Shear (sheet metal)

There are many types of shears used to shear or cut sheet metal.
Types.
Alligator shear.
An alligator shear, historically known as a lever shear and sometimes as a crocodile shear, is a metal-cutting shear with a hinged jaw, powered by a flywheel or hydraulic cylinder. Alligator shears are generally set up as stand-alone shears; however, there are types for excavators. The jaw size can range from 4 to 36 in (100 to 910 mm) long. They are generally used to cut ferrous members, such as rebar, pipe, angle iron, or I-beams.
Bench shear.
A "bench shear", also known as a "lever shear", is a bench mounted shear with a compound mechanism to increase the mechanical advantage. It is usually used for cutting rough shapes out of medium-sized pieces of sheet metal, but cannot do delicate work. For the small shear, it mostly designed for a wide field of applications. Light weight and easy efficient operation, yet very sturdy in construction. The cutting blades fitted are carefully and accurately ground to give easy, clean quick cuts, and free of burrs. These special features help the operators save a great deal of their energy. But some shearing machines can cut sheet bar and flat bar up to 10mm. It is electrically welded together to make it a sturdy stable unit capable to withstand highest stresses due to heavy duty usage. The footplates are reinforced with bracing angles so that they give firm stability to the shear. The machine is provided with section knives with sliding blades which can be adjusted by hand to make 90 cuts on angles and T-sections of different sizes as well as with openings for cutting round and square bars.
Guillotine.
The machine used is called a "squaring shear", "power shear", or "guillotine". The machine may be foot powered, less commonly hand powered, or mechanically or hydraulically powered. It works by first clamping the material with a ram. A moving blade then comes down across a fixed blade to shear the material. For larger shears the moving blade may be set on an angle or "rocked" in order to shear the material progressively from one side to the other; this angle is referred to as the "shear angle." Setting the blade on an angle decreases the amount of force required, but increases the stroke. A 5-degree shear angle decreases the force by about 20% . The amount of energy used is still the same. The moving blade may also be inclined 0.5 to 2.5°, called the rake angle, to keep the material from becoming wedged between the blades. However, raking the blade compromises the squareness of the edge. The machine consists of a shear table, work-holding device, upper and lower blades, and a gauging device. The shear table is the part of the machinery that the workpiece rests on whilst being shorn. The work-holding device is used to hold the workpiece in place and keep it from moving or buckling while under stress. The upper and lower blades are the piece of machinery that actually do the cutting, while the gauging device is used to ensure that the workpiece gets worked where it is supposed to be.
The design of press tools is an engineering compromise. A sharp edge, strength, and durability are ideal, but a sharp edge is not very strong or durable, so blades for metal work tend to be "square-edged" rather than "knife-edged". Typical workpiece materials include aluminum, brass, bronze, and mild steel because of their outstanding shearability ratings. Stainless steel is not sheared as often due to its tendency to work-harden.
Other geometric possibilities include the squaring shear, angle shear, bow-tie shear and bar shear. All of these have many different uses and are all used regularly in certain manufacturing fields.
Power shears.
A power shear is electrically or pneumatically powered liderwally a hand tool designed to blank large pieces of sheet metal. They are designed to cut straight lines and relatively large radius curves. They are advantageous over a bandsaw because there is not a size limit. Large versions can cut sheet metal up to 12 gauge.
An alternative to the hand tools are hydraulically powered tools attached to heavy machinery. They are usually used to cut materials that are too bulky to be transported to a cutting facility, too big or dangerous for the hand tools and are stored at remote locations (e.g. mines, forests).
Throatless shear.
A throatless shear is a cutting tool used to make complex straight and curved cuts in sheet metal. The throatless shear takes its name from the fact that the metal can be freely moved around the cutting blade (it does not have a throat down which metal must be fed), allowing great flexibility in shapes that can be cut.
Tin snips.
Snips, also known as shears, are hand tools used to cut sheet metal and other tough webs. It is a cutting tool. Workers use various types of snips, either straight or blend one be obtained. The straight or bent being not only for straight cuts but for inside of the curvature or concave curvature too. There are two broad categories: tinner's snips, which are similar to common scissors, and compound-action snips, which use a compound leverage handle system to increase the mechanical advantage.


Gemini Group

Gemini Group, Inc. is a supplier of engineered plastic and metal products to OEM's and Tier 1 suppliers. The company operates internationally from its headquarters in Bad Axe, Michigan in the United States.
History.
Gemini Group was established in 1972 by Bill Roberts and Frank Peplinski.
Initial business offerings included sewing seatbelts and blow molding seatbelt covers for automotive Tier 1 companies in the United States and Mexico. When customers began moving operations to Mexico, the company diversified operations and a plastic extrusion division was born.
In 1979, the company partnered with two precision machining companies and a production machining company to form a manufacturing alliance.
During the next two decades, the alliance continued to grow through the acquisition of a two-shot injection moulding company, the creation of a blow molding company, the development of an automotive interior trim manufacturing operation, and the addition of an aluminum extrusion tooling company.
Each of the plastics and metals operations operated individually until 1996, at which time they united under one parent company, Gemini Group, Inc.
The company is one of the largest employers in Huron County, Michigan, where it operates four plastics plants and three metals plants. Outside of Michigan, Gemini Group operates facilities in Muscle Shoals, Alabama, El Paso, Texas, and Saltillo, Mexico.
One of the former owners of Gemini Group, Bill Roberts, died on May 3, 2007.
Operations.
The Company is structured as follows:
Recognition from suppliers.
In 2009, Johnson Controls presented Gemini Group with a Bronze 2009 Supplier Performance
Award. In 2007, Johnson Controls gave Gemini Group a Gold Supplier Performance Award and in 2006, a Silver award.


Supply chain optimization

Supply-chain optimization (SCO) aims to ensure the optimal operation of a manufacturing and distribution supply chain. This includes the optimal placement of inventory within the supply chain, minimizing operating costs including manufacturing costs, transportation costs, and distribution costs. Optimization often involves the application of mathematical modelling techniques using computer software. It is often considered to be part of supply chain engineering, although the latter is mainly focused on mathematical modelling approaches, whereas supply chain optimization can also be undertaken using qualitative, management based approaches.
Applications.
Typically, supply-chain managers aim to maximize the profitable operation of their manufacturing and distribution supply chain. This could include measures like maximizing gross margin return on inventory invested (GMROII) (balancing the cost of inventory at all points in the supply chain with availability to the customer), minimizing total operating expenses (transportation, inventory and manufacturing), or maximizing gross profit of products distributed through the supply chain. Supply-chain optimization addresses the general supply-chain problem of delivering products to customers at the lowest total cost and highest profit, trading off the costs of inventory, transportation, distributing and manufacturing. In addition, optimizing storage and transportation costs by means of product / package size is one of the easiest and most cost effective initial implementations available to save money in product distribution.
Supply-chain optimization has applications in all industries manufacturing and/or distributing goods, including retail, industrial products, and consumer packaged goods (CPG).
Approaches and solutions.
The classic supply-chain approach has been to try to forecast future inventory demand as "accurately" as possible, by applying statistical trending and "best fit" techniques based on historic demand and predicted future events. The advantage of this approach is that it can be applied to data aggregated at a fairly high level (e.g. category of merchandise, weekly, by group of customers), requiring modest database sizes and small amounts of manipulation. Unpredictability in demand is then managed by setting safety stock levels, so that for example a distributor might hold two weeks of supply of an article with steady demand but twice that amount for an article where the demand is more erratic. Universally accepted statistical methods such as Standard Deviation and Mean Absolute Deviation are often used for calculating safety stock levels.
Then, using this forecast demand, a supply-chain manufacturing Production Planning and distribution plan is created to manufacture and distribute products to meet this forecast demand at lowest cost (or highest profitability). This plan typically addresses the following business concerns:
- How much of each product should be manufactured each day?
- How much of each product should be made at each manufacturing plant?
- Which manufacturing plants should re-stock which warehouses with which products?
- What transportation modes should be used for warehouse replenishment and customer deliveries?
The technical ability to record and manipulate larger databases more quickly has now enabled a new breed of supply-chain-optimization solutions to emerge, which are capable of forecasting at a much more "granular" level (for example, per article per customer per day). Some vendors are applying "best fit" models to this data, to which safety stock rules are applied, while other vendors have started to apply stochastic techniques to the optimization problem. They calculate the most desirable inventory level per article for each individual store for their retail customers, trading off cost of inventory against expectation of sale. The resulting optimized inventory level is known as a "model stock". Meeting the model stock level is also an area requiring optimization. Because the movement of product to meet the model stock, called the stock transfer, needs to be in economic shipping units such as complete unit loads or a full truckload, there are a series of decisions that must be made. Many existing distribution-requirements-planning systems round the quantity up to the nearest full shipping unit. For example, the creation of truckloads as economic shipment units requires optimization systems to ensure that axle constraints and space constraints are met while loading can be achieved in a damage-free way. This is generally achieved by continuing to add time-phased requirements until the loads meet some minimum weight or cube. More sophisticated optimization algorithms take into account stackability constraints, load and unloading rules, palletizing logic, warehouse efficiency and load stability with an objective to reduce transportation spend (minimize 'shipping air').
Optimization solutions are typically part of, or linked to, the company's replenishment systems distribution requirements planning, so that orders can be automatically generated to maintain the model stock profile. The algorithms used are similar to those used in making financial investment decisions; the analogy is quite precise, as inventory can be considered to be an investment in prospective return on sales.
Supply-chain optimization may include refinements at various stages of the product lifecycle, so that new, ongoing and obsolete items are optimized in different ways, and adaptations for different classes of products, for example seasonal merchandise. It should also factor in risks and unexpected constraints that often affect a global supply chain's efficiency, including sudden spikes in fuel costs, material shortages, natural disasters such as hurricanes, and instability of global politics.
Whilst most software vendors are offering supply-chain optimization as a packaged solution and integrated in ERP software, some vendors are running the software on behalf of their clients as application service providers.
Claimed advantages.
Firstly, the techniques being applied to supply-chain optimization are claimed to be "academically credible". Most of the specialist companies that have been created as a result of research projects are in academic institutions or consulting firms: and they point to research articles, white papers, academic advisors and industry reviews to support their credibility.
Secondly, the techniques are claimed to be "commercially effective". The companies publish case studies that show how clients have achieved significant and measurable benefits in terms of reduced inventory and lower logistics cost levels, while typically maintaining or improving customer service through better predictability and improved availability. Kokoris notes that a supply chain optimization initiative can represent "an untapped opportunity to realize increased short and long-term cash flows and cost savings". However, there is limited published data outside of these case studies, and a reluctance for some practitioners to publish details of their successes (which may be commercially sensitive), therefore hard evidence is difficult to come by. Last, not least, independent advisors or benchmarks show the stickiness and benefits achieved in specific sub-sectors.
The different routines in supply-chain optimization have reached mature status and allow companies to gain competitive advantage by increased effectiveness and measurable savings.
Direct plant shipments.
Also known as direct shipment, direct plant shipment (DPS) is a method of delivering goods from the plant to the customer directly. At the same time regional centers, strategically located, provide overnight shipments to the maximum number of customers. This delivery scheme reduces transportation and storage costs.


Spin welding

Spin welding is a friction welding technique used on thermoplastic materials, in which the parts to be welded are heated by friction. The heat may be generated by turning on a lathe, a drill press, or a milling machine, where one part is driven by the chuck, and the other is held stationary with the spinning part driven against it. This is continued until the heat of friction between the parts reaches a sufficient level for the parts to weld. The stationary part is then released to spin as well, while pressure is applied along the axis of rotation, holding the parts together as they cool.
In the 1970s, Mattel sold a toy called "Spinwelder", which consisted of a high-speed motor in a handle that spun a small plastic welding rod against a plastic joint to form a bond. Mattel sold construction kits sold for the purpose of assembling with the Spinwelder.


Focal surface

For a surface in three dimension the focal surface, surface of centers or evolute is formed by taking the centers of the curvature spheres, which are the tangential spheres whose radii are the reciprocals of one of the principal curvatures at the point of tangency. Equivalently it is the surface formed by the centers of the circles which osculate the curvature lines.
As the principal curvatures are the eigenvalues of the second fundamental form, there are two at each point, and these give rise to two points of the focal surface on each normal direction to the surface. Away from umbilical points, these two points of the focal surface are distinct; at umbilical points the two sheets come together. When the surface has a ridge the focal surface has a cuspidal edge, three such edges pass through an elliptical umbilic and only one through a hyperbolic umbilic. At points where the Gaussian curvature is zero, one sheet of the focal surface will have a point at infinity corresponding to the zero principal curvature.
If formula_1 is a point of the given surface, formula_2 the unit normal and formula_3 the principal curvatures at formula_1, then
are the corresponding two points of the focal surface.


ISO 13399

ISO 13399 (Cutting tool data representation and exchange) is an international technical standard by ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) for the computer-interpretable representation and exchange of industrial product data about cutting tools and toolholders. The objective is to provide a mechanism capable of describing product data regarding cutting tools, independent from any particular system. The nature of this description makes it suitable not only for neutral file exchange (free of proprietary format constraints), but also as a basis for implementing and sharing product databases and archiving, regarding cutting tools.
Typically ISO 13399 can be used to exchange data between computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), computer-aided engineering (CAE), tool management software, product data management (PDM/EDM), manufacturing resource planning (MRP) or enterprise resource planning (ERP), and other computer-aided technologies (CAx) and systems.
The usage of the ISO 13399 standard will simplify the exchange of data for cutting tools. Expected results are lower cost for managing the information about tools and a more accurate and efficient usage of manufacturing resources. The ISO 13399 has been developed with contributions from AB Sandvik Coromant, the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, Kennametal Inc, and Ferroday Ltd.
ISO 13399 is developed and maintained by the ISO technical committee TC 29, Small tools, sub-committee WG34. Like other ISO and IEC standards ISO 13399 is copyright by ISO and is not freely available. Other standards developed and maintained by ISO TC29/WG34 are:
Structure.
ISO 13399 is divided into several parts:
ISO 13399 defines a data model for cutting tool information using the EXPRESS modelling language. Application data according to this data model can be exchanged either by a STEP-File, STEP-XML or via shared database access using SDAI.
The dictionary (reference data library) of ISO 13399 currently uses PLIB (ISO 13584, IEC 61360).
See also.
List of ISO standards 12000–13999#ISO_13000_–_ISO_13999


Hot air solder leveling

HASL or HAL (for hot air (solder) leveling) is a type of finish used on printed circuit boards (PCBs).
The PCB is typically dipped into a bath of molten solder so that all exposed copper surfaces are covered by solder. Excess solder is removed by passing the PCB between hot air knives.
HASL can be applied with or without lead (Pb), but only lead-free HASL is RoHS compliant.


Package cushioning

Package cushioning is used to protect items during shipment. Vibration and impact shock during shipment and loading/unloading are controlled by cushioning to reduce the chance of product damage.
Cushioning is usually inside a shipping container such as a corrugated box. It is designed to absorb shock by crushing and deforming, and to dampen vibration, rather than transmitting the shock and vibration to the protected item. Depending on the specific situation, package cushioning is often between thick.
Internal packaging materials are also used for functions other than cushioning, such as to immobilize the products in the box and lock them in place, or to fill a void.
Design factors.
When designing packaging the choice of cushioning depends on many factors, including but not limited to:
Design for shock protection.
Proper performance of cushioning is dependent on its proper design and use. It is often best to use a trained packaging engineer, reputable vendor, consultant, or independent laboratory.
An engineer needs to know the severity of shock (drop height, etc.) to protect against. This can be based on an existing specification, published industry standards and publications, field studies, etc.
Knowledge of the product to be packaged is critical. Field experience may indicate the types of damage previously experienced. Laboratory analysis can help quantify the fragility of the item, often reported in g's. Engineering judgment can also be an excellent starting point. Sometimes a product can be made more rugged or can be supported to make it less susceptible to breakage.
The amount of shock transmitted by a particular cushioning material is largely dependent on the thickness of the cushion, the drop height, and the load-bearing area of the cushion (static loading). A cushion must deform under shock for it to function. If a product is on a large load-bearing area, the cushion may not deform and will not cushion the shock. If the load-bearing area is too small, the product may “bottom out” during a shock; the shock is not cushioned. Engineers use “cushion curves” to choose the best thickness and load-bearing area for a cushioning material. Often two to three inches (50 – 75 mm) of cushioning are needed to protect fragile items.
Computer simulations and finite element analysis are also being used. Some correlations to laboratory drop tests have been successful.
Cushion design requires care to prevent shock amplification caused by the cushioned shock pulse duration being close to the natural frequency of the cushioned item.
Design for vibration protection.
The process for vibration protection (or isolation) involves similar considerations as that for shock. Cushions can be thought of as performing like springs. Depending on cushion thickness and load-bearing area and on the forcing vibration frequency, the cushion may 1) not have any influence on input vibration, 2) amplify the input vibration at resonance, or 3) isolate the product from the vibration. Proper design is critical for cushion performance.
Evaluation of finished package.
Verification and validation of prototype designs are required. The design of a package and its cushioning is often an iterative process involving several designs, evaluations, redesigns, etc. Several (ASTM, ISTA, and others) published package testing protocols are available to evaluate the performance of a proposed package. Field performance should be monitored for feedback into the design process.


Cleco (fastener)

A cleco, also spelled generically cleko, is a temporary fastener developed by the Cleveland Pneumatic Tool Company. Widely used in the manufacture and repair of aluminum-skinned aircraft, it is used to temporarily fasten sheets of material together, or to hold parts such as stiffeners, frames etc together, before they are permanently joined.
Operation.
Clecos are installed in holes drilled through the workpieces (usually holes intended for permanent fasteners installed later). They expand on the far side of the workpieces and then draw and clamp them together while maintaining the desired alignment and preventing distortion of the pieces. Clecos should fit snugly in their holes to prevent shifting of the workpieces and maintain the alignment of fastener holes which do not have Clecos in them. They are blind fasteners; so they can be installed in assemblies where the worker does not have access to the other side. If permanent fasteners are installed in Cleco holes, a Cleco will be removed when its hole is needed. If the workpieces are bonded or welded, then the Cleco holes may need to be filled later.
Fastener and tool.
The basic type consists of a steel cylinder body, a plunger on the top, a spring, a pair of step-cut locks, and a spreader bar. A special type of pliers are used to push in the spring-loaded plunger. This pushes down on the step-cut locks, which pushes them away from the spreader bars and allows them to come together. This allows the user to slip the locking jaws through a hole made through multiple sheets of material. When the plunger is released the spring pulls the locking jaws back towards the spreader bar, which separates the two jaws. The material sheets are then squeezed in between the step-cut area and the steel cylinder. This keeps the holes in the separate sheets aligned.
Design variations.
Cleco-type fasteners are also available with a threaded mechanism to draw the spreader bar up. Clecos of this type take more time to install and remove, but can pull parts together more tightly than the spring-type Clecos. They are commonly available with a wingnut for hand tightening, or with a simple hex nut so that they may be spaced more closely together. In either case they will usually have a hexagonal body that may be better gripped to tighten or release the spreader bar.
Sizes and color-coding.
Regardless of their form, they are typically color-coded for ready identification of their size.


Marking gauge

A marking gauge, also known as a scratch gauge, is used in woodworking and metalworking to mark out lines for cutting or other operations. The purpose of the gauge is to scribe a line parallel to a reference edge or surface. It is used in joinery and sheetmetal operations.
The gauge consists of a beam, a headstock, and a scribing or marking implement, typically a pin, knife, pen or wheel. The headstock slides along the beam, and is locked in place by various means: a locking screw, cam lever, or a wedge. The marking implement is fixed to one end of the beam.
Types.
The marking implement is chosen depending upon the operation to be performed. Some marking gauges have the capability to allow a number of implements to be fitted, others do not; and a woodworker will often have a number of different types. A steel pin is used when scribing with the grain. A steel knife is used when scribing across the grain. The pen or pencil is used when the woodworker does not wish the surface to be marred. Generally speaking, the pin and knife yield more accurate marking than do the pen or pencil. It is also used to mark parallel lines to the face side and edge side.
Variations.
The style of gauge which uses a knife instead of a pin is often described as a "cutting gauge". This tool is sometimes used to slightly "mark" the wood before a cut to prevent tearout later when doing the main cut with for example a circular saw.
Other variations include a "panel gauge" which has a longer beam and larger headstock for scribing lines that are further from the reference edge. A mortise gauge has two pins that can be adjusted relative to each other at the end of the beam. This gauge is used to scribe two lines simultaneously and is most commonly used to lay out mortise and tenon joinery.


2019–20 UEFA Europa League qualifying phase and play-off round (Main Path)

This page summarises the Main Path matches of 2019–20 UEFA Europa League qualifying phase and play-off round.
Times are CEST , as listed by UEFA (local times, if different, are in parentheses).
Preliminary round.
Summary.

Notes

Matches.
"2–2 on aggregate. Progrès Niederkorn won on away goals."
"Endorgany won 3–1 on aggregate."
"Europa won 6–3 on aggregate."
"Ballymena United won 2–0 on aggregate."
"St Joseph's won 3–1 on aggregate."
"KÍ Klaksvík won 9–1 on aggregate."
"Cliftonville won 4–0 on aggregate."
First qualifying round.
Summary.

Notes

Matches.
"Malmö FF won 11–0 on aggregate."
"Connah's Quay Nomads won 3–2 on aggregate."
"KuPS won 3–1 on aggregate."
"Vaduz won 2–1 on aggregate."
"Shamrock Rovers won 4–3 on aggregate."
"Ordabasy won 3–0 on aggregate."
"Legia Warsaw won 3–0 on aggregate."
"CSKA Sofia won 4–0 on aggregate."
"3–3 on aggregate. Gżira United won on away goals."
"Flora won 4–2 on aggregate."
"Maccabi Haifa won 5–2 on aggregate."
"Debrecen won 4–1 on aggregate."
"Čukarički won 8–0 on aggregate."
"1–1 on aggregate. Jeunesse Esch won on away goals."
"FCSB won 4–1 on aggregate."
"Crusaders won 5–2 on aggregate."
"Brøndby won 4–3 on aggregate."
"Molde won 7–1 on aggregate."
"Rangers won 10–0 on aggregate."
"Progrès Niederkorn won 3–2 on aggregate."
"Levski Sofia won 4–0 on aggregate."
"Zrinjski Mostar won 6–0 on aggregate."
"Neftçi Baku won 9–0 on aggregate."
"Fehérvár won 5–1 on aggregate."
"Shakhtyor Soligorsk won 2–0 on aggregate."
"Olimpija Ljubljana won 4–3 on aggregate."
"Honvéd won 4–2 on aggregate."
"Alashkert won 6–1 on aggregate."
"2–2 on aggregate. Spartak Trnava won 3–2 on penalties."
"Chikhura Sachkhere won 4–2 on aggregate."
"Dinamo Tbilisi won 7–0 on aggregate."
"Kairat won 4–2 on aggregate."
"3–3 on aggregate. DAC Dunajská Streda won on away goals."
"Apollon Limassol won 6–0 on aggregate."
"Ventspils won 3–1 on aggregate."
"4–4 on aggregate. Stjarnan won on away goals."
"Haugesund won 6–1 on aggregate."
"1–1 on aggregate. KÍ Klaksvík won on away goals."
"Liepāja won 3–2 on aggregate."
"IFK Norrköping won 4–1 on aggregate."
"Aberdeen won 4–2 on aggregate."
"Domžale won 5–3 on aggregate."
"Hapoel Be'er Sheva won 2–1 on aggregate."
"Budućnost Podgorica won 6–1 on aggregate."
"Universitatea Craiova won 6–4 on aggregate."
"Pyunik won 5–4 on aggregate."
"AEK Larnaca won 2–0 on aggregate."
Second qualifying round.
Summary.

Notes

Matches.
"IFK Norrköping won 3–0 on aggregate."
"Hapoel Be'er Sheva won 3–1 on aggregate."
"Neftçi Baku won 4–0 on aggregate."
"Espanyol won 7–1 on aggregate."
"Atromitos won 5–3 on aggregate."
"Haugesund won 3–2 on aggregate."
"AEK Larnaca won 7–0 on aggregate."
"Legia Warsaw won 1–0 on aggregate."
"Zrinjski Mostar won 3–2 on aggregate."
"Pyunik won 2–1 on aggregate."
"Brøndby won 5–3 on aggregate."
"Vaduz won 2–1 on aggregate."
"Dinamo Tbilisi won 5–0 on aggregate."
"Yeni Malatyaspor 3–2 on aggregate."
"Eintracht Frankfurt won 4–2 on aggregate."
"Malmö FF won 5–4 on aggregate."
"Molde won 3–1 on aggregate."
"Aberdeen won 6–1 on aggregate."
"Gent won 7–5 on aggregate."
"Zorya Luhansk won 4–1 on aggregate."
"1–1 on aggregate. CSKA Sofia won 4–3 on penalties.
"Torino won 7–1 on aggregate."
"Luzern won 2–0 on aggregate."
"Rangers won 2–0 on aggregate."
"Ventspils won 6–2 on aggregate."
"Strasbourg won 4–3 on aggregate."
"Mladá Boleslav won 4–3 on aggregate."
"Apollon Limassol won 4–3 on aggregate."
"AZ won 3–0 on aggregate."
"FCSB won 5–3 on aggregate."
"3–3 on aggregate. Lokomotiv Plovdiv won on away goals."
"Wolverhampton Wanderers won 6–1 on aggregate."
"Aris won 1–0 on aggregate."
"Vitória de Guimarães won 5–0 on aggregate."
"0–0 on aggregate. Universitatea Craiova won 3–1 on penalties."
"Shakhtyor Soligorsk won 2–0 on aggregate."
"Partizan won 4–0 on aggregate."
Third qualifying round.
Summary.

Matches.
"Hapoel Be'er Sheva won 4–2 on aggregate."
"Torino won 6–1 on aggregate."
"2–2 on aggregate. Antwerp won on away goals."
"Apollon Limassol won 5–2 on aggregate."
"Feyenoord won 5–1 on aggregate."
"Braga won 7–3 on aggregate."
"Molde won 4–3 on aggregate."
"Strasbourg won 2–0 on aggregate."
"Spartak Moscow won 5–3 on aggregate."
"FCSB won 1–0 on aggregate."
"Wolverhampton Wanderers won 8–0 on aggregate."
"Rangers won 7–3 on aggregate."
"AZ won 4–0 on aggregate."
"Gent won 4–1 on aggregate."
"Legia Warsaw won 2–0 on aggregate."
"PSV Eindhoven won 1–0 on aggregate."
"Rijeka won 4–0 on aggregate."
"Vitória de Guimarães won 9–0 on aggregate."
"Eintracht Frankfurt won 6–0 on aggregate."
"Partizan won 3–2 on aggregate."
"Malmö FF won 3–1 on aggregate."
"Zorya Luhansk won 2–1 on aggregate."
"Bnei Yehuda won 4–3 on aggregate."
"Espanyol won 6–0 on aggregate."
"Trabzonspor won 4–3 on aggregate."
"AEK Athens won 3–1 on aggregate."
Play-off round.
Summary.

Matches.
"Wolverhampton Wanderers won 5–3 on aggregate."
"Rangers won 1–0 on aggregate."
"Vitória de Guimarães won 1–0 on aggregate."
"PSV Eindhoven won 7–0 on aggregate."
"3–3 on aggregate. Trabzonspor won on away goals."
"Feyenoord won 6–0 on aggregate."
"Gent won 3–2 on aggregate."
"Espanyol won 5–3 on aggregate."
"Partizan won 3–2 on aggregate."
"Braga won 3–1 on aggregate."
"Malmö FF won 4–0 on aggregate."
"Eintracht Frankfurt won 3–1 on aggregate."
"AZ won 5–2 on aggregate."


Industrial and production engineering

Industrial and production engineering (IPE) is an interdisciplinary engineering discipline that includes manufacturing technology, engineering sciences, management science, and optimization of complex processes, systems, or organizations. It is concerned with the understanding and application of engineering procedures in manufacturing processes and production methods. Industrial engineering dates back all the way to the industrial revolution, initiated in 1700s by Sir Adam Smith, Henry Ford, Eli Whitney, Frank Gilbreth and Lilian Gilbreth, Henry Gantt, F.W. Taylor, etc. After the 1970s, industrial and production engineering developed worldwide and started to widely use automation and robotics. Industrial and production engineering includes three areas: Mechanical engineering (where the production engineering comes from), industrial engineering, and management science.
The objective is to improve efficiency, drive up effectiveness of manufacturing, quality control, and to reduce cost while making their products more attractive and marketable. Industrial engineering is concerned with the development, improvement, and implementation of integrated systems of people, money, knowledge, information, equipment, energy, materials, as well as analysis and synthesis. The principles of IPE include mathematical, physical and social sciences and methods of engineering design to specify, predict, and evaluate the results to be obtained from the systems or processes currently in place or being developed. The target of production engineering is to complete the production process in the smoothest, most-judicious and most-economic way. Production engineering also overlaps substantially with manufacturing engineering and industrial engineering. The concept of production engineering is interchangeable with manufacturing engineering.
As for education, undergraduates normally start off by taking courses such as physics, mathematics (calculus, linear analysis, differential equations), computer science, and chemistry. Undergraduates will take more major specific courses like production and inventory scheduling, process management, CAD/CAM manufacturing, ergonomics, etc., towards the later years of their undergraduate careers. In some parts of the world, universities will offer Bachelor's in Industrial and Production Engineering. However, most universities in the U.S. will offer them separately. Various career paths that may follow for industrial and production engineers include: Plant Engineers, Manufacturing Engineers, Quality Engineers, Process Engineers and industrial managers, project management, manufacturing, production and distribution, From the various career paths people can take as an industrial and production engineer, most average a starting salary of at least $50,000.
History.
Industrial Revolution.
The roots of the Industrial Engineering Profession date back to the Industrial Revolution. The technologies that helped mechanize traditional manual operations in the textile industry including the Flying shuttle, the Spinning jenny, and perhaps most importantly the Steam engine generated Economies of scale that made Mass production in centralized locations attractive for the first time. The concept of the production system had its genesis in the factories created by these innovations.
Specialization of labor.
Adam Smith's concepts of Division of Labour and the "Invisible Hand" of capitalism introduced in his treatise "The Wealth of Nations" motivated many of the technological innovators of the Industrial revolution to establish and implement factory systems. The efforts of James Watt and Matthew Boulton led to the first integrated machine manufacturing facility in the world, including the implementation of concepts such as cost control systems to reduce waste and increase productivity and the institution of skills training for craftsmen.
Charles Babbage became associated with Industrial engineering because of the concepts he introduced in his book "On the Economy of Machinery and Manufacturers" which he wrote as a result of his visits to factories in England and the United States in the early 1800s. The book includes subjects such as the time required to perform a specific task, the effects of subdividing tasks into smaller and less detailed elements, and the advantages to be gained from repetitive tasks.
Interchangeable parts.
Eli Whitney and Simeon North proved the feasibility of the notion of Interchangeable parts in the manufacture of muskets and pistols for the US Government. Under this system, individual parts were mass-produced to tolerances to enable their use in any finished product. The result was a significant reduction in the need for skill from specialized workers, which eventually led to the industrial environment to be studied later.
Modern development.
Industrial engineering.
In 1960 to 1975, with the development of decision support systems in supply such as the Material requirements planning (MRP), people can emphasize the timing issue (inventory, production, compounding, transportation, etc.) of industrial organization. Israeli scientist Dr. Jacob Rubinovitz installed the CMMS program developed in IAI and Control-Data (Israel) in 1976 in South Africa and worldwide.
In the seventies, with the penetration of Japanese management theories such as Kaizen and Kanban, Japan realized very high levels of quality and productivity. These theories improved issues of quality, delivery time, and flexibility. Companies in the west realized the great impact of Kaizen and started implementing their own Continuous improvement programs.
In the nineties, following the global industry globalization process, the emphasis was on supply chain management, and customer-oriented business process design. Theory of constraints developed by an Israeli scientist Eliyahu M. Goldratt (1985) is also a significant milestone in the field.
Manufacturing (production) engineering.
Modern manufacturing engineering studies include all intermediate processes required for the production and integration of a product's components.Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term "fabrication" for these processes.
Automation is used in different processes of manufacturing such as machining and welding. Automated manufacturing refers to the application of automation to produce goods in a factory. The main advantages of automated manufacturing for the manufacturing process are realized with effective implementation of automation and include: higher consistency and quality, reduction of lead times, simplification of production, reduced handling, improved work flow, and improved worker morale.
Robotics is the application of mechatronics and automation to create robots, which are often used in manufacturing to perform tasks that are dangerous, unpleasant, or repetitive. These robots may be of any shape and size, but all are preprogrammed and interact physically with the world. To create a robot, an engineer typically employs kinematics (to determine the robot's range of motion) and mechanics (to determine the stresses within the robot). Robots are used extensively in manufacturing engineering.
Robots allow businesses to save money on labor, perform tasks that are either too dangerous or too precise for humans to perform economically, and to ensure better quality. Many companies employ assembly lines of robots, and some factories are so robotized that they can run by themselves. Outside the factory, robots have been employed in bomb disposal, space exploration, and many other fields. Robots are also sold for various residential applications.
Overview.
Industrial engineering.
Industrial engineering is the branch of engineering that involves figuring out how to make or do things better. Industrial engineers are concerned with reducing production costs, increasing efficiency, improving the quality of products and services, ensuring worker health and safety, protecting the environment and complying with government regulations.
The various fields and topics that industrial engineers are involved with include:
Examples of where industrial engineering might be used include flow process charting, process mapping, designing an assembly workstation, strategizing for various operational logistics, consulting as an efficiency expert, developing a new financial algorithm or loan system for a bank, streamlining operation and emergency room location or usage in a hospital, planning complex distribution schemes for materials or products (referred to as supply-chain management), and shortening lines (or queues) at a bank, hospital, or a theme park.
Modern industrial engineers typically use predetermined motion time system, computer simulation (especially discrete event simulation), along with extensive mathematical tools for modeling, such as mathematical optimization and queueing theory, and computational methods for system analysis, evaluation, and optimization. Industrial engineers also use the tools of data science and machine learning in their work owing to the strong relatedness of these disciplines with the field and the similar technical background required of industrial engineers (including a strong foundation in probability theory, linear algebra, and statistics, as well as having coding skills).
Manufacturing (production) engineering.
Manufacturing Engineering is based on core industrial engineering and mechanical engineering skills, adding important elements from mechatronics, commerce, economics and business management. This field also deals with the integration of different facilities and systems for producing quality products (with optimal expenditure) by applying the principles of physics and the results of manufacturing systems studies, such as the following:
Manufacturing engineers develop and create physical artifacts, production processes, and technology. It is a very broad area which includes the design and development of products. Manufacturing engineering is considered to be a sub-discipline of industrial engineering/systems engineering and has very strong overlaps with mechanical engineering. Manufacturing engineers' success or failure directly impacts the advancement of technology and the spread of innovation. This field of manufacturing engineering emerged from tool and die discipline in the early 20th century. It expanded greatly from the 1960s when industrialized countries introduced factories with:
1. Numerical control machine tools and automated systems of production.
2. Advanced statistical methods of quality control: These factories were pioneered by the American electrical engineer William Edwards Deming, who was initially ignored by his home country. The same methods of quality control later turned Japanese factories into world leaders in cost-effectiveness and production quality.
3. Industrial robots on the factory floor, introduced in the late 1970s: These computer-controlled welding arms and grippers could perform simple tasks such as attaching a car door quickly and flawlessly 24 hours a day. This cut costs and improved production speed.
Education.
Industrial engineering.
Undergraduate curriculum.
In the United States the undergraduate degree earned is the Bachelor of Science (B.S.) or Bachelor of Science and Engineering (B.S.E.) in Industrial Engineering (IE). Variations of the title include Industrial & Operations Engineering (IOE), and Industrial & Systems Engineering (ISE). The typical curriculum includes a broad math and science foundation spanning chemistry, physics, mechanics (i.e., statics, kinematics, and dynamics), materials science, computer science, electronics/circuits, engineering design, and the standard range of engineering mathematics (i.e. calculus, linear algebra, differential equations, statistics). For any engineering undergraduate program to be accredited, regardless of concentration, it must cover a largely similar span of such foundational work – which also overlaps heavily with the content tested on one or more engineering licensure exams in most jurisdictions.
The coursework specific to IE entails specialized courses in aeas such as optimization, applied probability, stochastic modeling, design of experiments, statistical process control, simulation, manufacturing engineering, ergonomics/safety engineering, and engineering economics. Industrial engineering elective courses typically cover more specialized topics in areas such as manufacturing, supply chains and logistics, analytics and machine learning, production systems, human factors and industrial design, and service systems.
Certain business schools may offer programs with some overlapping relevance to IE, but the engineering programs are distinguished by a much more intensely quantitative focus, required engineering science electives, and the core math and science courses required of all engineering programs.
Graduate curriculum.
The usual graduate degree earned is the Master of Science (MS) or Master of Science and Engineering (MSE) in Industrial Engineering or various alternative related concentration titles. Typical MS curricula may cover:
Manufacturing (production) engineering.
Degree certification programs.
Manufacturing engineers possess an associate's or bachelor's degree in engineering with a major in manufacturing engineering. The length of study for such a degree is usually two to five years followed by five more years of professional practice to qualify as a professional engineer. Working as a manufacturing engineering technologist involves a more applications-oriented qualification path.
Academic degrees for manufacturing engineers are usually the Associate or Bachelor of Engineering, [BE] or [BEng], and the Associate or Bachelor of Science, [BS] or [BSc]. For manufacturing technologists the required degrees are Associate or Bachelor of Technology [B.TECH] or Associate or Bachelor of Applied Science [BASc] in Manufacturing, depending upon the university. Master's degrees in engineering manufacturing include Master of Engineering [ME] or [MEng] in Manufacturing, Master of Science [M.Sc] in Manufacturing Management, Master of Science [M.Sc] in Industrial and Production Management, and Master of Science [M.Sc] as well as Master of Engineering [ME] in Design, which is a subdiscipline of manufacturing. Doctoral [PhD] or [DEng] level courses in manufacturing are also available depending on the university.
The undergraduate degree curriculum generally includes courses in physics, mathematics, computer science, project management, and specific topics in mechanical and manufacturing engineering. Initially such topics cover most, if not all, of the subdisciplines of manufacturing engineering. Students then choose to specialize in one or more sub disciplines towards the end of their degree work.
Specific to Industrial Engineers, people will see courses covering ergonomics, scheduling, inventory management, forecasting, product development, and in general courses that focus on optimization. Most colleges breakdown the large sections of industrial engineering into Healthcare, Ergonomics, Product Development, or Consulting sectors. This allows for the student to get a good grasp on each of the varying sub-sectors so they know what area they are most interested about pursuing a career in.
Undergraduate curriculum.
The Foundational Curriculum for a bachelor's degree of Manufacturing Engineering or Production Engineering includes below mentioned Syllabus. This Syllabus is closely related to Industrial Engineering and Mechanical Engineering. But it Differs by Placing more Emphasis on Manufacturing Science or Production Science. It includes following:
A degree in Manufacturing Engineering versus Mechanical Engineering will typically differ only by a few specialized classes. Mechanical Engineering degree focuses more on the Product Design Process and on Complex Products which requires more Mathematics Expertise.
Manufacturing engineering certification.
Professional engineering license.
A Professional Engineer, PE, is a licensed engineer who is permitted to offer professional services to the public. Professional Engineers may prepare, sign, seal, and submit engineering plans to the public. Before a candidate can become a professional engineer, they will need to receive a bachelor's degree from an ABET recognized university in the US, take and pass the Fundamentals of Engineering exam to become an "engineer-in-training", and work four years under the supervision of a professional engineer. After those tasks are complete the candidate will be able to take the PE exam. Upon receiving a passing score on the test, the candidate will receive their PE License .
Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME) certifications (USA).
The SME (society) administers qualifications specifically for the manufacturing industry. These are not degree level qualifications and are not recognized at the professional engineering level. The SME offers two certifications for Manufacturing engineers: Certified Manufacturing Technologist Certificate (CMfgT) and Certified Manufacturing Engineer (CMfgE).
Certified manufacturing technologist.
Qualified candidates for the Certified Manufacturing Technologist Certificate (CMfgT) must pass a three-hour, 130-question multiple-choice exam. The exam covers math, manufacturing processes, manufacturing management, automation, and related subjects. A score of 60% or higher must be achieved to pass the exam. Additionally, a candidate must have at least four years of combined education and manufacturing-related work experience. The CMfgT certification must be renewed every three years in order to stay certified.
Certified manufacturing engineer.
Certified Manufacturing Engineer (CMfgE) is an engineering qualification administered by the Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Dearborn, Michigan, USA. Candidates qualifying for a Certified Manufacturing Engineer credential must pass a four-hour, 180 question multiple-choice exam which covers more in-depth topics than does the CMfgT exam. A score of 60% or higher must be achieved to pass the exam. CMfgE candidates must also have eight years of combined education and manufacturing-related work experience, with a minimum of four years of work experience. The CMfgT certification must be renewed every three years in order to stay certified.
Research.
Industrial engineering.
Human factors.
The human factors area specializes in exploring how systems fit the people who must operate them, determining the roles of people with the systems, and selecting those people who can best fit particular roles within these systems. Students who focus on Human Factors will be able to work with a multidisciplinary team of faculty with strengths in understanding cognitive behavior as it relates to automation, air and ground transportation, medical studies, and space exploration.
Production systems.
The production systems area develops new solutions in areas such as engineering design, supply chain management (e.g. supply chain system design, error recovery, large scale systems), manufacturing (e.g. system design, planning and scheduling), and medicine (e.g. disease diagnosis, discovery of medical knowledge). Students who focus on production systems will be able to work on topics related to computational intelligence theories for applications in industry, healthcare, and service organizations.
Reliability systems.
The objective of the reliability systems area is to provide students with advanced data analysis and decision making techniques that will improve quality and reliability of complex systems. Students who focus on system reliability and uncertainty will be able to work on areas related to contemporary reliability systems including integration of quality and reliability, simultaneous life cycle design for manufacturing systems, decision theory in quality and reliability engineering, condition-based maintenance and degradation modeling, discrete event simulation and decision analysis.
Wind power management.
The Wind Power Management Program aims at meeting the emerging needs for graduating professionals involved in design, operations, and management of wind farms deployed in massive numbers all over the country. The graduates will be able to fully understand the system and management issues of wind farms and their interactions with alternative and conventional power generation systems.
Production (manufacturing) engineering.
Flexible manufacturing systems.
A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a manufacturing system in which there is some amount of flexibility that allows the system to react to changes, whether predicted or unpredicted. This flexibility is generally considered to fall into two categories, both of which have numerous subcategories. The first category, machine flexibility, covers the system's ability to be changed to produce new product types and the ability to change the order of operations executed on a part. The second category, called routing flexibility, consists of the ability to use multiple machines to perform the same operation on a part, as well as the system's ability to absorb large-scale changes, such as in volume, capacity, or capability.
Most FMS systems comprise three main systems. The work machines, which are often automated CNC machines, are connected by a material handling system to optimize parts flow, and to a central control computer, which controls material movements and machine flow. The main advantages of an FMS is its high flexibility in managing manufacturing resources like time and effort in order to manufacture a new product. The best application of an FMS is found in the production of small sets of products from a mass production.
Computer integrated manufacturing.
Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) in engineering is a method of manufacturing in which the entire production process is controlled by computer. Traditionally separated process methods are joined through a computer by CIM. This integration allows the processes to exchange information and to initiate actions. Through this integration, manufacturing can be faster and less error-prone, although the main advantage is the ability to create automated manufacturing processes. Typically CIM relies on closed-loop control processes based on real-time input from sensors. It is also known as flexible design and manufacturing.
Friction stir welding.
Friction stir welding was discovered in 1991 by The Welding Institute (TWI). This innovative steady state (non-fusion) welding technique joins previously un-weldable materials, including several aluminum alloys. It may play an important role in the future construction of airplanes, potentially replacing rivets. Current uses of this technology to date include: welding the seams of the aluminum main space shuttle external tank, the Orion Crew Vehicle test article, Boeing Delta II and Delta IV Expendable Launch Vehicles and the SpaceX Falcon 1 rocket; armor plating for amphibious assault ships; and welding the wings and fuselage panels of the new Eclipse 500 aircraft from Eclipse Aviation, among an increasingly growing range of uses.
Employment.
Industrial engineering.
The total number of engineers employed in the US in 2015 was roughly 1.6 million. Of these, 272,470 were industrial engineers (16.92%), the third most popular engineering specialty. The median salaries by experience level are $62,000 with 0–5 years experience, $75,000 with 5–10 years experience, and $81,000 with 10–20 years experience. The average starting salaries were $55,067 with a bachelor's degree, $77,364 with a master's degree, and $100,759 with a doctorate degree. This places industrial engineering at 7th of 15 among engineering bachelor's degrees, 3rd of 10 among master's degrees, and 2nd of 7 among doctorate degrees in average annual salary. The median annual income of industrial engineers in the U.S. workforce is $83,470.
Production (manufacturing) engineering.
Manufacturing engineering is just one facet of the engineering industry. Manufacturing engineers enjoy improving the production process from start to finish. They have the ability to keep the whole production process in mind as they focus on a particular portion of the process. Successful students in manufacturing engineering degree programs are inspired by the notion of starting with a natural resource, such as a block of wood, and ending with a usable, valuable product, such as a desk, produced efficiently and economically.
Manufacturing engineers are closely connected with engineering and industrial design efforts. Examples of major companies that employ manufacturing engineers in the United States include General Motors Corporation, Ford Motor Company, Chrysler, Boeing, Gates Corporation and Pfizer. Examples in Europe include Airbus, Daimler, BMW, Fiat, Navistar International, and Michelin Tyre.
Related industries.
Industries where industrial and production engineers are generally employed include:
Modern tools.
Many manufacturing companies, especially those in industrialized nations, have begun to incorporate computer-aided engineering (CAE) programs, such as SolidWorks and AutoCAD, into their existing design and analysis processes, including 2D and 3D solid modeling computer-aided design (CAD). This method has many benefits, including easier and more exhaustive visualization of products, the ability to create virtual assemblies of parts, and ease of use in designing mating interfaces and tolerances.
SolidWorks.
SolidWorks is an example of a CAD modeling computer program developed by Dassault Systèmes. SolidWorks is an industry standard for drafting designs and specifications for physical objects and has been used by more than 165,000 companies as of 2013.
AutoCAD.
AutoCAD is an example of a CAD modeling computer program developed by Autodesk. AutoCad is also widely used for CAD modeling and CAE.
Other CAE programs commonly used by product manufacturers include product life cycle management (PLM) tools and analysis tools used to perform complex simulations. Analysis tools may be used to predict product response to expected loads, including fatigue life and manufacturability. These tools include finite element analysis (FEA), computational fluid dynamics (CFD), and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM). Using CAE programs, a mechanical design team can quickly and cheaply iterate the design process to develop a product that better meets cost, performance, and other constraints. There is no need to create a physical prototype until the design nears completion, allowing hundreds or thousands of designs to be evaluated, instead of relatively few. In addition, CAE analysis programs can model complicated physical phenomena which cannot be solved by hand, such as viscoelasticity, complex contact between mating parts, or non-Newtonian flows.
Just as manufacturing engineering is linked with other disciplines, such as mechatronics, multidisciplinary design optimization (MDO) is also being used with other CAE programs to automate and improve the iterative design process. MDO tools wrap around existing CAE processes by automating the process of trial and error method used by classical engineers. MDO uses a computer based algorithm that will iteratively seek better alternatives from an initial guess within given constants. MDO uses this procedure to determine the best design outcome and lists various options as well.
Sub-disciplines.
Mechanics.
Classical Mechanics, attempts to use Newtons basic laws of motion to describe how a body will react when that body undergoes a force. However modern mechanics includes the rather recent quantum theory. Sub disciplines of mechanics include:
Classical Mechanics:
Quantum:
If the engineering project were to design a vehicle, statics might be employed to design the frame of the vehicle in order to evaluate where the stresses will be most intense. Dynamics might be used when designing the car's engine to evaluate the forces in the pistons and cams as the engine cycles. Mechanics of materials might be used to choose appropriate materials for the manufacture of the frame and engine. Fluid mechanics might be used to design a ventilation system for the vehicle or to design the intake system for the engine.
Drafting.
Drafting or technical drawing is the means by which manufacturers create instructions for manufacturing parts. A technical drawing can be a computer model or hand-drawn schematic showing all the dimensions necessary to manufacture a part, as well as assembly notes, a list of required materials, and other pertinent information. A skilled worker who creates technical drawings may be referred to as a drafter or draftsman. Drafting has historically been a two-dimensional process, but computer-aided design (CAD) programs now allow the designer to create in three dimensions. Instructions for manufacturing a part must be fed to the necessary machinery, either manually, through programmed instructions, or through the use of a computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) or combined CAD/CAM program. Programs such as SolidWorks and AutoCAD are examples of programs used to draft new parts and products under development.
Optionally, an engineer may also manually manufacture a part using the technical drawings, but this is becoming an increasing rarity with the advent of computer numerically controlled (CNC) manufacturing. Engineers primarily manufacture parts manually in the areas of applied spray coatings, finishes, and other processes that cannot economically or practically be done by a machine.
Drafting is used in nearly every sub discipline of mechanical and manufacturing engineering, and by many other branches of engineering and architecture. Three-dimensional models created using CAD software are also commonly used in finite element analysis (FEA) and computational fluid dynamics (CFD).
Metal fabrication and machine tools.
Metal fabrication is the building of metal structures by cutting, bending, and assembling processes. Technologies such as electron beam melting, laser engineered net shape, and direct metal laser sintering has allowed for the production of metal structures to become much less difficult when compared to other conventional metal fabrication methods. These help to alleviate various issues when the idealized CAD structures do not align with the actual fabricated structure.
Machine tools employ many types of tools that do the cutting or shaping of materials. Machine tools usually include many components consisting of motors, levers, arms, pulleys, and other basic simple systems to create a complex system that can build various things. All of these components must work correctly in order to stay on schedule and remain on task. Machine tools aim to efficiently and effectively produce good parts at a quick pace with a small amount of error.
Computer integrated manufacturing.
Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) is the manufacturing approach of using computers to control the entire production process. Computer-integrated manufacturing is used in automotive, aviation, space, and ship building industries. Computer-integrated manufacturing allows for data, through various sensing mechanisms to be observed during manufacturing. This type of manufacturing has computers controlling and observing every part of the process. This gives CIM a unique advantage over other manufacturing processes.
Mechatronics.
Mechatronics is an engineering discipline that deals with the convergence of electrical, mechanical and manufacturing systems. Examples include automated manufacturing systems, heating, ventilation and air-conditioning systems, and various aircraft and automobile subsystems. A mechatronic system typically includes a mechanical skeleton, motors, controllers, sensors, actuators, and digital hardware. Mechatronics is greatly used in various applications of industrial processes and in automation.
The term mechatronics is typically used to refer to macroscopic systems, but futurists have predicted the emergence of very small electromechanical devices. Already such small devices, known as Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), are used in automobiles to initiate the deployment of airbags, in digital projectors to create sharper images, and in inkjet printers to create nozzles for high-definition printing. In future it is hoped that such devices will be used in tiny implantable medical devices and to improve optical communication.
Textile engineering.
Textile engineering courses deal with the application of scientific and engineering principles to the design and control of all aspects of fiber, textile, and apparel processes, products, and machinery. These include natural and man-made materials, interaction of materials with machines, safety and health, energy conservation, and waste and pollution control. Additionally, students are given experience in plant design and layout, machine and wet process design and improvement, and designing and creating textile products. Throughout the textile engineering curriculum, students take classes from other engineering and disciplines including: mechanical, chemical, materials and industrial engineering.
Advanced composite materials.
Advanced composite materials (engineering) (ACMs) are also known as advanced polymer matrix composites. These are generally characterized or determined by unusually high strength fibres with unusually high stiffness, or modulus of elasticity characteristics, compared to other materials, while bound together by weaker matrices. Advanced composite materials have broad, proven applications, in the aircraft, aerospace, and sports equipment sectors. Even more specifically ACMs are very attractive for aircraft and aerospace structural parts. Manufacturing ACMs is a multibillion-dollar industry worldwide. Composite products range from skateboards to components of the space shuttle. The industry can be generally divided into two basic segments, industrial composites and advanced composites.
See also.
Associations


IPK Acrylic-polyvinyl chloride

IPK Acrylic-polyvinyl chloride (IPK, IPK Acrylic PVC, IPK Thermoformable Sheet, IPK Kydex) is a line of thermoplastic acrylic-polyvinyl chloride composite material. It has a chemical structure similar to Kydex with an Acrylic-polyvinyl chloride substrate and white cap for screen printing onto the material.
Kydex sheet was originally produced in 1965 by Rohm and Haas, having been designed for use in aircraft interiors. In recent years, Kydex has gained a hobbyist following for a wide variety of applications, including firearm holsters and sheaths for knives.
IPK Acrylic-polyvinyl chloride was developed by Interstate Plastics in 2012 and sold under the registered trademark IPK. Interstate Plastics claims the material offers an alternative to thermoformable plastic sheets while providing a printable surface for custom designs and patterns. Most vinyl sign print shops are able to print custom designs or patterns onto the material. IPK is currently the only thermoforming sheet on the market sold with a printable cap.
Characteristics.
IPK is an acrylic-polyvinyl chloride composite engineered for thermoforming applications, combining properties of both acrylic and polyvinyl chloride plastics. Acrylic adds rigidity and formability, while polyvinyl chloride, more commonly known as PVC, adds toughness and chemical resistance. Standard sheet thickness is .080 and IPK Acrylic-polyvinyl chloride can be thermoformed, post formed, brake formed and laminated.
Applications.
Applications range from gun holsters, knife sheaths, and medical equipment housings to aircraft trays, tables, and fixtures. IPK is very easy to clean: tough stains, scuffs, and graffiti can be removed with no staining or surface damage to the material. IPK is commonly used for thermoforming custom sized knife sheaths, gun holsters, and cell phone/tablet covers.
Common Application.
IPK is primarily used by hobbyists in thermoforming firearm holsters and sheaths for knives. The printable surface allows for custom printed patterns, allowing added customization for gun and knife enthusiasts.
Leather Substitute.
In many applications, especially in holster and sheath applications, IPK is used as replacement for leather. The texture of IPK is more rigid than leather, and similar in touch. IPK thermoformable sheet in comparable to leather with the following properties:
Other Applications.
IPK can be used as a substitute in place of Kydex in the following applications:


U-JIN Tech Corp.

U-JIN Tech Corp. is a South Korean manufacturer of friction welding machines and automated manufacturing cells.
History.
U-JIN Tech Corp. was founded in February 2009. It stablished its own R&D center within the Korea Industrial Technology Association  in 2010. The R&D center has the objective to develop new products.
U-Jin has initially developed and manufactured hydraulic friction welding machines, and it built Korea's first CNC friction welding machine in 2012.
In 2015 the company was recognized as "Contributor for Development of Excellent Capital Goods" by the Minister of Trade, Industry, and Energy. In November 2016 it received the European CE Certificate and started exporting machines to Europe. On Trade Day in December 2016, it received the "10 Million Dollar Export Tower Award".
Friction welding machines.
CNC technology is used by U-JIN Tech Corp both for automatic material transport and in cases where high accuracy is required. Due to the position measuring devices known from CNC milling machines, the length tolerance of the components can be maintained more accurately than with conventional hydraulic machines. It is even possible, to bring the spindle to a standstill in a given position so that the two eyes of a drive shaft can be positioned at an angle to each other.
The two spindles of U-JIN's computer numerical controlled double-head friction welding machines are driven by servo motors that allow the angular position of their motor shaft to be controlled, as well as the speed of rotation and acceleration, since they are equipped with position sensors. If the spindles are controlled in the same way as CNC-controlled servo motors, angular accuracies of ±0.5° can be achieved, e.g. at both ends of a cardan shaft.
Friction welded products.
As friction welding operates below the melting point of the materials, even dissimilar material joints can be produced with high tensile strength. In many cases, the tensile strength of the bimetallic joint is higher than that of the softer base material.
U-JIN's friction welding machines are used industrially for a wide variety of products:


Tonejet

Tonejet is a drop-on-demand inkjet printing technology that enables the direct digital deposition of printing ink onto substrates. The Tonejet digital printing process is targeted at commercial and industrial applications.
Tonejet was first disclosed in Patent Cooperation Treaty publication WO 93/11866 dated June 24, 1993, with the inventor named as Luis Lima-Marques assigned to Research Laboratories of Australia Pty. Ltd., in Adelaide, Australia. A number of patents relating to the technology, including United States Patent 6,260,954, have been granted. Research Laboratories of Australia formed a partnership with The Technology Partnership plc, a technology and product development company from the UK, to add hardware development expertise. Tonejet now has its headquarters in Cambridge, UK.
Process.
The Tonejet process is an electrostatic drop-on-demand deposition technology that enables high-quality images to be printed onto virtually any type of absorbing or non-absorbing substrate at high speed. The Tonejet process consists of electrostatic concentration and ejection of particles from a fluid. The Tonejet print head enables an electric field to be applied to the ink. The Tonejet ink is a key part of the ejection process; it consists of electrically charged conventional pigments in a non-conductive liquid. In the Tonejet printhead, an electric force is applied directly to the charged ink particles. The longer the electric pulse is applied, the more ink is ejected. The Tonejet ejection process concentrates the ink prior to ejecting the droplets onto the substrate, with continuous greyscale control. The Tonejet printhead is a three-dimensional structure consisting of side walls, flow channels and ejectors. An ink meniscus is formed between the side walls and the ejector. The Tonejet printhead is therefore a simple, nozzleless, open structure.
Commercial products.
In late 2007, Tonejet announced that it had produced the world's widest integral printhead for use in an industrial printer. The wide printhead would enable the vast majority of food and drink packaging to be printed in a single pass, thereby bringing substantial logistics and cost savings to the packaging industry.
In 2008, Ball Packaging Europe announced that in cooperation with Tonejet, they would supply individually designed beverage cans using the Tonejet process with photo quality, 600 dpi resolution.
In June 2010, Air Berlin launched its own line of beverage cans after becoming the first customer for Ball Packaging Europe's technology co-operation with Tonejet. There is some interest particularly in printing cans for the craft beer market.


3D printing marketplace

A 3D printing marketplace is a website where users buy, sell and freely share digital 3D printable files for use on 3D printers. They sometimes also offer the ability to print the models and ship them to customers.
Concept.
The market for 3D printers has grown tremendously over the past several years. According to "Wohlers Report 2018", 3D printer Market reached 7.3 billions $ in 2017, with +21% growth over the previous year. The market is mostly B2B right now, because 3D printing is still a complex process. But even for SMB or freelance, they cannot develop all the knowledge around this technology, that's why 3D printing marketplace have been developing since the last years.
The field of 3D printing is a fascinating field that develops new avenues of creation and engineering. The field is developing rapidly and reaches many industries in the industry as well as mainstream users.
The open source community helps with the effort and makes the 3D creative and learning experience accessible to anyone who wishes, while lowering the barriers for the community worldwide.
Industries and sectors benefiting from the technology are aerospace, medical (dental, maxillofacial, craniofacial, cosmetic surgery, medical equipment, orthopedics, bio-printing), automobile, engineering, tools, architecture, construction, jewelry, fashion, design, food, art, entertainment and education.
How 3D printing marketplaces work.
3D printing marketplaces are a combination of file sharing websites, with or without a built in e-commerce capability. Designers upload suitable files for 3D printing whilst other users buy or freely download the uploaded files for printing. The marketplaces facilitate the account management, infrastructure, server resources and guarantees safe settlement of payments (e-commerce). Some of the marketplaces also offer additional services such as 3D printing on demand, location of commercial 3D print shops, associated software for model rendering and dynamic viewing of items using packages such as Sketchfab. The most widely used 3D printable file formats as of 2020 are STL, OBJ file, AMF, and 3MF.
Type of 3D printing marketplaces.
There are different varieties of 3D printing marketplaces. Some of them like Thingiverse are dedicated to free sharing of 3D printable files. Others, like Shapeways offer a 3D printing service for objects which have been provided for sale by designers. MyMiniFactory offers a combination of these two: their main activity being the free sharing or 3D printable files, they also offer print-on-demand and design-on-demand services. Another category are websites exemplified by Threeding. These offer free and commercial exchange of digital 3D printable files for use on 3D printers but do not directly include 3D printing services themselves. These marketplaces do however, offer integration to databases of 3D printers provided by third parties. These three resources each contain geo-location services to several thousands of registered 3D printers. The two largest personal 3D printers manufacturers Makerbot (part of Stratasys) and Cubify (subsidiary of 3D Systems) offer their own file repositories for sharing, respectively Thingiverse and Cubify Store. For professional 3D printing needs there are platforms which offer a reverse-bid style auction interface, an integrated escrow payment system and many features specifically tailored for B2B transactions.
Copyright concerns.
Current intellectual property (IP) legislation in the developed countries does not explicitly regulate 3D printing. This creates numerous questions about the IP status of 3D printing marketplaces. Some analysts predict that 3D printing marketplaces will be "the next Napster". Most marketplaces remain conservative on this topic. Most large 3D printing marketplaces also have procedures for copyright complaints. Further development of 3D printing and more new marketplaces for file sharing will most probably cause copyright to become a significant issue in them.


Rheological weldability

Rheological weldability (RW) of thermoplastics considers the materials flow characteristics in determining the weldability of the given material. The process of welding thermal plastics requires three general steps, first is surface preparation. The second step is the application of heat and pressure to create intimate contact between the components being joined and initiate inter-molecular diffusion across the joint and the third step is cooling. RW can be used to determine the effectiveness of the second step of the process for given materials.
Rheology.
Rheology is the study of material flow as well as how a material deforms under an applied force. Rheological properties are typically applied to Non-Newtonian fluids but can also be applied to soft solids such as thermoplastics at elevated temperatures experienced during the welding process. The material properties associated with the rheological behavior include viscosity, elasticity, plasticity, viscoelasticity, and the material's activation energy as a function of temperature.
Rheological properties.
To understand the rheological properties of a material it is also important to recognize the stress strain relationship for that material at varying temperatures.  This relationship is attained through experimental measurement of the resultant deformation as a function of an applied force.
Influences of microstructure and composition.
A material's rheological behavior is influenced by a combination of the material's microstructure, its composition, the temperature and pressure acting on the material at a given time.  The rheological and viscoelastic properties of a polymer melt are sensitive to the material's molecular structure; including molecular weight distribution and effects of branching. As a result, rheology can be used to develop relationships between differing material combinations.
Determining microstructure.
Melt rheology has shown to be an accurate method in determining the polymer's molecular structure. This is beneficial in determining weld compatibility between materials; as materials with drastically different flow characteristics will be more difficult to join compared to those with more closely matched viscosity and melting temperature properties. This information can also be used to help determine weld parameters for the given welding process to be used.
Viscosity.
Regarding sessile drop technique, wetting is characterized by degree of interfacial contact and quantified via contact angle ("θ"c) of a liquid on a solid surface at equilibrium, as shown in Fig. 1. Interrelation between contact angle and surface tensions at equilibrium is given by the Young equation:
Where:
For perfectly good wetting, contact angle ("θ"c) at equilibrium should be minimized. However, it is valid only at equilibrium, and rate of the equilibrium depends on the balance between driving force of wetting and viscosity of the liquid. In the case of polymer melts, viscosity can be very high and it may take a long time to reach the equilibrium contact angle (dynamic contact angle is likely higher than the contact angle at equilibrium).
Consequently, for the evaluation of weldability, viscosity of molten thermoplastics (polymer melts) have to be taken into account since welding is a rapid process. It can be said that the lower the viscosity during welding process (at welding temperature and pressure), the better the weldability.
Recalling that viscosity ("η") decreases with increasing temperature ("T") and shear rate (formula_6) for most polymer melts, weldability is better where temperature and shear rate (movement) are higher within the entire cross-section of the welding region.
Elasticity.
Elasticity is best described by stretching a rubber band. As one pulls on the rubber band it stretches and when the pulling force is lessened and finally removed the rubber band returns to its original length. Similarly when a force or load is applied to most materials the material deforms and as long as the force has not exceeded the material's yield strength the material will return to its original shape when the force or load is removed. The material property associated with a material's Elasticity is called Young's modulus and the relationship between the amount of deformation for a given load is described by Hooke's Law.
Where formula_8, or the stress experienced by the material and equals the change in length divided by the original length multiplied by the material's elasticity or Yong's modulus "E".
Plasticity.
A material's ability to deform elastically while resisting flow is called plasticity. When an applied force or load exceeds the material's yield strength the material begins to deform plastically and the material will no longer return to its original shape. During the welding processes of polymers, this is experienced at temperatures above the glass transition temperature and below the material's melting temperature.
Viscoelasticity.
Linear viscoelasticity.
Linear viscoelastic behavior can be observed when a material experiences small and slow deformation at very slow shear rates, where the relaxation process has sufficient time to keep up with the process. This can also be experienced at the onset of larger deformation forces.
Nonlinear viscoelasticity.
A polymer's response to fast and large deformation forces is a non linear behavior and is more representative of the reactions experienced during the welding processes.
Knowing the viscoelastic behavior allows for adjustments to temperature and pressure during the weld process in order to improve the weld quality.
Activation energy.
During operation of a welding process, the softened or molten portion of thermoplastics (polymer articles) is able to flow through the interface. Less flow results in less diffusion at the interface and lower weld strength. In order for a polymer melt to flow, macromolecular chain segments must be able to move. When the chain segments obtain sufficient thermal energy to overcome the energy barrier, they begin to move readily. The energy barrier is called activation energy ("E"a). It can be said that if a polymer’s absolute value of activation energy (|"E"a|) is lower, its weldability becomes better.
Using viscosity-shear rate (formula_10) data at various temperatures for a polymer, activation energy ("E"a) can be calculated via Arrhenius equation:
Where:
The absolute value of the activation energy (|"E"a|) can be calculated by taking the natural logarithm of the Arrhenius equation. (see Arrhenius equation).
Weldability of polymers.
Welding of polymers is dependent on intimate contact resulting in molecular diffusion and chain entanglement across the weld joint.  This action requires the polymer to be in a molten state where the melt viscosity and flow behavior have a drastic influence on the amount of diffusion and entanglement. Therefore, the rheological weldability is best between materials with matching or very similar melting temperatures and melt viscosity. Also as a material's viscosity and activation energies are reduced the weldability of that material is improved. For example, welding semi-crystalline to compatible semi-crystalline material and amorphous to compatible amorphous material have exhibited the best results.  While a rheological analysis can provide reasonable insight to a material's weldability, in most cases production welding is typically prefaced with a series of tests to verify compatibility between both base materials as well as the process employed.
Similar to welding metals, the solidified polymer weld experiences residual stresses inherent to the joining process.  With polymers, these residual stresses are in part due to the squeeze flow rate leading to a specific molecular alignment direction, ultimately influencing the weld strength and overall quality.  Having a thorough understanding of the rheological properties of the materials being joined can aid in determining the resultant residual stresses and in turn provide insight to processing methods that could reduce these stresses.


Plastic joining

Plastic joining is the method of joining semi-finished products of plastic materials together or to other materials as a fabrication process or damage repair. Joining methods can be classified into three categories:
Mechanical fastening.
Mechanical fastening methods can offer an advantage of disassembly, but have drawbacks arising from stress concentrations, galvanic corrosion, mismatch of thermal expansion coefficients, etc. which rivets, screws and ropes can introduce (see fasteners).
Adhesive bonding.
Adhesive bonding, which involves a chemical process where a substance is used to create a bond between two materials, is problematic because of extensive surface preparation, long curing time, the difficulty of bonding adhesive materials to plastics, etc.
Welding.
Welding can eliminate these shortcomings largely, but its applications are restricted to thermoplastics.