Extrusion welding

Extrusion welding is one of the processes used to weld thermoplastics and composites, developed in the 1960s as an evolution of hot gas welding. It can be a manual or automated process.
The process uses a welding head that has a nozzle for hot air and an extruder that pushes filler material out. The process entails heating the joining (faying) surfaces and adding molten or plasticized filler material (extrudate) by extruding it through a die (shoe). The process applies extrudate with pressure to ensure good bonding, and then allows the part to cool.
Welding steps.
The steps of this welding process are similar to other plastic welding processes and involve:
Preheat is required at the initial start of the weld. This is typically achieved by using the hot air nozzle on the welding gun and fanning the starting area. Once welding has commenced, proper travel speed and gun angle will ensure that the upcoming faying surface has been sufficiently preheated.
The filler material is a polymer that comes in the form of spooled strands or in pellets.
Joint configuration.
Most weld joints are designed to be a single pass, but plates over 30 mm thickness will require multiple passes. Because most passes are designed to be done in a single pass, extrusion welding typically takes less overall time to perform as compared to other plastic welding processes, particularly its predecessor, hot gas welding.
Joint design include:
Butt joints will be single-V or double-V groove with 45-90° and 0-2 mm root gap. If welding a double-V groove, welding will need to be performed in a minimum of two passes.
T-joints will normally have a single bevel of 45-60° and 0-2 mm root gap.
Both TYK connections for piping and fillet welds are achievable as well.
Applications.
Extrusion welding is an attractive process for applications that take advantage of its ability to weld thick sections quickly. For some applications, especially where there are large geometry parts where more traditional plastic welding methods (such as hot plate welding) is not possible, extrusion welding is the only feasible and cost effect option. In particular, tanks for liquid waste, corrosive materials, water supply are common applications. As long as a sealing bond is achieved, extrusion welding can be used for waterproofing applications as well.
Materials.
Extrusion welding has seen the most success in welding different types of polyolefins.
Common materials welded with this process are:
Equipment.
While there are various forms of extrusion welding equipment, there are three main components that every extrusion welding setup contains:
Extruder.
The extruder is the part of the setup that actually feeds extrudate through the system. The setup of the extruder depends on if the extrudate is in pellet or in spooled strand form. When spooled strands are used, the spool is fed through a tube into the welding head and then exits through the shoe. When pellets are used for extrudate, the pellets are fed into a hopper, then a heated spiral extruder forces them through the welding head and out through the shoe as molten filler material. Pellets can only be used when welding is being performed in the flat or horizontal position.
Radiant heat source.
For most applications, the radiant heat source will be hot air. The air is heated and blown through a nozzle that is part of the weld head setup. Different nozzle geometries are available, and the welder may select a certain nozzle depending on the joint configuration. Although there is a general purpose nozzle, certain nozzles ensure more thorough or more focused heating of a given joint type. Although hot air is usually used as the means for preheat, halogen lamps are sometimes used as the means for preheating the faying surface.
Welding shoe.
The welding shoe is the die at the end of the feed through which the filler material is being extruded. Typically, the shoe is made out of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) because of PTFE's non-stick properties. Welding shoes come in various shapes and sizes depending on the joint design that is being welded. The welding shoe will also have guide nipples that prevent the molten extrudate from flowing in an undesired direction.
Welding parameters.
There are several main welding parameters, and each of them have a different bearing on the welding process. Some are dependent on the welder, whereas others can be set on the machine before welding commences. Getting a good balance of each parameter is the key to achieving strong and aesthetic welds. Automation or skill by an experienced welder, coupled with properly set parameters will result in consistent and reproducible welds.
Welding speed.
Welding speed or travel speed, is the rate at which the weld is traversing down the weld joint. For an automated system, the welding speed can be set before the machine starts to go. With a manual setup, the travel speed will depend on the welder. If the travel speed is too fast, there won't be enough filler material deposited, resulting in a small weld bead. Traveling too quickly may also not provide enough time to get sufficient heat to the faying surfaces. This will result in poor adhesion of the extrudate to the faying surface. This poor adhesion leads to poor strength of the welded part. Conversely, if the travel speed is too low, then too much filler material will be deposited, resulting in an unaesthetic weld and potentially flash formation which will then need to be removed.
Position of the welding head.
Position of the welding gun is essential to ensure that the extrudate is being deposited in the right area. When a manual system is being used, the welder will need to ensure that the welding head is aimed correctly. If there is misalignment between the gun and the joint, the material will not be deposited to the correct area. To help guide the welder, the weld shoe will be specifically shaped for a given joint geometry so that the position is maintained throughout welding.
Temperature of the extrudate.
The temperature of the extrudate will be set on the extruder before welding begins. The temperature must be high enough such that the extrudate will be sufficiently fluid to flow, but not so high that the polymer filler material will begin to chemically breakdown. The ideal temperature for the extrudate will be dependent on what polymer being used.
Airflow rate and air temperature.
Studies by have found that airflow rate and temperature are the two biggest factors in the development of creep strength of the welded parts. This is because airflow rate and air temperature are the two biggest factors in development of a melt layer prior to welding. The melt layer is the layer of molten polymer on top of the faying surface. When the melt layer reaches an ideal thickness for welding, the creep strength of the welds increase dramatically. Like with the temperature of the extrudate however, the ideal temperature and airflow rate for base material will depend on what polymer is being welded. Additionally, airflow may be altered depending on the shape of the nozzle.
Extrusion rate.
Extrusion rate is how much extrudate is actually being transferred into the joint at any given time. Along with extrudate temperature and airflow rate/temperature, extrusion rate must be balanced in order to achieve ideal weld properties. If not enough material is added, then there won't be complete fusion of the joint. Conversely, if too much filler is added, then there is potential to create flash or sharp point at the toes of the weld cap. These would act as stress risers and dramatically decrease the strength of the weld both in dynamic and fatigue loading.
Advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages.
The main advantage of extrusion welding is that it can achieve very high deposition rates of filler material into a joint, thus cutting down on cycle time. As compared to hot gas welding, which is a polymer welding process that could have many of the same applications, the time to completion for a weld is as much as 5-6x faster.
With proper parameters, the fusion areas of the weld will actually not be the weakest part of a given fabricated polymeric part.
Because many of the main welding parameters are preset on the machine, getting consistent high quality welds is possible.
Disadvantages.
If using manual extrusion welding, the welder must have a certain amount of skill in order to produce sound welds. This is especially true when welding in vertical or overhead positions. Furthermore, a manual machine could be as heavy as 12kg, which would prove to be cumbersome.


Cumulative quantities (logistics)

Cumulative quantities are a concept in logistics that involves adding up required materials quantities over a defined time-window that can be drawn as a 'cumulative curve'. This concept is applied in serial production and mainly used in the automotive industry to plan, control and monitor production and delivery. The concept is sometimes called 'Cumulative Production Figures Principle' (CPGP).
Closed-loop-cycle.
The Concept of Cumulative Quantities (CCQ) uses the feedback mechanism of a closed loop, which can be found in industrial, engineering and electronic systems. The target requirements are summarized for each time-interval and compared with the actual values for closed-loop control. Positive cumulative deviation for a certain time-interval requires no further order, while negative deviations require a new order. To "calm" production and material flow upper and lower tolerance boundaries are defined and only if these boundaries are violated is a renewed order.
To check the entire production and material flow 'reporting limits' can be defined at a chosen counting point and if a limit is exceeded a concerned 'alert' is issued. The logistics staff has to explain the reason for the 'alert'. If the reason is correct and traceable no further action is needed. If mistakes are present in the database, data processing or in data-acquisition appropriate counter-measures are needed. Examples for mistakes or failures wrong primary demand or bad forecasting, mistakes in Bill of Material or master data, old Master Production Schedule, inaccurate or delayed data acquisition, calculation mistakes, mounting of incorrect parts at assembly line.
Counting points.
Target-actual-control-loop uses exactly defined counting points that demarcate the next-following intervals along the supply chain. The cumulative differences of next-following counting points show the quantities of material items which traverse the Interval and therefore offer transparency of the inventory of an item along the entire supply chain.
Supply chain.
Cumulative quantities are a part of official EDI-formats (e.g. EDIFACT - DELFOR) that are widely used by OEMs and their suppliers. Normally the data acquisition at 'goods receipt' are used for communication between consignee and goods dispatcher.


Counting point

In logistics, a counting point (CP; also known as a status point, data acquisition point, check point, or control point) is a certain spot designated for planning, controlling, and monitoring material flow items (e.g. single parts, assembly groups, final products, bins, racks, containers, and freight carriers).
Installation.
If the production and material flow gets more and more complex then more counting points must be installed in the process of transport, shipping, and manufacturing. Especially check points for quality control and quality assurance can be used outstandingly as counting points but also data acquisition points in material handling processes. For better planning and monitoring of material flow items it is helpful to order all counting points in such a way that the requirements of an ideal Boolean Interval (mathematics) Algebra can be fulfilled. Boolean intervals are half-opened and a counting point lays always inside at the beginning and the ending lays outside and is the entry-point of the next-following interval. Such an interval can represent any kind of stretch in production and material flow e.g. an assembly line, a storage or warehouse, a transport route etc. Alternative production and transportation stretches are mapped as parallel intervals, which are logical equivalent but have their own different data acquisition points. If a flow item passes a certain CP it has left the preceding interval and stays in the concerned interval at the same time. By this it can be assured that a flow object can stay only in one interval at a certain moment which is also true and evident for parallel intervals. This kind of mapping material flow structure is necessary for a consistent calculation of the lead-time and complete cycle time for flow items which is extremely important not only for material flow planning but also for production planning and manufacturing operations management in general.
Usage.
Counting points are used in different logistic areas like transportation, material handling, goods receipt, and goods issue at the border of a plant, because this is often transfer of ownership. Other well-known counting points are receiving and issuing material items at the border of a storage or warehouse. Counting points play an important rule also in manufacturing and production scheduling and different concepts of material requirements planning (e.g for the concept of cumulative quantities and the gross-net-method. Counting points also appear in the automotive industry where the production flow of a car is controlled, scheduled, and monitored continuously at exactly-defined check points for different manufacturing departments and shops and where the data is used for scheduling and optimization.


Aluminium joining

Aluminium alloys are often used due to their high strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion resistance, low cost, high thermal and electrical conductivity. There are a variety of techniques to join aluminium including mechanical fasteners, welding, adhesive bonding, brazing, soldering and friction stir welding (FSW), etc. Various techniques are used based on the cost and strength required for the joint. In addition, process combinations can be performed to provide means for difficult-to-join assemblies and to reduce certain process limitations.
Mechanical fasteners.
A simple and cheap method to join aluminium is using mechanical fasteners (i.e. bolts and nuts). Normally a hole is drilled into the base material and a fastener is placed inside. This type of joiner requires some type of overlapping material for a joint to be made. Aluminium rivets or bolts and nuts can be used; however, high-stress applications would require higher strength fastener material such as steel. This could lead to galvanic corrosion of different materials which have varying electrochemical potential. Significant corrosion would weaken the assembly over time and possibly lead to failure. In addition, different materials could result in thermal fatigue cracking from differing coefficients of thermal expansion. As the assembly is repeatedly heated stresses can build up and enlarge the mounting hole. A common place mechanical fasteners are used is riveting of aluminium panels on airplane exteriors.
Adhesive bonding.
Aluminium can be joined with a variety of adhesives. Aluminium may require some level of surface preparation and passivation to remove any unwanted chemical from the surface. Passivation could be as simple as rubbing alcohol or ultrasonic cleaning. Before bonding, a dry fit can confirm proper fitting of the components. Adhesives may require heat, pressure, or both during curing.
Surface preparation.
In order for a proper adhesive bond, some surface preparation is necessary. A surface cleaning to remove any impurities is made. The surface of the parts to be joined may be roughened with an abrasive such as sandpaper, providing interlocking surface asperities and increasing surface area for bonding. A chemical treatment may also be needed to increase the surface energy of the adherent and remove the oxide layer. Aluminium oxide is weakly bonded to the underlying aluminium metal; without oxide removal the adhesive joint is dramatically weakened. Oxide layers can separate from the metal substrate; a key principle for adhesive failure theory is Bikerman weak boundary layer. One way to strengthen the oxide layer and prevent oxide-to-substrate failure is to anodize the material, creating a strong hexagonal oxide layer with additional surface area for adhesive joining.
Type of adhesives.
Adhesive selection can be dictated based on cost, strength and needed ductility. Hobbyists commonly use cyanoacrylate (super glue), epoxy, or JB Weld. Silicone may also be used in an application in which waterproofing is needed.
Welding.
Most aluminium alloys can be joined by welding together; however, certain aircraft-grade aluminium and other special alloys are unweldable using conventional methods. Aluminium is commonly welded with gas metal arc welding (GMAW) and gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). Due to aluminium's oxide layer, a positive polarity is needed to break up the surface to ensure a proper weld. Alternating current (AC) is also used to allow the benefits of a negative polarity which provides penetration and enough positive polarity for a containment-free weld. More details on welding parameters structural aluminium welding codes can be found in AWS D1.2.
Aluminium welding typically creates a softened region in the weld metal and heat-affected zone. Additional heat treatments may be needed to obtain a material acceptable for a specific application. Industrial welding is also commonly used in joining aluminium: friction stir welding, laser welding, and ultrasonic welding are some of the many processes used.
Brazing and soldering.
Aluminium can be brazed or soldered to almost any material including concrete, ceramics, or wood. Brazing and soldering can be carried out manually or by an automated technique. Manual aluminium brazing can be difficult as there is no observable colour change before melting. As with other techniques, aluminium's strong oxide can prevent proper bonding. Strong acids and bases can be used to weaken the oxide, or aggressive fluxes may be used. Brazing alloys for aluminium must melt below aluminium's melting temperature of 660 °C. Aluminium alloys with high magnesium content can "poison" fluxes and depress the melting temperature, which can cause a weak joint. In some cases, the aluminium parts can be clad with a different material and brazed with a more common technique and filler material. Brazed joints require overlapping of parts; the amount of overlap can greatly affect the strength of the joint.
Friction stir welding.
Friction stir welding (FSW) is a solid-state joining process that uses a non-consumable tool to join two facing workpieces without melting the workpiece material. Heat is generated by friction between the rotating tool and the workpiece material, which leads to a softened region near the FSW tool. While the tool is traversed along the joint line, it mechanically intermixes the two pieces of metal, and forges the hot and softened metal by the mechanical pressure, which is applied by the tool, much like joining clay or dough. It was primarily used on wrought or extruded aluminium, particularly for structures which need very high weld strength.


Sandvik Coromant

Sandvik Coromant is a Swedish company that supplies cutting tools and services to the metal cutting industry.
Sandvik Coromant is headquartered in Sandviken, Sweden and is represented in more than 150 countries with some 7900 employees worldwide. It is part of the business area Sandvik Machining Solutions within the global industrial group Sandvik.
Metalworking focus.
Sandvik Coromant produces an extensive range of metal-cutting tools:
History in brief.
1942: The company began as a small production unit for cemented carbide tools in Sandviken, Sweden when Wilhelm Haglund is assigned the job as manager of the unit. However, in 1951, new innovations and manufacturing methods lead to the establishment of a more industrialized unit in Gimo, Sweden.
1957: Scrapers become the first product with mechanically clamped “indexable inserts” or “throw-away inserts”. The birth of the T-Max holder and the use of indexable inserts is the start of a big change in the practice and productivity of machining.
1969: Heat-resistant Gamma Coating, or GC, is introduced as a grade, revolutionizing turning, milling, and drilling with previously unmatched metal cutting performance.
1972: The Multi-Service marketing campaign sees the light of day, and the yellow coat becomes an important symbol. Tool-pool, machine-adapted tool recommendations and mini-catalogues are made available.
1990: Coromant Capto, a single holding system for both rotating and stationary spindles, is introduced. This ground-breaking invention provided a new and efficient means of combining and organizing tooling while reducing tool-changing time in machinery. Today Coromant Capto (Latin for “I am gripping”) is an established system and an ISO standard around the world.
1997: Sandvik Coromant offers to repurchase used cemented carbide inserts for recycling, underlining the company's commitment to environmental responsibility.
2008: Sandvik Coromant acquires Norwegian anti-vibration tool developer Teeness. The unique Silent Tools damping adaptors allow for increased cutting parameters and a more secure, vibration-free process.
2013: Sandvik Coromant researchers discover that it is possible to control coating crystals at an atomic level to create a uniform, tightly packed, thermal-protected coating for new levels of hardness: Inveio coating technology is introduced.
2016: CoroPlus makes its first appearance, used in the design, planning, monitoring of machining performance and the optimization of machining processes.
2017: PrimeTurning is introduced, a new methodology enabling turning in all directions.
2019: The production unit in Gimo, Sweden, is officially announced as a "lighthouse" by World Economic Forum as a role model in industry 4.0.
Research and development.
Sandvik Coromant employs 500 researchers working at research and development centers around the globe. In total, some 60 research and testing facilities work in close cooperation with machine tool manufacturers, machining tool agents, and customers across a wide range of industries.
Training and education.
Training
Among its e-learning courses, Sandvik Coromant offers Metalcutting Technology Training; some 35,000 users are registered for the program.
Education
Sandvik Coromant collaborates with numerous educational institutions and organizations worldwide as part of its mission to promote the ongoing development of industry knowledge and education.
Partnerships
Sandvik Coromant is a member of the Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre (AMRC) in the UK, working with the centre's partners: Boeing, Rolls-Royce and the University of Sheffield. The AMRC shares research and support in areas of assembly, composite materials, structural testing, and advanced machining for the aerospace industry.
Sandvik Coromant has also partnered with the Commonwealth Center for Advanced Manufacturing as one of its originating industry members, as well as the Connecticut Center for Advanced Technology in the United States and the Manufacturing Technology Center in the UK.


Palletizer

A palletizer or palletiser is a machine which provides automatic means for stacking cases of goods or products onto a pallet.
Manually placing boxes on pallets can be time consuming and expensive; it can also put unusual stress on workers. The first mechanized palletizer was designed, built, and installed in 1948 by a company formerly known as Lamson Corp.
There are specific types of palletizers including the row-forming which were introduced in the early 1950s. In row-forming palletizing applications loads are arranged on a row forming area and then moved onto a different area where layer forming takes place. This process repeats until a full layer of goods and products are configured to be placed on a pallet.
The in-line palletizer was developed in the 1970s when higher speeds were needed for palletizing. This palletizer type utilizes a continuous motion flow divider that guides the goods into the desired area on the layer forming platform.
Robotic palletizers were introduced in the early 1980s and have an end of arm tool (end effector) to grab the product from a conveyor or layer table and position it onto a pallet. Both conventional and robotic palletizers can receive product at a high elevation, typically , or low "floor level" elevation of . The end of arm tooling has evolved in recent years to accommodate a variation of pack pattern and package types.


Proximity communication

Proximity communication is a Sun microsystems technology of wireless chip-to-chip communications. Partly by Robert Drost and Ivan Sutherland. Research done as part of High Productivity Computing Systems DARPA project.
Proximity communication replaces wires by capacitive coupling, promises significant increase in communications speed between chips in an electronic system, among other benefits. Partially funded by a $50 million award from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency.
Comparing traditional area ball bonding, proximity communication has one order smaller scale, so it can be two order denser (in terms of connection number/PIN) than ball bonding. This technique requires very good alignment between chips and very small gaps between transmitting (Tx) and receiving (Rx) parts (2-3 micrometers), which can be destroyed by thermal expansion, vibration, dust, etc.
Chip transmitter consists (according to presentation slide) of big 32x32 array of very small Tx micropads, 4x4 array of bigger Rx micropads (four times bigger than tx micropad), and two linear arrays of 14 X vernier and 14 Y vernier.
Proximity communication can be used with 3D packing on chips in Multi-Chip Module, allowing to connect several MCM without sockets and wires.
Speed was up to 1.35 Gbit/s/channel in tests of 16 channel systems. BER < 10−12. Static power is 3.6 mW/channel, dynamic power is 3.9 pJ/bit.


Rivet gun

A rivet gun, also known as a rivet hammer or a pneumatic hammer, is a type of tool used to drive rivets. The rivet gun is used on rivet's "factory head" (the head present before riveting takes place), and a bucking bar is used to support the tail of the rivet. The energy from the hammer in the rivet gun drives the work and the rivet against the bucking bar. As a result, the tail of the rivet is compressed and work-hardened. At the same time the work is tightly drawn together and retained between the rivet head and the flattened tail (now called the "shop head", or buck-tail, to distinguish it from the factory head). Nearly all rivet guns are pneumatically powered. Those rivet guns used to drive rivets in structural steel are quite large while those used in aircraft assembly are easily held in one hand. A rivet gun differs from an air hammer in the precision of the driving force.
Rivet guns vary in size and shape and have a variety of handles and grips. Pneumatic rivet guns typically have a regulator which adjusts the amount of air entering the tool. Regulated air entering passes through the throttle valve which is typically controlled by a trigger in the hand grip. When the trigger is squeezed, the throttle valve opens, allowing the pressurized air to flow into the piston. As the piston moves, a port opens allowing the air pressure to escape. The piston strikes against the rivet set. The force on the rivet set pushes the rivet into the work and against the bucking bar. The bucking bar deforms the tail of the rivet. The piston is returned to the original position by a spring or the shifting of a valve allowing air to drive the piston back to the starting position.
Slow-hitting.
The slow-hitting gun strikes multiple blows as long as the trigger is held down. The repetition rate is about 2,500 blows-per-minute (bpm). It is easier to control than a one-hit gun. This is probably the most common type of rivet gun in use.
Fast-hitting gun.
The fast-hitting gun strikes multiple light-weight blows at a high rate as long as the trigger is held down. These are repeated in the range of 2,500 to 5,000 bpm. The fast-hitting gun, sometimes referred to as a vibrator, is generally used with softer rivets.
Corner riveter.
The corner riveter is a compact rivet gun that can be used in close spaces. The rivet is driven at right-angles to handle by a very short barreled driver.
Squeeze riveter.
This gun is different from the above rivet guns in that the air pressure is used to provide a squeezing action that compresses the rivet from both sides rather than distinct blows. The squeeze riveter can only be used close to the edge because of the limited depth of the anvil. Once properly adjusted, the squeeze riveter will produce very uniform rivet bucks. The stationary (fixed) jaw is placed against the head and the buck is compressed by the action of the gun.
Pop-rivet gun.
A pop rivet gun is made to apply pop rivets to a workpiece, and was invented in 1916 by Hamilton Wylie. This type of rivet gun is unique in its operation, because it does not hammer the rivet into place. Rather, a pop rivet gun will form a rivet in-place."
The gun is fed over the rivet's mandrel (a shaft protruding from the rivet head) and the rivet tail is inserted into the work. When the gun is actuated (typically by squeezing the handle), a ball on the rivet's tail is drawn towards the head, compressing a metal sleeve between the ball and the head. This forms another "head" on the opposing side to the workpiece, drawing the work together and holding it securely in place. The mandrel has a weak point that breaks, or "pops" when the riveting process is complete. This style of rivet does not require the use of a bucking bar, because the force applied is away from the work.


Perforation

A perforation is a small hole in a thin material or web. There is usually more than one perforation in an organized fashion, where all of the holes collectively are called a "perforation". The process of creating perforations is called perforating, which involves puncturing the workpiece with a tool.
Perforations are usually used to allow easy separation of two sections of the material, such as allowing paper to be torn easily along the line. Packaging with perforations in paperboard or plastic film is easy for consumers to open. Other purposes include filtrating fluids, sound deadening, allowing light or fluids to pass through, and to create an aesthetic design.
Various applications include plastic films to allow the packages to breathe, medical films, micro perforated plate and sound and vapor barriers.
Processes.
Pins and needles.
Rotary pinned perforation rollers are precision tools that can be used to perforate a wide variety of materials. The pins or needles can be used cold or heated. Cold perforation tools include needle punches.
There are a handful of manufacturers that specialize in hot and cold needle perforation tooling and equipment. In materials that have elasticity this can result in a "volcano" hole that is preferred in many applications.
Pinned rollers can be made from a variety of materials, including plastic, steel, and aluminum.
In more brittle films, cold perforation can cause slitting rather than creating a round hole, which can jeopardize the material's integrity under pressure. The solution to this is often heating the pin; i.e. hot pin perforation. Hot perforation melts a hole in the material, causing a reinforced ring around the hole. Hot needle perforation also assists when high density pin patterns are utilized, as the heat aids the perforation of the material.
Die and punch.
Die and punch sets can be used for thicker materials or materials that require large holes; this process is the most common for metalworking. The workpiece is sheared by pressing (either by machine or hand tool) the punch through the workpiece and into the die. The middle section of the workpiece is scrap; commonly known as the chad in paper and similar materials. The punch and die are shaped to produce the desired shaped hole. The clearance (the distance between the outside circumference of the punch and the inner circumference of the die) must be properly maintained to ensure a clean cut. Burrs are produced on the side of the workpiece that is against the die.
Common applications are fruit and vegetable bags, hole punching and ticket punching.
Laser perforation.
Laser cutting can place many precise holes in a web. Laser perforations look similar in many respects to hot needle perforations. However, laser systems are expensive. The big advantage of laser perforation is the consistency of the hole size, compared to mechanical perforation. This is very important in modified atmosphere packaging for fresh produce. The laser perforation is often carried out on roll slitting machines (slitter rewinder) as the printed material is slit down to the finished roll size.
Applications.
Perforation frequently refers to the practice of creating a long series of holes or slits so that paper or plastics can be torn more easily along a given line: this is used in easy-open packaging. Since the creation of perforation devices in the 1840s and 1850s, it has seen use in several areas.
Postage stamps are one common application of this, where small round holes are cut in lines to create individual pieces. Perforations on stamps are rather large, in the order of a millimeter, in comparison other perforated materials often have smaller holes.
It is common for cheque-books, notebooks and legal pads to have perforations making it easier to tear out individual pages or leaves. Perforation is used in ways to separate loose leaf (or even a form of graph paper from a ringed binder). A fine perforation next to the rings allows the page to be separated from the book with no confetti.
Screwcaps on glass or plastic bottles are sealed with a ring at the bottom of the cap attached by perforation. Twisting the cap has the effect of rupturing the material between the perforations and indicating that the original seal has been broken.
The edges of film stock are perforated to allow it to be moved precise distances at a time continuously. Similarly, punched cards for use in looms and later in computers input and output devices in some cases were perforated to ensure correct positioning of the card in the device, and to encode information.
Perforation of steel strips is used in the manufacture of some zesters and rasps.
Historically, perforation patterns other than linear were used to mark stamps. A series of patents had been issued in the late 19th century for perforation machines to be used on rail lines for ticketing. Libraries and private collections used similar perforating stamps to mark ownership of books. End sheets, title pages, and image plates were punched with the namesake of the collection. Today, similarly elaborate perforation patterns continue to be used in orienteering.
Bread bags for some bread often have micro-perforations in the plastic, which is supposed to keep the bread fresh by releasing excess moisture. Similarly, bags of concrete use small perforations to allow air to escape while they are being filled.


Actuator

An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving and controlling a mechanism or system, for example by opening a valve. In simple terms, it is a "mover".
An actuator requires a control device (controlled by control signal) and a source of energy. The control signal is relatively low energy and may be electric voltage or current, pneumatic, or hydraulic fluid pressure, or even human power. Its main energy source may be an electric current, hydraulic pressure, or pneumatic pressure. The control device is usually a valve. When it receives a control signal, an actuator responds by converting the source's energy into mechanical motion. In the "electric", "hydraulic", and "pneumatic" sense, it is a form of automation or automatic control.
The displacement achieved is commonly linear or rotational, as exemplified by linear motors and rotary motors, respectively. Rotary motion is more natural for small machines making large displacements. By means of a leadscrew, rotary motion can be adapted to function as a linear actuator (a linear motion, but not a linear motor).
Types of actuators.
Soft actuator.
A soft actuator is one that changes its shape in response to stimuli including mechanical, thermal, magnetic, and electrical. Soft actuators mainly deal with the robotics of humans rather than industry which is what most of the actuators are used for. For most actuators they are mechanically durable yet do not have an ability to adapt compared to soft actuators. The soft actuators apply to mainly safety and healthcare for humans which is why they are able to adapt to environments by disassembling their parts. This is why the driven energy behind soft actuators deal with flexible materials like certain polymers and liquids that are harmless to humans.
Hydraulic.
The hydraulic actuator consists of cylinder or fluid motor that uses hydraulic power to facilitate mechanical operation. The mechanical motion gives an output in terms of linear, rotatory or oscillatory motion. As liquids are nearly impossible to compress, a hydraulic actuator can exert a large force. The drawback of this approach is its limited acceleration.
The hydraulic cylinder consists of a hollow cylindrical tube along which a piston can slide. The term "single acting" is used when the fluid pressure is applied to just one side of the piston. The piston can move in only one direction, a spring being frequently used to give the piston a return stroke. The term "double acting" is used when pressure is applied on each side of the piston; any difference in force between the two sides of the piston moves the piston to one side or the other.
Pneumatic.
Pneumatic actuators enable considerable forces to be produced from relatively small pressure changes. Pneumatic energy is desirable for main engine controls because it can quickly respond in starting and stopping as the power source does not need to be stored in reserve for operation. Moreover, pneumatic actuators are cheaper, and often more powerful than other actuators. These forces are often used with valves to move diaphragms to affect the flow of air through the valve.
The advantage of pneumatic actuators consists exactly in the high level of force available in a relatively small volume. While the main drawback of the technology consists in the need for a compressed air network composed of several components such as compressors, reservoirs, filters, dryers, air treatment subsystems, valves, tubes, etc. which makes the technology energy inefficient with energy losses that can sum up to 95%
Electric.
Since 1960, several actuator technologies have been developed, Electric actuators can be classified in the following groups:
Electromechanical actuator (EMA).
It converts the rotational force of an electric rotary motor into a linear movement to generate the requested linear movement through a mechanism either a belt (Belt Drive axis with stepper or servo) or a screw (either a ball or a lead screw or planetary roller screw )
The main advantages of electromechanical actuators are their relatively good level of accuracy with respect to pneumatics, their possible long lifecycle and the little maintenance effort required (might require grease). It is possible to reach relatively high force, on the order of 100 kN.
The main limitation of these actuators are the reachable speed, the important dimensions and weight they require.
While the main application of such actuators is mainly seen in health care devices and factory automation.
Electrohydraulic actuator.
Another approach is an electrohydraulic actuator, where the electric motor remains the prime mover but provides torque to operate a hydraulic accumulator that is then used to transmit actuation force in much the same way that diesel engine/hydraulics are typically used in heavy equipment.
Electrical energy is used to actuate equipment such as multi-turn valves, or electric-powered construction and excavation equipment.
When used to control the flow of fluid through a valve, a brake is typically installed above the motor to prevent the fluid pressure from forcing open the valve. If no brake is installed, the actuator gets activated to reclose the valve, which is slowly forced open again. This sets up an oscillation (open, close, open ...) and the motor and actuator will eventually become damaged.
Linear motor.
Linear motors are different from electromechanical actuators, they work with the same principle as electric rotary motors, in effect it can be thought as a rotary motor which has been cut and unrolled. Thus, instead of producing a rotational movement, they produce a linear force along their length. Because linear motors cause lower friction losses than other devices, some linear motor products can last over a hundred million cycles.
Linear motors are divided in 3 basic categories: flat linear motor (classic), U-Channel linear motors and Tubular linear motors.
Linear motor technology is the best solution in the context of a low load (up to 30Kgs) because it provides the highest level of speed, control and accuracy.
In fact, it represents the most desired and versatile technology. Due to the limitations of pneumatics, the current electric actuator technology is a viable solution for specific industry applications and it has been successfully introduced in market segments such as the watchmaking, semiconductor and pharmaceutical industries (as high as 60% of the applications. The growing interest for this technology, can be explained by the following characteristics:
The main disadvantages of linear motors are:
Rotary motor.
Rotary motors are actuators that use a piece of energy to form an oscillatory motion at a certain angle of movement. Rotary actuators can have up to a rotation of 360 degrees. This allows it to differ from a linear motor as the linear is bound to a set distance compared to the rotary motor. Rotary motors have the ability to be set at any given degree in a field making the device easier to set up still with durability and a set torque.
Rotary motors can be powered by 3 different techniques such as Electric, Fluid, or Manual. However, Fluid powered rotary actuators have 5 sub-sections of actuators such as Scotch Yoke, Vane, Rack-and-Pinion, Helical, and Electrohydraulic. All forms have their own specific design and use allowing the ability to choose multiple angles of degree.
Applications for the rotary actuators are just about endless but, will more than likely be found dealing with mostly hydraulic pressured devices and industries. Rotary actuators are even used in the robotics field when seeing robotic arms in industry lines. Anything you see that deals with motion control systems to perform a task in technology is a good chance to be a rotary actuator.
Thermal or magnetic.
Actuators which can be actuated by applying thermal or magnetic energy to a solid-state material have been used in commercial applications. Thermal actuators can be triggered by temperature or heating through the Joule effect and tend to be compact, lightweight, economical and with high power density. These actuators use shape memory materials such as shape-memory alloys (SMAs) or magnetic shape-memory alloys (MSMAs).
Mechanical.
A mechanical actuator functions to execute movement by converting one kind of motion, such as rotary motion, into another kind, such as linear motion. An example is a rack and pinion. The operation of mechanical actuators is based on combinations of structural components, such as gears and rails, or pulleys and chains.
3D printed soft actuators.
The majority of the existing soft actuators are fabricated using multistep low yield processes such as micro-moulding, solid freeform fabrication, and mask lithography. However, these methods require manual fabrication of devices, post processing/assembly, and lengthy iterations until maturity in the fabrication is achieved. To avoid the tedious and time-consuming aspects of the current fabrication processes, researchers are exploring an appropriate manufacturing approach for effective fabrication of soft actuators. Therefore, special soft systems that can be fabricated in a single step by rapid prototyping methods, such as 3D printing, are utilized to narrow the gap between the design and implementation of soft actuators, making the process faster, less expensive, and simpler. They also enable incorporation of all actuator components into a single structure eliminating the need to use external joints, adhesives, and fasteners.
Shape memory polymer (SMP) actuators are the most similar to our muscles, providing a response to a range of stimuli such as light, electrical, magnetic, heat, pH, and moisture changes. They have some deficiencies including fatigue and high response time that have been improved through the introduction of smart materials and combination of different materials by means of advanced fabrication technology. The advent of 3D printers has made a new pathway for fabricating low-cost and fast response SMP actuators. The process of receiving external stimuli like heat, moisture, electrical input, light or magnetic field by SMP is referred to as shape memory effect (SME). SMP exhibits some rewarding features such a low density, high strain recovery, biocompatibility, and biodegradability.
Photopolymer/light activated polymers (LAP) are another type of SMP that are activated by light stimuli. The LAP actuators can be controlled remotely with instant response and, without any physical contact, only with the variation of light frequency or intensity.
A need for soft, lightweight and biocompatible soft actuators in soft robotics has influenced researchers for devising pneumatic soft actuators because of their intrinsic compliance nature and ability to produce muscle tension.
Polymers such as dielectric elastomers (DE), ionic polymer metal composites (IPMC), ionic electroactive polymers, polyelectrolyte gels, and gel-metal composites are common materials to form 3D layered structures that can be tailored to work as soft actuators. EAP actuators are categorized as 3D printed soft actuators that respond to electrical excitation as deformation in their shape.
Examples and applications.
In engineering, actuators are frequently used as mechanisms to introduce motion, or to clamp an object so as to prevent motion. In electronic engineering, actuators are a subdivision of transducers. They are devices which transform an input signal (mainly an electrical signal) into some form of motion.
Circular to linear conversion.
Motors are mostly used when circular motions are needed, but can also be used for linear applications by transforming circular to linear motion with a lead screw or similar mechanism. On the other hand, some actuators are intrinsically linear, such as piezoelectric actuators. Conversion between circular and linear motion is commonly made via a few simple types of mechanism including:
Virtual instrumentation.
In virtual instrumentation, actuators and sensors are the hardware complements of virtual instruments.
Performance metrics.
Performance metrics for actuators include speed, acceleration, and force (alternatively, angular speed, angular acceleration, and torque), as well as energy efficiency and considerations such as mass, volume, operating conditions, and durability, among others.
Force.
When considering force in actuators for applications, two main metrics should be considered. These two are static and dynamic loads. Static load is the force capability of the actuator while not in motion. Conversely, the dynamic load of the actuator is the force capability while in motion.
Speed.
Speed should be considered primarily at a no-load pace, since the speed will invariably decrease as the load amount increases. The rate the speed will decrease will directly correlate with the amount of force and the initial speed.
Operating conditions.
Actuators are commonly rated using the standard IP Code rating system. Those that are rated for dangerous environments will have a higher IP rating than those for personal or common industrial use.
Durability.
This will be determined by each individual manufacturer, depending on usage and quality.


Pad cratering

Pad cratering is a mechanically induced fracture in the resin between copper foil and outermost layer of fiberglass of a printed circuit board (PCB). It may be within the resin or at the resin to fiberglass interface.
The pad remains connected to the component (usually a Ball Grid Array, BGA) and leaves a "crater" on the surface of the printed circuit board.
Overview.
Pad cratering most often occurs during dynamic mechanical events such as mechanical shock or board flexure due to In-circuit test (ICT), board depaneling, or connector insertion. However, pad cratering has also been known to occur during thermal shock or even thermal cycling. Susceptibility to pad cratering can be impacted by several factors such as: PCB thickness, PCB laminate material properties, component size and stiffness, component location, and solder alloy selection among other factors.
Testing.
IPC-9708 provides three test methods to characterize the pad cratering of a component and PCBA: pin pull, ball pull, and ball shear testing. In the pin pull test a pin is soldered to pads and pulled until fracture. It is a useful test for all pad geometries and is sensitive to board design and materials. The ball pull test is specifically design for BGA components and has a large sensitivity to the solder alloy and joint formation. The ball shear test is also specified for BGA components and involves shearing the solder balls of the BGA. This test is typically the most convenient but is less sensitive to the design and material as compared to the ball pull test. Although IPC-9708 specifies procedures for each test type, the challenge is that no standard pass/fail criteria are defined. This is viewed as application-specific and must be defined by the user based on their design, environment, and reliability requirements.
Another applicable test method is IPC/JEDEC-9702, which is a monotonic bend test method used to characterize board level interconnects. This can be relevant for pad cratering resulting from board flexure, however this test method is broader and does not specifically focus on pad cratering failure modes.
Board level reliability testing is a common approach to assessing product reliability. Performing temperature cycling, mechanical drop/shock, and vibration testing is a good way to evaluate pad cratering. However, similar to IPC/JEDEC-9702, this can be cost and time intensive and does not specifically focus on pad cratering failure modes.
Detection and Failure Analysis.
Pad cratering can be difficult to detect during functional testing. This is especially the case with small or partial cracking that can escape testing and cause latent field failures. Even if a component failure is identified, diagnosing the failure mode as pad cratering can be difficult. Conventional nondestructive testing and failure analysis techniques such as visual inspection and X-Ray microscopy may not detect the issue. Electrical characterization is an example of a nondestructive technique that can be useful, however this may not detect an anomaly if there is only partial cracking.
Typically, pad cratering is detected or confirmed via destructive testing and failure analysis such as dye and pry, acoustic emissions, cross sectioning, and Scanning Electron Microscopy.
Mitigation.
There are several mitigation techniques that can used to reduce the risk of pad cratering. The appropriate method(s) is often driven by design and resource constraints.
Limiting Board Flexure: If cratering is due to mechanical overstress then limiting board flexure is typically the best mitigation technique.
Simulation: Modeling and simulation can help proactively avoid pad cratering failures. Relevant examples include ICT failures or products with potential for large shock events (i.e. portable electronics). Finite Element Analysis can be done using a physics of failure approach to determine risk of overstress and pad cratering. This proactive approach can rapidly evaluate multiple designs early on, potentially avoiding expensive design changes or warranty costs later on.
Underfill, Edge Bonding, and Corner Staking: Epoxies and underfill materials can be added to provide mechanical support and reduce board and solder strain during flexing. This is more common in cases where the component selection and PCBA design are fixed. There are differences between each technique which makes proper understanding of the environment and application important.
Solder Alloy: Solder alloy selection can impact susceptibility to pad cratering. Typically, pad cratering is considered a high strain rate event with minimal creep, however there is still potential for plasticity in the solder. More compliant solders or those with lower yield points will reduce pad cratering potential by providing additional load sharing.
Board Thickness and Laminate Material: Board thickness and laminate material properties such as Young's modulus and Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (CTE) will impact susceptibility to pad cratering.
Board Redesign: If pad cratering persists then a redesign may be required. This could include changing component location or adjusting between solder mask defined (SMD) and non-solder mask defined (NSMD) pads.
External links.
Additional information on pad cratering in printed circuit boards can be found in the following links:


Norwegian Industrial Bank

The Norwegian Industrial Bank , also known as the Industry Bank, was a Norwegian bank.
It had a nationwide mandate as an industrial development bank. It was created in 1936, amid the interwar economic crisis, to supply loans to industry and hotels. The Norwegian state owned about half of the shares. In 1977 it incorporated the loan institution Strukturfinans. In 1993 it merged with the Industry Fund and the Regional Development Fund to form the Norwegian Industrial and Regional Development Fund, now a part of Innovation Norway.


Chain conveyor

A chain conveyor is a type of conveyor system for moving material through production lines.
Operation.
Chain conveyors use an endless chain both to transmit power and to propel material through a trough, either pushed directly by the chain or by attachments to the chain. The chain runs over sprockets at either end of the trough. Chain conveyors are used to move material up to , and typically under .
Chain conveyors utilize a powered continuous chain arrangement, carrying a series of single pendants. The chain arrangement is driven by a motor, and the material suspended on the pendants are conveyed. Chain conveyors are used for moving products down an assembly line and/or around a manufacturing or warehousing facility.
Chain conveyors are primarily used to transport heavy unit loads, e.g. pallets, grid boxes, and industrial containers. These conveyors can be single or double chain strand in configuration. The load is positioned on the chains, the friction pulls the load forward. Chain conveyors are generally easy to install and have very minimum maintenance for users.
Many industry sectors use chain conveyor technology in their production lines. The automotive industry commonly uses chain conveyor systems to convey car parts through paint plants. Chain conveyors also have widespread use in the white and brown goods, metal finishing and distribution industries. Chain conveyors are also used in the painting and coating industry, this allows for easier paint application. The products are attached to an above head chain conveyor, keeping products off of the floor allows for higher productivity levels.
Types.
Types of chain conveyor include apron, drag, plain chain, scraper, flight, and en-masse conveyors.
Drag conveyor.
Drag conveyors, variously called "drag chain conveyors", "scraper chain conveyors" and "en-masse conveyors", are used in bulk material handling to move solid material along a trough. They are used for moving materials such as cement clinker, ash, and sawdust in the mining and chemical industries, municipal solid waste incinerators, and the production of pellet fuel.
The difference between drag conveyors, scraper conveyors, and flight conveyors largely depends on whether the chain links have obvious flights or paddles attached. In a drag conveyor, the chain moves the material directly, while a flight conveyor uses a series of wood, metal, or plastic flights attached to the chain at regular intervals, which push the material along the trough.
Multiflexing chain conveyor.
Multiflexing conveyor systems use plastic chains in many configurations. The flexible conveyor chain design permits horizontal as well as vertical change of direction.


Hayes-Wheelwright matrix

The Hayes-Wheelwright Matrix, also known as the product-process matrix, is a tool to analyze the fit between a chosen product positioning and manufacturing process.
The first dimension of the matrix, the product lifecycle, is a measure of the maturity of the product or market. It ranges from highly customized products with low volumes, to highly standardized products with high volume. The second dimension, the process lifecycle, is a measure of the maturity of the manufacturing process. It ranges from highly manual processes with high unit costs (job shop) to highly automated process with low unit costs (continuous flow).
Companies can occupy any position in the matrix. However, according to the framework, they can only be successful if their product lifecycle stage is consistent with their process lifecycle stage.
It was developed by Robert H. Hayes and Steven C. Wheelwright and published in the "Harvard Business Review" in 1979, in the articles titled ""Link Manufacturing Process and Product Life Cycles" and "The Dynamics of Process-Product Life Cycles"."
Using the matrix.
A company's place on the matrix depends on two dimensions – the process structure/process lifecycle and the product structure/product lifecycles. The process structure/process lifecycle is composed of the process choice (job shop, batch, assembly line, and continuous flow) and the process structure (jumbled flow, disconnected line flow, connected line flow and continuous flow). The product structure/product lifecycle refers to the four stages of the product lifecycle from low volume to high volume and the product structure from low standardization to high standardization.
Each process choice on the diagonal of the matrix comprises different sets of characteristics in consideration of skill level and flexibility of workers and labour intensity. The upper-left modules (project, job shop, batch processes) tend to have higher skilled workers with a larger range of skills for better flexibility and are more labor-intensive compared. It is rare for the upper-left modules to work at full capacity and they use general-purpose equipment. They usually cater to local and/or niche markets. The lower-right manufacturing processes (mass production; assembly line and continuous processes) require only unskilled or semi-skilled workers to monitor and maintain the equipment as they are far more capital intensive processes. The production facilities are also interrelated and require specialized machinery unique to the specific product. They often cater to national markets and can be vertically integrated. The matrix highlights the difficult trade-off between efficiency and flexibility of the operations with the upper-left modules favoring flexibility with high-cost productions and the lower-right modules favoring efficiency with the ability to spread their large fixed costs over a wider base, reducing cost per unit. The product-process matrix affects three aspects of the business.
Distinctive competence.
Distinctive competence is a characteristic or aspect of the company that gives it a comparative advantage over its competitors, usually categorized by cost/price, quality, flexibility and service/time. The matrix can be used as a framework to identify and analyze a company's distinctive competence to better inform decisions on processes and alternatives and marketing alternatives.
Flexibility.
The wide range of skilled labor and use of general-purpose equipment allows upper-left processes to have distinctive competence in flexibility in their product/service provided, specifically in unique product designs. Lower-right processes do not have that aspect of flexibility since they rely on specialized machinery with unskilled or semi-skilled workers. However, they have better flexibility when it comes to quantity.
Quality.
Upper-left processes excel in quality when it comes to unique designs based on the customers' specifications or if the product is considered artisan. While upper-left processes cater products to specific customers, lower-right processes can take advantage of consistently producing homogeneous products to eliminate flaws and improve designs over time for a more reliability to the end user.
Service/Time.
Upper-left processes can claim distinctive competence through face-to-face interaction and personal attention while lower-right processes are more time-efficient.
Cost/price.
Businesses that use the upper-left processes are likely able to charge higher prices because of their ability to cater to individual customers and to compensate for the skilled labor. Lower-right processes are more cost-efficient because their large volumes allow them to take advantage of economies of scale.
Management.
Firms operating along the diagonal matrix are assumed to perform better than those too far from the diagonal because it impairs them from competing effectively. For example, a commodity produced by a job shop would be economically impractical. There are niche players that do not operate exactly on the diagonal but near it; for example, Rolls-Royce manufactures automobiles using job shop. Management must consider the disadvantages and implications of doing so. Management can also consider the strategic implications of their position on the matrix compared to their competitors. A firm's position on the matrix can change over time; it can predict the consequences of any future products or process changes.
The nature of a product can be identified using the matrix. Hayes and Wheelwright illustrate this using a specialized manufacturer of printed circuit boards that produced customized products in low-volumes using an interrelated assembly-line process, placing the business in the undesirable lower-left corner of the matrix. Knowing this, the company concluded its product lay in design capability rather than the circuit boards themselves, which placed them nearer along the diagonal.
Organization.
Another diagnostic use of the matrix is to organize individual operating units according to the suitable process choice while maintaining the overall coordination of the manufacturing procedure. Most firms use more than one process for a product. For example, batch processing may be more suitable for individual components because of its nature or the volume needed is not sufficient for the line process, but the product itself is constructed on an assembly line. Firms may need separate facilities for the parts or products. Firms can also produce similar products using different process options. Fender Musical Instruments mass-produce electric guitars using the line process while also producing custom guitars using job shop (Fender Custom Shop).
The four stages.
The Hayes-Wheelwright matrix is a four-stage model; each stage is characterized by the management strategy implemented to exploit the manufacturing potential. In stage 1, the production process is flexible and high cost, and becomes increasingly standardize, mechanized, and automated, resulting in an inflexible and cost-efficient process. A company can move between stages. Chase and Hayes (1991) expanded on the model to include service firms. Cruz and Rodriguez (2008) also used the theoretical framework to assess the effectiveness of the operations strategy.
Stage 1.
The company's approach to manufacturing is reactive, dealing with day-to-day problems like machine breakdowns, quality and delivery difficulties. They cannot use the potential of manufacturing as they struggle with foundation issues. The management will emphasize increasing equipment and technological investments rather than improving infrastructure like planning and measurement systems and workforce policies.
Stage 2.
Companies would have long-term goals to achieve industry standards. The focus will be on productivity enhancement and economies of scale meeting standard practice. Companies would favor capital investments as the means for gaining competitive advantages. Their main aim is competitive parity in the manufacturing process.
Stage 3.
The business strategy would generate the manufacturing strategy. Charter and mission statements are used to improve the company's competitive position by guiding manufacturing activities and decisions. Advancing manufacturing technologies like Computer-aided design (CAD), Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) and Flexible manufacturing system (FMS), as well as practices like Just-in-time and lean manufacturing will be taken into consideration to enhance the product.
Stage 4.
Firms will strategize to use manufacturing to boost their corporate competence. Their internal process and product improvements will advance past industry standards, eventually leading the sector. This will result in a sustainable competitive advantage. The manufacturing strategy will significantly motivate the competitive strategy and will influence major decisions of the company.
Process choices.
Project.
Projects is a process choice added by later writers. It refers to large-scale unique products. They are unique to the customer and are often too big to move, thus the project is the process of choice.
Job shop.
Job shops are semi-custom manufacturing processes with small-to-medium volume. Products are either unique to the order or have inconsistent demand with long gaps between orders. Because each output is different, efficiency is difficult. Each order requires varying structure, materials, form and possibly processing in accordance with the customer's design and specification, resulting in a jumbled flow with no repetitive pattern. This usually requires a process layout in which the machines are grouped in different areas of the shop according to purpose or function. This manufacturing process also requires highly skilled and experienced labor. Besides manufacturing operations like tools, machine and die manufacturers, it can also apply to service operations such as law offices, medical practices, automobile repair and tailor shops.
Batch.
Batch processes produce similar items on a repeated basis, often in higher volumes than job shops. Management might accumulate products so they can be processed together. The larger volume and repetition of requirements allows management to take a more effective manufacturing route as they optimize capacity and significantly reduce costs. There is a disconnected line flow or intermittent flow since the work-in-process move about different machine grouping in the shop in a jumbled fashion. It is smoother than job shop processing because the volume is higher and similarity in items allows the manufacturer to take advantage of the repetition. Printing and machine shops that have contracts for higher volumes of products are examples of the batch process in manufacturing. Examples of service operations could include some offices, some operations in hospitals, university and school classes and food preparations.
Line.
Where the product has a consistent demand and large enough, the business can employ process referred to as mass-production such as the assembly line and continuous manufacturing. In the assembly line process, operations do not change with a standard and uninterrupted flow with a homogeneous output. This process is heavily automated with special-purpose equipment. Unlike the previous process, there is no variation in production. Managers would have a larger span of control and less skilled workers are needed because the standardization of the product means individual units do not have to me as closely monitored and controlled, easing routing, scheduling and control. The assembly line process also means machinery is organized according to sequence and is usually connected by an automated conveyor system, thus as a connected line flow. This is called a product layout. The set of inputs and outputs are often fixed and consistent with a continuous flow of work. An example of assembly-line manufacturing is automobile manufacturing. Car washes, class registration in universities and many fast food operations are services that employ assembly lines.
Continuous.
Continuous production involves raw materials undergoing successive operations such as refining and processing to a narrow range of extremely standardized products characterize as commodities in very high volumes. Continuous manufacturing requires substantial capital investment, so demand for the product must be exceptionally high. The cost of starting or stopping the process can be detrimental to the business. Thus, the processes often run non-stop with minimum downtime. High production levels also minimize the average fixed cost per unit. The process is self-monitoring with a fixed and automated route, which limits labor requirements to monitoring and maintaining the machinery. Industries that use this process include, gas, chemicals, electricity ores, rubber, petroleum, cement, paper, wood, and certain foods like milk, water, wheat, flour, sugar and spirits.
Advantages.
The matrix facilitates broader thinking about organizational competence and competitive advantage by including stages of the product lifecycle and its choice of the production process(es) for different products into its strategic planning process. It allows manufacturing managers to be more involved in the planning process so that their decisions can more effectively coincide with those of marketing and of the corporation itself. All resulting in more informed predictions about the changes in the industry with appropriate strategic responses.
In addition, the matrix can be used to identify business opportunities available given the company's manufacturing capabilities. It can aid in major decision-making about changes in the production process and guide investment decisions to stay in line with product and process plans. It helps to choose the best process and product structure when entering a new market and the suitable manufacturing facilities. It also helps identify and monitor the progress of important manufacturing objectives at a corporate level.
Disadvantages.
The matrix does not account for the combinations of the product lifecycle and process lifecycle that do not follow the above-mentioned characteristics. "Some 60 per cent of the firms studied did not fall on the diagonal". Evolving management styles and technology are diminishing some of the inherent trade-offs found on the matrix, resulting in low predictive validity. Ahmad and Schroeder, however, suggest developing the matrix to include three axes rather than two. Besides the x-axis (product lifecycle stages) and the y-axis (Process lifecycle stages), they propose to add a z-axis to represent the company's inclusion of innovative initiatives.
The product variety considered in the matrix is also limited. Koth and Orne (1989) propose the complexity of products and organizational characteristics like the extent of vertical integration, size and geographical scope of the operations should affect the appropriate process design. Das and Narasimhan (2001) suggest advanced manufacturing technology for modular product structures can influence the contingency effect of the product variety and increase output and improve capabilities for job and batch shops in areas that were conventionally related with assembly lines and flow lines.
The matrix is static and its dimensions are too simple. The matrix is based on the current products but does not account for the dynamic nature of the firms’ operating environments. Processes should be designed with the evolution of product offerings and projected future product offerings in mind.


Novosibirsk Chocolate Factory

Novosibirsk Chocolate Factory is a factory in Oktyabrsky District of Novosibirsk. It was founded in 1942. The factory is part of the United Confectioners Holding.
History.
The factory was created on the basis of evacuated department of Odessa Confectionery Factory in 1942.
Products.
The Factory produces chocolate, marmalade, zefir (more than 80 kinds of products).


Stud welding

Stud welding is a technique similar to flash welding where a fastener or specially formed nut is welded onto another metal part, typically a base metal or substrate. The fastener can take different forms, but typically fall under threaded, unthreaded, or tapped. The bolts may be automatically fed into the stud welder. Weld nuts generally have a flange with small nubs that melt to form the weld. "Weld studs" are used in stud welding systems. Manufacturers create weld studs for the two main forms of stud welding: capacitor discharge stud welding and drawn arc stud welding
Drawn arc stud welding.
Drawn arc stud welding joins a stud and another piece of metal together by heating both parts with an arc. The stud is usually joined to a flat plate by using the stud as one of the electrodes. The polarity used in stud welding depends on the type of metal being used. Welding aluminium, for example, would usually require direct-current electrode positive (DCEP). Welding steel would require direct-current electrode negative (DCEN).
Stud welding uses a flux tip and a ferrule, a ceramic ring which concentrates the heat, prevents oxidation and retains the molten metal in the weld zone. The ferrule is broken off of the fastener after the weld is completed. This lack of marring on the side opposite the fastener is what differentiates stud welding from other fastening processes.
Drawn arc welding studs.
Drawn arc studs range from a #8 to 1" diameter. The lengths are variable from 3/8" to 60" (for deformed bars). Arc studs are typically loaded with an aluminium flux ball on the weld end which aids in the welding process. Drawn arc weld studs are commonly made from mild steel and stainless steel.
Short cycle stud welding.
Short cycle stud welding is a faster form of drawn arc stud welding which can use capacitor discharge weld studs instead of drawn arc studs. This method can tolerate welding studs to thinner sheet metals than the drawn arc process, though it does not achieve welds that are as strong or penetrative. It also does not require the use of ceramic ferrules. Sometimes operators using this process use shrouding gas to reduce spatter.
Capacitor discharge stud welding.
Capacitor discharge stud welding differs from drawn arc stud welding, in that capacitor discharge welding does not require flux. The weld time is shorter, enabling the weld to bond with little oxidation and no need for heat concentration. It also allows for small-diameter studs to be welded to thin, lightweight materials. This process uses a direct-current arc from a capacitor. The weld time in this process is between 1 and 6 milliseconds. Capacitor discharge stud welding with the latest equipment can create a weld without burn-through showing on the opposite side of very thin metals. CD stud welding is often used for smaller diameter studs and pins, as well as on non-standard materials and for accuracy. Drawn arc stud welding is primarily used for structural purposes and larger diameter weld studs.
Capacitor discharge weld studs.
Capacitor discharge weld studs range from 14 gauge to 3/8" diameter. They come in many different lengths, ranging from 1/4" to 5" and larger. They are usually manufactured from mild or stainless steel, brass, aluminium, and aluminium alloy. The tip on the weld end of the stud serves a twofold purpose:
When the tip disintegrates, it melts and helps solidify the weld to the base material.
Automated and robotic stud welding.
Portable stud welding machines are available. Welders can also be automated, with controls for arcing and applying pressure. CNC stud welding machines can increase the speed and accuracy of manufacturing and construction work. Stud welding is versatile; typical applications include automobile bodies, electrical panels, shipbuilding and building construction. Shipbuilding is one of the oldest uses of stud welding, and the process revolutionized the shipbuilding industry. Other manufacturing industries can also use stud welding for a variety of purposes, from electrical and mechanical to decorative and consumer products.
Standards.
Among the standards quoted in the list of welding codes, the following apply:


Batch production

Batch production is a method of manufacturing where the products are made as specified groups or amounts, within a time frame. A batch can go through a series of steps in a large manufacturing process to make the final desired product. Batch production is used for many types of manufacturing that may need smaller amounts of production at a time to ensure specific quality standards or changes in the process. This is opposed to large mass production or continuous production methods where the product or process does not need to be checked or changed as frequently or periodically.
Characteristics.
In the manufacturing batch production process, the machines are in chronological order directly related to the manufacturing process. The batch production method is also used so any temporary changes or modifications can be made to the product if necessary during the manufacturing process. For example, if a product needed a sudden change in material or details changed, it can be done in between batches. As opposed to assembly production or mass production where such changes cannot be easily made. The time between batches is called cycle time. Each batch may be assigned a lot number.
Advantages.
Because batch production involves small batches, it is good for quality control. For example, if there is a mistake in the process, it can be fixed without as much loss compared to mass production. This can also save money by taking less risk for newer plans and products etc. As a result, this allows batch manufacturing to be changed or modified depending on company needs. In certain cases, batch production may require less expensive equipment, thus reducing the capital cost required to set up this type of system.
Disadvantages.
There can be downtime between individual batches. Or if the product is constantly changing or being modified throughout the process, this also can cost downtime. Other disadvantages are that smaller batches need more planning, scheduling and control over the process and collecting data. Because of these factors, items made using batch production may have higher unit cost and take more time compared to continuous production.


MEMS magnetic actuator

A MEMS magnetic actuator is a device that uses the microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) to convert an electric current into a mechanical output by employing the well-known Lorentz Force Equation or the theory of Magnetism.
Overview of MEMS.
Micro-Electro-Mechanical System (MEMS) technology is a process technology in which mechanical and electro-mechanical devices or structures are constructed using special micro-fabrication techniques. These techniques include: bulk micro-machining, surface micro-machining, LIGA, wafer bonding, etc.
A device is considered to be a MEMS device if it satisfies the following:
For the analysis of every MEMS device, the Lumped assumption is made: that if the size of the device is far less than the characteristic length scale of the phenomenon (wave or diffusion), then there would be no spatial variations across the entire device. Modelling becomes easy under this assumption.
Operations in MEMS.
The three major operations in MEMS are:
These three operations require some form of transduction schemes, the most popular ones being: piezoelectric, electrostatic, piezoresistive, electrodynamic, magnetic and magnetostrictive. The MEMS magnetic actuators use the last three schemes for their operation.
Magnetic actuation.
The principle of magnetic actuation is based on the Lorentz Force Equation.
When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a static magnetic field, the field produced around the conductor interacts with the static field to produce a force. This force can be used to cause the displacement of a mechanical structure.
Governing equations and parameters.
A typical MEMS actuator is shown on the right. For a single turn of circular coil, the equations that govern its operation are:
The deflection of a mechanical structure for actuation depends on certain parameters of the device. For actuation, there has to be an applied force and a restoring force. The applied force is the force represented by the equation above, while the restoring force is fixed by the spring constant of the moving structure.
The applied force depends on both the field from the coils and the magnet. The remanence value of the magnet, its volume and position from the coils all contribute to its effect on the applied Force. Whereas the number of turns of coil, its size (radius) and the amount of current passing through it determines its effect on the Applied Force. The spring constant depends on the Young's Modulus of the moving structure, and its length, width and thickness.
Magnetostrictive actuators.
Magnetic actuation is not limited to the use of Lorentz force to cause a mechanical displacement. Magnetostrictive actuators can also use the theory of magnetism to bring about displacement. Materials that change their shapes when exposed to magnetic fields can now be used to drive high-reliability linear motors and actuators.. An example is a nickel rod that tends to deform when it is placed in an external magnetic field. Another example is wrapping a series of electromagnetic induction coils around a metal tube in which a Terfenol-D material is placed. The coils generate a moving magnetic field that courses wavelike down the successive windings along the stator tube. As the traveling magnetic field causes each succeeding cross section of Terfenol-D to elongate, then contract when the field is removed, the rod will actually "crawl" down the stator tube like an inchworm. Repeated propagating waves of magnetic flux will translate the rod down the tube's length, producing a useful stroke and force output. The amount of motion generated by the material is proportional to the magnetic field provided by the coil system, which is a function of the electric current. This type of motive device, which features a single moving part, is called an elastic-wave or peristaltic linear motor. (view:
Video of a Magnetostrictive micro walker)
Magnet material.
The operation of the magnetic actuator depends on the interaction between the field from an electromagnet and a static field. To produce this static field, it is important to use the right material. In MEMS, permanent magnets have become the favorite because they have a very good scaling factor and they retain their magnetization even when there is no external field... meaning that they need not be continuously magnetized when they are in use
Integrating the magnet into the MEMS device.
As earlier discussed, MEMS devices are designed and fabricated using special micro-fabrication techniques. The major challenge however for magnetic MEMS is the integration of the magnet into the MEMS device. Recent research has suggested solutions to this challenge.
Fabrication (or molding) of the magnet.
There are several ways by which the magnet could be fabricated on a MEMS structure:
Issues with magnetic actuation.
Each of these challenges can be mitigated or lessened by the right choice of material, choice of molding or fabrication method, and the type of device that is to be constructed.
Applications of the magnetic actuator include: the synthetic jet actuator, micro-pumps and micro-relays.


Postponement

Postponement is a business strategy employed in manufacturing and supply chain management which maximizes possible benefit and minimizes risk by delaying further investment into a product or service until the last possible moment, or where a manufacturer produces a generic product, which can be modified at a later stage before the final distribution to the customer. An example of such a strategy is Dell Computers' build-to-order online store. One of the earliest references to the concept was in a paper by Walter Zinn and Donald J. Bowersox in the "Journal of Business Logistics" in 1988, which highlighted five types: labelling, packaging, assembly, manufacturing and time postponements.
One of the most modern definitions today is the following, suggested by Christopher (2005):
A successful example of postponement – delayed differentiation – is the use of "vanilla boxes". Semi-finished computers are stored in advance of seeing the actual demand for the finished products. Upon seeing the demand, thus with no residual uncertainty – these “vanilla boxes” are finished by adding (or removing) components. The three key interrelated decisions are: (a) how many different types of vanilla boxes to stock, (b) in what quantities, and (c) how to finish to meet the order most effectively. Another example is an umbrella manufacturer who does not know what the demand will be for different colored umbrellas. The manufacturer will manufacture all white umbrellas and dye them later when umbrellas are in season and it is easier to predict demand of each color of umbrella. This way the manufacturer can stock up on white umbrellas early with minimal labor costs, and be sure of the demand before they dedicate time and money into predicting the demand so far in the future.
Historical development of postponement.
According to various logistics journals, supply chain management books and articles, the postponement concept has three key dates in its development in the 20th century – 1950, 1965 and 1988:
After the development of the concept in the 20th century, researchers started defining postponement differently since 2000 and there are two key developments in 2001 and 2004. In 2001, Remko Van Hoek pointed out that it is important to analyze postponement not just on the marketing and distribution channel levels but also on the supply chain level. He argued that previous theories developed in the 20th century had gaps in their research on postponement, and identified 5 challenges: 1. Postponement as a supply chain concept, 2. Integrating related supply chain concepts, 3. Postponement in the globalizing supply chain, 4. Postponement in the customized supply chain, 5. Methodological upgrading of postponement.
In the first challenge, Van Hoek criticised Bucklin’s and Zinn’s postponement theories as lacking application throughout the whole supply chain, since they only linked their theories to one of its levels (upstream – sourcing & components, midstream - manufacturing, downstream - distribution). Professor Van Hoek states that “specific study should be undertaken to assess what extent postponement is applied at various positions in the supply chain”.
The second challenge states that to cover the entire supply chain in conceptualization of postponement, a researcher would need to engage related concepts, e.g. just-in-time manufacturing and supply, efficient consumer response.
Globalization in postponement comes as the third challenge. He states that there are differences in language, culture across the world and that postponement is widely present in Western countries rather than emerging countries in Asia. Therefore, Van Hoek advises to analyse these geographical dimensions when conducting a research on postponement.
The fourth challenge discusses lack of typology in postponement. Researches should not only pay attention to manufacturing and logistics related postponement but also to service postponement, since the concept takes its place in services too.
Finally, the fifth challenge tells that in order to conduct a solid research plan on postponement one should consider the triangulation model with first step – how postponement is implemented in a global supply chain, second step – where, to what extent and how postponement is applied, third step – benefits of postponement in the customized supply chain.
It should be stated that Van Hoek has made a solid contribution into postponement concept development as he provided these 5 challenges, and raised interest on postponement, i.e. there has been more literature on postponement available.
Yang "et al." (2004) arranged the Zinn and Bowersox postponement strategies into more accurate groups and explained how exactly the strategy is matched to a type of postponement.
Yang "et al." stated that in order to cope with high level of uncertainty, purchasing postponement (purchasing materials as close to production as possible) product development postponement may be applied => no physical inventory. In contrast, to deal with low uncertainty we use logistics postponement (reduction of obsolete inventories, just-in-time delivery) and production postponement => semi-finished product. With high modularity (when components can be incorporated into products with almost no change) product development and production postponements are used, whereas with low modularity (when customization is required) – logistics and purchasing postponements. This is what exactly was lacking in the 20th century because you did not know whether physical inventory, semi-finished, or finished products would work best as it was uncertain due to fluctuating consumer demands. Therefore, Yang "et al." provides us with a guideline on how to manage this uncertainty.
Terminology.
Thacker uses the term "point(s) of mutation" to refer to the potentially postponable stages in a production process when products become more specialised.


DMSMS

Diminishing manufacturing sources and material shortages (DMSMS) or diminishing manufacturing sources (DMS) is defined as: "The loss or impending loss of manufacturers of items or suppliers of items or raw materials." DMSMS and obsolescence are terms that are often used interchangeably. However, obsolescence refers to a lack of availability due to statutory or process changes and new designs, whereas DMSMS is a lack of sources or materials.
Impact.
Although it is not strictly limited to electronic systems, much of the effort regarding DMSMS deals with electronic components that have a relatively short lifetime.
Causes.
Primary components.
DMSMS is a multifaceted problem because there are at least three main components that need to be considered. First, a primary concern is the ongoing improvement in technology. As new products are designed, the technology that was used in their predecessors becomes outdated, making it more difficult to repair the equipment. Second, the mechanical parts may be harder to acquire because fewer are produced as the demand for these parts decreases. Third, the materials required to manufacture a piece of equipment may no longer be readily available.
Product life cycle.
It is widely accepted that all electronic devices are subject to the product life cycle. As products evolve into updated versions, they require parts and technology distinct from their predecessors. However, the earlier versions of the product often still need to be maintained throughout their life cycle. As the new product becomes predominant, there are fewer parts available to fix the earlier versions and the technology becomes outdated.
According to EIA-724 there are 6 distinct phases of a product's life cycle: Introduction, Growth, Maturity, Saturation, Decline, and Phase-Out. To the uninitiated these terms often seem abstract and odd. These terms are often used in databases covering parts life cycle so it is important to have an understanding of what they mean. Although the terms "Introduction", "Growth", and "Decline" are generally accepted without much explanation, the terms "Maturity", "Saturation", and "Phase-Out" are less obvious.
"Maturity" in this case refers to state in the product's life cycle where sales of the product "first" reach its sales peak and begins to level off. Having survived the Introduction and Growth phases, products in this phase have a low probability of being discontinued.
"Saturation" refers to a state in the product's life cycle where sales have leveled off and, towards the end of this phase, first begin to decline. The term "Saturation" is confusing to many and can be explained in reference to its equivalent in chemistry where a substance can no longer be dissolved in a liquid. A product can be said to have "saturated" its market. The decline at the end of the Saturation phase gives the first indications of the products end of life.
"Phase-out" refers to the final stages of a product's decline ending in the product being altogether discontinued by the supplier.
Mitigation.
DMSMS is managed through various risk mitigation efforts, both during the manufacturing of a product as well as later in the products life cycle. DMSMS is a hot topic in military supply where the usable lifetime of an electronic system may far exceed the availability of the components used to produce that system.
Devices in phases 5 and 6 of a product's life cycle require caution on the part of designers and product support engineers to assure that system components are indeed available at the time of production.
Some examples of the signs and symptoms of a DMSMS issue are:
The core methodology for DMSMS analysis has been to make direct contact with the supplier of an item. Direct contact takes the form of phone, e-mail or other communication with a competent supplier representative. This is essential in the management of commercial off-the-shelf products and assemblies. The main items of concern in a DMSMS analysis are:
Monitoring.
Other methodologies involve subscription to data services which monitor parts lists, known as a Bill of Materials (BOM), for activity on any one part in the user's list. Often both the classic methodology and the data subscription methodology will be used in conjunction to provide a more complete assessment of a part's availability and lifetime.
Lifetime buy.
One strategy used to combat DMS is to buy additional inventory during the production run of a system or part, in quantities sufficient to cover the expected number of failures. This strategy is known as a lifetime buy. An example of this is the many 30- and 40-year-old railway locomotives being run by small operators in the United Kingdom. These operators will often buy more locomotives than they actually require, and keep a number of them stored as a source of spare parts.
Take action.
It is important and responsible to use a DMSMS risk management plan to ensure parts are available when you need them. Long range planning must occur for every key piece of equipment, establishing "when" and "what" parts will be replaced or redesigned. Try to foresee potential equipment problems. Consider replacing obsolete parts and equipment. New methods of design engineering allow for the open exchange of parts as technology changes. There are also companies out there giving assistance and consult in seminars and workshops, audits and implementation of effective DMSMS processes.


Zygo Corporation

Zygo Corporation, or simply Zygo, is a manufacturer headquartered at Middlefield, Connecticut that specializes in optical systems and equipment. Their metrology product lines include 3D measuring microscopes using coherence scanning interferometry, laser Fizeau interferometers for testing optical components, laser displacement interferometers, and heterodyne optical encoders for stage position metrology. Zygo’s optics business manufactures both optical assembly and custom optics for medical instruments and national labs. Over 750 patents have been awarded since the Company's founding.
In October 2008, competitor ESI attempted to acquire Zygo for approximately 174 million USD worth of stock but the buy-out was stymied by Zygo's board of directors. Zygo later became part of the Ultra Precision Technologies Division of Ametek, Inc. as a result of a 2014 acquisition.
History and products.
The company was founded in 1970 by Paul Forman, Carl Zanoni, and Sol Laufer, with financial support from Canon Inc. and Wesleyan University. An initial priority for the Company was to build a world-class optical fabrication facility for producing optics with the highest precision plano surfaces and angles.
It was recognized that in order to achieve such a goal, practical and easy-to-use interferometry would have to be a standard part of the fabrication process. While there were several interferometers available on the market at that time, none had all the flexibility or features needed for Zygo’s facilities and were also extremely cost-prohibitive. An interferometer was developed in 1974 for these in-house purposes, the Model GH, and it later became Zygo’s first commercial product with a second model, the Mark II, being its breakout success.
In the 1990s, Zygo expanded its offerings to include software designed for lower cost personal computers and brought to market its ZMI metrology lasers.
Awards and accolades.
Two researchers working received the Rudolf Kinglake Medal for their work while employed at Zygo in optical engineering in 2016.
In 2000, Zygo successfully sued Wyko Corp for patent infringement of a breadboard-based interferometer first registered by Zygo in 1978.


Aras Corp

Aras Corporation is an American developer and publisher of product development software, Aras Innovator. The product is used for product lifecycle management (PLM) and other purposes. Since 2007, Aras has been providing Aras Innovator for free as "Enterprise open-source software", with Aras Corp providing technical support, software updates, and other consulting as a subscription service. Aras Corp was founded in 2000 in Andover, Massachusetts by Peter Schroer.
Aras Innovator is an enterprise software suite for managing product lifecycle management business processes. The product is based on the Microsoft .NET Framework and SQL Server. The product is used for product lifecycle management (PLM), advanced product quality planning (APQP), lean product development, product quality control, collaborative product development and new product introduction (NPI).
Until 2007, Aras sold their product as proprietary software for enterprises.
In 2007, Aras began providing Aras Innovator as open-source software. Clients obtain the software for free, and Aras Corp provides technical support, software updates, and other consulting as a subscription service.
In July 2020, Aras confirmed the introduction of a new framework, Digital Twin Core, which introduces functionality for generating and handling digital twins to the Aras low-code package. Aras Cloud PLM provides a secure, cost-effective, and scalable solution for customers who need to manage their product data in the cloud.