Vision-guided robot systems

A vision-guided robot (VGR) system is basically a robot fitted with one or more cameras used as sensors to provide a secondary feedback signal to the robot controller to more accurately move to a variable target position. VGR is rapidly transforming production processes by enabling robots to be highly adaptable and more easily implemented, while dramatically reducing the cost and complexity of fixed tooling previously associated with the design and set up of robotic cells, whether for material handling, automated assembly, agricultural applications, life sciences, and more.
In one classic though dated example of VGR used for industrial manufacturing, the vision system (camera and software) determines the position of randomly fed products onto a recycling conveyor. The vision system provides the exact location coordinates of the components to the robot, which are spread out randomly beneath the camera's field of view, enabling the robot arm(s) to position the attached end effector (gripper) to the selected component to pick from the conveyor belt. The conveyor may stop under the camera to allow the position of the part to be determined, or if the cycle time is sufficient, it is possible to pick a component without stopping the conveyor using a control scheme that tracks the moving component through the vision software, typically by fitting an encoder to the conveyor, and using this feedback signal to update and synchronize the vision and motion control loops.
Such functionality is now common in the field of vision-guided robotics (VGR). It is a fast-growing rapidly evolving technology proving to be economically advantageous in countries with high manufacturing overheads and skilled labor costs by reducing manual intervention, improving safety, increasing quality, and raising productivity rates, among other benefits.
Vision systems for robot guidance.
A vision system comprises a camera and microprocessor or computer, with associated software. This is a very wide definition that can be used to cover many different types of systems which aim to solve a large variety of different tasks. Vision systems can be implemented in virtually any industry for any purpose. It can be used for quality control to check dimensions, angles, colour or surface structure-or for the recognition of an object as used in VGR systems.
A camera can be anything from a standard compact camera system with integrated vision processor to more complex laser sensors and high resolution high speed cameras. Combinations of several cameras to build up 3D images of an object are also available.
Limitations of a vision system.
There are always difficulties of integrated vision system to match the camera with the set expectations of the system, in most cases this is caused by lack of knowledge on behalf of the integrator or machine builder. Many vision systems can be applied successfully to virtually any production activity, as long as the user knows exactly how to set up system parameters. This set-up, however, requires a large amount of knowledge by the integrator and the number of possibilities can make the solution complex. Lighting in industrial environments can be another major downfall of many vision systems.
VGR approaches.
Typically, vision guidance systems fall into two categories; stationary camera mount, or robot arm-mounted camera. A stationary camera is typically mounted on a gantry or other structure where it can observe the entire robot cell area. This approach has the advantage of knowing its fixed position, providing a stable point of reference for all the activity within the cell. It has the disadvantage of additional infrastructure cost, and occasionally having its view obstructed by the robot arm's position. It also typically requires large image files (5 Mpixel or more) since the image must cover the entire work area.
These may be 2D or 3D cameras, although the vast majority of installations (2019) are using machine vision 2D cameras offered by companies such as Keyence, Basler, Sick, Datalogic, COGNEX and many others. Emerging players such as Leopard Imaging, Pickit3D, Zivid, and Photoneo are offering 3D cameras for stationary use. COGNEX recently acquired EnShape to add 3D capabilities to its lineup as well. 3D stationary mount cameras create large image files and point clouds that require substantial computing resources to process.
A camera mounted on a robot arm has some advantages and disadvantages. Some 3D cameras are simply too large to be practical when mounted on a robot, but Pickit 3D's Xbox cameras and 2D cameras such as Robotiq's wrist camera are compact and/or light enough to not meaningfully affect available robot working payload. An arm mounted camera has a smaller field of view, and can operate successfully at lower resolution, even VGA, because it is only surveying a fraction of the entire work cell at any point in time. This leads to faster image processing times.
However, arm mounted cameras, whether 2D or 3D, typically suffer from XYZ disorientation because they are continually moving and have no way of knowing the robot arm's position. The typical workaround is to interrupt each robot cycle long enough for the camera to take another image and get reoriented. This is visible in essentially all published videos of arm-mounted camera's performance, whether 2D or 3D, and can increase cycle times by as much as double what would otherwise be required.
Pickit 3D's Xbox camera has been arm-mounted for some applications. While capable of more complex 3D tasks such as bin picking, it still requires the stop-take-a-picture re-orientation mentioned above; it's 3D awareness does not help with that problem.
Visual Robotics claims to eliminate this cycle interruption with their "Vision-in-Motion" capabilities. Their system combines a 2D imager with internal photogrammetry and software to perform 3D tasks at high speed, owing to the smaller image files. The company claims a pending patent covering techniques for ensuring the camera knows its location in 3D space without stopping to get reoriented, leading to substantially faster cycle times. While much faster than other 3D approaches, it is not likely to be able to handle the more complex 3D tasks a true stereo camera can. On the other hand, many 3D applications require relatively simple object identification easily supported by the technique. To date, their ability to visually pick objects in motion (e.g. items on a conveyor) using an arm-mounted camera appears to be unprecedented.
VGR systems benefits.
Traditional automation means serial production with large batch sizes and limited flexibility. Complete automation lines are usually built up around a single product or possibly a small family of similar products that can run in the same production line. If a component is changed or if a complete new product is introduced, this usually causes large changes in the automation process-in most cases new component fixtures are required with time-consuming setup procedures. If components are delivered to the process by traditional hoppers and vibrating feeders, new bowl feeder tooling or additional bowl feeder tops are required. It may be that different product must be manufactured on the same process line, the cost for pallets, fixtures and bowl feeders can often be a large part of the investment. Other areas to be considered are space constraints, storage of change parts, spare components, and changeover time between products.
VGR systems can run side by side with very little mechanical setup; in the most extreme cases a gripper change is the only requirement, and the need to position components to set pick-up position is eliminated. With its vision system and control software, it is possible for the VGR system to handle different types of components. Parts with various geometry, can be fed in any random orientation to the system and be picked and placed without any mechanical changes to the machine, resulting in quick changeover times. Other features and benefits of VGR systems are:


Quilt packaging

Quilt Packaging (QP) is an integrated circuit packaging and chip-to-chip interconnect packaging technology that utilizes “nodule” structures that extend out horizontally from the edges of microchips to make electrically and mechanically robust chip-to-chip interconnections.
QP nodules are created as an integral part of the microchip using standard back end of the line semiconductor device fabrication techniques.  Solder is then electroplated on top of the nodules to enable the chip to chip interconnection with sub-micron alignment accuracy.
Small high yielding “chiplets” made from any semiconductor material (Silicon, Gallium Arsenide, Silicon Carbide, Gallium Nitride, etc.), can be “quilted” together to create larger multi-function meta-chip.  Thus, QP technology can integrate multiple chips with dissimilar technologies or substrate materials in planar, 2.5D and 3D configurations.
RF Analog Performance.
Multiple measured insertion loss on QP interconnects have been conducted on quilted chipsets with sets of homogeneous and heterogeneous semiconductor materials.  Radio frequency S-parameter measurements were made from DC to 220 GHz. QP interconnects have demonstrated less than 0.1 dB insertion loss from DC to 100 GHz between silicon and silicon chips, and less than 0.8 dB insertion loss up to 220 GHz between Silicon and Gallium Arsenide.
Digital Performance.
QP interconnects have a achieved 12 gigabit/sec (Gbps) bit-rate throughput with no distortion with 10 µm nodules on a 10 µm pitch on the edge of the chip.
Optics/Photonics.
Preliminary optical coupling loss simulations and measurements indicate that inter-chip coupling loss is < 6 dB for a gap of less than 4 µm.  Loss rapidly improves as the gap approaches zero, which is achievable with Quilt Packaging assembly tolerances.


Precision glass moulding

Precision glass moulding is a replicative process that allows the production of high precision optical components from glass without grinding and polishing. The process is also known as ultra-precision glass pressing. It is used to manufacture precision glass lenses for consumer products such as digital cameras, and high-end products like medical systems. The main advantage over mechanical lens production is that complex lens geometries such as aspheres can be produced cost-efficiently.
Process.
The precision glass moulding process consists of six steps:
The process is executed on a specialized moulding machine, which precisely controls the temperature, travel, and force during the process. The tools used must withstand high temperatures and pressures, and need to be resistant to chemical interaction with the glass. The mold materials also have to be suitable for machining into the precise surface profiles.
Process chain.
In order to ensure the desired quality the parts are measured between each process step. Additionally, the parts are handled and transported carefully between the processing and metrology steps.
Tool and mould design.
Lens shapes.
Shape of optical element.
Precision glass moulding can be used to produce a large variety of optical form elements such as spheres, aspheres, free-form elements and array-structures.
Concerning the curvature of the lens elements, the following statements can be drawn: Acceptable lens shapes are most bi-convex, plano-convex and mild meniscus shapes. Not unacceptable but hard to mould are bi-concave lenses, steep meniscus lenses, and lenses with severe features (e.g. a bump on a convex surface).
In general, plano-curved lenses are easier to mould than lenses with both sides curved since matching of flat faces is easier.
Moulding concave forms with small centre thickness is difficult due to sticking of the moulded part to the mould occurring as a result of the different thermal expansion coefficients.
Furthermore it is recommended to avoid undercuts and sharp edges. For the lens design it should be considered that the lens has to be mountable in measurement systems.
Shape of preforms.
The shape of the preform or "blank" needs to be chosen according to the geometry of the finished optical element. Possible preforms are spherical (ball), near spherical (gob), plano-plano, plano-convex, plano-concave, biconvex and biconcave blanks. Ball and gob-blanks do not have to be premachined whereas other preforms require grinding and polishing.
The following section describes basic traits of preform choice:
“Used specifically for lenses with positive power: biconvex, plano-convex, and meniscus where the convex side is stronger than the concave side, this only works for a relatively small volume of material.”
“As a lens changes to negative in power biconcave, plano-concave, and meniscus
where the concave side is stronger, an alternative preform shape, plano-plano, is required
for the molding process. […] Relative to a formed preform an increase in cost is observed for the manufacturing of this type of preform.”
“When the geometry of a lens extends beyond the volume range of a formed ball
preform, a ground and polished ball preform is required. Used for lenses with positive
power: biconvex, plano-convex, and meniscus: where the convex side is stronger, this
geometry allows for molding of lenses with larger total volume. […] Relative to a formed
preform and a plano-plano preform, an increase in cost is observed for the manufacturing
of this type of preform.”
“The Lenslet preform is primarily for lenses with positive power, biconvex, planoconvex,
and meniscus: where the convex side is the strongest surface. The use of this
type of preform allows for molding of the largest volume of glass at any given time in the
molding machines. The Lenslet is traditionally ground and polished to a near net shape of the final lens, and then pressed. [...] The cost associated with the manufacturing of the lenslet preform is the highest of all preform types.”
Precision gobs can be used as preforms for the production of aspherical lenses in a precision molding process. They are manufactured from a continuous glass melting process. The resulting precision gobs exhibit a very smooth firepolished surface with an excellent surface roughness and high volume accuracy.
Dimensions.
The dimensions of the optical elements that can be moulded depend on the size of the moulding machine.
The precision glass moulding process is not limited to small optics. For the right element geometry, it can enable economical production of aspheric lenses up to 60 mm in diameter and more than 20 mm thick.
General design recommendations:
Size:
Radius:
Optical Surfaces:
Volume:
Tolerances.
Although the form, dimensional and positional tolerances that can be achieved in precision glass moulding are subject to a natural border, the values being achieved in practice strongly depend on the degree of control and experience in mould making and moulding. The table below gives an overview of achievable manufacturing tolerances in precision glass moulding at different companies.
For aspherical lenses, the design should be able to tolerate 0.010 mm of lateral shear between surfaces plus 5 micrometres Total Internal Reflection of wedge (across the part without considering the lateral shear) to be considered robust.
Specifications for aspheres:
Index drop.
Due to the fast cooling after moulding, the part retains a small amount of residual stress. Consequently, the glass exhibits a small change in the refractive index which has to be considered in the optical design. A higher cooling rate corresponds to a larger decrease of the refractive index. A lower cooling rate could circumvent the index drop, but would be less cost-efficient
Glass material.
Many glasses can be used with PGM. However, there are some limitations:
So-called "low-Tg-glasses" with a maximum transition temperature of less than 550 °C have been developed in order to enable new manufacturing routes for the moulds. Mould materials such as steel can be used for moulding low-Tg-glasses whereas high-Tg–glasses require a high-temperature mould material, such as tungsten carbide.
Substrate materials.
The mould material must have sufficient strength, hardness and accuracy at high temperature and pressure. Good oxidation resistance, low thermal expansion and high thermal conductivity are also required.
The material of the mould has to be suitable to withstand the process temperatures without undergoing deforming processes. Therefore, the mould material choice depends critically on the transition temperature of the glass material. For low-Tg-glasses, steel moulds with a nickel alloy coating can be used. Since they cannot withstand the high temperatures required for regular optical glasses, heat-resistant materials such as carbide alloys have to be used instead in this case. In addition, mould materials include aluminium alloys, glasslike or vitreous carbon, silicon carbide, silicon nitride and a mixture of silicon carbide and carbon.
A commonly used material in mould making is tungsten carbide. The mould inserts are produced by means of powder metallurgy, i.e. a sintering process followed by post-machining processes and sophisticated grinding operations. Most commonly a metallic binder (usually cobalt) is added in liquid phase sintering. In this process, the metallic binder improves the toughness of the mould as well as the sintering quality in the liquid phase to fully dense material.
Moulds made of hard materials have a typical lifetime of thousands of parts (size dependent) and are cost-effective for volumes of 200-1000+ (depending upon the size of the part).
Mould manufacturing.
This article describes how mould inserts are manufactured for precision glass moulding.
In order to ensure high quality standards metrology steps are implemented between each process step.
In order to save the quality and enable an early warning in case of any problems between every single step there has to be a step of measurement and referencing. Besides that the time for transport and handling has to be taken into account in the planning of the process.
Metrology and quality assurance.
Once process and tool have been developed, precision glass moulding has a great advantage over conventional
production techniques. The majority of the lens quality characteristics are tool-bound. This means that lenses, which
are pressed with the same tool and process, usually have only insignificantly small deviations. For example, an important characteristic of a lens is the form of the optical surface. In the case of aspherical lenses the measurement of optical surfaces is very difficult and connected to high efforts. Additionally, when working with tactile measurement systems there is always a risk that the optical surface might be scratched. For precision moulded lenses such measurements are only necessary for a small amount of sample lenses in order to qualify the tool. The series production can then be executed without further need for measurements. In this case, only the cleanliness of the optical surface has to be monitored. Another advantage is that the lens' center thickness can be estimated from the easily measurable edge thickness or by applying a contactless measurement system.
Protective coatings.
In order to enhance the mould insert's lifetime, protective coatings can be applied. “The materials that have been selected for the antistick coatings can be divided into 5 groups including: (1) single layer carbides, nitrides, oxides and borides such as , and , (2) nitrides or carbides based gradient and multilayers, (3) nitrides based superlattice films, (4) amorphous carbon or diamond-like carbon and (5) precious metal based alloys”
Experiments carried out by Ma et al. yield the following results:
“The higher the temperature, the smaller the wetting angle between glass gob and substrate could be observed. This indicates that severe interface chemical reaction occurred and resulted in the loss of transparency in glass appearance. The wetting experiment in nitrogen ambient improved the sticking situation. The combination of chemically stable substrates and coatings, such as Sapphire (substrate) / GaN (film) and Glass (substrate) / (film) can achieve the best antistick propose. The precious metal films such as (Platinum, Iridium) coated on the ceramic substrates can effectively reduce the interface reaction between the glass and substrates.”
Although is used as a standard coating material, it has the disadvantage of being expensive. Therefore, research activities aim at substituting with cheaper materials.


Tube bending

Tube bending is any metal forming processes used to permanently form pipes or tubing. Tube bending may be form-bound or use freeform-bending procedures, and it may use heat supported or cold forming procedures.
Form bound bending procedures like “press bending” or “rotary draw bending” are used to form the work piece into the shape of a die. Straight tube stock can be formed using a bending machine to create a variety of single or multiple bends and to shape the piece into the desired form. These processes can be used to form complex shapes out of different types of ductile metal tubing. Freeform-bending processes, like three-roll-pushbending, shape the workpiece kinematically, thus the bending contour is not dependent on the tool geometry.
Generally, round stock is used in tube bending. However, square and rectangular tubes and pipes may also be bent to meet job specifications. Other factors involved in the bending process are the wall thickness, tooling and lubricants needed by the pipe and tube bender to best shape the material, and the different ways the tube may be used (tube, pipe wires).
In 1995, Uk-based Unison Ltd developed the first three ‘all-electric’ tube bending machines with; 20mm, 40mm and 65mm tube capacity. The very first machine went into service in 1996 and is still in production.
Geometry.
A tube can be bent in multiple directions and angles. Common simple bends consist of forming elbows, which are 90° bends, and U-bends, which are 180° bends. More complex geometries include multiple two-dimensional (2D) bends and three-dimensional (3D) bends. A 2D tube has the openings on the same plane; a 3D has openings on different planes.
A two plane bend or compound bend is defined as a compound bend that has a bend in the plan view and a bend in the elevation. When calculating a two plane bend, one must know the bend angle and rotation (dihedral angle).
One side effect of bending the workpiece is the wall thickness changes; the wall along the inner radius of the tube becomes thicker and the outer wall becomes thinner. To reduce this the tube may be supported internally and or externally to preserve the cross section. Depending on the bend angle, wall thickness, and bending process the inside of the wall may wrinkle.
Processes.
Tube bending as a process starts with loading a tube into a tube or pipe bender and clamping it into place between two dies, the clamping block and the forming die. The tube is also loosely held by two other dies, the wiper die and the pressure die.
The process of tube bending involves using mechanical force to push stock material pipe or tubing against a die, forcing the pipe or tube to conform to the shape of the die. Often, stock tubing is held firmly in place while the end is rotated and rolled around the die. Other forms of processing including pushing stock through rollers that bend it into a simple curve. For some tube bending processing, a mandrel is placed inside the tube to prevent collapsing. The tube is held in tension by a wiper die to prevent any creasing during stress. A wiper die is usually made of a softer alloy such as aluminum or brass to avoid scratching or damaging the material being bent.
Much of the tooling is made of hardened steel or tool steel to maintain and prolong the tool's life. However, when there is a concern of scratching or gouging the work piece, a softer material such as aluminum or bronze is utilized. For example, the clamping block, rotating form block and pressure die are often formed from hardened steel because the tubing is not moving past these parts of the machine. The pressure die and the wiping die are formed from aluminum or bronze to maintain the shape and surface of the work piece as it slides by.
Pipe bending machines are typically human powered, pneumatic powered, hydraulic assisted, hydraulic driven, or electric servomotor.
Press bending.
Press bending is probably the first bending process used on cold pipes and tubing. In this process a die in the shape of the bend is pressed against the pipe forcing the pipe to fit the shape of the bend. Because the pipe is not supported internally there is some deformation of the shape of the pipe, resulting in an oval cross section. This process is used where a consistent cross section of the pipe is not required. Although a single die can produce various shapes, it only works for one size tube and radius.
Rotary draw bending.
Rotary draw bending (RDB) is a precise technology, since it bends using tooling or "die sets" which have a constant center line radius (CLR), alternatively indicated as mean bending radius (Rm). Rotary draw benders can be programmable to store multiple bend jobs with varying degrees of bending. Often a positioning index table (IDX) is attached to the bender allowing the operator to reproduce complex bends which can have multiple bends and differing planes.
Rotary draw benders are the most popular machines for use in bending tube, pipe and solids for applications like: handrails, frames, motor vehicle roll cages, handles, lines and much more. Rotary draw benders create aesthetically pleasing bends when the right tooling is matched to the application.
CNC rotary draw bending machines can be very complex and use sophisticated tooling to produce severe bends with high quality requirements.
The complete tooling is required only for high-precision bending of difficult-to-bend tubes with relatively large OD/t (diameter/thickness) ratio and relatively small ratio between the mean bending radius Rm and OD. The use of axial boosting either on the tube free end or on the pressure die is useful to prevent excessive thinning and collapse of the extrados of the tube. The mandrel, with or without ball with spherical links, is mostly used to prevent wrinkles and ovalization. For relatively easy bending processes (that is, as the difficulty factor BF decreases), the tooling can be progressively simplified, eliminating the need for the axial assist, the mandrel, and the wiper die (which mostly prevents wrinkling). Furthermore, in some particular cases, the standard tooling must be modified in order to meet specific requirements of the products.
Roll bending.
During the roll bending process the pipe, extrusion, or solid is passed through a series of rollers (typically three) that apply pressure to the pipe gradually changing the bend radius in the pipe. The pyramid style roll benders have one moving roll, usually the top roll. Double pinch type roll benders have two adjustable rolls, usually the bottom rolls, and a fixed top roll. This method of bending causes very little deformation in the cross section of the pipe. This process is suited to producing coils of pipe as well as long gentle bends like those used in truss systems.
Three-roll push bending.
Three-roll push bending (TRPB) is the most commonly used freeform-bending process to manufacture bending geometries consisting of several plane bending curves. Nevertheless, 3D-shaping is possible. The profile is guided between bending-roll and supporting-roll(s), while being pushed through the tools. The position of the forming-roll defines the bending radius. The bending point is the tangent-point between tube and bending-roll. To change the bending plane, the pusher rotates the tube around its longitudinal axis. Generally, a TRPB tool kit can be applied on a conventional rotary draw bending machine. The process is very flexible since with a unique tool set, several bending radii values Rm can be obtained, although the geometrical precision of the process is not comparable to rotary draw bending.
Bending contours defined as spline- or polynomial-functions can be manufactured.
Simple three-roll bending.
Three roll bending of tubes and open profiles can also be performed with simpler machines, often semi-automatic and non CNC controlled, able to feed the tube into the bending zone by friction. These machines have often a vertical layout, i.e. the three rolls lie on a vertical plane.
Induction bending.
An induction coil is placed around a small section of the pipe at the bend point. It is then induction heated to between 800 and 2,200 degrees Fahrenheit (430 and 1,200 C). While the pipe is hot, pressure is placed on the pipe to bend it. The pipe can then be quenched with either air or water spray or be cooled against ambient air.
Induction bending is used to produce bends for a wide range of applications, such as (thin walled) pipe lines for both the upstream and down stream and on- and off shore segments of the petrochemical industry, large radius structural parts for the construction industry, thick walled, short radius bends for the power generating industry and city heating systems.
Big advantages of induction bending are:
Packing.
Ice packing.
The pipe is filled with a water solution, frozen, and bent while cold. The solute (soap can be used) makes the ice flexible. This technique is used to make trombones.
Pitch packing.
A similar techniques using pitch was formerly used, but discontinued because the pitch was hard to clean out without excessive heat.
Sand-packing/hot-slab forming.
In the sand packing process the pipe is filled with fine sand and the ends are capped. The filled pipe is heated in a furnace to or higher. Then it is placed on a slab with pins set in it, and bent around the pins using a winch, crane, or some other mechanical force. The sand in the pipe minimizes distortion in the pipe cross section.
s.
A mandrel is a steel rod or linked ball inserted into the tube while it is being bent to give the tube extra support to reduce wrinkling and breaking the tube during this process. The different types of mandrels are as follows.
In production of a product where the bend is not critical a plug mandrel can be used. A form type tapers the end of the mandrel to provide more support in the bend of the tube. When precise bending is needed a ball mandrel (or ball mandrel with steel cable) should be used. The conjoined ball-like disks are inserted into the tubing to allow for bending while maintaining the same diameter throughout. Other styles include using sand, cerrobend, or frozen water. These allow for a somewhat constant diameter while providing an inexpensive alternative to the aforementioned styles.
Performance automotive or motorcycle exhaust pipe is a common application for a mandrel.
Bending springs.
These are strong but flexible springs inserted into a pipe to support the pipe walls during manual bending. They have diameters only slightly less than the internal diameter of the pipe to be bent. They are only suitable for bending soft copper pipe (typically used in household plumbing) or PVC pipe.
The spring is pushed into the pipe until its center is roughly where the bend is to be. A length of flexible wire can be attached to the end of the spring to facilitate its removal. The pipe is generally held against the flexed knee, and the ends of the pipe are pulled up to create the bend. To make it easier to retrieve the spring from the pipe, it is a good idea to bend the pipe slightly more than required, and then slacken it off a little. Springs are less cumbersome than rotary benders, but are not suitable for bending short lengths of piping when it is difficult to get the required leverage on the pipe ends.
Bending springs for smaller diameter pipes (10 mm copper pipe) slide over the pipe instead of inside.


Printed Circuit Corporation

Printed Circuit Corporation (PCC) was founded in 1961 and was a contract printed circuit board manufacturer located in Woburn, Massachusetts. (SIC Code 3672). PCC provided its products to companies in the electronics, instrumentation, medical, telecommunication, and automotive industries. The majority of the boards produced were multilayer (4, 6, 8, or 10-layer).
In 1995, the environmental advances made by the firm were highlighted in a joint study by The Massachusetts Toxics Use Reduction Institute in conjunction with the University of Massachusetts Lowell.
In 2001, PCC was featured on an ABC-TV business news show called Business Now. The show featured the technology that the company used and the management disciplines that allowed it to compete effectively in the world PWB market.
Peter Sarmanian was the founder and CEO of Printed Circuit Corporation. Sarmanian's contributions to the PWB industry as a whole have been recognized by the IPC on an annual basis.
Company history.
Peter Sarmanian started Printed Circuit Corporation in 1961 during the early days of the computer industry. Sarmanian was pursuing an undergraduate technical degree at Northeastern University after having returned from service in the Korean War. His first significant production contracts were to manufacture printed circuit boards for the technology innovators of the 1960s - early minicomputer companies like RCA Computer Systems, Digital Equipment Corporation, and Data General Corporation.
Sarmanian was a pioneer in the electro-chemical production of printed circuit boards. The new process offered far greater reliability for the printed circuit boards and far higher density (chips and circuitry per square inch) for packaging components.
When Sarmanian launched the company, most computer and electronics manufacturers were fabricating their own boards. Independent suppliers, however, became increasingly efficient and were proving a more cost-effective solution for a broad range of printed circuit board applications. Likewise, computer and electronics manufacturers became more comfortable using suppliers for key electronic components, including printed circuit boards. Reductions in time to market, engineering/prototyping costs, and manufacturing ramp-up costs were being demonstrated by these suppliers to win business. In 1979, 40% of all rigid printed circuit board fabrication was being outsourced to suppliers like PCC. By 1989, that figure was about 60%, and by 1995, 80%. By 2001, 98% of all printed circuit board production was going to external suppliers. Industry analysts placed total bookings for printed circuit board production worldwide at approximately $30 billion in 2000, with the US market comprising about a third of that dollar volume.
Sarmanian built a profitable company with approximately $30 million a year in revenue at its peak in 2000, and a fabrication plant on Route 128 outside of Boston. At the time, he had 240 employees working two full shifts a day, and sometimes, another half shift for limited production of new prototype boards.
Sarmanian died in July 2001 following a bout with cancer. The company filed for reorganization shortly thereafter, then was acquired by Manchester, NH-based fabricator Electropac in October 2002.
Printed Circuit Corporation's business approach.
PCC had traditionally operated in the mid-range segment, providing boards to New England-based minicomputer companies. Sarmanian bought state-of-the-art equipment to keep pace with the industry, but he always did it as a follower. At the beginning of the 1980s, Sarmanian saw that volumes in the low-end were beginning to explode and decided to diversify. By 1995, only 50% of PCC's revenues came from its traditional mid-range customers; the other 50% came from low-end consumer electronics manufacturers. By 1995 his company was a $20 million a year business. However, this low-end high-volume strategy got the company into financial trouble when the market for video game cartridges for the Atari and Intellivision systems collapsed.
By the early 1980s, offshore manufacturers had started low complexity, high volume fabrication. By the end of the decade, they dominated it. In this semi-automated, high volume process, the offshore producers were able to quote substantially lower prices due to cheap labor. By 1995, the consumer electronics manufacturers had moved virtually all their business to Asian fabricators. Because of this foray into the low-end, by 1995 PCC's profits had declined 90%. New management was brought in during 1996 and 1997 to help turn the company around.
New management shed the unprofitable low-end business to refocus on the mid- range, more technologically complex segment of the market. These changes were made in time to capture some explosive growth. Historically, the PCB market had grown about 6% a year, but from 1995-2000 it grew at 10%. By 2000, the company's sales had increased to $30 million. Laser drilling, better solder masking for finishing printed circuitry, and semi-automated systems for electrical testing of finished boards were the major improvements needed to get to industry parity.
PCC named Glen Kashgegian president and COO in 2000.
In June 2001, Printed Circuit Corp. acquired the circuit board fabrication business of CPC in Randolph, MA.
The End of PCC.
Amid the tech recession of 2001–03, the company failed to adjust as customers migrated to lower cost products from China, and filed for reorganization in September 2002. The company then was acquired by Manchester, NH-based fabricator Electropac in October 2002.
Ultimately, as the North American Printed Circuit market continued to shrink and consolidate, Electropac closed their business and sold certain assets to another competitor, located in Nashua NH, named Mass Design.
Environmental Battles.
In 1990, the company was fined $407,835 for allegedly violating state sewer regulations 60 times over two years and ignoring orders to stop. The penalty was the third-largest in the history of the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority at the time.


Arbor milling

Arbor milling is a cutting process which removes material via a multi-toothed cutter. An arbor mill is a type of milling machine characterized by its ability to rapidly remove material from a variety of materials. This milling process is not only rapid but also versatile.
Process Schematic.
This process progressively makes a surface to the user's specifications as the material is moved against the milling tool or the workpiece stays stationary while the arbor milling cutter moves across it to provide the desired shape. There are two types of milling that involve the directional movement of the workpiece, conventional and climb. If the workpiece is moving the opposite direction of the tool rotation this is called conventional milling. If the workpiece is moving the same direction as the tool rotation, this is called climb milling.

Setup and Equipment.
Arbor milling is commonly performed on a horizontal milling machine. The tool is mounted on an arbor/mandrel (like an axle) that is suspended between the spindle and arbor support. This type of machine allows the tool to be placed in numerous positions in relation to the workpiece.
Workpiece Materials.
The workpiece involved in arbor milling can be a flat material or a shaped material: either one can be worked with desirable results. The hardness of the materials milled should be no harder than Rockwell C25(Rockwell scale), but workpieces harder than this can be successfully milled. Materials with good or excellent machinability include aluminum, brass, mild steel, cast iron, and thermoset plastics. Though initially ductile, stainless steel tends to work harden and thus has only a fair compatibility with this milling process (though it is in the feasible range).
Tooling Materials.
Although high speed tool steel has been used in the past it is quickly being replaced by carbide, ceramic, or diamond tooling. Because carbide inserts are long lasting and easily replaced, they lend themselves to high production. Ceramic tools are brittle but can withstand high temperatures. This makes high speed machining possible. Diamond tools are used to achieve a superior surface finish (though they can only be used on non-ferrous materials).
Tolerances and Surface Finish.
In most applications, tolerances can be held within ±0.005 in. For precision application, tolerances can be held within ±0.001 in. It is possible to have a surface finish range of 32 to 500 microinches, but typically the range is 63 to 200 microinches. Finish cuts will generate surfaces near 32 to 63 microinches, roughing cuts near 200 microinches.
Tool Styles and Possibilities.
The most common tool styles used in arbor milling are: double angle, form relived, plane, and staggered tooth Among many other tool styles. The double angle milling cutter can make a wide variety of V shaped cuts with straight surfaces in the material. A form relieved milling cutter can produce U shaped cuts with curved surfaces, unlike the double angle cutter, into the material. A plane milling cutter can produce surfaces similar to a planer but can make varying contours across the material. A staggered tooth milling cutter can produce a rectangular groove in the material at varying depths and widths. The cutters can be stacked to mill combined profiles. The typical width of cuts made by arbor milling range from 0.25 in to 6 in, and the typical depths range from 0.02 in to 0.05 in.
Effects on Work Material Properties.
Mechanical properties of the workpiece may be affected with a built-up edge or dull tool. Arbor Milling can create an untempered martensitic layer on the surface of heat-treated alloy steels, about 0.001 in thick. Other materials are affected very little by arbor milling.
Process Conditions.
Shown are the suggested ranges for cutting speeds and feed rates using high speed tool steel under dry cutting conditions at a 0.015 in depth of cut. Generally cutting speeds are lower for hard materials, higher for soft materials. Both cutting speeds and feed rates can be substantially increased when coolants are used and carbide tooling is substituted for steel tooling.
Typical Speeds and Feeds
Lubrication and Cooling.
Due to high cutting speeds a cutting fluid is required to lubricate and cool the tool and workpiece. The fluids can increase tool life, cutting speeds, and the quality of the finished surface. There are three common cutting fluids: mineral, synthetic, and water-soluble oils. These fluids can be applied by spraying, misting, or flooding the workpiece.


Equipment service management and rental

Equipment service management and rental (ESM&R) refers to equipment services management throughout the heavy equipment life cycle. Increased competition and slim margins in heavy equipment sales and rental place a heavy burden on manufacturers, dealers, rental companies and service businesses to improve their service performance. Improving service in these conditions is critical to maintaining margins and growing profitability.
The ESM&R approach provides an integrated view of the heavy equipment business. Thus manufacturers, dealers, suppliers, rental and services business can improve the value their customers derive from their equipment and subsequently improve their own profitability and reduce cost at the same time. Collaboration is a critical factor in the equipment supply chain.
Equipment companies must have two fundamentals in place of operational control of service operations on the one hand and equipment intelligence on the other. (1) This enables companies to move to proactive service approaches and make better business decisions. To instill these two fundamentals, service organizations are adopting equipment service management processes and tools.
Heavy equipment life-cycle.
The ESM&R approach directly links to the concept of the equipment life-cycle which demands continuous control and a historical record – from the initial forecasting and sale of the equipment, through to shipping, renting, servicing, overhaul and final disposal. Thus heavy equipment, just like any product life-cycle has its own life-cycle. The main stages of the heavy equipment life-cycle are:
References.
"Asset Management Excellence: Optimizing Equipment Life-cycle Decisions" by Normand Champigny, Andrew K.S. Jardine, John D. Campbell, Taylor & Francis USA, 2008,


Design change

A design change is the modification conducted to the product. It can happen at any stage in the product development process.
The design changes that happen early in the design process are less expensive when compared to those that take place after it is introduced into full-scale production. The cost of the change increases with its development time. Fundamentally, the design changes can be classified into pre production and post production design changes. The pre-production changes can happen in the conceptual design stage, prototype stage, detailing stage, testing stage. The post -production stage change will happen almost immediately the product is introduced into the production. This might be due to several reasons such as market response, design faults uncovering, design mistakes, not meeting customer requirements, so on and so forth. One of the tools to minimize this type of design change is House of Quality.


Door control unit

In automotive electronics, a door control unit (DCU) is a generic term for an embedded system that controls a number of electrical systems associated with an advanced motor vehicle. A modern motor vehicle contains a number of ECUs (electronic control units), and the door control unit (DCU) is one of the minor ones.
The door control unit is responsible for controlling and monitoring various electronic accessories in a vehicle's door. Since most of the vehicles have more than one door, DCUs may be present in each door separately, or a single centralised one provided. A DCU associated with the driver's door has some additional functionalities. This additional features are the result of complex functions like locking, driver door switch pad, child lock switches, etc., which are associated with the driver's door. In most of the cases driver door module acts as a master and others act as slaves in communication protocols.
Features controlled by door control units.
In some advanced motor vehicles, luxury features like puddle lamps and BLIS (Blind spot Indicator System) are also supported by DCUs.


Glass tube

Glass tubes are mainly cylindrical hollow-wares. Their special shape combined with the huge variety of glass types (like borosilicate, flint, aluminosilicate, soda lime, lead or quartz glass), allows the use of glass tubing in many applications. For example, laboratory glassware, lighting applications, solar thermal systems and pharmaceutical packaging to name the largest.
In the past, scientists constructed their own laboratory apparatus prior to the ubiquity of interchangeable ground glass joints. Today, commercially available parts connected by ground glass joints are preferred; where specialized glassware are required, they are made to measure using commercially available glass tubes by specialist glassblowers. For example, a Schlenk line is made of two large glass tubes, connected by stopcocks and smaller glass tubes, which are further connected to plastic hoses.
Industrial Relevance.
Compared to other materials like plastics the importance of cylindrical half-finished products in glass is high. Main reasons are the difficulty associated with 3-d forming of glass in general. In order to create hollow objects from glass the cylinder shape is a natural starting material.
Cylindrical glass tubes have:
• the lowest surface area and most compact design
• highest mechanical strength against pressure and impact
• automated further processing due to symmetry.
Compared to moulded glass where the process of tube drawing achieves:
• better optical clarity
• more homogeneous distribution of wall thickness
• higher precision or volume and geometry in general
History.
Until the 19th century glass tubes were exclusively produced by mouth blowing, thus discontinuously manufactured from a batch or a glass melt. In 1912, E. Danner (Libbey Glass Company) developed the first continuous tube drawing process in the US, which works in horizontal direction. In 1918 he received a patent. In 1929 a vertical drawing process was developed by L. Sanches-Vello in France.
Manufacturing Process.
Glass tubes are produced in various types of glass and in diameters ranging from a few millimeters to several centimeters. In most production processes, an "infinitely long" glass tube is drawn directly from the melt, from which approximately 1.5 m long pieces are chopped off after passing a roller track up to the drawing machine.
The three common methods differ regarding the drawing direction:
Drawing direction horizontal.
Danner process.
In the Danner process, the molten glass runs from the feeder as a belt onto an obliquely downwardly inclined, rotating ceramic hollow cylinder, the Danner pipe. Through the hollow pipe, compressed air is blown to prevent the glass tube from collapsing.
At the tip of the pipe the so-called drawing onion is formed, from which the glass tube is drawn off in the free sag on a horizontal pulling line.
If the drawing speed is kept constantly, an increase in the blow pressure causes larger diameters and smaller wall thicknesses;
With this method, tube diameters between 2 and 60 mm can be realized:
Vello process.
In the Vello process, the glass runs through an annular opening from the bottom of the feeder. This opening is formed between the round outlet nozzle of the feeder and a height-adjustable hollow needle (also a mandrel). Here, the tube is "inflated" with compressed air as well. The glass tube which initially emerges in the vertical direction is then deflected into the horizontal position in the free sag.
The nozzle mandrel is adjusted off the center of the drawing nozzle in order to produce a constant wall thicknesses after bending.
With this method, tube diameters between 1.5 and 70 mm can be generated; The throughput is higher than it would have been with the Danner method. Furthermore, it is possible here to use glasses with highly volatile components, such as borates (borosilicate glass) and lead oxides (lead glass), since the temperatures at the drawing nozzle are lower than in the Danner muffle.
Without a needle, glass rods can also be produced, whereby the diameter being adjusted via the nozzle as well as the drawing speed. Due to the vertical glass exit, down-draw processes are sporadically also listed under the general term "Vello", although there is no forcible deflection into the horizontal.
Danner and Vello processes are used for the production of thin-walled glass tubes of relatively small diameter, with throughputs of up to 55 tonnes per day.
The world record for the longest ever continuously drawn tube glass in one piece is 10 m hold by SCHOTT Tubing.
Drawing direction downwards (down-draw).
The down-draw method is, in principle, the same as the Vello method, although here the glass tube is not deflected but is pulled off in the vertical direction.
In the down-draw, the current world record is held by SCHOTT Tubing with 460 mm. The achievable wall thicknesses for large outer diameters above 250 mm is about 10 mm. Larger wall thicknesses of up to 15 mm are possible for smaller outer diameters only. For borosilicate glass (35 mm Durchmesser) a drawing speed of 0.3 m/min can be achieved.
Drawing direction vertically upwards (vertical drawing).
Here, the glass tube is not formed by a mandrel but is drawn off from the free bath surface. A nozzle protrudes from below into a drawing nozzle, via which the air is blown into the glass tube. The nozzle also holds the drawing onion so that it does not move out laterally.
Since the quality and drawing speed achieved during the vertical tube drawing process are relatively low, this process has nowadays almost no practical significance.
Further procedures.
Glass tubes with very large diameters (20 bis 100 cm), as required for plants of the chemical industry, are produced by centrifugation or blowing. However, only the production of relatively short tube sections of up to one meter, so-called tube shots, is possible.
Modifying.
Many glass tubing can be used right away for example for pneumatic conveying systems, lighting, photobioreactors or as an architectural item. However, modifying of glass tubing is quite common and indespendsable for applications like laboratory glass, pharma packaging, and diode encapsulants. Here, the glass tubing needs to be e.g. cut, bended, or even converted into another shape (compare vial, syringes etc.). Mainly, this is done by applying heat to the sample and/or use a mechanic forming tool.
Although modifying glass tubing is no longer an essential laboratory technique, many are still familiar with the basic methods. A glass cutter is used to break pieces of glass tubing into smaller pieces. Freshly cut edges are flame polished before use to remove the rough edge. Glass tubing can be bent by heating evenly over a Bunsen flame to red heat. Hose barbs can be added to tubing, giving a better grip and seal for attaching plastic or rubber tubing.
Applications.
Glass tubes are not only produced in round shapes but also in various other shapes such as rectangular, triangular and star-like shape.
Glass tubes, rods and profiles can be made from different glass types. They find use in a variety of markets such as pharmaceuticals, industrial and environmental technology as well as electronics. Glass tubes are processed in:
Manufacturers.
There are several companies concentrating on the production of glass tubes made from special glass types. By using a special glass type with particular properties the glass tubes can be fit for a variety of applications. Some well-known manufacturers of glass tubes are:


Turret punch

A turret punch or turret press is a type of punch press used for metal forming by punching.
Punching, and press work in general, is a process well suited to mass production. However the initial tooling costs, of both the machine and the job-specific press tool, are high. This limits punch work from being used for much small-volume and prototype work. A turret punch is one way of addressing this cost. The tooling of a turret punch uses a large number of standard punch tools: holes of varying sizes, straight edges, commonly-used notches or mounting holes. By using a large number of strokes, with several different tools in turn, a turret press may make a wide variety of parts without having to first make a specialised press tool for that task. This saves both time and money, allowing rapid prototyping or for low volume production to start without tooling delays.
A typical CNC turret punch has a choice of up to 60 tools in a "turret" that can be rotated to bring any tool to the punching position. A simple shape (e.g., a square, circle, or hexagon) is cut directly from the sheet. A complex shape can be cut out by making many square or rounded cuts around the perimeter. As a press tool requires a matching punch and die set, there are two corresponding turrets, above and below the bed, for punch and die. These two turrets must rotate in precise synchronisation and with their alignment carefully maintained. Several punches of identical shape may be used in the turret, each one turned to a different angle, as there is usually no feature to rotate the sheet workpiece relative to the tool.
A punch is less flexible than a laser for cutting compound shapes, but faster for repetitive shapes (for example, the grille of an air-conditioning unit). Some units combine both laser and punch features in one machine.
Most turret punches are CNC-controlled, with automatic positioning of the metal sheet beneath the tool and programmed selection of particular tools. A CAM process first converts the CAD design for the finished item into the number of individual punch operations needed, depending on the tools available in the turret.
The precise load-out of tools may change according to a particular job's needs. The CAD stage is also optimised for turret punching: an operation such as rounding a corner may be much quicker with a single chamfered cut than a fully rounded corner requiring several strokes. Changing an unimportant dimension such as the width of a ventilation slot may match an available tool, requiring a single cut, rather than cutting each side separately. CAD support may also manage the selection of tools to be loaded into the turret before starting work.
As each tool in a turret press is relatively small, the press requires little power compared to a press manufacturing similar parts with a single press stroke. This allows the tool to be lighter and sometimes cheaper, although this is offset by the increased complexity of the turret and sheet positioning. Turret punches can operate faster per stroke than a heavier tool press, although of course many strokes are required. A turret punch can achieve 600 strokes per minute.
The most sophisticated recent machines may also add facilities for forming and bending, as well as punch cutting. Although unlikely to replace a press brake for box making, the ability to form even small lugs may turn a two machine process into a one machine process, reducing materials handling time.
Manual punches.
Manual turret punches have also been used. These are C frame presses, usually with a rack-actuated ram. There is no CNC, for either sheet positioning or tool changing. Using such a manual press requires great familiarity, as the correct tool must be selected from the turret each time for every one of the many press operations performed. Such manual presses are rarely found, but they have their place in labour-intensive tasks such as hand-worked sheetmetal shops, making such products as custom car bodywork. They are often used in conjunction with other highly skilled artisan processes such as an English wheel.


Raster passes

Raster passes are the most basic of all machining strategies for the finishing or semi-finishing of a part during computer-aided manufacturing (CAM). In raster passes machining the milling cutter moves along curves on the cutter location surface (CL surface) obtained by intersecting the CL surface with vertical, parallel planes. Many CAM systems implement this strategy by sampling cutter location points on these curves by calculating intersection points of the CL surface and as many vertical lines as needed to approximate the curve to the desired accuracy.


Heijunka box

A heijunka box is a visual scheduling tool used in heijunka, a method originally created by Toyota for achieving a smoother production flow. While heijunka is the smoothing of production, the heijunka box is the name of a specific tool used in achieving the aims of heijunka.
The heijunka box is generally a wall schedule which is divided into a grid of boxes or a set of 'pigeon-holes'/rectangular receptacles. Each column of boxes representing a specific period of time, lines are drawn down the schedule/grid to visually break the schedule into columns of individual shifts or days or weeks. Coloured cards representing individual jobs (referred to as kanban cards) are placed on the heijunka box to provide a visual representation of the upcoming production runs.
The heijunka box makes it easy to see what type of jobs are queued for production and for when they are scheduled. Workers on the process remove the kanban cards for the current period from the box in order to know what to do. These cards will be passed to another section when they process the related job.
Implementation.
The Heijunka box allows easy and visual control of a smoothed production schedule.
A typical heijunka box has horizontal rows for each product. It has vertical columns for identical time intervals of production. In the illustration on the right, the time interval is thirty minutes. Production control kanban are placed in the pigeon-holes provided by the box in proportion to the number of items to be built of a given product type during a time interval.
In this illustration, each time period builds an A and two Bs along with a mix of Cs, Ds and Es. What is clear from the box, from the simple repeating patterns of kanbans in each row, is that the production is smooth of each of these products.
This ensures that production capacity is kept under a constant pressure thereby eliminating many issues.


Die defect

A die defect is a unique and unintentional flaw in a coin die and is created through excessive use or polishing of the die. A die bearing such a defect is occasionally referred to as a defective die. Generally, and depending upon the magnitude of the defect, coins that are produced from these dies are considered error coins. Also, the term encompasses a wide variety of design errors that were engraved into the die originally and were slipped into circulation before the incorrect design was discovered.
Types.
Die crack.
A die crack occurs when a die, after being subjected to immense pressure during the minting process, cracks, causing a small gap in the die. If this damaged die continues to produce coins, the metal will fill into the crack, thus revealing a raised line of metal in the finished coin. Specimens with more prominent die cracks can command a high premium and are valued greatly by some collectors. However, less obvious errors are quite common, especially in the 50 States Commemorative Quarter Program, yielding a lower value.
Cud.
A cud on a coin is a damaged area resembling a blob at the edge of the coin. Cuds result from a piece of the perimeter of the die breaking away. They can be any shape depending on the shape of the piece that broke off the die.


Edgeline printing

Edgeline printing is a printing technology based on ink jet printing. In the case of traditional ink jet printers, the tiny matchbox size print head moves back and forth. This has inherent delay and requires two dimensional movement: (a) movement of print head; and (b) movement of paper. These movements are one of the reasons for the time lag in the ink jet printing.
In the case of edgeline printing technology, the print head is wide enough to cover the size of the printing paper supported in the printer. The print head has ink jet nozzles for the full length of the print head. By this arrangement the print head need not move and the paper movement is the only required movement.
The technology was developed by Hewlett-Packard, and was used in the Photosmart Express Station pe1000 retail photo kiosks, Photosmart pm1000 Microlab printer, and CM8060/8050 Color MFP office printers.
Photo lab printers.
PM1000 Microlab printer.
The PM1000 Microlab printer prints a 6x4 photo in five passes past a set of three fixed print heads. While the print head is large enough to cover the whole photo the 5 passes prevents pooling by putting down too much ink at once and enables the printer to hide faulty nozzles. This printer can print a photo in 5 seconds.
PE1000 Photosmart Express.
The Photosmart Express Station is basically a PM1000 print engine with a user friendly kiosk mounted on top designed for customers to print photos quickly from memory cards or other sources.
Office printers.
CM8050 / CM8060.
The CM8050 and CM8060 are high volume office printers that can print an entire A4/Letter page in a single pass, or an A3 page in two passes. To achieve this it uses two carriages with three print heads each, each print head containing 10,560 nozzles. This enables the printer to print up to 71 pages per minute in black and color (CM8060) and 57 ppm (CM8050).


The 1999 Nigerian House of Representatives elections in Taraba State was held on February 20, 1999, to elect members of the House of Representatives to represent Taraba State, Nigeria.
Results.
Bali/Gassol.
PDP candidate Dahiru Bako Gassol won the election, defeating other party candidates.
Jalingo/Yorro/Zing.
PDP candidate Alhassan Al-Gaddas won the election, defeating other party candidates.
Karim Lamido/Lau/Ardo-Kola.
PDP candidate Tauru T. Hanin won the election, defeating other party candidates.
Sardauna/Gashaka/Kurmi.
PDP candidate Kuriya Tafarki Auta won the election, defeating other party candidates.
Takuma/Donga/Ussa.
APP candidate Abdulaziz Tanko won the election, defeating other party candidates.
Wukari/Ibi.
PDP candidate Dantani Sunsuwa won the election, defeating other party candidates.


The 2003 Nigerian House of Representatives elections in Taraba State was held on April 12, 2003, to elect members of the House of Representatives to represent Taraba State, Nigeria.
Results.
Bali/Gassol.
PDP candidate Dahiru Bako Gassol won the election, defeating other party candidates.
Jalingo/Yorro/Zing.
PDP candidate Alhassan Al-Gaddas won the election, defeating other party candidates.
Karim Lamido/Lau/Ardo-Kola.
PDP candidate Khamin Taurus won the election, defeating other party candidates.
Sardauna/Gashaka/Kurmi.
PDP candidate S.M. Nguroje won the election, defeating other party candidates.
Takuma/Donga/Ussa.
PDP candidate Emmanuel Bwacha won the election, defeating other party candidates.
Wukari/Ibi.
PDP candidate Ikenya Joel Danlami won the election, defeating other party candidates.


DFMA

DFMA stands for "design for manufacture and assembly". DFMA is the combination of two methodologies; design for manufacture, which means the design for ease of manufacture of the parts that will form a product, and design for assembly, which means the design of the product for ease of assembly deriving creative ideas at the same time.
Usage.
DFMA is used as the basis for concurrent engineering studies to provide guidance to the design team in simplifying the product structure, to reduce manufacturing and assembly costs, and to quantify improvements. The practice of applying DFMA is to identify, quantify and eliminate waste or inefficiency in a product design. DFMA is therefore a component of lean manufacturing. DFMA is also used as a benchmarking tool to study competitors’ products, and as a should cost tool to assist in supplier negotiations.
Software.
DFMA is the name of the integrated set of software products from Boothroyd Dewhurst, Inc. that are used by companies to implement the DFMA methodology. DFMA is a registered trademark of Boothroyd Dewhurst, Inc.


List of organisations associated with the Conservative Party (UK)

This is a list of organisations that are associated with the British Conservative Party. Some are official party organisations, others are organisations made up of party members which are not officially recognised by the party.


Scenic design

Scenic design (also known as scenography, stage design, or set design) is the creation of theatrical scenery. Scenic designers create sets and scenery that aim to support the overall artistic goals of the production. There has been some consideration that scenic design is also production design; however, it is generally considered to be a part of the visual production of a film or television.
Scenic designer.
The scenic designer works with the director and other designers to establish an overall visual concept for the production and design the stage environment. They are responsible for developing a complete set of design drawings that include the following:
Many scenic designers use 3D CAD models to produce these design drawings.
In the process of planning, scenic designers often make models. Models are often made before the final drawings that are delivered to the scene shop for construction.
Responsibility.
The scenic designer is responsible for collaborating with the theatre director and other members of the creative team to create an environment for the production. Scenic designers are responsible for creating scale models of the scenery, renderings, paint elevations and scale construction drawings as part of their communication with other production staff. Communicating the details of the scenic environment to the technical director, production manager, charge scenic artist and prop master are among the most important duties of a scenic designer.
Training.
In Europe and Australia, scenic designers take a more holistic approach to theatrical design and will often be responsible not only for scenic design but costume, lighting and sound and are referred to as theatre designers or scenographers or production designers.
Notable set designers.
Notable scenic designers, past and present, include: Adolphe Appia, Boris Aronson, Alexandre Benois, Alison Chitty, Antony McDonald, Barry Kay, Caspar Neher, Cyro Del Nero, Aleksandra Ekster, David Gallo, Edward Gordon Craig, Es Devlin, Ezio Frigerio, Christopher Gibbs, Franco Zeffirelli, George Tsypin, Howard Bay, Inigo Jones, Jean-Pierre Ponnelle, Jo Mielziner, John Lee Beatty, Josef Svoboda, Ken Adam, Léon Bakst, Luciano Damiani, Maria Björnson, Ming Cho Lee, Natalia Goncharova, Nathan Altman, Nicholas Georgiadis, Oliver Smith, Ralph Koltai, Emanuele Luzzati, Neil Patel, Robert Wilson, Russell Patterson, Brian Sidney Bembridge, Santo Loquasto, Sean Kenny, Todd Rosenthal, Robin Wagner, Tony Walton, Louis Daguerre, and Roger Kirk.


Broaching (metalworking)

Broaching is a machining process that uses a toothed tool, called a broach, to remove material. There are two main types of broaching: "linear" and "rotary". In linear broaching, which is the more common process, the broach is run linearly against a surface of the workpiece to produce the cut. Linear broaches are used in a broaching machine, which is also sometimes shortened to "broach". In rotary broaching, the broach is rotated and pressed into the workpiece to cut an axisymmetric shape. A rotary broach is used in a lathe or screw machine. In both processes the cut is performed in one pass of the broach, which makes it very efficient.
Broaching is used when precision machining is required, especially for odd shapes. Commonly machined surfaces include circular and non-circular holes, splines, keyways, and flat surfaces. Typical workpieces include small to medium-sized castings, forgings, screw machine parts, and stampings. Even though broaches can be expensive, broaching is usually favored over other processes when used for high-quantity production runs.
Broaches are shaped similar to a saw, except the height of the teeth increases over the length of the tool. Moreover, the broach contains three distinct sections: one for roughing, another for semi-finishing, and the final one for finishing. Broaching is an unusual machining process because it has the feed built into the tool. The profile of the machined surface is always the inverse of the profile of the broach. The rise per tooth (RPT), also known as the "step" or feed per tooth, determines the amount of material removed and the size of the chip. The broach can be moved relative to the workpiece or vice versa. Because all of the features are built into the broach, no complex motion or skilled labor is required to use it. A broach is effectively a collection of single-point cutting tools arrayed in sequence, cutting one after the other; its cut is analogous to multiple passes of a shaper.
History.
The concept of broaching can be traced back to the early 1850s, with the first applications used for cutting keyways in pulleys and gears. After World War I, broaching was used to rifle gun barrels. In the 1920s and 30s the tolerances were tightened and the cost reduced thanks to advances in form grinding and broaching machines.
Process.
The process depends on the type of broaching being performed. Surface broaching is very simple as either the workpiece is moved against a stationary surface broach, or the workpiece is held stationary while the broach is moved against it.
Internal broaching is more involved. The process begins by clamping the workpiece into a special holding fixture, called a "workholder", which mounts in the broaching machine. The broaching machine "elevator", which is the part of the machine that moves the broach above the workholder, then lowers the broach through the workpiece. Once through, the broaching machine's "puller", essentially a hook, grabs the "pilot" of the broach. The elevator then releases the top of the follower and the puller pulls the broach through the workpiece completely. The workpiece is then removed from the machine and the broach is raised back up to reengage with the elevator. The broach usually only moves linearly, but sometimes it is also rotated to create a spiral spline or gun-barrel rifling.
Cutting fluids are used for three reasons:
Fortified petroleum cutting fluids are the most common. However, heavy-duty water-soluble cutting fluids are being used because of their superior cooling, cleanliness, and non-flammability.
Usage.
Broaching was originally developed for machining internal keyways. However, it was soon discovered that broaching is very useful for machining other surfaces and shapes for high volume workpieces. Because each broach is specialized to cut just one shape, either the broach must be specially designed for the geometry of the workpiece or the workpiece must be designed around a standard broach geometry. A customized broach is usually only viable with high volume workpieces, because the broach can cost US$15,000 to US$30,000 to produce.
Broaching speeds vary from 20 to 120 surface feet per minute (SFPM). This results in a complete cycle time of 5 to 30 seconds. Most of the time is consumed by the return stroke, broach handling, and workpiece loading and unloading.
The only limitations on broaching are that there are no obstructions over the length of the surface to be machined, the geometry to be cut does not have curves in multiple planes, and that the workpiece is strong enough to withstand the forces involved. Specifically for internal broaching a hole must first exist in the workpiece so the broach can enter. Also, there are limits on the size of internal cuts. Common internal holes can range from in diameter but it is possible to achieve a range of . Surface broaches' range is usually , although the feasible range is .
Tolerances are usually ±0.002 in (±0.05 mm), but in precise applications a tolerance of ±0.0005 in (±0.01 mm) can be held. Surface finishes are usually between 16 and 63 microinches (μin), but can range from 8 to 125 μin. There may be small burrs on the exit side of the cut.
Broaching works best on softer materials, such as brass, bronze, copper alloys, aluminium, graphite, hard rubbers, wood, composites, and plastic. However, it still has a good machinability rating on mild steels and free machining steels. When broaching, the machinability rating is closely related to the hardness of the material. For steels the ideal hardness range is between 16 and 24 Rockwell C (HRC); a hardness greater than HRC 35 will dull the broach quickly. Broaching is more difficult on harder materials, stainless steel and titanium, but is still possible.
Types.
Broaches can be categorized by many means:
If the broach is large enough the costs can be reduced by using a "built-up" or "modular" construction. This involves producing the broach in pieces and assembling it. If any portion wears out only that section has to be replaced, instead of the entire broach.
Most broaches are made from high speed steel (HSS) or an alloy steel; titanium nitride (TiN) coatings are common on HSS to prolong life. Except when broaching cast iron, tungsten carbide is rarely used as a tooth material because the cutting edge will crack on the first pass.
Surface broaches.
The "slab broach" is the simplest surface broach. It is a general purpose tool for cutting flat surfaces.
"Slot broaches" (G & H) are for cutting slots of various dimensions at high production rates. Slot broaching is much quicker than milling when more than one slot needs to be machined, because multiple broaches can be run through the part at the same time on the same broaching machine.
"Contour broaches" are designed to cut concave, convex, cam, contoured, and irregular shaped surfaces.
"Pot broaches" are cut the inverse of an internal broach; they cut the outside diameter of a cylindrical workpiece. They are named after the pot looking fixture in which the broaches are mounted; the fixture is often referred to as a "pot". The pot is designed to hold multiple broaching tools concentrically over its entire length. The broach is held stationary while the workpiece is pushed or pulled through it. This has replaced hobbing for some involute gears and cutting external splines and slots.
"Straddle broaches" use two slab broaches to cut parallel surfaces on opposite sides of a workpiece in one pass. This type of broaching holds closer tolerances than if the two cuts were done independently. It is named after the fact that the broaches "straddle" the workpiece on multiple sides.
Internal broaches.
"Solid" broaches are the most common type; they are made from one solid piece of material. For broaches that wear out quickly "shell" broaches are used; these broaches are similar to a solid broach, except there is a hole through the center where it mounts on an arbor. Shell broaches cost more initially, but save the cost overall if the broach must be replaced often because the pilots are on the mandrel and do not have to be reproduced with each replacement.
"Modular" broaches are commonly used for large internal broaching applications. They are similar to shell broaches in that they are a multi-piece construction. This design is used because it is cheaper to build and resharpen and is more flexible than a solid design.
A common type of internal broach is the "keyway" broach (C & D). It uses a special fixture called a "horn" to support the broach and properly locate the part with relation to the broach.
A "concentricity broach" is a special type of spline cutting broach which cuts both the minor diameter and the spline form to ensure precise concentricity.
The "cut-and-recut broach" is used to cut thin-walled workpieces. Thin-walled workpieces have a tendency to expand during cutting and then shrink afterward. This broach overcomes that problem by first broaching with the standard roughing teeth, followed by a "breathing" section, which serves as a pilot as the workpiece shrinks. The teeth after the "breathing" section then include roughing, semi-finishing, and finishing teeth.
Design.
For defining the geometry of a broach an internal type is shown below. Note that the geometries of other broaches are similar.
where:
The most important characteristic of a broach is the rise per tooth (RPT), which is how much material is removed by each tooth. The RPT varies for each section of the broach, which are the roughing section ("t"r), semi-finishing section ("t"s), and finishing section ("t"f). The roughing teeth remove most of the material so the number of roughing teeth required dictates how long the broach is. The semi-finishing teeth provide surface finish and the finishing teeth provide the final finishing. The finishing section's RPT (tf) is usually zero so that as the first finishing teeth wear the later ones continue the sizing function. For free-machining steels the RPT ranges from . For surface broaching the RPT is usually between and for diameter broaching is usually between . The exact value depends on many factors. If the cut is too big it will impart too much stress into the teeth and the workpiece; if the cut is too small the teeth rub instead of cutting. One way to increase the RPT while keeping the stresses down is with "chip breakers". They are notches in the teeth designed to break the chip and decrease the overall amount of material being removed by any given tooth (see the drawing above). For broaching to be effective, the workpiece should have more material than the final dimension of the cut.
The "hook" ("α") angle is a parameter of the material being cut. For steel, it is between 15 and 20° and for cast iron it is between 6 and 8°. The "back-off" ("γ") provides clearance for the teeth so that they don't rub on the workpiece; it is usually between 1 and 3°.
When radially broaching workpieces that require a deep cut per tooth, such as forgings or castings, a "rotor-cut" or "jump-cut" design can be used; these broaches are also known as "free egress" or "nibbling" broaches. In this design the RPT is designated to two or three rows of teeth. For the broach to work the first tooth of that cluster has a wide notch, or undercut, and then the next tooth has a smaller notch (in a three tooth design) and the final tooth has no notch. This allows for a deep cut while keeping stresses, forces, and power requirements low.
There are two different options for achieving the same goal when broaching a flat surface. The first is similar to the rotor-cut design, which is known as a "double-cut" design. Here four teeth in a row have the same RPT, but each progressive tooth takes only a portion of the cut due to notches in the teeth (see the image gallery below). The other option is known as a "progressive" broach, which completely machines the center of the workpiece and then the rest of the broach machines outward from there. All of these designs require a broach that is longer than if a standard design were used.
For some circular broaches, "burnishing teeth" are provided instead of finishing teeth. They are not really teeth, as they are just rounded discs that are oversized. This results in burnishing the hole to the proper size. This is primarily used on non-ferrous and cast iron workpieces.
The pitch defines the tooth construction, strength, and number of teeth in contact with the workpiece. The pitch is usually calculated from workpiece length, so that the broach can be designed to have at least two teeth in contact with the workpiece at any time; the pitch remains constant for all teeth of the broach. One way to calculate the pitch is:
Broaching machines.
Broaching machines are relatively simple as they only have to move the broach in a linear motion at a predetermined speed and provide a means for handling the broach automatically. Most machines are hydraulic, but a few specialty machines are mechanically driven. The machines are distinguished by whether their motion is horizontal or vertical. The choice of machine is primarily dictated by the stroke required. Vertical broaching machines rarely have a stroke longer than .
Vertical broaching machines can be designed for push broaching, pull-down broaching, pull-up broaching, or surface broaching. Push broaching machines are similar to an arbor press with a guided ram; typical capacities are 5 to 50 tons. The two ram pull-down machine is the most common type of broaching machine. This style machine has the rams under the table. Pull-up machines have the ram above the table; they usually have more than one ram. Most surface broaching is done on a vertical machine.
Horizontal broaching machines are designed for pull broaching, surface broaching, continuous broaching, and rotary broaching. Pull style machines are basically vertical machines laid on the side with a longer stroke. Surface style machines hold the broach stationary while the workpieces are clamped into fixtures that are mounted on a conveyor system. Continuous style machines are similar to the surface style machines except adapted for internal broaching.
Horizontal machines used to be much more common than vertical machines; however, today they represent just 10% of all broaching machines purchased. Vertical machines are more popular because they take up less space.
Broaching is often impossible without the specific broaching or keyway machines unless you have a system that can be used in conjunction with a modern machining centre or driven tooling lathe; these extra bits of equipment open up the possibility of producing keyways, splines and Torx through one-hit machining.
Rotary broaching.
A somewhat different design of cutting tool that can achieve the irregular hole or outer profile of a broach is called a "rotary broach" or "wobble broach". One of the biggest advantages to this type of broaching is that it does not require a broaching machine, but instead is used on lathes, milling machines, screw machines or Swiss lathes.
Rotary broaching requires two tooling components: a tool holder and a broach. The leading (cutting) edge of the broach has a contour matching the desired final shape. The broach is mounted in a special tool holder that allows it to freely rotate. The tool holder is special because it holds the tool so that its axis of rotation is inclined slightly to the axis of rotation of the work. A typical value for this misalignment is 1°. This angle is what produces a rotating edge for the broach to cut the workpiece. Either the workpiece or the tool holder is rotated. If the tool holder is rotated, the misalignment causes the broach to appear as though it is "wobbling", which is the origin of the term "wobble broach".
For internal broaching the sides of the broach are drafted inward so it becomes thinner; for external broaching the sides are drafted outward, to make the pocket bigger. This draft keeps the broach from jamming; the draft must be larger than the angle of misalignment. If the work piece rotates, the broach is pressed against it, is driven by it, and rotates synchronously with it. If the tool holder rotates, the broach is pressed against the workpiece, but is driven by the tool holder.
Ideally the tool advances at the same rate that it cuts. The ideal rate of cut is defined as:
If it advances much faster, then the tool becomes choked; conversely, if it advances much slower, then an interrupted or zig-zag cut occurs. In practice the rate of cut is slightly less than the ideal rate so that the load is released on the non-cutting edge of the tool.
There is some spiraling of the tool as it cuts, so the form at the bottom of the workpiece may be rotated with respect to the form at the top of the hole or profile. Spiraling may be undesirable because it binds the body of the tool and prevents it from cutting sharply. One solution to this is to reverse the rotation in mid cut, causing the tool to spiral in the opposite direction. If reversing the machine is not practical, then interrupting the cut is another possible solution.
In general, a rotary broach will not cut as accurately as a push or pull broach. However, the ability to use this type of cutting tool on common machine tools is highly advantageous. In addition, push or pull broaches cannot be used in a blind hole, while a rotary broach can, as long as there is sufficient space for chips at the bottom of the hole.


Harbin Aircraft Industry Group

Harbin Aircraft Industry (Group) Co., Ltd. (HAIG), often shortened to Hafei , is an aircraft manufacturing company headquartered in Pingfang District, Harbin, Heilongjiang province, China. It was previously called Harbin Aircraft Manufacturing Corporation (HAMC) in English.
The company was founded in 1952 to manufacture planes for domestic sales, but today it supplies various components for foreign aerospace companies. It is a subsidiary of the Aviation Industry Corporation of China (AVIC).
A former subsidiary of Harbin Aircraft Manufacturing Corporation — Hafei Motor, is one of the major automobile manufactures in China.
History.
The 1st factory opened in 1952 to repair aircraft and situated on the former site of the Manchuria Airplane Manufacturing Company (Manshū/Mansyuu) factory. In 1958, it began producing licensed copies of Soviet aircraft. It produced the Z-5, the Mil Mi-4 helicopter, and the H-5 light bomber — a copy of the Ilyushin Il-28.
It then produced the Harbin Y-11 a light twin-engined utility aircraft — an aircraft of its own design and not a licensed copy. The Harbin Y-12 which followed, while similar to the Y-11, was a largely new aircraft.
The most recent and important product is the Z-20 utility helicopter designed and built for the Chinese military.
Major products.
Helicopters
Bombers
Patrol/Utility Aircraft
Transports
Unmanned Aerial vehicles
Former Production


Selective laser sintering

Selective laser sintering (SLS) is an additive manufacturing (AM) technique that uses a laser as the power and heat source to sinter powdered material (typically nylon or polyamide), aiming the laser automatically at points in space defined by a 3D model, binding the material together to create a solid structure. It is similar to selective laser melting; the two are instantiations of the same concept but differ in technical details. SLS (as well as the other mentioned AM techniques) is a relatively new technology that so far has mainly been used for rapid prototyping and for low-volume production of component parts. Production roles are expanding as the commercialization of AM technology improves.
History.
Selective laser sintering (SLS) was developed and patented by Dr. Carl Deckard and academic adviser, Dr. Joe Beaman at the University of Texas at Austin in the mid-1980s, under sponsorship of DARPA. Deckard and Beaman were involved in the resulting start up company DTM, established to design and build the SLS machines. In 2001, 3D Systems, the biggest competitor to DTM and SLS technology, acquired DTM. The most recent patent regarding Deckard's SLS technology was issued January 28, 1997 and expired January 28, 2014.
A similar process was patented without being commercialized by R. F. Housholder in 1979.
As SLS requires the use of high-powered lasers it is often too expensive, not to mention possibly too dangerous, to use in the home. The associated expense and potential danger of SLS printing due to lack of commercially available laser systems with Class-1 safety enclosures means that the home market for SLS printing is not as large as the market for other additive manufacturing technologies, such as Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM).
Technology.
An additive manufacturing layer technology, SLS involves the use of a high power laser (for example, a carbon dioxide laser) to fuse small particles of plastic, metal, ceramic, or glass powders into a mass that has a desired three-dimensional shape. The laser selectively fuses powdered material by scanning cross-sections generated from a 3-D digital description of the part (for example from a CAD file or scan data) on the surface of a powder bed. After each cross-section is scanned, the powder bed is lowered by one layer thickness, a new layer of material is applied on top, and the process is repeated until the part is completed.
Because finished part density depends on peak laser power, rather than laser duration, a SLS machine typically uses a pulsed laser. The SLS machine preheats the bulk powder material in the powder bed somewhat below its melting point, to make it easier for the laser to raise the temperature of the selected regions the rest of the way to the melting point.
In contrast with SLA and FDM, which most often require special support structures to fabricate overhanging designs, SLS does not need a separate feeder for support material because the part being constructed is surrounded by unsintered powder at all times. This allows for the construction of previously impossible geometries. Also, since the machine's chamber is always filled with powder material the fabrication of multiple parts has a far lower impact on the overall difficulty and price of the design because through a technique known as 'Nesting', where multiple parts can be positioned to fit within the boundaries of the machine. One design aspect which should be observed however is that with SLS it is 'impossible' to fabricate a hollow but fully enclosed element. This is because the unsintered powder within the element could not be drained.
Since patents have started to expire, affordable home printers have become possible, but the heating process is still an obstacle, with a power consumption of up to 5 kW and temperatures having to be controlled within 2 °C for the three stages of preheating, melting and storing before removal.
Materials.
The quality of printed structures depends on the various factors include powder properties such as particle size and shape, density, roughness, and porosity. Furthermore, the particle distribution and their thermal properties affect a lot on the flowability of the powder.
Commercially-available materials used in SLS come in powder form and include, but are not limited to, polymers such as polyamides (PA), polystyrenes (PS), thermoplastic elastomers (TPE), and polyaryletherketones (PAEK). Polyamides are the most commonly used SLS materials due to their ideal sintering behavior as a semi-crystalline thermoplastic, resulting in parts with desirable mechanical properties. Polycarbonate (PC) is a material of high interest for SLS due to its high toughness, thermal stability, and flame resistance; however, such amorphous polymers processed by SLS tend to result in parts with diminished mechanical properties, dimensional accuracy and thus are limited to applications where these are of low importance. Metal materials are not commonly used in SLS since the development of selective laser melting.
Powder Production.
Powder particles are typically produced by cryogenic grinding in a ball mill at temperatures well below the glass transition temperature of the material, which can be reached by running the grinding process with added cryogenic materials such as dry ice (dry grinding), or mixtures of liquid nitrogen and organic solvents (wet grinding). The process can result in spherical or irregular shaped particles as low as five microns in diameter. Powder particle size distributions are typically gaussian and range from 15 to 100 microns in diameter, although this can be customized to suit different layer thicknesses in the SLS process. Chemical binder coatings can be applied to the powder surfaces post-process; these coatings aid in the sintering process and are especially helpful to form composite material parts such as with alumina particles coated with thermoset epoxy resin.
Sintering mechanisms.
Sintering in SLS primarily occurs in the liquid state when the powder particles forms a micro-melt layer at the surface, resulting in a reduction in viscosity and the formation of a concave radial bridge between particles, known as necking, due to the material's response to lower its surface energy. In the case of coated powders, the purpose of the laser is to melt the surface coating which will act as a binder. Solid state sintering is also a contributing factor, albeit with a much reduced influence, and occurs at temperatures below the melting temperature of the material. The principal driving force behind the process is again the material's response to lower its free energy state resulting in diffusion of molecules across particles.
Applications.
SLS technology is in wide use at many industries around the world due to its ability to easily make complex geometries with little to no added manufacturing effort. Its most common application is in prototype parts early in the design cycle such as for investment casting patterns, automotive hardware, and wind tunnel models. SLS is also increasingly being used in limited-run manufacturing to produce end-use parts for aerospace, military, medical, pharmaceutical, and electronics hardware. On a shop floor, SLS can be used for rapid manufacturing of tooling, jigs, and fixtures. Because the process requires the use of a laser and other expensive, bulky equipment, it is not suited for personal or residential use; however, it has found applications in art [EOS artist citation with images].


Xeros Washing Machine

The Xeros Washing Machine is a new kind of clothes washing technology that cleans laundry using primary nylon polymer beads and very little water. The machine releases nylon polymer beads into a main compartment where laundry is washed. These beads are small and super absorbent which allows them to go through clothing to absorb dirt and stains. This technology is invented by University of Leeds professor Stephen Burkinshaw, who currently has partnership with Xeros Ltd. in perfecting this technology.
Technology.
The Washing Machine cleans using nylon polymer beads and one-tenth of the water used by traditional washing machine. Instead of cleaning clothes with water, the machine uses reusable nylon for its cleaning process. Nylon polymer beads are more absorbent than water, which allows them to absorb stains right into their core.
The Washing Machine creates a humid condition in the clothes compartment. This process causes the polymer chains in the nylon to separate slightly, making the beads absorbent. The beads then absorb and lock the stains in their core.
Process.
First, laundry is inserted into the compartment of the machine. The machine then releases nylon polymer beads and water containing detergent onto the garments. The washing cycle begins and the beads begin to absorb stains. After the cycle ends, the nylon polymer beads are then separated by a drum in drum separation process that is projected to remove 99.95% of the beads; any remaining beads can either be shaken off or removed with the use of a vacuum wand (included with the purchase of the machine).
Inventor/Developer.
The washing machine’s system is based on Professor Stephen Burkinshaw’s research. Burkinshaw spent his time at the University of Leeds focusing on the structure of nylon polymer beads. He discovered that nylon is the best material for absorbing tiny particles, and together with his team of researchers came up with the concept of using nylon beads to remove stains from clothes.
Professor Stephen Burkinshaw and his team of researchers are currently in partnership with Xeros Ltd. and are planning to commercially produce waterless washing machines by the end of 2011.
Environmental and Energy Costs.
According to Xeros Ltd., its technology uses 90% less water than the conventional washing machine. While a front-loading washer uses about 20–25 gallons of water, the Xeros Washing Machine is estimated to use as little as one gallon of water.
The machine is also projected to save consumers up to 30% for operating costs in electricity and water.
Even though this device saves on operating costs, compared with other washing machines, the initial retail price of the machine is still unknown and could outweigh the saved operating cost over the product's lifetime.
Ranking.
The Xeros Washing Machine was ranked one of The 50 Best Inventions of 2010 by www.time.com.