Blow molding

Blow molding (or moulding) is a manufacturing process for forming hollow plastic parts. It is also used for forming glass bottles or other hollow shapes.
In general, there are three main types of blow molding: extrusion blow molding, injection blow molding, and injection stretch blow molding.
The blow molding process begins with softening plastic by heating a preform or parison. The parison is a tube-like piece of plastic with a hole in one end through which compressed air can enter.
The plastic workpiece is then clamped into a mold and air is blown into it. The air pressure inflates the plastic which conforms to the mold. Once the plastic has cooled and hardened the mold opens and the part is ejected. Water channels within the mold assist cooling.
History.
The process principle comes from the idea of glassblowing. Enoch Ferngren and William Kopitke produced a blow molding machine and sold it to Hartford Empire Company in 1938. This was the beginning of the commercial blow molding process. During the 1940s the variety and number of products were still very limited and therefore blow molding did not take off until later. Once the variety and production rates went up the number of products created soon followed.
The technical mechanisms needed to produce hollow-bodied workpieces using the blowing technique were established very early on. Because glass is very breakable, after the introduction of plastic, plastic was used to replace glass in some cases. The first mass production of plastic bottles was done in America in 1939. Germany started using this technology a little bit later but is currently one of the leading manufacturers of blow molding machines.
In the United States soft drink industry, the number of plastic containers went from zero in 1977 to ten billion pieces in 1999. Today, an even greater number of products are blown and it is expected to keep increasing.
For amorphous metals, also known as bulk metallic glasses, blow molding has been recently demonstrated under pressures and temperatures comparable to plastic blow molding.
Typologies.
Extrusion blow molding.
In extrusion blow molding, plastic is melted and extruded into a hollow tube forming a tube like piece of plastic with a hole in one end for compressed gas - known as a parison. The parison is captured by closing it into a cooled metal mold. Air is blown into the parison, inflating it into the shape of the hollow bottle, container, or part. After the plastic has cooled, the mold is opened and the part is ejected.
"Straight extrusion blow molding is a way of propelling material forward similar to injection molding whereby an Archimedean screw turns, feeding plastic material down a heated tube. Once the plastic is meleted the screw stops rotating and linearly moves to push the melt out. With the accumulator method, an accumulator gathers melted plastic and after the previous mold has cooled and enough plastic has accumulated, a rod pushes the melted plastic and forms the parison. In this case the screw may turn continuously or intermittently. With continuous extrusion the weight of the parison drags the parison and makes calibrating the wall thickness difficult. The accumulator head or reciprocating screw methods use hydraulic systems to push the parison out quickly reducing the effect of the weight and allowing precise control over the wall thickness by adjusting the die gap with a parison programming device.
Continuous extrusion equipment includes rotary wheel blow molding systems and shuttle machinery, while intermittent extrusion machinery includes reciprocating screw machinery and accumulator head machinery.
Spin trimming.
Containers such as jars often have an excess of material due to the molding process. This is trimmed off by spinning a cutting blade around the container which separates the material. The excess plastic is then recycled to create new moldings. Spin Trimmers are used on a number of materials, such as PVC, HDPE and PE+LDPE. Different types of the materials have their own physical characteristics affecting trimming. For example, moldings produced from amorphous materials are much more difficult to trim than crystalline materials. Titanium nitride-coated blades are often used rather than standard steel to increase life by a factor of 30 times.
Injection blow molding.
The process of injection blow molding (IBM) is used for the production of hollow glass and plastic objects in large quantities. In the IBM process, the polymer is injection molded onto a core pin; then the core pin is rotated to a blow molding station to be inflated and cooled. This is the least-used of the three blow molding processes, and is typically used to make small medical and single serve bottles. The process is divided into three steps: injection, blowing and ejection.
The injection blow molding machine is based on an extruder barrel and screw assembly which melts the polymer. The molten polymer is fed into a hot runner manifold where it is injected through nozzles into a heated cavity and core pin. The cavity mold forms the external shape and is clamped around a core rod which forms the internal shape of the preform. The preform consists of a fully formed bottle/jar neck with a thick tube of polymer attached, which will form the body. similar in appearance to a test tube with a threaded neck.
The preform mold opens and the core rod is rotated and clamped into the hollow, chilled blow mold. The end of the core rod opens and allows compressed air into the preform, which inflates it to the finished article shape.
After a cooling period the blow mold opens and the core rod is rotated to the ejection position. The finished article is stripped off the core rod and as an option can be leak-tested prior to packing. The preform and blow mold can have many cavities, typically three to sixteen depending on the article size and the required output. There are three sets of core rods, which allow concurrent preform injection, blow molding and ejection.
Injection stretch blow molding.
Injection Stretch Blow Molding has two main different methods, namely Single-stage and Double-stage process. The Single-stage process is then again broken down into 3-station and 4-station machines.
Single-Stage.
In the single-stage process, both preform manufacture and bottle blowing is performed in the same machine. The older 4-station method of injection, reheat, stretch blow and ejection is more costly than the 3-station machine which eliminates the reheat stage and uses latent heat in the preform, thus saving costs of energy to reheat and 25% reduction in tooling. The process explained: Imagine the molecules are small round balls, when together they have large air gaps and small surface contact, by first stretching the molecules vertically then blowing to stretch horizontally the biaxial stretching makes the molecules a cross shape. These "crosses" fit together leaving little space as more surface area is contacted thus making the material less porous and increasing barrier strength against permeation. This process also increases the strength to be ideal for filling with carbonated drinks.
Two-stage.
In the two-stage injection stretch blow molding process, the plastic is first molded into a "preform" using the injection molding process. These preforms are produced with the necks of the bottles, including threads (the "finish") on one end. These preforms are packaged, and fed later (after cooling) into a reheat stretch blow molding machine. In the ISBM process, the preforms are heated (typically using infrared heaters) above their glass transition temperature, then blown using high-pressure air into bottles using metal blow molds. The preform is always stretched with a core rod as part of the process.


Assembly line

An assembly line is a manufacturing process (often called a "progressive assembly") in which parts (usually interchangeable parts) are added as the semi-finished assembly moves from workstation to workstation where the parts are added in sequence until the final assembly is produced. By mechanically moving the parts to the assembly work and moving the semi-finished assembly from work station to work station, a finished product can be assembled faster and with less labor than by having workers carry parts to a stationary piece for assembly.
Assembly lines are common methods of assembling complex items such as automobiles and other transportation equipment, household appliances and electronic goods.
Workers in charge of the works of assembly line are called assemblers.
Concepts.
Assembly lines are designed for the sequential organization of workers, tools or machines, and parts. The motion of workers is minimized to the extent possible. All parts or assemblies are handled either by conveyors or motorized vehicles such as forklifts, or gravity, with no manual trucking. Heavy lifting is done by machines such as overhead cranes or forklifts. Each worker typically performs one simple operation unless job rotation strategies are applied.
According to Henry Ford:
Designing assembly lines is a well-established mathematical challenge, referred to as an assembly line balancing problem. In the simple assembly line balancing problem the aim is to assign a set of tasks that need to be performed on the workpiece to a sequence of workstations. Each task requires a given task duration for completion. The assignment of tasks to stations is typically limited by two constraints: (1) a precedence graph which indicates what other tasks need to be completed before a particular task can be initiated (e.g. not putting in a screw before drilling the hole) and (2) a cycle time which restricts the sum of task processing times which can be completed at each workstation before the work-piece is moved to the next station by the conveyor belt. Major planning problems for operating assembly lines include supply chain integration, inventory control and production scheduling.
Simple example.
Consider the assembly of a car: assume that certain steps in the assembly line are to install the engine, install the hood, and install the wheels (in that order, with arbitrary interstitial steps); only one of these steps can be done at a time. In traditional production, only one car would be assembled at a time. If engine installation takes 20 minutes, hood installation takes five minutes, and wheels installation takes 10 minutes, then a car can be produced every 35 minutes.
In an assembly line, car assembly is split between several stations, all working simultaneously. When a station is finished with a car, it passes it on to the next. By having three stations, three cars can be operated on at the same time, each at a different stage of assembly.
After finishing its work on the first car, the engine installation crew can begin working on the second car. While the engine installation crew works on the second car, the first car can be moved to the hood station and fitted with a hood, then to the wheels station and be fitted with wheels. After the engine has been installed on the second car, the second car moves to the hood assembly. At the same time, the third car moves to the engine assembly. When the third car's engine has been mounted, it then can be moved to the hood station; meanwhile, subsequent cars (if any) can be moved to the engine installation station.
Assuming no loss of time when moving a car from one station to another, the longest stage on the assembly line determines the throughput (20 minutes for the engine installation) so a car can be produced every 20 minutes, once the first car taking 35 minutes has been produced.
History.
Before the Industrial Revolution, most manufactured products were made individually by hand. A single craftsman or team of craftsmen would create each part of a product. They would use their skills and tools such as files and knives to create the individual parts. They would then assemble them into the final product, making cut-and-try changes in the parts until they fit and could work together (craft production).
Division of labor was practiced in China, where state-run monopolies mass-produced metal agricultural implements, china, armor, and weapons centuries before mass production appeared in Europe on the eve of the Industrial Revolution. Adam Smith discussed the division of labour in the manufacture of pins at length in his book "The Wealth of Nations" (published in 1776).
The Venetian Arsenal, dating to about 1104, operated similar to a production line. Ships moved down a canal and were fitted by the various shops they passed. At the peak of its efficiency in the early 16th century, the Arsenal employed some 16,000 people who could apparently produce nearly one ship each day and could fit out, arm, and provision a newly built galley with standardized parts on an assembly-line basis. Although the Arsenal lasted until the early Industrial Revolution, production line methods did not become common even then.
Industrial Revolution.
The Industrial Revolution led to a proliferation of manufacturing and invention. Many industries, notably textiles, firearms, clocks and watches, horse-drawn vehicles, railway locomotives, sewing machines, and bicycles, saw expeditious improvement in materials handling, machining, and assembly during the 19th century, although modern concepts such as industrial engineering and logistics had not yet been named.
The automatic flour mill built by Oliver Evans in 1785 was called the beginning of modern bulk material handling by Roe (1916). Evans's mill used a leather belt bucket elevator, screw conveyors, canvas belt conveyors, and other mechanical devices to completely automate the process of making flour. The innovation spread to other mills and breweries.
Probably the earliest industrial example of a linear and continuous assembly process is the Portsmouth Block Mills, built between 1801 and 1803. Marc Isambard Brunel (father of Isambard Kingdom Brunel), with the help of Henry Maudslay and others, designed 22 types of machine tools to make the parts for the rigging blocks used by the Royal Navy. This factory was so successful that it remained in use until the 1960s, with the workshop still visible at HM Dockyard in Portsmouth, and still containing some of the original machinery.
One of the earliest examples of an almost modern factory layout, designed for easy material handling, was the Bridgewater Foundry. The factory grounds were bordered by the Bridgewater Canal and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. The buildings were arranged in a line with a railway for carrying the work going through the buildings. Cranes were used for lifting the heavy work, which sometimes weighed in the tens of tons. The work passed sequentially through to erection of framework and final assembly.
The first flow assembly line was initiated at the factory of Richard Garrett & Sons, Leiston Works in Leiston in the English county of Suffolk for the manufacture of portable steam engines. The assembly line area was called 'The Long Shop' on account of its length and was fully operational by early 1853. The boiler was brought up from the foundry and put at the start of the line, and as it progressed through the building it would stop at various stages where new parts would be added. From the upper level, where other parts were made, the lighter parts would be lowered over a balcony and then fixed onto the machine on the ground level. When the machine reached the end of the shop, it would be completed.
Interchangeable parts.
During the early 19th century, the development of machine tools such as the screw-cutting lathe, metal planer, and milling machine, and of toolpath control via jigs and fixtures, provided the prerequisites for the modern assembly line by making interchangeable parts a practical reality.
Late 19th-century steam and electric conveyors.
Steam-powered conveyor lifts began being used for loading and unloading ships some time in the last quarter of the 19th century. Hounshell (1984) shows a sketch of an electric-powered conveyor moving cans through a filling line in a canning factory.
The meatpacking industry of Chicago is believed to be one of the first industrial assembly lines (or disassembly lines) to be utilized in the United States starting in 1867. Workers would stand at fixed stations and a pulley system would bring the meat to each worker and they would complete one task. Henry Ford and others have written about the influence of this slaughterhouse practice on the later developments at Ford Motor Company.
20th century.
According to Domm, the implementation of mass production of an automobile via an assembly line may be credited to Ransom Olds, who used it to build the first mass-produced automobile, the Oldsmobile Curved Dash. Olds patented the assembly line concept, which he put to work in his Olds Motor Vehicle Company factory in 1901.
At Ford Motor Company, the assembly line was introduced by William "Pa" Klann upon his return from visiting Swift & Company's slaughterhouse in Chicago and viewing what was referred to as the "disassembly line", where carcasses were butchered as they moved along a conveyor. The efficiency of one person removing the same piece over and over without himself moving caught his attention. He reported the idea to Peter E. Martin, soon to be head of Ford production, who was doubtful at the time but encouraged him to proceed. Others at Ford have claimed to have put the idea forth to Henry Ford, but Pa Klann's slaughterhouse revelation is well documented in the archives at the Henry Ford Museum and elsewhere, making him an important contributor to the modern automated assembly line concept. Ford was appreciative, having visited the highly automated 40-acre Sears mail order handling facility around 1906. At Ford, the process was an evolution by trial and error of a team consisting primarily of Peter E. Martin, the factory superintendent; Charles E. Sorensen, Martin's assistant; Clarence W. Avery; C. Harold Wills, draftsman and toolmaker; Charles Ebender; and József Galamb. Some of the groundwork for such development had recently been laid by the intelligent layout of machine tool placement that Walter Flanders had been doing at Ford up to 1908.
The moving assembly line was developed for the Ford Model T and began operation on October 7, 1913, at the Highland Park Ford Plant, and continued to evolve after that, using time and motion study. The assembly line, driven by conveyor belts, reduced production time for a Model T to just 93 minutes by dividing the process into 45 steps. Producing cars quicker than paint of the day could dry, it had an immense influence on the world.
In 1922, Ford (through his ghostwriter Crowther) said of his 1913 assembly line:
Charles E. Sorensen, in his 1956 memoir "My Forty Years with Ford", presented a different version of development that was not so much about individual "inventors" as a gradual, logical development of industrial engineering:
As a result of these developments in method, Ford's cars came off the line in three-minute intervals or six feet per minute. This was much faster than previous methods, increasing production by eight to one (requiring 12.5 man-hours before, 1 hour 33 minutes after), while using less manpower. It was so successful, paint became a bottleneck. Only japan black would dry fast enough, forcing the company to drop the variety of colours available before 1914, until fast-drying Duco lacquer was developed in 1926.
The assembly line technique was an integral part of the diffusion of the automobile into American society. Decreased costs of production allowed the cost of the Model T to fall within the budget of the American middle class. In 1908, the price of a Model T was around $825, and by 1912 it had decreased to around $575. This price reduction is comparable to a reduction from $15,000 to $10,000 in dollar terms from the year 2000. In 1914, an assembly line worker could buy a Model T with four months' pay.
Ford's complex safety procedures—especially assigning each worker to a specific location instead of allowing them to roam about—dramatically reduced the rate of injury. The combination of high wages and high efficiency is called "Fordism", and was copied by most major industries. The efficiency gains from the assembly line also coincided with the take-off of the United States. The assembly line forced workers to work at a certain pace with very repetitive motions which led to more output per worker while other countries were using less productive methods.
In the automotive industry, its success was dominating, and quickly spread worldwide. Ford France and Ford Britain in 1911, Ford Denmark 1923, Ford Germany and Ford Japan 1925; in 1919, Vulcan (Southport, Lancashire) was the first native European manufacturer to adopt it. Soon, companies had to have assembly lines, or risk going broke by not being able to compete; by 1930, 250 companies which did not had disappeared.
The massive demand for military hardware in World War II prompted assembly-line techniques in shipbuilding and aircraft production. Thousands of Liberty ships were built making extensive use of prefabrication, enabling ship assembly to be completed in weeks or even days. After having produced fewer than 3,000 planes for the United States Military in 1939, American aircraft manufacturers built over 300,000 planes in World War II. Vultee pioneered the use of the powered assembly line for aircraft manufacturing. Other companies quickly followed. As William S. Knudsen (having worked at Ford, GM and the National Defense Advisory Commission) observed, "We won because we smothered the enemy in an avalanche of production, the like of which he had never seen, nor dreamed possible."
Improved working conditions.
In his 1922 autobiography, Henry Ford mentions several benefits of the assembly line including:
The gains in productivity allowed Ford to increase worker pay from $1.50 per day to $5.00 per day once employees reached three years of service on the assembly line. Ford continued on to reduce the hourly work week while continuously lowering the Model T price. These goals appear altruistic; however, it has been argued that they were implemented by Ford in order to reduce high employee turnover: when the assembly line was introduced in 1913, it was discovered that "every time the company wanted to add 100 men to its factory personnel, it was necessary to hire 963" in order to counteract the natural distaste the assembly line seems to have inspired.
Sociological problems.
Sociological work has explored the social alienation and boredom that many workers feel because of the repetition of doing the same specialized task all day long.
One of capitalism's most famous critics, Karl Marx, expressed in his "Entfremdung" theory the belief that, in order to achieve job satisfaction, workers need to see themselves in the objects they have created, that products should be "mirrors in which workers see their reflected essential nature". Marx viewed labour as a chance for people to externalize facets of their personalities. Marxists argue that performing repetitive, specialized tasks causes a feeling of disconnection between what a worker does all day, who they really are, and what they would ideally be able to contribute to society. Furthermore, Marx views these specialised jobs as insecure, since the worker is expendable as soon as costs rise and technology can replace more expensive human labour.
Since workers have to stand in the same place for hours and repeat the same motion hundreds of times per day, repetitive stress injuries are a possible pathology of occupational safety. Industrial noise also proved dangerous. When it was not too high, workers were often prohibited from talking. Charles Piaget, a skilled worker at the LIP factory, recalled that besides being prohibited from speaking, the semi-skilled workers had only 25 centimeters in which to move. Industrial ergonomics later tried to minimize physical trauma.


Adamant Co., Ltd.

 is a component manufacturing company based in Tokyo, Japan. Its name is from the word "adamant", which was derived from the Greek word "adamas" meaning "diamond". At of its founding, Adamant's main products were watch jewels that were made of a hard material.
In 1957, Adamant separated from Namiki Precision Jewel Co., Ltd. It started sales of jewel bearings for watches and clocks and began to manufacture cap jewel, hole jewel, impulse jewel and pallet stone. In 1980, it started manufacturing ferrules for the optical communication industry utilizing injection molding engineering and polishing techniques.
Adamant merged with its parent company, Namiki Precision Jewel Co., Ltd., to establish Adamant Namiki Precision Jewel Co., Ltd. on January 1, 2018.
Products.
Photonics.
Zirconia ferrule, sleeve, receptacle and connector incorporating Injection molding techniques.
Lensed fiber, lens is formed on top of optical fiber which is equivalent with human hair.
MEMS (Micro Electro Mechanical System).
Started full foundry service covering development →test production　→and OEM Manufacturing of MEMS in tie-ups with Micralyne Inc. in Canada.
Pursuant to joint development with Micralyne Inc. for optical sensor device incorporating MEMS.VOA（Variable Optical Attenuator）and optical switch with hermetically sealed in metal package
Fine industrial jewel.
Capillaries for bonding tool, wedge, also, ruby knife, pellet, dental block for medical device, physics and chemistry.
Advanced material.
Variety of color Ceramics available such as White, Black, Blue and Brown.
Featuring glossy by polishing finish and a high-class touch.
LTCC（Low Temperature Co-fired Ceramics）
are co-fired at low temperature (900°C) in process which makes silver material possible in order to use as a conductor.
Suited for RF products due to low loss. Also, multi-layered and flat substrate can be made easily. Highly accurate, high-density mounting are realized.


KPackage

KPackage was KDE's package manager frontend.
It supported BSD, Debian, Gentoo, RPM and Slackware packages. It provided a GUI for the management and upgrade of existing packages and the installation and acquirement of new packages. Additionally, it provided functionality to help manage package caches. KPackage was part of kdeadmin, and was developed at KDE.org.


Laser cutting bridge

In textile manufacturing, a laser cutting bridge system is an industrial machine for cutting and engraving textile materials (i.e. fabrics). It is formed by a galvanometric laser head and carbon-dioxide laser ( laser) source that runs along an horizontal beam (the bridge) supported by two lateral columns and sometimes by central columns. This system is placed over one or more embroidery machines, more frequently multi-head rather than single-head machines, cutting tables and roller devices to cut out and/or engrave embroidered fabrics.
History.
The first laser bridge for embroidery machines was invented and realized in 1998 by GMI srl an Italian company based in Vittorio Veneto (TV), Italy. The Laser cutting bridge was first presented to the public at the IMB exhibition of Cologne, Germany in 2000. GMI srl continues manufacturing laser bridges and since 1998 has largely improved the quality of its cutting systems.
Before the advent of the laser bridge, fabrics were first die-cut and then appliqués were sewed or embroidered on the base fabric. Usually used as an 8 mm thick steel die with heights ranging from 50 to 100 mm depending on how many pieces were to be cut at once. This process proved to present numerous difficulties.
Technology.
A cut piece of cloth (the appliqué) is placed above the base material that is in the embroidery machine (having a first seam reference), is fixed and finally embroidered. More recently, the manual method of cutting has been replaced by the laser cutting technology, laser plotters first, and then by laser bridges. The laser ensures better accuracy compared to manual cutting. It allows users to imitate a jagged or irregular cut as if done by hand, with the advantage that the laser solders the borders of synthetic fiber, avoiding unpleasant unthreading which is called "the clean edge". The combination "laser plus embroidery machine" offered by the laser bridge also avoids double work: no longer is it necessary to cut by hand after embroidering appliqués.
The process also guarantees more accurate results, because the laser works on the same frame where the embroidery machine works avoiding positioning errors. The technology uses software that guides the cutting laser head along the bridge and the reflecting mirrors (moved by electromagnetic motors). This method provides a degree of accuracy and speed of cut much greater than traditional systems (1/100 mm instead of 1/10 mm).


NCSIMUL

NCSIMUL is a software program developed by the company SPRING Technologies, that is used for simulating, verifying, and optimizing CNC machining in a 3-step process. It reads the post-processed G-code to identify the tool path, and replicates the material removal process of the machine by cutting volumes. It then identifies all syntax errors in the code, crashes in the machining environment, and deviations from the modeled CAD part.
History.
NCSIMUL's development began in 1983, and currently has 140 partners world-wide, and over 2000 licenses of NCSIMUL in use. It was founded in Paris, France, but has since expanded to China, Germany, the United States, India, Mexico, and Spain. The US headquarters was founded in 2009, and is located in Boston, Massachusetts. In August 2018 it was acquired by the global technology group Hexagon AB. NCSIMUL is current members of the AMT and National Center for Defense Manufacturing and Machining (NCDMM).
Features.
NCSIMUL Machine.
NCSIMUL Machine is designed for turning, drilling, milling (up to 5-axis), mill-turn, and multi-channel machines. Based on the real characteristics of the CNC machine, it creates a dynamic verification software that includes the exact environment for all machines, tools and materials.
NCSIMUL 4CAM.
With the release of V10, NCSIMUL added the capability to change the target machine without CAM reprogramming. It is able to perform the necessary recalculations across different number of axes and across different controller languages. NCSIMUL generates verified and optimized CNC programs directly, without an external post-processor, while taking into account the real machining environment.
NCSIMUL Optitool.
NCSIMUL can optimize the tool length, air-cutting motions, and cutting conditions by regulating feed rates to create better G-code programs in 3 to 5-axis machining. These strategies result in a reduction for the production cycle times, enhancement of cutting operations, and fast development of new G-code optimized files for future applications.
NCSIMUL Interfaces.
Additionally, NCSIMUL integrates directly with several CAM systems to transfer all previously created resources including tool libraries, fixturing, part models, and G-code directly into the machining verification software.


Hot gas welding

Hot-gas welding is a manual plastic welding process for joining thermoplastic materials. A hot-gas torch is used to direct hot air to both the joint surface and weld rod, heating the materials to their softening temperature. Application of pressure on the heated weld rod to the joint surface bonds the materials together to form a completed weld. This technique is not easily automatized and is primarily used for repairs or individual manufacturing needs of small or complex components.
Welding techniques.
There are two common forms of welding techniques used in hot gas welding: hand welding and speed welding. Tack welding may be utilized to set the components in position to perform the actual welding process.
Hand welding.
Hand welding is a technique in which the weld rod is applied to the joint by the welder directly. This is also referenced as "free-hand welding" or "fan welding". The hot gas torch is maneuvered in one hand to heat both the weld rod and joint surfaces in a pendulum manner in quick succession. Pressure is applied to the welding rod and controlled by hand without the assistance of a nozzle. This technique is suitable for most configurations and can be beneficial for welding tight, constrained areas or complex joint designs since application of the welding rod is only limited to the achievable welding positions.
Speed welding.
Speed welding employs a specially designed nozzle which enables the hot gas torch and weld rod to be one cohesive system. The nozzle facilitates application of the weld rod to the joint through a feeder tube. The nozzle evenly heats the weld rod material and allows for a controlled application of pressure. The bottom of the nozzle is designed to heat the joint surface and guide the weld rod into the groove. Nozzles are manufactured for the feeder tubes to accommodate specific welding rod shapes and dimensions and are available for round or triangular rods of common sizes. Use of speed welding is limited to applications of simple joint design and orientation due to the size of the nozzle and maneuverability of the system.
Process parameters.
Gas temperature, application pressure, weld travel speed, gas flow rate, and torch orientation all influence the integrity and mechanical properties of the finished weld. Gas temperature and flow rate are controllable parameters based on system inputs. Application pressure, weld travel speed, and torch orientation are all dependent upon the operator performing the weld. These parameters are interrelated and all have a significant impact on the final quality of the weld.
Gas temperature and flow rate.
Gas temperature is a controlled input that should be monitored for accuracy prior to initiating the welding process. Hot gas temperatures are selected at values above the material's melting or glass transition temperature. Sufficient temperature is required to overcome a materials activation energy, resulting in a reduction of the viscosity and an increase in flowability to support diffusion across the weld interface. Prolonged exposure to elevated temperatures exceeding material manufacturer's recommendations can result in oxidation, distortion, or molecular deterioration, which can lead to joint failure. Calibration and verification of the output should be performed after the gas temperature has stabilized in the welding gun. Speed tip nozzles focus heat directly on the joint in a specific region, resulting in effective heat transfer to the weld surfaces. If sufficient weld travel speed is not maintained, recommended welding temperatures above the glass or melting temperature of the material in these weld regions can be exceeded and lead to defects.
Thermal expansion from the welding process may result in distortion and development of weld defects if part components are not properly secured. Work surface material should also be considered to avoid heat losses which may result in lack of penetration or lack of fusion due to inadequate heating of the joint surfaces.
Sufficient hot gas flow rate is necessary to maintain adequate, even heating of weld rod and joint surfaces. Flow rate can be controlled through the use of a blower or an air compressor. To avoid weld contamination, supplied hot gas should be free of moisture and should not contain impurities. A properly sized blower or compressor can be utilized for multiple hot gas torches if one is not integrated in the individual welding gun.
Welding energy.
The welding energy imparted on the weld surface during hot gas welding can be used to predict the overall strength of the finished joint. Welding energy ("Ew") is determined using the gas temperature and flow rate using the following relationship:
formula_1
where hot gas parameters include the specific heat ("cp"), initial and final temperature ("T1" and "T2", respectively), volumetric flow rate ("qv"), and density (formula_2). These properties are divided by the weld travel speed ("Sw"). Studies performed on semi-crystalline materials conclude the higher the welding energy input on the surface, the higher the joint strength. A high welding energy has been related to a lower welding surface viscosity. A less viscous surface allows for increased diffusion across the weld interface resulting in a stronger weld, whereas a higher viscosity does not support diffusion as easily and can result in lower joint strength.
Hot gas properties vary depending on the type of medium used for welding. Air is used in most applications. In certain instances, the material manufacturer may recommend use of other types of hot gas such as carbon dioxide or nitrogen when a potential health and safety risk may be present under other welding conditions.
Pressure.
Application pressure impacts the overall weld penetration and joint quality. Pressure is manually applied either through the weld rod directly or to the speed tip nozzle. Welding technique and joint design both influence the amount of pressure that is translated to the weld.
Inadequate pressure can result in weld interface porosity, poor wettability, and lack of fusion defects. Hot gas can become trapped between the weld rod and joint surface resulting in pore formation. One way to reduce the presence of pores is to establish a root gap as part of the joint design through which hot gases can escape. Unfused regions of the weld and presence of pores can significantly reduce the overall strength of the joint.
Pressure application can be less effective in hand welding compared to utilizing a speed tip; however both are dependent upon the skill of the operator. Double-V joint designs are well-suited for carrying higher effective welding pressure as compared to single-V joints and are less prone to fusion deficiencies.
Weld travel speed.
Material properties of the components being welded, hot gas temperature, size of the weld rod, and technique utilized all influence the weld travel speed. Due to the manual nature of hot gas welding, this process is typically slower than other thermoplastic welding methods. Higher weld travel speed can be obtained using a speed tip. Localization of high temperature gas on the weld surface allows for thermoplastics to heat up faster and flow easier, resulting in an increase in capable welding speed. Too fast of a welding speed can stretch the weld rod, unevenly filling the joint and compromising the overall weld strength. If the speed is too slow, weld damage from extended high temperature exposure can result.
Torch orientation.
The angle of orientation of the welding torch and welding rod is dependent upon the welding technique, rod material, and joint design.
Speed welding.
To establish consistent pressure while maintaining proper alignment to the joint groove during speed tip welding, it is recommended that the welder position their grip below the hot gas gun. Sufficient penetration and weld quality is achieved when the weld rod is slightly pressured as it is fed through the feeder tube and a simultaneous downward pulling motion is maintained at a constant travel speed throughout the welding pass.
Hand welding.
Orientation of the welding rod to the groove is material dependent in hand welding applications. Recommended weld rod angles are established for materials based on achieving proper penetration without introducing flaws or additional stresses in the joint. Accurate positioning will result in a visible “"bow wave"” effect at the root, indicating diffusion across the weld interface occurred. Improper angle can result in uneven heating and weld defects or insufficient pressure to produce a strong joint.
Welder qualifications.
In industrial applications, hot gas welding processes are successfully executed by trained and qualified operators who have been certified in the process as detailed in EN 13067 or AWS B2.4. EN 13067 is the International standard for qualification of welders for thermoplastic welded assemblies, which includes hot gas welding techniques and processes. The American Welding Society (AWS) published AWS B2.4 as an American standard for qualification for thermoplastic welding procedures and performance. These standards detail proper technique and joint design to be employed for various welding situations.


Adamant Namiki Precision Jewel Co

Adamant Namiki Precision Jewel Co., Ltd. ( アダマンド並木精密宝石 Adamant Namiki Seimitsu Houseki Kabushiki-gaisha) is a Japanese precision components manufacturer based in Tokyo, Japan.
Overview.
In 1939, Namiki Precision Jewel Co., Ltd. started business as a manufacturer of synthetic sapphire jewel bearings for electrical measuring instruments. It later began selling these jewel bearings for use in watches in the 1960s. In 1957, Adamant Shoji (renamed Adamant Kogyo Co., Ltd. in 1959, and Adamant Co., Ltd. in 2014) was founded as a spin-off of Namiki as a result of business practices of the time. Thereafter, Namiki developed its product lineup primarily focusing on industrial jewel components, DC coreless motors, and medical devices. Meanwhile, Adamant Shoji’s business focused mainly on optical communication components. In 2017, Namiki and Adamant mutually agreed to unite their specialties to take their technologies and products to the next level. As a result, Adamant Namiki Precision Jewel Co., Ltd. was established on January 1, 2018.
History.
See Namiki Precision Jewel Co., Ltd. and Adamant Co., Ltd. for the history of each company prior to the January 1, 2018 intragroup merger.
Namiki merged with its subsidiary company, Adamant Co., Ltd., on January 1, 2018 and changed its name to Adamant Namiki Precision Jewel Co., Ltd.
Primary business.
Industrial jewel components.
Adamant Namiki uses integrated manufacturing, handling its products from the raw material, to processing, through to polishing. Industrial jewels, such as diamond, sapphire, and ruby, are used for jewel bearings, sapphire substrates, exterior watch parts, semiconductor wire bonding capillaries, nozzles, LTCC(Co-fired ceramic) and so on.
For sapphire product growth, Adamant Namiki employs the highly productive EFG method.
In 2021, the company succeeded in developing a mass production method for 2-inch diamond wafers.
Adamant Namiki also supplies ceramic parts, combining precision processing and various molding technologies, such as injection, powder press, and CIP molding, to provide a diverse range of products.
Optical components.
Adamant Namiki offers optical components with a focus on ferrules, sleeves, and connectors.
A ferrule is a component to link optical fibers together and high-precision (less than 1 micrometer) processing technology is required to ensure the secure connection of several micrometer optical fiber cores.
Adamant Namiki also combines its high-precision processing and assembly technologies to provide optical device components such as receptacles and pigtails, optical switches using MEMS(Microelectromechanical systems) technology, and optical devices such as variable attenuators.
DC coreless motors.
Since developing the smallest coreless motor of the time in 1973, Adamant Namiki has been consistently producing miniature DC coreless motors. The core components have evolved with high-precision processing technology and a more optimal magnetic circuit has produced a high-efficiency motor. In 2009, Adamant Namiki successfully developed the world’s smallest DC brushless motor at 0.6mm in diameter. The company also produces motor units such as its de-energized locking system, micro robot servo, multi-finger robotic hand, and micro mechanisms.
Medical devices.
Since the start of OEM manufacturing of its computer-controlled infusion pump in 1987, Adamant Namiki has established a line of business that offers medical device development, manufacturing, and service.


Laser welding of polymers

Laser welding of polymers is a set of methods used to join polymeric components through the use of a laser. It can be performed using CO2 lasers, Diode lasers and Fiber lasers.
When a laser encounters the surface of plastics, it can be reflected, absorbed or penetrate through the thickness of a component. Laser welding of plastics is based on the energy absorption of laser radiation, which can be reinforced by additives and fillers.
Laser welding techniques include:
Because of high joining speeds, low residual stresses and excellent weld appearances, laser welding processes have been widely used for automotive and medical applications.
Laser sources.
The types of lasers used in the welding of polymers include CO2 lasers, Nd:YAG lasers, Diode lasers and fiber lasers. CO2 lasers are mostly applied to weld thin films and thin plastics due to the high energy absorption coefficients of most plastics. Nd:YAG lasers and Diode lasers produce short wavelength radiation, which transmit through several millimeters of unpigmented polymer. They are used in the transmission laser welding techniques.
Carbon dioxide lasers.
Carbon dioxide lasers have a wavelength of 10.6 μm which is rapidly absorbed by most polymers. Because of the high-energy absorption coefficients, processing of plastics using CO2 can be done rapidly with low laser powers. This type of laser can be used in direct welding of polymers or cutting. However, the penetration of CO2 lasers is less than 0.5 mm and is mostly applicable for the welding of thin film and surface heating. Because the beam cannot be transmitted by silicon fiber, the beam is commonly delivered by mirrors.
Nd:YAG lasers.
Nd:YAG lasers have a wavelength in the range of 0.8 - 1.1 μm, with 1064 nm being the most common. These lasers provide a high beam quality allowing for small spot sizes. This type of beam can be delivered via fiber optic cable.
Diode lasers.
The wavelength of diode lasers is typically in the 780 - 980 nm wavelength range. Compared with Nd:YAG laser and CO2 laser, diode laser has supreme advantage in energy efficiency. The high-energy light wave can penetrate a thickness of a few millimeters in semicrystalline plastics and further in unpigmented amorphous plastics. Diode lasers can be either fiber delivered or local to the weld location. The relatively small size makes assembling arrays for larger foot prints possible.
Fiber laser.
Fiber lasers typically exhibit wavelengths ranging from 1000 to 3500 nm. The expanded range of wavelengths has allowed for the development of through transmission welding without additional absorbing additives.
Equipment.
The equipment settings may vary greatly in design and complexity. However, there are five components included in most of the machines:
Generator/Power supply.
This component transforms the received voltage and frequency to the corresponding voltage, current and frequency to the laser source. Diode laser and fiber laser are the two most commonly used system for laser welding.
Control interface.
The control interface is an interface between operator and machine to monitor operations of the system. It is constructed by logic circuits to send operators the information of machine status and welding parameters. Depending on different laser modes, the control interface will vary the parameters allowable to change.
Actuator.
This component is a press activated by pneumatical and electrical power. It compresses the part in the upper fixture to touch the components in the lower fixture and apply pre-determined loads during welding processes. Displacement controls are added to actuators to monitor precisely the movements.
Lower fixture.
Lower fixture is a jig structure that locates the lower part of a joint. It provides locations and alignments that ensure the welding of components with tight tolerances.
Upper fixture.
The upper fixture is the most complicated and important component in the whole system. Laser beam is generated in this component to heat up the welding parts. The design of upper fixture often varies from laser sources and heating modes. For example, when a YAG laser or a diode laser is used as the heat source, optical fibers are often employed to provide mobility. However, the welding part cannot move.
Laser interaction with polymers.
There are three types of interactions that can occur between laser radiation and plastics:
The extent of individual interaction is dependent upon materials properties, laser wavelength, laser intensity and beam speed.
Reflection.
Reflection of incident laser radiation is typically on the order of 5 to 10% in most polymers, which is low compared with absorption and transmission. The fraction of reflection (R) can be determined by the following equation,
formula_1
where formula_2 is the index of refraction of the plastics and formula_3 is the index of refraction of air (~1).
Transmission.
Transmission of laser energy through certain polymers allows for processes such as through transmission welding. When the laser beam travel through the interfaces between different medium, the laser beam is refracted unless the path is perpendicular to the surface. This effect needs to be considered when laser travels through multi-layer to reach the joint region.
Internal scattering occur when laser pass through the thickness in semicrystalline plastics, where crystalline and amorphous phase have different index of refraction. Scattering can also occur in crystalline and amorphous plastics with reinforcement like glass fiber and certain colorants and additives. In transmission laser welding, such effect can reduce the effective energy of laser radiation towards joint area and limit the thickness of components.
Absorption.
Laser absorption can occur at the surface of plastics or during transmission through thickness. The amount of laser energy absorbed by a polymer is a function of the laser wavelength, polymer absorptivity, polymer crystallinity, and additives (i.e. composite reinforcements, pigments, etc.). The absorption at surface has two possible ways, photolytic and pyrolytic.
The heat distribution within a laser welded polymer is dictated by the Bouger–Lambert law of absorption.
"I(z) = I(z=0) eKz"
where I(z) is the laser intensity at a certain depth z, I(z=0) is the laser intensity at the surface, K is the absorption constant.
Effect of additives.
Polymers often have secondary elements added to them for various reasons (i.e. strength, color, absorption, etc.). These elements can have a profound effect on the laser interaction with the polymer component. Some common additives and their effect on laser welding are described below.
Reinforcements.
Various fibers are added to polymeric materials to create higher strength composites. Some typical fiber materials include: glass, carbon fiber, wood, etc. When the laser beam interacts with these materials it can get scattered or absorbed, changing the optical properties from that of the base polymer. In laser transmission welding, a transparent material with reinforcement may absorb or dilute the energy beam more, effecting the quality of the weld. High contents of glass fiber content increase the scattering within the plastics and raise the laser energy input for welding a certain thickness.
Colorants.
Colorants (pigments) are added to polymers for various reasons including aesthetics and functional requirements (such as optics). Certain color additives, such as titanium dioxide, can have a negative impact on the laser weldability of a polymer. The titanium dioxide provides a white coloring to polymers but also scatters laser energy making it difficult to weld. Another color additive, carbon black, is a very effective energy absorber and is often added to create welds. By controlling the concentration of carbon black with the absorbing polymer it is possible to control the effective area of the laser weld.
Laser application configurations.
The laser beam energy can be delivered to the required areas through a variety of configurations. The four most common approaches include:
Contour heating.
In the contour heating (laser scanning or laser moving) technique, a laser beam of fixed dimension passes through the desired area to create a continuous weld seam. The laser source is manipulated by a galvanic mirror or a robotic system to scan at a fast rate. The benefit of contour heating is that the weld can be performed with a single laser source, which can be reprogramed for different applications; however, due to the localized heating area, uneven contact between welding components can occur and form weld voids. The important parameters for this technique include: laser wavelength, laser power, traverse speed, and polymer properties.
Simultaneous heating.
In the simultaneous heating approach, a beam spot of appropriate size is used to irradiate the entire weld area without the need for relative movement between the work piece and the laser source. For creating a weld with a large area, multiple laser sources can be combined to melt the selected region simultaneously. This approach can be adopted to substitute ultrasonic welding in the case of welding components sensitive to vibration. Key processing parameters for this approach include: laser wavelength, laser power, heating time, clamp pressure, cooling time, and polymer properties.
Quasi-simultaneous heating (QSLW).
In the quasi-simultaneous heating, a work area is irradiated by the use of scanning mirrors. The mirrors raster the laser beam over the entire work area rapidly, creating a simultaneously melted region. Some of the important parameters for this technique include: laser wavelength, laser power, heating time, cooling time, polymer properties.
Masked heating.
Masked heating is a process of laser line scanning through a region with a mask, which ensures that only the selected areas can be heated when the laser pass through. Masks can be made out of laser cut steel, or other materials that effectively block the laser radiation. This approach is capable of creating micro-scale welds on components with complex geometries. Key processing parameters for this approach include: laser wavelength, laser power, heating time, clamp pressure, cooling time, and polymer properties.
Laser welding techniques.
Depending on different interactions between laser and thermoplastics, four different laser welding techniques have been developed for plastic joining. CO2 lasers have good surface absorption for most thermoplastics, hence they are applied for direct laser welding and laser surface heating. Through transmission laser welding and intermediate film welding require the deep penetration of laser beam, so YAG lasers and diode lasers are the most common sources for these techniques.
Direct laser welding.
Similar to laser welding of metals, in direct laser welding the surface of the polymer is heated to create a melt zone that joins two components together. This approach can be used to create butt joints and lap joints with complete penetration. Laser wavelengths between 2 and 10.6μm are used for this process due to their high absorptivity in polymers.
Laser surface heating.
Laser surface heating is similar to non-contact hot plate welding in that mirrors are placed between components to create a molten surface layer. The exposure duration is usually between 2-10 s. Then the mirror is retracted and the components are pressed together to form a joint. Process parameters for laser surface heating include the laser output, wavelength, heating time, change-over time, and forging pressure and time.
Through transmission laser welding (TTLW).
Through transmission laser welding of polymers is a method to create a joint at the interface between two polymer components with different transparencies to laser wavelengths. The upper component is transparent to the laser wavelength between 0.8 µm to 1.05 µm, and the lower component is either opaque in nature, or modified by the addition of colorants which promote the absorption of laser radiation. A typical colorant is carbon black that absorb most of the electromagnetic wavelength. When the joint is irradiated by the laser, the transparent layer passes the light with minimal loss while the opaque layer absorbs the laser energy and heats up.
The two components are held by the lower fixture to control alignment and a small clamping force is added to the upper part to form intimate contact. A melt layer is then created at the interface between the two components, composed of a mixture of two plastic materials.
There are four different modes of transmission laser welding: scanning mode, simultaneous, quasi-simultaneous, and mask heating.
Many benefits can be obtained by transmission laser welding such as fast welding velocity, flexibility, good cosmetic properties and low residual stresses. From processing perspectives, laser welding can be performed in the pre-assembled conditions, reducing the necessity for complex fixtures; however, this method is not suitable for plastics with high crystallinity due to refraction and geometric limitations.
Intermediate film welding.
Intermediate film welding is a method to join incompatible plastic components by using an intermediate film between them. Similar to transmission welding, laser radiation passes through the transparent components and melts the intermediate layers to create a joint. This film can be made of an opaque thermoplastic, solvent, viscous fluid, or other substances that heat up upon exposure to laser energy. The combination of intermediate films and adhesion promoters is able to join incompatible thermoplastics together. The thin layer then generates the heat required to fuse the system together.
Applications.
Automotive applications.
The black body of car keys is welded by the Through Transmission Laser Welding (TTLW) technique, in which laser radiation transmits through the upper component and forms a joint at the interface. Carbon black is added to the lower part of car keys to absorb laser radiation. The black color of the upper part is made by the addition of dye, which makes the component appear black but transparent to laser radiation.
Other applications of laser welding in automotive industry include brake fluid reservoirs and lighting components.
Medical applications.
Laser welding of plastics is applied to weld medical devices like IV-bags. Joints of high geometrical complexity can be produced by laser welding without particulate formation. This is critical for the safety of patients, when welding techniques are applied to produce IV-bags containing blood. In addition, flashes generated during welding can cause blood turbulences and destroy blood platelets. A good control of the laser power avoids flash formation and thus protects the blood cells from damage.


Package testing

Package testing or packaging testing involves the measurement of a characteristic or property involved with packaging. This includes packaging materials, packaging components, primary packages, shipping containers, and unit loads, as well as the associated processes.
Testing measures the effects and interactions of the levels of packaging, the package contents, external forces, and end-use.
It can involve controlled laboratory experiments, subjective evaluations by people, or field testing. Documentation is important: formal test method, test report, photographs, video, etc.
Testing can be a qualitative or quantitative procedure. Package testing is often a physical test. With some types of packaging such as food and pharmaceuticals, chemical tests are conducted to determine suitability of food contact materials. Testing programs range from simple tests with little replication to more thorough experimental designs.
Package testing can extend for the full life cycle. Packages can be tested for their ability to be recycled and their ability to degrade as surface litter, in a sealed landfill or under composting conditions.
Purposes.
Packaging testing might have a variety of purposes, such as:
Packaging tests can be used for:
Importance of testing.
For some types of products, package testing is mandated by regulations: food. pharmaceuticals, medical devices, dangerous goods, etc. This may cover both the design qualification, periodic retesting, and control of the packaging processes. Processes may be controlled by a variety of quality management systems such as HACCP, statistical process control, validation protocols, ISO 9000, etc.
For unregulated products, testing can be required by a contract or governing specification. The degree of package testing can often be a business decision. Risk management may involve factors such as
With distribution packaging, one vital packaging development consideration is to determine if a packaged-product is likely to be damaged in the process of getting to the final customer. A primary purpose of a package is to ensure the safety of a product during transportation and storage. If a product is damaged during this process, then the package has failed to accomplish a primary objective and the customer will either return the product or be unlikely to purchase the product altogether.
Package testing is often a formal part of Project management programs. Packages are usually tested when there is a new packaging design, a revision to a current design, a change in packaging material, and various other reasons. Testing a new packaging design before full scale manufacturing can save time and money.
Laboratory affiliation.
Many suppliers or vendors offer limited material and package testing as a free service to customers. It is common for packagers to partner with reputable suppliers: Many suppliers have certified quality management systems such as ISO 9000 or allow customers to conduct technical and quality audits. Data from testing is commonly shared. There is sometimes a risk that supplier testing may tend to be self-serving and not completely impartial.
Large companies often have their own packaging staff and a package testing and development laboratory. Corporate engineers know their products, manufacturing capabilities, logistics system, and their customers best. Cost reduction of existing products and cost avoidance for new products have been documented.
Another option is to use a paid consultant, Independent contractor, and third-party independent testing laboratory. They are commonly chosen for specialized expertise, for access to certain test equipment, for surge projects, or where independent testing is otherwise required. Many have certifications and accreditations: ISO 9000, ISO/IEC 17025, and various governing agencies.
Procedures.
Several standards organizations publish test methods for package testing. Included are:
Governments and regulators publish some packaging test methods. There are also many corporate test standards in use. A review of technical literature and patents provides good options to consider for test procedures.
Researchers are not restricted to the use of published standards but can modify existing test methods or develop procedures specific to their particular needs. If a test is conducted with a deviation from a published test method or if a new method is employed, the test report must fully disclose the procedure.
Materials testing.
The basis of packaging design and performance is the component materials. The physical properties, and sometimes chemical properties, of the materials need to be communicated to packaging engineers to aid in the design process. Suppliers publish data sheets and other technical communications that include the typical or average relevant physical properties and the test method these are based upon. Sometimes these are adequate. Other times, additional material and component testing is required by the packager or supplier to better define certain characteristics.
When a final package design is complete, the specifications for the component materials needs to be communicated to suppliers. Packaging materials testing is often needed to identify the critical material characteristics and engineering tolerances. These are used to prepare and enforce specifications.
For example, shrink film data might include: tensile strength (MD and CD), elongation, Elastic modulus, surface energy, thickness, Moisture vapor transmission rate, Oxygen transmission rate, heat seal strength, heat sealing conditions, heat shrinking conditions, etc. Average and process capability are often provided. The chemical properties related for use as Food contact materials may be necessary.
Testing with people.
Some types of package testing do not use scientific instruments but use people for the evaluation.
The regulations for child-resistant packaging require a test protocol that involves children. Samples of the test packages are given to a prescribed population of children. With specified 50-child panels, a high percentage must be unable to open a test package within 5 minutes.
Adults are also tested for their ability to open a child-resistant package.
Consumer packages are often evaluated by focus groups. People evaluate the package features in a room monitored by video cameras. The consumer responses are treated qualitatively for feedback into the new packaging process.
Some food packagers use organoleptic evaluations. People use their senses (taste, smell, etc.) to determine if a package component has tainted the food in the package.
A new package may be evaluated in a test market that uses people to try the packages at home. Consumers have the opportunity to buy a product, perhaps with a coupon or discount. Return postcards or Internet sites provide feedback to package developers. Perhaps the most critical feedback is repeated sales items in the new package. Packaging evaluations are an important part of marketing research.
Legibility of text on packaging and labels is always subjective due to the inherent variations of people. Efforts have been made to help better quantify this by people in a laboratory: still using people for the evaluation but also employing a test apparatus to help reduce variability.
Some laboratory tests are conducted but still result in an observation by people. Some test procedures call for a judgment by test engineers whether or not pre-established acceptance criteria have been met.
Conditioning, testing atmosphere.
The environmental conditions of testing are critical. The measured performance of many packages is affected by the conditioning and testing atmospheres. For example, paper based products are strongly affected by their moisture content: Relative humidity needs to be controlled. Plastic products are often strongly affected by temperature.
Conditions of 23 °C (73.4 °F) and 50% relative humidity are common but other standard testing conditions are also published in material and package test standards. Engineering tolerances for the conditions are also specified. Often the package is conditioned to the specified environment and tested under those conditions. This can be in a conditioned room or in a chamber enclosing the test. With some testing, the package is conditioned to a specified environment, then is removed to ambient conditions and quickly tested. The test report needs to state the actual conditions used.
Engineers have found it important to know the effects of the full range of expected conditions on package performance. This can be through investigating published technical literature, obtaining supplier documentation, or by conducting controlled tests at diverse conditions.
Degradation of product.
Laboratory tests can help determine the shelf life of a package and its contents under a variety of conditions. This is particularly important for foods, pharmaceuticals, some chemicals, and a variety of products. The testing is usually product specific: the mechanisms of degradation are often different. Exposures to expected and elevated temperatures and humidities are commonly used for shelf life testing. The ability of packaging to control product degradation is frequently a subject of laboratory and field evaluations.
Barrier Properties.
Many products degrade with exposure to the atmosphere: foods, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, etc. The ability of a package to control the permeation and penetration of gasses is vital for many types of products. Tests are often conducted on the packaging materials but also on the completed packages, sometimes after being subjected to flexing, handling, vibration, or temperature.
Degradation of Packages.
Packages can degrade with exposure to temperature, humidity, time, sterilization (steam, radiation, gas, etc.), sunlight, and other environmental factors. For some types of packaging, it is common to test for possible corrosion of metals, polymer degradation, and weather testing of polymers. Several types of accelerated aging of packaging and materials can be accomplished in a laboratory.
Exposure to elevated temperatures accelerates some degradation mechanisms. An Arrhenius equation is often used to correlate certain chemical reactions at different temperatures, based on the proper choice of Q10 coefficients.
Considerations to ambient levels of humidity was introduced in ASTM F1980-21, Section 6.0, to account for packaging materials that have hydrolytic degradation risk.
As with any laboratory testing, validating field trials are important.
Vacuum testing.
Vacuum chambers are used to test the ability of a package to withstand low pressures. This can be to:
Shock and impact.
Both primary (consumer) packages and shipping containers have a risk of being dropped or being impacted by other items. Package integrity and product protection are important packaging functions. Tests are conducted to measure the resistance of packages and products to controlled laboratory shock and impact.
Testing also determines the effectiveness of package cushioning to isolate fragile products from shock. Instrumentation is used to measure the shock transmitted to a cushioned product. Simple drop test can be used with the tube-style shock sensor with different threshold of shock and impact. One or more sensors were attached to the primary package during each drop test, oriented such that the sensitive axes of the sensors were aligned to the drop axis.
Package Insulation.
Many packages are used for products that are sensitive to temperature. The ability of insulated shipping containers to protect their contents from exposure to temperature fluctuations can be measured in a laboratory. The testing can be of empty containers or of full containers with appropriate jell or ice packs, contents, etc. Ovens, freezers, and environmental chambers are commonly used for this and other types of packaging.
Digital temperature data loggers are used to measure temperatures experienced in different distribution systems. This data is sometimes used to develop unique laboratory test methods for that distribution system.
Thermal shock.
Some packages, particularly glass, can be sensitive to sudden changes in temperature: Thermal shock. One method of testing involves rapid movement from cold to hot water baths, and back.
Handles.
Package handles (and hand holes in packages) assist carrying and handling packages. Objective laboratory procedures are frequently used to help determine performance. Fixtured ‘’hands’’ of various designs are used to hold a handle (sometimes two handles for a box). Most common are “jerk testing’’ by modified drop test procedures or use of the constant pull rates of a universal testing machine. Other procedures use a static force by hanging a heavily loaded package for an extended time or even using a centrifuge.
Vibration.
Vibration is encountered during shipping (vehicle vibration, rough roads, etc.) and movement on conveyors. Potential vibration damage may include:
The ability of a package to withstand these vibrations and to protect the contents can be measured by several laboratory test procedures. Some allow searching for the particular frequencies of vibration that have potential for damage. Modal testing methodologies are sometimes employed. Others use specified bands of random vibration to better represent complex vibrations measured in field studies of distribution environments.
Compression.
Compression testing relates to stacking or crushing of packages, particularly shipping containers. It usually measures of the force required to crush a package, stack of packages, or a unit load. Packages can be empty or filled as for shipment. A force-deflection curve used to obtain the peak load or other desired points. Other tests use a constant load and measure the time to failure or to a critical deflection.
Dynamic compression is sometimes tested by shock or impact testing with an additional load to crush the test package. Dynamic compression also takes place in stacked vibration testing.
Large loads.
Large pallet loads, bulk boxes, wooden boxes, and crates can be evaluated by many of the other test procedures previously listed. In addition, some special test methods are available for these larger loads.
Bar codes.
Package bar codes are evaluated for several aspects of legibility by bar code verifiers as part of a continuing quality program. More thorough validation may include evaluations after use (and abuse) testing such as sunlight, abrasion, impact, moisture, etc.
Test Protocols for Shipping Containers.
Shipping containers are often subjected to sequential tests involving a combination of individual test methods. A variety of standard test schedules or protocols are available for evaluating transport packaging. They are used to help determine the ability of complete and filled shipping containers to various types of logistics systems. Some test the general ruggedness of the shipping container while others have been shown to reproduce the types of damage encountered in distribution. Some base the type and severity of testing on formal studies of the distribution environment: instrumentation, data loggers, and observation. Test cycles with these documented elements better simulate parts of certain logistics shipping environments.
Product requirements.
In addition, package testing often relates to the specific product inside the package. Some broad categories of products and special package testing considerations follow:
Food packaging.
Foods categories such as fresh produce, frozen foods, irradiated foods, fresh fish, canned foods, etc. have regulatory requirements and special packaging needs. Package testing often relates to:
Pharmaceutical packaging.
Packaging for drugs and pharmaceuticals is highly regulated. Special testing needs include:
Medical Packaging.
Packaging for medical materials, medical devices, health care supplies, etc., have special user requirements and is highly regulated. Barrier properties, durability, visibility, sterility and strength need to be controlled; usually with documented test results for initial designs and for production.
Assurance of sterility and suitability for use are critical. For example, medical devices and products are often sterilized in the package. The sterility must be maintained throughout distribution to allow immediate use by physicians. A series of special packaging tests is used to measure the ability of the package to maintain sterility. Verification and validation protocols are rigidly maintained.
Dangerous Goods.
Packaging of hazardous materials, or dangerous goods, are highly regulated. There are some material and construction requirements but also performance testing is required. The testing is based on the packing group (hazard level) of the contents, the quantity of material, and the type of container.
Research into improvements is continuing.


Draft (engineering)

In engineering, draft is the amount of taper for molded or cast parts perpendicular to the parting line. It can be measured in degrees or mm/mm (in/in).
Consider the fabrication of a hollow plastic box, without lid. Once the plastic has hardened around the mold, the mold must be removed. As the plastic hardens, it may contract slightly. By tapering the sides of the mold by an appropriate "draft angle", for instance 2° (two degrees), the mold will be easier to remove. This is a practice that is used, in applicable cases, when working with fiberglass.
If the mold is to be removed from the top, the box should taper in towards the bottom, such that measuring the bottom internal dimension will yield a smaller length and width than measuring the top from which the mold is extracted.
By specifying the opening length and width, a draft angle, and a depth, it is not necessary to specify the dimensions for the internal surface, as these may be calculated from the above.
The manufacture of a part that incorporates zero or negative angles may require a mold that can be separated into two or more parts, in order to release the casting.


Device under test

A device under test (DUT), also known as equipment under test (EUT) and unit under test (UUT), is a manufactured product undergoing testing, either at first manufacture or later during its life cycle as part of ongoing functional testing and calibration checks. This can include a test after repair to establish that the product is performing in accordance with the original product specification.
Electronics testing.
In the electronics industry a DUT is any electronic assembly under test. For example, cell phones coming off of an assembly line may be given a final test in the same way as the individual chips were earlier tested. Each cell phone under test is, briefly, the DUT.
For circuit boards, the DUT is often connected to the test equipment using a bed of nails tester of pogo pins.
Semiconductor testing.
In semiconductor testing, the device under test is a die on a wafer or the resulting packaged part. A connection system is used, connecting the part to automatic or manual test equipment. The test equipment then applies power to the part, supplies stimulus signals, then measures and evaluates the resulting outputs from the device. In this way, the tester determines whether the particular device under test meets the device specifications.
While packaged as a wafer, automatic test equipment (ATE) can connect to the individual units using a set of microscopic needles. Once the chips are sawn apart and packaged, test equipment can connect to the chips using ZIF sockets (sometimes called "contactors").


Bio Process Systems Alliance

The Bio Process Systems Alliance (BPSA) is a biopharmaceutical industry trade group of suppliers of single use components and single use systems for manufacturing processes. It was created in 2006 through an alliance of 26 suppliers.


High Precision

High Precision Inc. is an American industrial manufacturing company based in Hamden, Connecticut. It was founded in 1945 by Ermon F. Ayer as a flexible contract manufacturer, and is currently under third generation family ownership and management. The company originally built pipe organs, later branching out into aerospace components, heavy-duty industrial pneumatic tools, torque limiters, and custom CNC machining.
Currently, High Precision Inc. mainly serves the petroleum and chemical refining, plant maintenance, and medical component manufacturing industries.
The company currently occupies a 40,000 square foot manufacturing facility in Hamden, CT.


Mickey J. Meyer

Mickey J. Meyer is an Indian music composer and singer known for his works predominantly in Telugu Cinema. He has received two Filmfare Awards South, and three state Nandi Awards for the Best Music Direction. An alumnus of Trinity College of Music, Meyer started his career in 2005 and composed music for films such as "Happy Days" (2007), "Kotha Bangaru Lokam" (2008), Leader (2010) and "A Aa" (2016).
Awards.
2007: Best Music Director – "Happy Days"
2008: Best Music Director – "Kotha Bangaru Lokam"
2016: Best Music Director – "A Aa"
2007: Best Music Director – Telugu – "Happy Days"
2008: Best Music Director – Telugu – "Kotha Bangaru Lokam"
2018: Best Music Director – Telugu – Mahanati


Specific identification (inventories)

Specific identification is a method of finding out ending inventory cost.
It requires a detailed physical count, so that the company knows exactly how many of each good bought on specific dates comprise the year-end inventory. When this information is found, the amount of goods are multiplied by their purchase cost at their purchase date, to get a number for the ending inventory cost.
In theory, this method is the best method, since it relates the ending inventory goods directly to the specific price they were bought for. However, this method allows management to easily manipulate ending inventory cost, since they can choose to report that the cheaper goods were sold first, hence increasing ending inventory cost and lowering cost of goods sold. This will increase the income. Alternatively, management can choose to report lower income, to reduce the taxes they needed to pay.
This method is also very hard to use on interchangeable goods. For example, it is hard to relate shipping and storage costs to a specific inventory item. These numbers will need to be estimated, hence reducing the specific identification method's benefit of being extremely specific. Thus, this method is generally limited to large, high-ticket items which can be easily identified specifically (such as tract houses).


Overall equipment effectiveness

Overall equipment effectiveness (OEE) is a measure of how well a manufacturing operation is utilized (facilities, time and material) compared to its full potential, during the periods when it is scheduled to run. It identifies the percentage of manufacturing time that is truly productive. An OEE of 100% means that only good parts are produced (100% "quality"), at the maximum speed (100% "performance"), and without interruption (100% "availability").
Measuring OEE is a manufacturing best practice. By measuring OEE and the underlying losses, important insights can be gained on how to systematically improve the manufacturing process. OEE is an effective metric for identifying losses, bench-marking progress, and improving the productivity of manufacturing equipment (i.e., eliminating waste). The best way for reliable OEE monitoring is to automatically collect all data directly from the machines.
Total effective equipment performance (TEEP) is a closely related measure which quantifies OEE against calendar hours rather than only against scheduled operating hours. A TEEP of 100% means that the operations have run with an OEE of 100% 24 hours a day and 365 days a year (100% "loading").
The term OEE was coined by Seiichi Nakajima. It is based on the Harrington Emerson way of thinking regarding labor efficiency. The generic form of OEE allows comparison between manufacturing units in differing industries. It is not however an absolute measure and is best used to identify scope for process performance improvement, and how to get the improvement.
OEE measurement is also commonly used as a key performance indicator (KPI) in conjunction with lean manufacturing efforts to provide an indicator of success. OEE can be illustrated by a brief discussion of the six metrics that comprise the system (the "Six Big Losses").
Calculations for OEE and TEEP.
The OEE of a manufacturing unit are calculated as the product of three separate components:
To calculate the TEEP, the OEE is multiplied by a fourth component:
The calculations of OEE are not particularly complicated, but care must be taken as to standards that are used as the basis. Additionally, these calculations are valid at the work center or part number level but become more complicated if rolling down to aggregate levels.
9 Majors Downtime Losses Affect Availability
Overall equipment effectiveness.
Each of the three components of the OEE points to an aspect of the process that can be targeted for improvement. OEE may be applied to any individual Work Center, or rolled up to Department or Plant levels. This tool also allows for drilling down for very specific analysis, such as a particular Part Number, Shift, or any of several other parameters.
It is unlikely that any manufacturing process can run at 100% OEE. Many manufacturers benchmark their industry to set a challenging target; 85% is not uncommon.
Alternatively, and often easier, OEE is calculated by dividing the minimum time needed to produce the parts under optimal conditions by the actual time needed to produce the parts. For example:
Total effective equipment performance.
Whereas OEE measures efficiency based on scheduled hours, TEEP measures efficiency against calendar hours, i.e.: 24 hours per day, 365 days per year.
TEEP, therefore, reports the 'bottom line' utilization of assets.
TEEP = Loading * OEE
Loading.
The Loading portion of the TEEP Metric represents the percentage of time that an operation is scheduled to operate compared to the total Calendar Time that is available. The Loading Metric is a pure measurement of Schedule efficiency and is designed to exclude the effects how well that operation may perform.
Calculation: Loading = Scheduled Time / Calendar Time
"Example:"
A given Work Center is scheduled to run 5 Days per Week, 24 Hours per Day.
For a given week, the Total Calendar Time is 7 Days at 24 Hours.
Loading = (5 days x 24 hours) / (7 days x 24 hours) = 71.4%
Availability.
The Availability portion of the OEE Metric represents the percentage of scheduled time that the operation is available to operate. The Availability Metric is a pure measurement of Uptime that is designed to exclude the effects of Quality and Performance. The losses due to wasted availability are called "availability losses".
"Example:"
A given Work Center is scheduled to run for an 8-hour (480-minute) shift with a 30-minute scheduled break and during the break the lines stop, and unscheduled downtime is 60 minutes.
The scheduled time = 480 minutes - 30 minutes = 450 minutes.
Operating Time = 480 Minutes – 30 Minutes Schedule Loss – 60 Minutes Unscheduled Downtime = 390 Minutes
Calculation: Availability = operating time / scheduled time
Availability = 390 minutes / 450 minutes = 86.6%
Performance and productivity.
Also known as "process rate", the Performance portion of the OEE Metric represents the speed at which the Work Center runs as a percentage of its designed speed. The Performance Metric is a pure measurement of speed that is designed to exclude the effects of Quality and Availability. The losses due to wasted performance are also often called "speed losses". In practice it is often difficult to determine speed losses, and a common approach is to merely assign the remaining unknown losses as speed losses.
Calculation: Performance (Productivity) = (Parts Produced * Ideal Cycle Time) / Operating time
"Example:"
A given Work Center is scheduled to run for an 8-hour (480-minute) shift with a 30-minute scheduled break.
Operating Time = 450 Min Scheduled – 60 Min Unscheduled Downtime = 390 Minutes
The Standard Rate for the part being produced is 40 Units/Hour or 1.5 Minutes/Unit
The Work Center produces 242 Total Units during the shift. Note: The basis is Total Units, not Good Units. The Performance metric does not penalize for Quality.
Time to Produce Parts = 242 Units * 1.5 Minutes/Unit = 363 Minutes
Performance (Productivity) = 363 Minutes / 390 Minutes = 93.1%
Quality.
The Quality portion of the OEE Metric represents the Good Units produced as a percentage of the Total Units Started. The Quality Metric is a pure measurement of Process Yield that is designed to exclude the effects of Availability and Performance. The losses due to defects and rework are called "quality losses" and "quality stops".
Reworked units which have been corrected are only measured as "unscheduled downtime" while units being scrapped can affect both operation time and unit count.
Calculation: Quality = (Units produced - defective units) / (Units produced)
"Example:"
242 Units are produced. 21 are defective.
(242 units produced - 21 defective units) = 221 units
221 good units / 242 total units produced = 91.32%
"Six Big Losses".
To be able to better determine the sources of the greatest loss and to target the areas that should be improved to increase performances, these categories (Availability, Performance and Quality) have been subdivided further into what is known as the 'Six Big Losses' to OEE.
These are categorized as follows:
The reason for identifying the losses in these categories is so that specific countermeasures can be applied to reduce the loss and improve the overall OEE.
Total Productive Maintenance.
Continuous improvement in OEE is the goal of TPM (Total Productive Maintenance). Specifically, the goal of TPM as set out by Seiichi Nakajima is "The continuous improvement of OEE by engaging all those that impact on it in small group activities". To achieve this, the TPM toolbox sets out a Focused improvement tactic to reduce each of the six types of OEE loss. For example, the Focused improvement tactic to systematically reduce breakdown risk sets out how to improve asset condition and standardise working methods to reduce human error and accelerated wear.
Combining OEE with Focused improvement converts OEE from a lagging to a leading indicator. The first Focused improvement stage of OEE improvement is to achieve a stable OEE. One which varies at around 5% from the mean for a representative production sample. Once an asset efficiency is stable and not impacted by variability in equipment wear rates and working methods. The second stage of OEE improvement (optimisation) can be carried out to remove chronic losses. Combining OEE and TPM Focused improvement tactics creates a leading indicator that can be used to guide performance management priorities. As the TPM process delivers these gains through small cross functional improvement teams, the process of OEE improvement raises front line team engagement/problem ownership, collaboration and skill levels. It is this combination of OEE as a KPI, TPM Focused improvement tactics and front line team engagement that locks in the gains and delivers the TPM goal of year on year improvement in OEE.
Heuristic.
OEE is useful as a heuristic, but can break down in several circumstances. For example, it may be far more costly to
run a facility at certain times. Performance and quality may not be independent of each other or of availability and loading.
Experience may develop over time. Since the performance of shop floor managers is at least sometimes compared to the OEE, these numbers are often not reliable, and there are numerous ways to fudge these numbers.
OEE has properties of a geometric mean. As such it punishes variability among its subcomponents. For example, 20% * 80% = 16%,
whereas 50% * 50% = 25%. When there are asymmetric costs associated with one or more of the components, then the model may become less appropriate.
Consider a system where the cost of error is exceptionally high. In such a condition, higher quality may be far more important
in a proper evaluation of efficiency than performance or availability. OEE also to some extent assumes a closed system and a potentially static one. If one can bring in additional resources (or lease out unused resources to other projects or business units) then it may be more appropriate for example to use an expected net present value analysis.
Variability in flow can also introduce important costs and risks that may merit further modeling. Sensitivity analysis and measures of change may be helpful.


Ball in and out of play

The ball in and out of play is the ninth law of the Laws of the Game of association football, and describes to the two basic states of play in the game.
In play.
The ball remains "in play" from the beginning of each period to the end of that period, except when:
The first criterion can be phrased as ""all" of the ball must cross "all" of the line" and is of particular importance in decisions regarding goals. The question of whether the ball has crossed the line has often caused controversy in high-profile matches, such as in the example of Geoff Hurst's goal in the 1966 World Cup Final, that put England 3-2 up over West Germany in extra time. The Law specifically notes that the ball remains in play if it rebounds off a goal frame or corner flag onto the field, or in any case of the ball touching a match official that is not mentioned above.
When the ball is in play players may play the ball, contest the ball, and goals may be scored. Players are liable to punishment for committing fouls. Substitutions may not occur whilst the ball is in play.
In the case a foul is committed or misconduct occurs, the referee may "play advantage" and elect to allow play to continue if the team of the player who was victimized would be benefited if play were to continue. Once play has stopped, the referee may choose to issue punishments.
Restarts.
When the ball becomes out of play, the ball is put back into play by the appropriate restart. The restarts in football are:
Once the ball is out of play, the only restart is the restart appropriate for the reason the ball went out of play in the first place; subsequent actions do not change the restart. For example, if the ball goes out of play because of a foul by Team A against Team B, the restart must be a free kick to Team B even if a Team B player strikes an opponent; offending Team B player would, however, be liable for misconduct (i.e. yellow card or red card).
Note, however, that the referee may change the "original" restart if he realises he has made an error or on the advice of his assistant referees, provided play has not yet restarted. For example, if the ball has gone out of play because the ball was kicked into goal by Team A and the referee has signalled that a goal has been scored, but then notices that an assistant referee has indicated a foul by a Team A player immediately before the goal was scored, the referee would change to the correct restart of a free kick to Team B where the foul occurred.


Order processing

Order processing is the process or work-flow associated with the picking, packing, and delivery of the packed items to a shipping carrier and is a key element of order fulfillment. Order processing operations or facilities are commonly called “distribution centers” or “DC 's”. There are wide variances in the level of automation associating to the “pick-pack-and-ship” process, ranging from completely manual and paper-driven to highly automated and completely mechanized; computer systems overseeing this process are generally referred to as Warehouse Management Systems or “WMS”.
Process.
Order processing is a sequential process involving:
Picking.
Order picking or order preparation is one of a logistic warehouse's processes.
It consists in taking and collecting articles in a specified quantity before shipment to fulfil customer orders.
It is a basic warehousing process and has an important influence on logistic processes.
It is one of the warehouse management system functions.
Picking Strategies.
There are several strategies for order picking, including:
Note that these strategies are not mutually exclusive to each other. For example, wave picking can be used to batch picks, which are then handled via zone or piece picking. A warehouse may also need to support alternate picking strategies due to physical layout or product distribution; for example, if some products are only sold by pallet and require special lifting equipment, those pallet-orders might be batched or processed differently that the rest of the products which might be piece-picked — alternatively, part of a warehouse might be automated with sorting systems while another part is not.
Piece Picking.
Piece picking, also known as broken case picking or pick/pack operations, describes systems where individual items are picked. Operations using piece picking typically have a large stock keeping unit, or SKU, base in the thousands or tens of thousands of items, small quantities per pick, and short cycle times. Examples of piece pick operations include mail-order catalog companies and repair parts distributors.
Case Picking.
Operations that use case picking tend to have less diversity in product characteristics than operations that use piece picking. There are typically fewer SKUs and higher picks per SKU.
Pallet Picking.
Full-pallet picking, or unit-load picking, uses much simpler systematic methods than piece picking or case picking. However, there are many choices in storage equipment, storage configurations and types of lift trucks.
Sorting.
Sorting machines in distribution
Pick and pack.
Pick and pack is a part of a complete supply chain management process that is commonly used in the retail distribution of goods. It entails processing small to large quantities of product, often truck or train loads and disassembling them, picking the relevant product for each destination and re-packaging with shipping label affixed and invoice included. Usual service includes obtaining a fair rate of shipping from common, as well as expediting truck carriers.
Pick and Pack services are offered by many businesses that specialize in supply chain management solutions.
Case picking is the gathering of full cartons or boxes of product. This is often done on a pallet. In the consumer products industry, case picking large quantities of cartons is frequently an entry-level employee's task. There is, however, significant skill required to make a good pallet load of product. Key requirements are that cartons not be damaged, they make good use of the available cube (space) and be quick to assemble.
Warehouse management system products create pick paths to minimize the travel distance of an order selector, but typically neglect the need to maximize the use of cube, segregate products that should not touch or minimize damage.
Factors.
The specific "order fulfillment process" or the operational procedures of distribution centers are determined by many factors. Each distribution center has its own unique requirements or priorities. There is no "one size fits all" process that universally provides the most efficient operation. Some of the factors that determine the specific process flow of a distribution center are:
This list is only a small sample of factors that can influence the choice of a distribution center's operational procedures. Because each factor has varying importance in each organization, the net effect is that each organization has unique processing requirements.
The effect of Globalization has immense impacts on much of the order fulfillment, but its impact is felt mostly in transportation and distribution.