevertheless, all such roles are technically part of the "overall" engineering design process.
When an engineering project involves public safety, design engineers involved are often required to be licensed - for example, as a Professional Engineer (in the U.S and Canada). There is often an "industrial exemption" for engineers working on project only internally to their organization, although the scope and conditions of such exemptions vary widely across jurisdictions.
Design engineer tasks.
Design engineers may work in a team along with other designers to create the drawings necessary for prototyping and production, or in the case of buildings, for construction. However, with the advent of CAD and solid modeling software, the design engineers may create the drawings themselves, or perhaps with the help of many corporate service providers.
The next responsibility of many design engineers is prototyping. A model of the product is created and reviewed. Prototypes are either functional or non-functional. Functional "alpha" prototypes are used for testing; non-functional prototypes are used for form and fit checking. Virtual prototyping and hence for any such software solutions may also be used. This stage is where design flaws are found and corrected, and tooling, manufacturing fixtures, and packaging are developed.
Once the "alpha" prototype is finalized after many iterations, the next step is the "beta" pre-production prototype. The design engineer, working with an industrial engineer, manufacturing engineer, and quality engineer, reviews an initial run of components and assemblies for design compliance and fabrication/manufacturing methods analysis. This is often determined through statistical process control. Variations in the product are correlated to aspects of the process and eliminated. The most common metric used is the process capability index Cpk. A Cpk of 1.0 is considered the baseline acceptance for full production go-ahead.
The design engineer may follow the product and make requested changes and corrections throughout the whole life of the product. This is referred to as "cradle to grave" engineering. The design engineer works closely with the manufacturing engineer throughout the product life cycle, and is often required to investigate and validate design changes which could lead to possible production cost reductions in order to consistently reduce the price as the product becomes mature and thus subject to discounting to defend market volumes against newer competing products. Moreover, design changes may be also made mandatory by updates in laws and regulations.
The design process is an information intensive one, and design engineers have been found to spend 56% of their time engaged in various information behaviours, including 14% actively searching for information. In addition to design engineers' core technical competence, research has demonstrated the critical nature of their personal attributes, project management skills, and cognitive abilities to succeed in the role.
Amongst other more detailed findings, a recent work sampling study found that design engineers spend 62.92% of their time engaged in technical work, 40.37% in social work, and 49.66% in computer-based work. There was considerable overlap between these different types of work, with engineers spending 24.96% of their time engaged in technical and social work, 37.97% in technical and non-social, 15.42% in non-technical and social, and 21.66% in non-technical and non-social.


Project production management

Project production management (PPM) is the application of operations management to the delivery of capital projects. The PPM framework is based on a project as a production system view, in which a project transforms inputs (raw materials, information, labor, plant & machinery) into outputs (goods and services).
The knowledge that forms the basis of PPM originated in the discipline of industrial engineering during the Industrial Revolution. During this time, industrial engineering matured and then found application in many areas such as military planning and logistics for both the First and Second World Wars and manufacturing systems. As a coherent body of knowledge began to form, industrial engineering evolved into various scientific disciplines including operations research, operations management and queueing theory, amongst other areas of focus. Project Production Management (PPM) is the application of this body of knowledge to the delivery of capital projects.
Project management, as defined by the Project Management Institute, specifically excludes operations management from its body of knowledge, on the basis that projects are temporary endeavors with a beginning and an end, whereas operations refer to activities that are either ongoing or repetitive. However, by looking at a large capital project as a production system, such as what is encountered in construction, it is possible to apply the theory and associated technical frameworks from operations research, industrial engineering and queuing theory to optimize, plan, control and improve project performance.
For example, Project Production Management applies tools and techniques typically used in manufacturing management, such as described by Philip M. Morse in, or in Factory Physics to assess the impact of variability and inventory on project performance. Although any variability in a production system degrades its performance, by understanding which variability is detrimental to the business and which is beneficial, steps can be implemented to reduce detrimental variability. After mitigation steps are put in place, the impact of any residual variability can be addressed by allocating buffers at select points in the project production system – a combination of capacity, inventory and time.
Scientific and Engineering disciplines have contributed to many mathematical methods for the design and planning in project planning and scheduling, most notably linear and dynamic programming yielding techniques such as the critical path method (CPM) and the program evaluation and review technique (PERT). The application of engineering disciplines, particularly the areas of operations research, industrial engineering and queueing theory have found much application in the fields of manufacturing and factory production systems. Factory Physics is an example of where these scientific principles are described as forming a framework for manufacturing and production management.  Just as Factory Physics is the application of scientific principles to construct a framework for manufacturing and production management, Project Production Management is the application of the very same operations principles to the activities in a project, covering an area that has been conventionally out of scope for project management.
Historical background and related areas.
Modern project management theory and techniques started with Frederick Taylor and Taylorism/scientific management at the beginning of the 20th century, with the advent of mass manufacturing. It was refined further in the 1950s with techniques such as critical path method (CPM) and program evaluation and review technique (PERT). Use of CPM and PERT became more common as the computer revolution progressed. As the field of project management continued to grow, the role of the project manager was created and certifying organizations such as the Project Management Institute (PMI) emerged. Modern project management has evolved into a broad variety of knowledge areas described in the Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK).
Operations management (related to the fields of production management, operations research and industrial engineering) is a field of science that emerged from the modern manufacturing industry and focuses on modeling and controlling actual work processes. The practice is based upon defining and controlling production systems, which typically consist of a series of inputs, transformational activities, inventory and outputs. Over the last 50 years, project management and operations management have been considered separate fields of study and practice.
PPM applies the theory and results of the various disciplines known as operations management, operations research, queueing theory and industrial engineering to the management and execution of projects. By viewing a project as a production system, the delivery of capital projects can be analyzed for the impact of variability. The effects of variability can be summarized by VUT equation (specifically Kingman's formula for G/G/1 queue). By using a combination of buffers – capacity, inventory and time – the impact of variability to project execution performance can be minimized.
A set of key results used to analyze and optimize the work in projects were originally articulated by Philip Morse, considered the father of operations research in the U.S. and summarized in his seminal volume. In introducing its framework for manufacturing management, "Factory Physics" summarizes these results:
There are key mathematical models that describe the relationships between buffers and variability. Little's law – named after academic John Little – describes the relationship between throughput, cycle time and work-in-process (WIP) or inventory.  The Cycle Time Formula summarizes how much time a set of tasks at a particular point in a project take to execute.  Kingman's formula, also known as the VUT equation – summarizing the impact of variability.
Journals.
The following academic journals publish papers pertaining to Operations Management issues:


Defected ground structure

A defected ground structure (DGS), is a purposefully created "defect" on the ground plane of a printed microstrip board. It is typically created in the form of an etched-out pattern on the ground plane. DGS is a simplified form of Electromagnetic Band Gap (EBG) structure. This EBG is a periodic pattern featuring a band-stop property in microstrip transmission line and circuit applications, but the DGS comprises a single defect or a very limited number of defects with periodic/aperiodic configurations.
History.
Kim et al. first conceived a limited form of EBG and coined the term ‘DGS’. They used a single unit of dumbbell-shaped defect beneath a microstrip line to use its stop-band characteristics within which it impedes the propagation of electromagnetic (EM) down the line over a range of frequencies. The compact feature and ease of implementation made it popular and several other shapes of DGS evolved very fast for various microwave circuit applications. Printed circuit filter is one of them. Apart from that, DGS has also been used in the circuits of an amplifier, rat-race coupler, branch-line coupler, Wilkinson power divider, etc. DGS was also employed underneath the feed lines to integrated microstrip antenna in order to filter out any unwanted harmonics.
Ideas for Antenna Applications.
A new concept of its application to microstrip antenna was first reported in 2005 by Guha et al. The main focus was to suppress the cross-polarized radiations in a circular microstrip patch. DGS was strategically used to weaken the cross-pol generating higher-order TM"21" mode. The important and necessary condition is that the deployed DGS should not influence or disturb the main resonance, i.e. the primary radiation mode. That work indeed introduced a non-resonant DGS and proved the concept. Subsequently, several advancements both in DGS type, geometry, and cross-polar performance have been achieved.
Yet another idea of patch-DGS integration has advanced the microstrip antenna array design. The issue of mutual coupling among the array elements can be reduced by integrating simple DGS- first reported in 2006. This technique has been matured to address the practical issue of ‘Scan blindness’ of large arrays.
This DGS-technique has been proved to be a very useful commercially viable tool to minimize two major issues like scan blindness and cross-polar radiations in phased arrays. New generation airborne and space-borne radars are now being developed using this DGS technology.


Desjardin

Desjardin is one of the longest-running French metal packaging manufacturers, founded in 1848. The company produces and exports packaging for multiple industries, including the pharmaceutical industry, the cosmetic industry or the food industry. Desjardin places emphasis on sustainable solutions for its packaging materials and its tools.
The company specializes in customized metal manufacturing to produce cans and tins. Many of these custom products are aluminum containers .
History.
The Paris-based company was launched by the Desjardins family in 1848, during the formation of the French Constitution and in the middle of the industrial revolution under the name A. Desjardins. The company later changed the firm's name to "Desjardin". The company produced packaging that served food preservation.
Desjardin used tin cans from its launch. It also manufactured tinware such as pots and pans. By the late nineteenth century, the company worked with film studios to provide metal cans designed to preserve 16mm and 35 mm films.
The company established relationships with filmmakers and has played a role in protecting film throughout the twentieth century. It provided tin for Eastman Kodak and Agfa Geveart for many years. As a partner with Laboratories Éclair, LTC, Desjardin provided movie theaters with tins as well.
In the 1900s Desjardin expanded the number of industries it served to include biscuits and confectionery. After moving to the Paris suburb of Gonesse in 1963, the Desjardins family continued to run the business until 1981, when current President Pierre Gachot took over. Since then Gachot has introduced new packaging automation tools, such as the Caviar box vacuum closer in 1988.
Desjardin after 2000.
Desjardin produces the majority of caviar tins and film tins worldwide. Beginning in the 2000s, Desjardin has partnered with several cosmetics brands and has shifted focus towards sustainable primary materials.
Vacuum packaging performed by its semi-automatic machine, the Vacuum Closing Machine (VCII), has allowed Desjardin to conserve offset printing inks.
As a manufacturer of packaging for the cosmetics industry, Desjardin offers containers to accommodate cream, balm, powder, oil, sprays and other cosmetics. The company commonly makes aluminum containers with screw on lids for cosmetics.
Desjardin provides pharmaceutical packaging for products such as lipgloss, or gel. Typical containers are round with screw lids made of aluminum and metal tins. The company makes larger boxes for the food industry to package biscuits, confectionery and chocolates. They also make tin round containers for tea, coffee and spices.
Sustainability and the Environment.
Desjardin states that they mainly use Tinplate and aluminum as primary materials due to their environmentally friendly properties of easy recycling and lack of wasteful byproducts. Desjardin has been emphasizing the environmental benefits of aluminum, which include abundance, flexibility (engineering) and durability. While aluminum manufacturers must still deal with mining, chemical and landfill issues, Desjardin encourages recycling and is participates in the debate on developing more sustainable solutions. The company argues that aluminum is both lightweight and strong, making is highly efficient with minimal damage to the environment. Aluminum helps lower both shipping costs and greenhouse gas emissions.


Magnetic drilling machine

A magnetic drilling machine is a portable drilling machine with a magnetic base (either electromagnetic or permanent magnet). It can use twist drill bits, annular cutters, milling cutters, and other rotary cutters. With suitable bits it can also tap threads, ream, and countersink. Its combination of a stable magnetic base and low RPM help resist or reduce torque forces created by large diameter bits. Magnetic drilling machines with reversible motor and variable speed controls can also perform operations like tapping, countersink and reaming. Magnetic drilling machine with cross table base and can also perform light milling.
Description.
A portable magnetic drilling machine is faster and more portable alternative to hole making machines such as the drill press, and is more accurate than a hand drill.
A portable magnetic drilling machine is used on steel or other magnetic materials. It gives an accuracy of 0.01 mm to 0.05mm in steel or other magnetic material. The drill bits used for this machines are generally made from high-speed steel(HSS) or are tungsten carbide tipped(TCT).
Base.
The base of a magnetic drill is equipped with a powerful electromagnet to easily clamp the machine on the work piece to be drilled. When energized this magnet is held on the metal work piece locking the machine base to the surface. The electromagnet plays a very important role in a portable magnetic drill, as it helps the machine to be steady, does not let the machine dismount during drilling, can work with the machine overhead, horizontal or vertical. Its very important that persons with heart pacemakers or other medical implants must not use this magnetic drilling machine. Generally, a magnetic core drilling machine is used on a ferrous material directly, but it can also be used on non-ferrous material like aluminum with the help of clamping devices. The new generation magnetic drilling machines' bases are also equipped with Swivel Base, to position the machine under magnetic condition.
Stand.
A drill stand is the main body of the magnetic drill where the electric switches for motor and magnet are mounted, magnet indicator is mounted and also the clock-anticlockwise direction switches are mounted. The body of the magnetic drill holds together the motor and the magnet base. The feed handle is also attached to the body. The body of the magnetic drill helps the motor slide on it to get an upward and downward feed. The body of the magnetic drill also plays the role of a handle to lift and move the machine from one place to other. The material used for the body is generally cast iron.
Arbor.
An arbor or chuck on a magnetic drill is attached to the motor. it is a type of clamp used to attach the core drills. There are mainly two types of chuck available for the magnetic drill, industrial arbor (manual tightening) and quick change drill chucks. The quick change drill chucks are easy and fast option to attach the core drills. They do not need to tighten the screws/jaws manually. The arbor or chucks have different types of spindle holder (machine taper) like Morse taper MT 2, MT 3, and MT 4. The chuck allows different types of core drill shafts (shanks) to fit in it.
Types.
Popular forms of magnetic drilling machine include:
Light weight.
Very light weight types magnetic drills are very popular to perform several operations where the weight of a machine to carry is a great concern like working on an electric pole, mobile tower, TV tower, bridge, etc.
Automatic and semi-automatic feed.
Magnetic core drilling machines with fully and semi-automatic drill feed are very popular these days. These machines help in saving time and energy and resulting in more production.
Pneumatic.
Pneumatic core drilling machines are used where there is a danger of explosion or fire due to electrical sparking. The motor is driven by compressed air and the magnet is a permanent magnet instead of an electromagnet.
Cordless.
Battery operated magnetic core drilling machines are used for a work place where there is no electricity. The motor is driven by a rechargeable battery. The magnet for these machines is either an electromagnet or a permanent magnet.
Horizontal.
Horizontal magnetic core drilling machines with angular gears are made for confined drilling situations.
Cross-Table Base.
Cross-table base magnetic drilling machines can also be used for light milling operations to make oval holes or key-slots. The cross-table enables the machines to move in X and Y Axis.
Pipe Drilling / Tube Drilling.
Magnetic drilling machines having clamping system with two permanent magnets automatically which adapts to the pipe diameter.
Annular Cutters.
The magnetic core drilling machine utilizes core drills or annular cutters.
With a cutter wall thickness of approximately 5 mm only a small amount of material around the edge of a hole is removed by an annular cutter. Numerous teeth remain sharper longer than the single pointed tip of a spiral drill. Holes produced are smooth and burr-free - no reaming is required.
Operation.
Drilling holes with a magnetic drilling machine is a three-step process:
1. The pilot pin accurately centers the cutter over the area to be drilled.
2. During drilling, the pilot pin retracts and allows the internal lubrication to reach the cutting teeth.
3. When the hole is complete, the slug/core is automatically ejected from the cutter, leaving an accurate, finished hole.
High-quality precision-engineered cutters may have tapered inner walls. These help offset the effect of frictional heat build-up that causes expansion of both the cutter and waste slug being produced by the cutting action, allowing ready ejection of the slug upon completion.


Allocacoc

Allocacoc  is an industrial design company established in the Netherlands that sells redesigned everyday products such as the PowerCube. Allocacoc headquartered in Shanghai and has a factory in Suzhou with an R&D center in Shenzhen, China. Its European head office moved from Delft to Breukelen (Utrecht) in August 2018. The company creates innovative products by adding original designs and keeping them affordable. In 2019, Allocacoc decided on a rebranding strategy and focus their business development on DesignNest.com - a consumer product platform of a broad range of design products. DesignNest was originally founded by Allocacoc in 2016 and now aiming to help industrial designers from start to finish, such as funding, design knowledge, sourcing, pricing, production, product assembly, distribution, fighting against copycats and worldwide sales.
History.
Allocacoc was founded by two industrial design engineers, Arthur Limpens and Yixia Jiang from Delft University of Technology, in the Netherlands. Stated by Yixia Jiang in a 2011 interview, the company name was inspires by their favourite drink Coca-Cola.
Products.
Allocacoc has a wide range of products, including power strip, socket, light, stationary, home gadgets, audio...etc. and it is still expanding.
Awards.
The PowerCube was given the Red Dot Design Award for best product design category in 2014.
Computex Design and Innovation Award in 2015


CSCMP Supply Chain Process Standards

The Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals' (CSCMP) Supply Chain Process Standards present an outline or framework for managing processes which are typically found to be involved in performing supply chain related activities, and a set of standardised activities described in two levels of maturity - the "suggested minimum" and "best practice" for each process. The standards were created for the Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals by Supply Chain Visions, a supply chain process and measures consulting firm.
The intent of the standards is to provide practitioners, educators and consultants with a reference tool to help companies identify potential gaps across a broad spectrum of their supply chain processes. Practitioners can use this tool to identify process strengths and weaknesses, and then focus their attention on those areas where improvement efforts will drive the most benefit. Results can be shared and compared (with discretion) with other organizations in a supply chain to improve overall effectiveness.
The second edition of the Standards utilizes the American Productivity & Quality Center Process Classification Framework to present the minimum and best practice attributes. The third edition was published in 2018.
Contents.
The standards uses a numbering scheme where each process element is referred to by categories, process groups, processes, and activities.
For each activity there is a description of an associated practice in two levels of maturity.
The Standards were compiled by Supply Chain Visions utilizing academic research, as well as on-site observations of companies
in practice. In addition, a thorough validation process was used, where leading subject-matter experts (SMEs) in the profession reviewed and validated the accuracy of the Standards.
Currently in its third edition, the Standards covers a broad spectrum of supply chain processes and activities—including over 2,600 best and minimum practice statements, which is an increase of 40% over the first edition—derived from research into current cross-industry standards. To more accurately reflect today's supply chain practices, 30% of the statements in the first edition have also been revised.
CSCMP worked with over 420 SMEs in developing the first revision of the Standards. Many of the same SMEs and many new SMEs participated in the review of the second edition of the Standards. The range of SMEs included academics, researchers, practitioners, and consultants who are widely considered experts in the field of supply chain management. The response was extraordinary. SMEs provided over 34% of the new content of the Standards, helped to revise 38% of the practice statements to make them more accurate and current, and validated the suggested minimum process standards and typical best practices descriptions in the Standards. The Standards represent a unique, broad-based, cross-industry repository of supply chain knowledge.


Henry W. Eastham

Henry W. Eastham was a Massachusetts businessman and politician who served as a member and President of the Common Council, and as the 30th Mayor of Lynn, Massachusetts.
Shoe machinery business.
Eastham was engaged in the manufacture of shoe manufacturing equipment, supplying the numerous shoe manufacturing companies that existed in Lynn at the time. In December 1904 Eastham sold his shoe knives and machinery business to the United Shoe Machinery Corporation. Eastham later purchased the C.W. Dodge & Co. and operated it as the Eastham Shoe Machinery and Supply Company.
President of the Lynn Board of Aldermen.
On December 30, 1901, Eastham was chosen as President of the Lynn Board of Aldermen for 1902.


Beijing Municipal Prison

Beijing Municipal Prison  is a prison in Daxing District, Beijing.
Originally established by the Qing dynasty on 31 March 1909, the present Daxing site was built in 1982 and the municipal prison officially moved there on 8 November 1994. It had 1600 prisoners in 2006. It is about one hour away from the centre of Beijing by car.
It is operated by the Beijing Municipal Administration of Prisons.
 it houses almost 2,000 male inmates; these inmates are sentenced to 15 or more years, and criminals with special circumstances. It has 18 workshops including an auto manufacturing plant, a plastic packaging plant and a steel factory. Produces light steel, construction templates, paper products, automobile remodeling, spray paint, spray molding, clothing and toys. Inmates use metal cutting lathes, shears, bending machines, straight cutting machines, assembly machines, flange straightening machines, arc welding generators, sewing machines, and other equipment.


Bulk bins

Bulk bins are a way of selling consumables by weight. The product is stored in bins in a section of the retail floor. A customer can measure out an amount of product into a plastic bag, to be later weighed at the point of sale. The product is usually less expensive per unit compared to pre-packaged items. The customer is able to choose exactly how much product they want and will go home with less packaging.
Products compatible with bulk bin selling are:
Traditional bulk bins were typically wooden barrels, or burlap sacks the food products came in, and from which the customer would shop. These traditional methods of dispensing were cheap, and did not protect the food products from open air environments which allowed the accelerated spoilage of food, and created the potential for outside contaminants to affect the food.
Today, bulk bins are made of polycarbonate, or BPA-free resins which display the food product, and provide an airtight, hygienic system for dispensing foods.
Perishable or bulky items usually are not sold in this way.


Sheet metal forming analysis

For sheet metal forming analysis within the metal forming process, a successful technique requires a non-contact optical 3D deformation measuring system. The system analyzes, calculates and documents deformations of sheet metal parts, for example. It provides the 3D coordinates of the component's surface as well as the distribution of major and minor strain on the surface and the material thickness reduction. In the Forming Limit Diagram, the measured deformations are compared to the material characteristics. The system supports optimization processes in sheet metal forming by means of;
The optical forming analysis with Forming analysis system provides for precise and fast measurement of small and large components using a high scanning density. Forming analysis system operates independently of the material. It can analyze components made from flat blanks, tubes or other components manufactured by an internal high pressure forming process (IHPF, Hydro forming).
Functional principle explained by means of a standard measuring project.
The forming analysis system compares the 3D positions of measuring points in a flat and in a deformed state.
Prior to the deformation, a regular point pattern is applied to the surface of the measuring object. For measuring objects which undergo high friction during the forming process, the measuring points are applied, for example, with the help of electrolytic methods. After the forming process of the measuring object, a camera (online or stand-alone operation) records the measuring points in several different images with different views.
Forming analysis system works with two point types.
In the Forming analysis system, the 3D computation of the measuring points is done using photogrammetric methods. For the automatic spatial orientation of the individual images or views, coded points are position close to or on the measuring object.
The basic idea of Photogrammetry is to look at points (coded and uncoded) from different directions and to calculate the 3D coordinates of these points from the images or point rays thus obtained. The points visible in an image have a fixed relation to each other. Therefore, by means of images made from other angles of view, it is possible to calculate the camera location using this point relation. During the acquisition of an image set it is the goal to record points from multiple different directions that show the largest possible angles (A, B, C) to each other.
It is the task of the Forming analysis system software to precisely find ellipses (a perspective view of point surfaces) in all images of the image set and their 3D orientation. The Forming analysis system software interprets the images and generates 3D measuring data.
In order to compute the strain, the flat state is compared to the deformed state. (#1 & #2)
In a standard measuring project, the flat state, the strain reference, is not captured optically but results from the theoretical point distance defined in the project parameters.
As a default, Forming analysis system presumes an exactly regular initial pattern which is on one plane and for which the point distance is known. This is called the "virtual reference stage" and is marked with Stage 0 in italic letters in the software. All strain values refer to the adjusted computation parameter Point distance.
The Forming analysis system software is also capable of analyzing several static deformation states (stages) within one project where each deformation stage can be set as strain reference any time. This procedure may be used, for example, for the deformation analysis of tubes.
To allow for a full-field view of the strain, the software changes to the so-called grid mode (#3 & #4). This means that based on the center points of the measuring points a grid surface is created. Each grid line intersection point represents a 3D measuring point. The full-field color representation of the strain results from the 3D positions of these grid line intersection points. (#5 & #6)