Stripboard

Stripboard is the generic name for a widely used type of electronics prototyping material for circuit boards characterized by a pre-formed regular (rectangular) grid of holes, with wide parallel strips of copper cladding running in one direction all the way across one side of on an insulating bonded paper board. It is commonly also known by the name of the original product Veroboard, which is a trademark, in the UK, of British company Vero Technologies Ltd and Canadian company Pixel Print Ltd. It was originated and developed in the early 1960s by the Electronics Department of Vero Precision Engineering Ltd (VPE). It was introduced as a general-purpose material for use in constructing electronic circuits - differing from purpose-designed printed circuit boards (PCBs) in that a variety of electronics circuits may be constructed using a standard wiring board.
In using the board, breaks are made in the tracks, usually around holes, to divide the strips into multiple electrical nodes. With care, it is possible to break between holes to allow for components that have two pin rows only one position apart such as twin row headers for IDCs.
Stripboard is not designed for surface-mount components, though it is possible to mount many such components on the track side, particularly if tracks are cut/shaped with a knife or small cutting disc in a rotary tool.
The first single-size Veroboard product was the forerunner of the numerous types of prototype wiring board which, with worldwide use over five decades, have become known as stripboard.
The generic terms 'veroboard' and 'stripboard' are now taken to be synonymous.
History.
By the mid-1950s, the printed circuit board (PCB) had become commonplace in electronics production.
In early 1959, the VPE Electronics Department was formed when managing director Geoffrey Verdon-Roe hired two former Saunders-Roe Ltd employees, Peter H Winter (aircraft design department) and Terry Fitzpatrick (electronics division).
After the failure of a project to develop machine tool control equipment, the department remained operative as a result of success with the invention and development of the new material.
New equipment using PCBs was displayed at the 1959 Radio and Electronics Components Manufacturers Federation (RECMF) Exhibition held in The Dorchester Hotel, Park Lane, London.
The usual configuration for most of the PCBs of that time had components placed in a regular pattern with the circuit formed by maze-like conductive pathways. An interesting alternative, proposed by Fitzpatrick after visiting the RECMF Exhibition on behalf of VPE, envisaged a standard circuit board carrying straight-line conductors on which the components could be suitably dispersed and connected to the conductors to produce the required circuit.
A patent application was immediately filed 25 May 1959 and the invention was developed for Vero by associates Winter, Fitzpatrick and machine shop engineers.
The advent of the Arduino integrated development environment, designed to introduce computer programming to newcomers unfamiliar with software development, presents a new opportunity to use Veroboard. Arduino development regularly involves the use of 'shields', which plug into the main Arduino board using standard 0.1 in header connections and carry project-specific I/O hardware. However the Arduino design makes this difficult, as one of the four header sockets is offset from the 0.1 in spacing of the others by 0.05 in.
The British company Vero Technologies Ltd currently holds the UK trademark for Veroboard. In the Americas the Veroboard trademark is now held by the Canadian company Pixel Print Ltd. of Vancouver.
Hole spacing.
Stripboard holes are drilled on centers. This spacing allows components having pins with a spacing to be inserted. Compatible parts include DIP ICs, sockets for ICs, some types of connectors, and other devices.
Stripboards have evolved over time into several variants and related products. For example, a larger version using a 0.15 inch (3.81 mm) grid and larger holes is available, but is generally less popular (presumably because it does not match up with standard IC pin spacing).
Board dimensions.
Stripboard is available in a variety of sizes. One common size (at least in the United Kingdom) is 160 mm x 100 mm.
Assemblies.
The components are usually placed on the plain side of the board, with their leads protruding through the holes. The leads are then soldered to the copper tracks on the other side of the board to make the desired connections, and any excess wire is cut off. The continuous tracks may be easily and neatly cut as desired to form breaks between conductors using a 3 mm twist drill, a hand cutter made for the purpose, or a knife. Tracks may be linked up on either side of the board using wire. With practice, very neat and reliable assemblies can be created, though such a method is labour-intensive and therefore unsuitable for production assemblies except in very small quantity.
External wire connections to the board are made either by soldering the wires through the holes or, for wires too thick to pass through the holes, by soldering them to specially made pins called Veropins which fit tightly into the holes. Alternatively, some types of connectors have a suitable pin spacing to be inserted directly into the board.
Production.
Production of the proposed new product, Veroboard, was undertaken by the VPE machine tool department.
Bought-in sheets of 1.6 mm (0.06 in) copper-clad SRBP printed circuit material were cut to give 122 mm x 456 mm (4.8 in x 18 in) size boards with the individual boards then being machined to form the final product according to the original Veroboard specification. A multiple milling cutter tool, which comprised a bank of side-and-face cutters with suitably shaped cutting teeth, was fabricated, to be used in removing part of the bonded copper on each board leaving 21 conductive strips.
For a second operation a special tool with 63 hardened punch bits 1.35 mm (0.052 in) in diameter mounted on a solid base block was constructed to repeat-punch a matrix of holes, on spacing, through the copper strips and the base board.
Many dimensional, material quality, and tooling problems were encountered before finished boards of acceptable quality could be produced in quantity. These machining problems were encountered due to the non-availability, in 1960, of advanced printed circuit board milling and drilling techniques or facilities for chemical milling (etching) the copper strips.
In 1961, as production rates improved with experience, Vero Electronics Ltd was formed as a separate company to market the increasing sales of Veroboard.
Use.
As with other stripboards, in using Veroboard, components are suitably positioned and soldered to the conductors to form the required circuit. Breaks can be made in the tracks, usually around holes, to divide the strips into multiple electrical nodes enabling increased circuit complexity.
This type of wiring board may be used for initial electronic circuit development, to construct prototypes for bench testing or in the production of complete electronic units in small quantity.
Veroboard was first used for prototype construction within Vero Electronics Department in 1961. The images of a binary decade counter sub-unit clearly show both the assembled components and the copper conductors with the required discontinuities.
A number of these sub-units were interconnected through connectors mounted on a motherboard similar to that shown in the Veroboard Display image and comprised a very early PCB-based backplane system. Each sub-unit had a digital capacity equivalent to 1/2 byte of data storage - i.e. 2,000,000 would be required to store 1 megabyte.
Two forms of Veroboard are produced with hole pitch of 2.54 mm (0.1 in) or 3.5 mm (0.15 in). The larger pitch is and was considered easier to assemble, especially at a time when many constructors were still more familiar with valves and tag strips.
The increasingly popular integrated circuits in dual in-line packages would only fit the 0.1 boards. Very soon 0.1 pitch became by far the dominant form. Integrated circuits and the common layout of short parallel strips protruding from the sides of an IC package encouraged the development of specialist boards such as Verostrip. This was a long, thin board with the copper strips arranged transversely, rather than the usual lengthwise. A ready-cut central gap was provided to isolate the sides of the IC.
A 1979 Vero Electronics Ltd production drawing shows a special Veroboard product made for RS Components Ltd. The versatility of the veroboard/stripboard type of product is demonstrated by the large number of design examples currently (2013-07) to be found on the Internet.
Variations.
Stripboard is available from many vendors. All versions have copper strips on one side. Some are made using printed circuit board etching and drilling techniques, although some have milled strips and punched holes. The original Veroboard used FR-2 synthetic-resin-bonded paper (SRBP) (also known as phenolic board) as the base board material. Some versions of stripboard now use higher quality FR-4 (fiberglass-reinforced epoxy laminate) material.
Comparison with other systems.
For high density prototyping, especially of digital circuits, wire wrap is faster and more reliable than Stripboard for experienced personnel.
Veroboard is similar in concept and usage to a plug-in breadboard, but is cheaper and more permanent—connections are soldered and while some limited reuse may be possible, more than a few cycles of soldering and desoldering are likely to render both the components and the board unusable. In contrast, breadboard connections are held by friction, and the breadboard can be reused many times. However, a breadboard is not very suitable for prototyping that needs to remain in a set configuration for an appreciable period of time nor for physical mock-ups containing a working circuit or for any environment subject to vibration or movement.
Stripboards have further evolved into a larger class of prototype boards, available in different shapes and sizes, with different conductive trace layouts.
For example, one variant is called a TriPad board. This is similar to stripboard, except that the conductive tracks do not run continuously along the board but are broken into sections, each of which spans three holes. This allows the legs of two or three components to be easily linked together in the circuit conveniently without the need for track breaks to be made. However, in order to link more than three holes together, wire links or bridges must be formed and this can result in a less compact layout than is possible with ordinary stripboard.
Another variant is Perf+. This is best described as a selective stripboard. Instead of having all the holes connected together in a strip, a Perf+ board can have holes connected to the bus using a small dab of solder. On the other side the busses run in another direction, allowing compact layouts of complicated circuits by passing signals over each other on different layers of the board.
Other prototype board variants have generic layouts to simplify building prototypes with integrated circuits, typically in DIP shapes, or with transistors (pads forming triangles). In particular, some boards mimic the layout of breadboards, to simplify moving a non-permanent prototype on a breadboard to a permanent construction on a PCB. Some types of boards have patterns for connectors on the periphery, like DB9 or IDC headers, to allow connectors with non-standard pin spacings to be easily used. Some come in special physical shapes, to be used to prototype plug-in boards for computer bus systems.


Automotive engineering

Automotive engineering, along with aerospace engineering and naval architecture, is a branch of vehicle engineering, incorporating elements of mechanical, electrical, electronic, software, and safety engineering as applied to the design, manufacture and operation of motorcycles, automobiles, and trucks and their respective engineering subsystems. It also includes modification of vehicles. Manufacturing domain deals with the creation and assembling the whole parts of automobiles is also included in it. The automotive engineering field is research intensive and involves direct application of mathematical models and formulas. The study of automotive engineering is to design, develop, fabricate, and test vehicles or vehicle components from the concept stage to production stage. Production, development, and manufacturing are the three major functions in this field.
Disciplines.
Automobile engineering.
Automobile engineering is a branch study of engineering


Hubbing

Hubbing is a metalworking process that is used to make dies. It is a cold-working process, which means that it occurs well below the melting temperature of the metal being worked.
Process.
In hubbing, a male hub (master) is created with a profile that will form an impression on the female piece. The male hub is generally hardened and the female die block softened by annealing to help form the impression. As the metal flows the face of the die block is deformed, and, generally, must be machined flat. The die block is often a cylinder that is reinforced with a surrounding steel ring during the hubbing process. Hubbing is usually less expensive than die sinking, i.e., machining the female die, and multiple dies can be made from the male hub.
In the case of mild steel, a typical hubbing press exerts a pressure of approximately 1500 short tons-force per square inch (21 GPa) to transfer the image from a master hub into the master die.


Solution selling

Solution selling is a type and style of sales and selling methodology. Solution selling has a salesperson or sales team use a sales process that is a problem-led (rather than product-led) approach to determine if and how a change in a product could bring specific improvements that are desired by the customer. The term "solution" implies that the proposed new product produces improved outcomes and successfully resolves the customer problem. Business-to-business sales (B2B) organizations are more likely to use solution selling and similar sales methodologies.
Solution selling has value and application in high complexity sales and selling situations. This complexity can be the result of existing customer circumstances, or the proposed combination of new products required, or a combination of each, such that the seller and the buyer must consider and compare many interrelated factors to achieve the desired solution and outcome. Enterprise-class software development projects, technical integration projects, large plant engineering projects, or construction projects are examples that illustrate high complexity situations. Selling organizations use a solution selling approach when one or more of the following circumstances exist:
According to the solution selling methodology, there is a formula for selling. Set each of these parameter to one or zero, because you need them all:
Pain x Power x Vision x Value x Control = Sale.
Origins of solution selling and terminology.
Frank Watts developed the sales process dubbed "solution selling" in 1975. Watts perfected his method at Wang Laboratories. He began teaching solution selling as an independent consultant in 1982. He presented his sales process as a one-day workshop to Xerox Corporation in 1982. By 1983 "Electronics" magazine would portray solution selling as "an unmistakable trend in the distribution of systems-related products".
In a 1984 account Dick Heiser could look back to IBM's pre-1975 "solution sale" methodology.
Mike Bosworth founded a sales training organization known as Solution Selling in 1983, based on his experiences at Xerox Corporation (the Huthwaite International SPIN (Situation, Problem, Implication, Need-payoff) selling pilot project)
and began licensing affiliates in 1988. With intellectual-property contributions from his affiliate network, Bosworth's methodology continued to evolve through the years. He sold the intellectual property in 1999 to one of his original affiliates, Keith M. Eades.
While 'solution selling' has become a generic term in many sales and selling organizations, Solution Selling as a brand denotes distinct characteristics. Followers of "solution-selling" generally apply a consultative sales approach to all aspects of their sales process (or cycle) including:
The solution selling methodology has evolved as key components of professional selling evolve. As a result, solution selling has become more broadly defined — to include dimensions of "sales process", "competitive selling", "value selling" as well as "consultative selling" or "complex selling" which set the focus on the team's aspects of the sales.
Solution selling in management contexts.
The advent of solution selling may have an impact on business models and on organization practices.
Eades and Kear discuss solution-centric organizations and the focal role of solution sales in such environments.
Robert J Calvin compares some of the financial implications of various type of sales: transactional sales, value-added sales, solution sales, and feature/benefit sales. Robert L Jolles proposed that, among managers and salespeople, a chosen solution is not always the best solution.


Value-stream mapping

Value-stream mapping, also known as material- and information-flow mapping, is a lean-management method for analyzing the current state and designing a future state for the series of events that take a product or service from the beginning of the specific process until it reaches the customer. A value stream map is a visual tool that displays all critical steps in a specific process and easily quantifies the time and volume taken at each stage. Value stream maps show the flow of both materials and information as they progress through the process.
Whereas a value stream map represents a core business process that adds value to a material product, a value chain diagram shows an overview of all activities within a company. Other business activities may be represented in "value stream diagrams" and/or other kinds of diagram that represent business processes that create and use business data.
Purpose.
The purpose of value-stream mapping is to identify and remove or reduce "waste" in value streams, thereby increasing the efficiency of a given value stream. Waste removal is intended to increase productivity by creating leaner operations which in turn make waste and quality problems easier to identify.
Applications.
Value-stream mapping has supporting methods that are often used in Lean environments to analyze and design flows at the system level (across multiple processes).
Although value-stream mapping is often associated with manufacturing, it is also used in logistics, supply chain, service related industries, healthcare, software development, product development, project management, and administrative and office processes.
Identifying waste.
Types of waste.
Daniel T. Jones (1995) identifies seven commonly accepted types of waste. These terms are updated from Toyota's operating model "The Toyota Way" (Toyota Production System, TPS) original nomenclature (muda):
Waste removal operations.
Yasuhiro Monden (1994) identifies three types of operations:
NNVA activities may also be referred to as "sustaining non-value adding", i.e. they have to be done, or they are necessary to sustain the business but do not contribute to customer requirements.
For additional views on waste, see Lean manufacturing.
Using the method.
There are two kinds of value stream maps, current state and future state. The current state value stream map is used to determine what the process currently looks like, the future state value stream map focuses on what the process will ideally look like after process improvements have occurred to the value stream.
The current state value stream map must be created before the future state map and is created by observing the process and tracking the information and material flow. The value stream map is then created using the following symbols:
In a build-to-the-standard form, Shigeo Shingo suggests that the value-adding steps be drawn across the centre of the map and the non–value-adding steps be represented in vertical lines at right angles to the value stream. Thus, the activities become easily separated into the value stream, which is the focus of one type of attention, and the "waste" steps, another type. He calls the value stream the process and the non-value streams the operations. The thinking here is that the non–value-adding steps are often preparatory or tidying up to the value-adding step and are closely associated with the person or machine/workstation that executes that value-adding step. Therefore, each vertical line is the "story" of a person or workstation whilst the horizontal line represents the "story" of the product being created.
Value-stream mapping is a recognised method used as part of Lean Six Sigma methodologies.
Value-stream mapping analyzes both material (artifact) and information flow. The following two resources exemplify the use of VSM in the context of software process improvement in industrial settings:
Associated analysis methods.
Hines and Rich (1997) defined seven value-stream mapping tools. These are:


Integrated passive devices

Integrated passive devices (IPDs), also known as integrated passive components (IPCs) or embedded passive components (EPC), are electronic components where resistors (R), capacitors (C), inductors (L)/coils/chokes, microstriplines, impedance matching elements, baluns or any combinations of them are integrated in the same package or on the same substrate. Sometimes integrated passives can also be called as embedded passives, and still the difference between integrated and embedded passives is technically unclear. In both cases passives are realized in between dielectric layers or on the same substrate.
The earliest form of IPDs are resistor, capacitor, resistor-capacitor (RC) or resistor-capacitor-coil/inductor (RCL) networks. Passive transformers can also be realised as integrated passive devices like by putting two coils on top of each other separated by a thin dielectric layer. Sometimes diodes (PN, PIN, zener etc.) can be integrated on the same substrate with integrated passives specifically if the substrate is silicon or some other semiconductor like gallium arsenide (GaAs).
Description.
Integrated passive devices can be packaged, bare dies/chips or even stacked (assembled on top of some other bare die/chip) in a third dimension (3D) with active integrated circuits or other IPDs in an electronic system assembly. Typical packages for integrated passives are SIL (Standard In Line), SIP or any other packages (like DIL, DIP, QFN, chip-scale package/CSP, wafer level package/WLP etc.) used in electronic packaging. Integrated passives can also act as a module substrate, and therefore be part of a hybrid module, multi-chip module or chiplet module/implementation.
The substrate for IPDs can be rigid like ceramic (aluminumoxide/alumina), layered ceramic (low temperature co-fired ceramic/LTCC, high temperature co-fired ceramic/HTCC), glass, and silicon coated with some dielectric layer like silicon dioxide. The substrate can be also flexible like laminate e. g. a package interposer (called as an active interposer), FR4 or similar, Kapton or any other suitable polyimide. It is beneficial for the electronics system design if the effect of the substrate and the possible package to the performance of IPDs can be neglected or known.
Manufacturing of IPDs used include thick and thin film technologies and variety of integrated circuit processing steps or modifications (like thicker or different metals than aluminum or copper) of them. Integrated passives are available as standard components/parts or as custom designed (for a specific application) devices.
Applications.
Integrated passive devices are mainly used as standard parts or custom designed due to
The challenge of custom IPDs compared to standard integrated or discrete passives however is the availability time for the assembly and sometimes also the performance. Depending on the manufacturing technology of integrated passives high capacitance or resistor values with a required tolerance may be hard to meet. Q value of coils/inductors might also be limited by the thickness of the metals available in the implementation. However new materials and improved manufacturing techniques like atomic layer deposition (ALD) and understanding manufacturing and control of thick metal alloys on large substrates improve capacitance density and Q value of coils/inductors.
Therefore in prototyping and small/medium size production phase standard parts/passives are in many cases the fastest way to the realization. Custom designed passives can be considered to be used after careful technical and economical analysis in volume manufacturing, if time-to-market and cost targets of the product(s) can be met. Therefore integrated passive devices are continuously technically and economically challenged by decreasing size, improving tolerances, improving accuracy of assembly techniques (like SMT, surface-mount technology) of system motherboards and cost of discrete/separate passive devices. Going forward discrete and integrated passives will complement each other technically. Development and understanding of new materials and assembly techniques are a key enabler for both integrated and discrete passive devices.
Fabrication.
IPDs on a silicon substrate.
IPDs on a silicon substrate are generally fabricated using standard wafer fabrication technologies such as thin film and photolithography processing. For avoiding possible parasitic effects due to semiconductive silicon high resistive silicon substrate is typically used for integrated passives. IPDs on silicon can be designed as flip chip mountable or wire bondable components. However to differentiate technically from active integrated circuit (IC) technologies IPD technologies may utilise thicker metal (for higher Q value of inductors) or different resistive (like SiCr) layers, thinner or different higher K (higher dielectric constant) dielectric layers (like PZT instead of silicon dioxide or silicon nitride) for higher capacitance density than with typical IC technologies.
IPDs on silicon can be grinded — if needed — below 100 µm in thickness and with many packaging options (micro-bumping, wire bonding, copper pads) and delivery mode options (as wafers, bare dies, tape & reel).
3D passive integration in silicon is one of the technologies used to manufacture Integrated Passive Devices (IPDs), enabling high-density trench capacitors, metal-insulator-metal (MIM) capacitors, resistors, high-Q inductors, PIN, Schottky or Zener diodes to be implemented in silicon. The design time of IPDs on silicon depends on complexity of the design but can be made by using same design tools and environment what is used for application specific integrated circuits (ASICs) or integrated circuits. Some IPD suppliers offer full design kit support so that System in Package (SiP) module manufacturers or system houses are able to design their own IPDs fulfilling their specific application requirements.
History.
In early control system design it was discovered that having same value of components makes design easier and faster. One way to implement passive components with same value or in practice with smallest possible distribution is to place them on the same substrate near to each other.
Earliest form of integrated passive devices were resistor networks in the 1960s when four to eight resistors were packaged in form of Single-in-line package (SIP) by Vishay Intertechnology. Many other type of packages like DILs, DIPs etc. used in packaging integrated circuits even customised packages are used for integrated passive devices. Resistor, capacitor, and resistor capacitor networks are still widely used in systems even though monolithic integration has progressed.
Today portable electronic systems include roughly 2–40 discrete passive devices/integrated circuit or module. This shows that monolithic or module integration is not capable to include all functionality based on passive components in system realisations, and variety of technologies is needed to minimize logistics and system size. This is the application area for IPDs. Most — by number — of the passives in electronic systems are typically capacitors followed by number of resistors and inductors/coils.
Many functional blocks such as impedance matching circuits, harmonic filters, couplers and baluns and power combiner/divider can be realized by IPDs technology. IPDs are generally fabricated using thin, thick film and wafer fabrication technologies such as photolithography processing or typical ceramic technologies (LTCC and HTCC). IPDs can be designed as flip chip mountable or wire bondable components.
Trends towards applications with small size, portability and wireless connectivity have stretched various implementation technologies to be able to realize passive components. In 2021, there were 25 - 30 companies delivering integrated passive (including simple passive networks and passives on various substrates like glass, silicon and alumina) devices worldwide.


HMS Networks

HMS Networks AB is an international company in the field of Industrial Information and Communication Technology (Industrial ICT). HMS is headquartered in Halmstad, Sweden and is listed on the Nasdaq Nordic stock exchange, employing 700 people in 16 countries and with reported sales of 145 million Euro in 2020. HMS stands for "Hardware Meets Software" referring to the fact that HMS products allow industrial hardware to be connected to IoT software.
Products.
HMS manufactures and markets industrial communication products that connect industrial devices to different industrial networks and IoT systems. HMS products act as translators between robots, control systems, motors, sensors, etc. and the different industrial networks that exists in the market (fieldbuses and Industrial Ethernet). HMS also offers a portfolio of wireless products as well as remote solutions for web-based control of field equipment such as PLCs, electric generators, machines, telecommunication base stations, building management systems and the likes.
HMS markets products under the following brands:
Organization and history.
HMS has operations in 16 countries: Sweden (Halmstad), Germany (Karlsruhe, Ravensburg, Wetzlar, Buchen), Belgium (Nivelles), Spain (Igualada, Barcelona), United States (Chicago, Boston), China (Beijing), Japan (Yokohama), The Netherlands (Hedel, Rotterdam), Italy (Milan, Brescia), France (Mulhouse), Romania (Sibiu), UK (Coventry, Manchester), Singapore, UAE (Dubai), South Korea (Seoul), India (Pune). In addition, distributors in 50 countries resell the HMS products on local markets.
HMS was founded in 1988 by Nicolas Hassbjer and has been deemed "Export Company of the Year" by the Swedish Trade Council.


Anodic bonding

Anodic bonding is a wafer bonding process to seal glass to either silicon or metal without introducing an intermediate layer; it is commonly used to seal glass to silicon wafers in electronics and microfluidics. This bonding technique, also known as field assisted bonding or electrostatic sealing, is mostly used for connecting silicon/glass and metal/glass through electric fields. The requirements for anodic bonding are clean and even wafer surfaces and atomic contact between the bonding substrates through a sufficiently powerful electrostatic field. Also necessary is the use of borosilicate glass containing a high concentration of alkali ions. The coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of the processed glass needs to be similar to those of the bonding partner.
Anodic bonding can be applied with glass wafers at temperatures of 250 to 400 °C or with sputtered glass at 400 °C. Structured borosilicate glass layers may also be deposited by plasma-assisted e-beam evaporation.
This procedure is mostly used for hermetic encapsulation of micro-mechanical silicon elements. The glass substrate encapsulation protects from environmental influences, e.g. humidity or contamination. Further, other materials are used for anodic bonding with silicon, i.e. low-temperature cofired ceramics (LTCC).
Overview.
Anodic bonding on silicon substrates is divided into bonding using a thin sheet of glass (a wafer) or a glass layer that is deposited onto the silicon using a technique such as sputtering. The glass wafer is often sodium-containing Borofloat or Pyrex glasses. With an intermediate glass layer, it is also possible to connect two silicon wafers. The glass layers are deposited by sputtering, spin-on of a glass solution or vapor deposition upon the processed silicon wafer. The thickness of these layers range from one to a few micrometers with spin-on glass layers needing 1 µm or less. Hermetic seals of silicon to glass using an aluminum layer with thickness of 50 to 100 nm can reach strengths of 18.0 MPa. This method enables burying electrically isolated conductors in the interface. Bonding of thermally oxidized wafers without a glass layer is also possible.
The procedural steps of anodic bonding are divided into the following:
with a process characterized by the following variables:
The typical bond strength is between 10 and 20 MPa according to pull tests, higher than the fracture strength of glass.
Differing coefficients of thermal expansion pose challenges for anodic bonding. Excessive mismatch can harm the bond through intrinsic material tensions and cause disruptions in the bonding materials. The use of sodium-containing glasses, e.g. Borofloat or Pyrex, serve to reduce the mismatch. These glasses have a similar CTE to silicon in the range of applied temperature, commonly up to 400 °C.
History.
Anodic bonding is first mentioned by Wallis and Pomerantz in 1969. It is applied as bonding of silicon wafers to sodium containing glass wafers under the influence of an applied electric field. This method is used up to date as encapsulation of sensors with electrically conducted glasses.
Procedural steps of anodic bonding.
Pretreatment of the substrates.
The anodic bonding procedure is able to bond hydrophilic and hydrophobic silicon surfaces equally effectively. The roughness of the surface should be less than 10 nm and free of contamination on the surface for the procedure to work properly. Even though anodic bonding is relatively tolerant to contaminations, a widely established cleaning procedure RCA takes place to remove any surface impurities.
The glass wafer can also be chemically etched or powder blasted for creating small cavities, where MEMS devices can be accommodated.
Further mechanisms supporting the bonding process of not completely inert anodic materials can be the planarization or polishing of surfaces and the ablation of the surface layer by electrochemical etching.
Contact the substrates.
The wafers that meet the requirements are put into atomic contact. As soon as contact is first established, the bonding process starts close to the cathode and spreads in fronts to the edges, the process taking several minutes.
The anodic bonding procedure is based on a glass wafer that is usually placed above a silicon wafer. An electrode is in contact with the glass wafer either through a needle or a full area cathode electrode.
If using a needle electrode, the bond spreads radially to the outside which makes it impossible to trap air between the surfaces. The radius of the bonded area is approximately proportional to the square root of time elapsed during the procedure. Below temperatures of 350 to 400 °C and a bond voltage of 500 to 1000 V, this method is not very effective nor reliable.
The use of a full area cathode electrode shows bond reactions over the whole interface after powering up the potential. This is the result of a homogeneous electric field distribution at temperatures of around 300 °C and bond voltage of 250 V. Using thin deposited glass layers the voltages needed can be significantly reduced.
Heating and bonding by application of electrostatic field.
The wafers are placed between the chuck and the top tool used as bond electrode at temperatures between 200 and 500 °C (compare to image "scheme of anodic bonding procedure") but below the softening point of glass (glass transition temperature). The higher the temperature the better is the mobility of positive ions in glass.
The applied electrical potential between is set to a voltage of several 100 V. This causes a diffusion of sodium ions (Na+) out of the bond interface to the backside of the glass to the cathode. That results, combined with humidity in formation of NaOH. High voltage helps to support the drifting of the positive ions in glass to the cathode. The diffusion is according to the Boltzmann distribution exponentially related to the temperature. The glass (NaO2) with its remaining oxygen ions (O2−) is negatively volume charged at the bonding surface compared to the silicon (compare to figure "ion drifting in bond glass" (1)). This is based on the depletion of Na+ ions.
Silicon is unlike, e.g. aluminium, an inert anode. In result no ions drift out of the silicon into the glass during the bond process. This affects a positive volume charge in the silicon wafer on the opposite side. As a result, a few micrometer thick high-impedance depletion region is developed at the bond barrier in the glass wafer. In the gap between silicon and glass the bond voltage drops. The bond process as a combination of electrostatic and electrochemical process starts.
The electrical field intensity in the depletion region is so high that the oxygen ions drift to the bond interface and pass out to react with the silicon to form SiO2 (compare to figure "ion drifting in bond glass" (2)). Based on the high field intensity in the depletion region or in the gap at the interface, both wafer surfaces are pressed together at a specific bond voltage and bond temperature. The process is realized at temperatures from 200 - 500 °C for about 5 to 20 min. Typically, the bonding or sealing time becomes longer when temperature and voltage are reduced. The pressure is applied to create intimate contact between the surfaces to ensure good electrical conduction across the wafer pair. This ensures intimate contact for the surfaces of the bonding partners. The thin formed oxide layer between the bond surfaces, siloxane (Si-O-Si), ensures the irreversible connection between the bonding partners.
If using thermally oxidized wafers without a glass layer, the diffusion of OH− and H+ ions instead of Na+ ions leads to the bonding.
Cooling down the substrate.
After the bonding process, slow cooling over several minutes has to take place. This can be supported by purging with an inert gas. The cooling time depends on the difference of CTE for the bonded materials: the higher the CTE difference, the longer the cooling period.


Resealable packaging

Resealable packaging is any type of packaging that allows the consumer or user to reseal or reclose the packaging. Often packaging needs to be resealed in order to maintain product freshness or prevent spillage. Reusable packaging allows for multiple uses which can help reduce waste.


Wafer bonding

Wafer bonding is a packaging technology on wafer-level for the fabrication of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS), microelectronics and optoelectronics, ensuring a mechanically stable and hermetically sealed encapsulation. The wafers' diameter range from 100 mm to 200 mm (4 inch to 8 inch) for MEMS/NEMS and up to 300 mm (12 inch) for the production of microelectronic devices. Smaller wafers were used in the early days of the microelectronics industry, with wafers being just 1 inch in diameter in the 1950s.
Overview.
In microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) and nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS), the package protects the sensitive internal structures from environmental influences such as temperature, moisture, high pressure and oxidizing species. The long-term stability and reliability of the functional elements depend on the encapsulation process, as does the overall device cost. The package has to fulfill the following requirements:
Techniques.
The commonly used and developed bonding methods are as follows:
Requirements.
The bonding of wafers requires specific environmental conditions which can generally be defined as follows:
The actual bond is an interaction of all those conditions and requirements. Hence, the applied technology needs to be chosen in respect to the present substrate and defined specification like max. bearable temperature, mechanical pressure or desired gaseous atmosphere.
Evaluation.
The bonded wafers are characterized in order to evaluate a technology's yield, bonding strength and level of hermeticity either for fabricated devices or for the purpose of process development. Therefore, several different approaches for the bond characterization have emerged. On the one hand non-destructive optical methods to find cracks or interfacial voids are used beside destructive techniques for the bond strength evaluation, like tensile or shear testing. On the other hand, the unique properties of carefully chosen gases or the pressure depending vibration behavior of micro resonators are exploited for hermeticity testing.


Eutectic bonding

Eutectic bonding, also referred to as eutectic soldering, describes a wafer bonding technique with an intermediate metal layer that can produce a eutectic system. Those eutectic metals are alloys that transform directly from solid to liquid state, or vice versa from liquid to solid state, at a specific composition and temperature without passing a two-phase equilibrium, i.e. liquid and solid state. The fact that the eutectic temperature can be much lower than the melting temperature of the two or more pure elements can be important in eutectic bonding.
Eutectic alloys are deposited by sputtering, dual source evaporation or electroplating. They can also be formed by diffusion reactions of pure materials and subsequently melting of the eutectic composition.
Eutectic bonding to transfer epitaxial materials such as GaAs-AlGaAs onto Si substrates with a high degree of success, for the general purpose of optoelectronics integration with Si electronics as well as to overcome fundamental issues such as lattice mismatch in hetero-epitaxy, was developed and reported by Venkatasubramanian et al. in 1992. The device performance validation of such eutectic metal bonded GaAs-AlGaAs materials for solar cells were further reported by Venkatasubramanian et al. in 1994. Eutectic bonding is able to produce hermetically sealed packages and electrical interconnection within a single process (compare ultrasonic images). In addition this procedure is conducting at low processing temperatures, low resultant stress induced in final assembly, high bonding strength, large fabrication yield and a good reliability. Those attributes are dependent on the coefficient of thermal expansion between the substrates.
The most important parameters for eutectic bonding are:
Overview.
Eutectic bonding is based on the ability of silicon (Si) to alloy with numerous metals and form a eutectic system. The most established eutectic formations are Si with gold (Au) or with aluminium (Al). This bonding procedure is most commonly used for Si or glass wafers that are coated with an Au/Al film and partly with adhesive layer (compare with following image).
The Si-Au couple has the advantages of an exceptionally low eutectic temperature, an already widespread use in die bonding and the compatibility with Al interconnects. Additionally, often used eutectic alloys for wafer bonding in semiconductor fabrication are shown in the table. Choosing the correct alloy is determined by the processing temperature and compatibility of the materials used.
Further, the bonding has less restrictions, concerning substrate roughness and planarity than direct bonding. Compared to anodic bonding, no high voltages are required that can be detrimental to electrostatic MEMS. Additionally, the eutectic bonding procedure promotes a better out-gassing and hermeticity than bonding with organic intermediate layers. Compared to glass frit bonding, the advantage sticks out that the reduction of seal ring geometries, an increase of the hermeticity levels and a shrinking of device size is possible. The geometry of eutectic seals is characterized by a thickness of 1 - 5 µm and a wideness of > 50 µm. The use of eutectic alloy brings the advantage of providing electrical conduction and interfacing with redistribution layers.
The temperature of the eutectic bonding procedure is dependent on the used material. The bonding happens at a specific weight-% and temperature, e.g. 370 °C at 2.85 wt-% Si for Au intermediate layer (compare to phase diagram).
The procedure of eutectic bonding is divided into following steps:
Procedural steps.
Pre-treatment.
The surface preparation is the most important step to accomplish a successful eutectic bonding. This bonding procedure is due to oxide presence on the silicon substrates very limited based on the poor wettability of Au on the oxide layer. This leads to a poor adhesion of the eutectic bond. The oxide on the silicon surface acts as a diffusion barrier. The surface preparation's main task is to facilitate the deposition of the eutectic metal by oxide removal or adhesion layer deposition.
To remove existing native oxide layers wet chemical etching (HF clean), dry chemical etching or chemical vapor deposition (CVD) with different types of crystals can be used. Also some applications require a surface pre-treatment using dry oxide removal processes, e.g. H2 plasma and CF4 plasma.
An additional method for the removal of unwanted surface films, i.e. oxide, is applying ultrasound during attachment process. As soon the tool is lowered a relative vibration between the wafer and the substrate is applied. Commonly, industrial bonders use ultrasonic with 60 Hz vibration frequencies and 100 µm vibration amplitude. A successful oxide removal results in a solid, hermetically tight connection.
A Second method to ensure the eutectic metal adheres on the Si wafer is by using an adhesion layer. This thin intermediate metal layer adheres well to the oxide and the eutectic metal. Well suitable metals for an Au-Si compound are titanium (Ti) and chromium (Cr) resulting in, e.g. Si-SiO2-Ti-Au or Si-SiO2-Cr-Au. The adhesion layer is used to break up the oxide by diffusion of silicon into the used material. A typical wafer is composed of a silicon wafer with oxide, 30 - 200 nm Ti or Cr layer and Au layer of > 500 nm thickness.
In the wafer fabrication a nickel (Ni) or a platinum (Pt) layer is added between the gold and the substrate wafer as diffusion barrier. The diffusion barrier avoids interaction between Au and Ti/Cr and requires higher temperatures to form a reliable and uniform bond. Further, the very limited solubility of silicon in titanium and chromium can prevent the developing of Au-Si eutectic composition based on the diffusion of silicon through titanium into gold.
The eutectic materials and optional adhesion layers are usually approached by deposition as alloy in one layer by dual component electroplating, dual-source evaporation (physical vapor deposition) or composite alloy sputtering.
The removal of contamination, on the for silicon most established Au layer, is usually realized with water flushing and wafer heating.
Bonding process.
The contacting of the substrates is applied directly after the pre-treatment of the surfaces to avoid oxide regeneration. The bonding procedure for oxidizing metals (not Au) generally takes place in a reduced atmosphere of 4% hydrogen and an inert carrier gas flow, e.g. nitrogen. The requirements for the bonding equipment lies in the thermal and pressure uniformity across the wafer. This enables uniformly compressed seal lines.
The substrate is aligned and fixed on a heated stage and the silicon wafer in a heated tool. The substrates inserted in the bonding chamber are contacted maintaining the alignment. As soon the layers are in atomic contact the reaction between those starts. To support the reaction mechanical pressure is applied and heating above the eutectic temperature is carried out.
The diffusivity and solubility of gold into silicon substrate increases with rising bonding temperatures. A higher temperature than the eutectic temperature is usually preferred for the bonding procedure. This may result in the formation of a thicker Au-Si alloy layer and further a stronger eutectic bond.
The diffusion starts as soon as the layers are in atomic contact at elevated temperatures. The contacted surface layer containing the eutectic composites melts, forming a liquid phase alloy, accelerating further mixing processes and diffusion until the saturation composition is reached.
Other common eutectic bonding alloys commonly used for wafer bonding include Au-Sn, Al-Ge, Au-Ge, Au-In and Cu-Sn.
The chosen bonding temperature usually is some degrees higher than the eutectic temperature so the melt becomes less viscous and readily flows due to higher roughness to surface areas that are not in atomic contact. To prevent the melt pressed outside the bonding interface the optimization of the bonding parameter control is necessary, e.g. low force on the wafers. Otherwise, it may lead to short circuits or device malfunctions of the used components (electrical and mechanical). The heating of the wafers leads to a change in the surface texture due to formation of fine silicon micro structures on top of the gold surface.
Cooling process.
The material mix is solidified when the temperature decreases below eutectic point or the concentration ratio changes (for Si-Au: ). The solidification leads to epitaxial growth of silicon and gold on top of the silicon substrate resulting in numerous small silicon islands protruding from a polycrystalline gold alloy (compare to cross-section image of the bonding interface). This can result in bonding strengths around 70 MPa.
The importance lies in the appropriate process parameters, i.e. sufficient bonding temperature control. Otherwise the bond cracks due to stress caused by a mismatch of the thermal expansion coefficient. This stress is able to relax over time.
Examples.
Based on the high bonding strength this procedure is special applicable for pressure sensors or fluidics. Also smart micro mechanical sensors and actuators with electronic and/or micro mechanical functions over multiple wafers can be fabricated.


Glass frit bonding

Glass frit bonding, also referred to as glass soldering or seal glass bonding, describes a wafer bonding technique with an intermediate glass layer. It is a widely used encapsulation technology for surface micro-machined structures, e.g., accelerometers or gyroscopes. This technique utilizes low melting-point glass ("glass solder") and therefore provides various advantages including that viscosity of glass decreases with an increase of temperature. The viscous flow of glass has effects to compensate and planarize surface irregularities, convenient for bonding wafers with a high roughness due to plasma etching or deposition. A low viscosity promotes hermetically sealed encapsulation of structures based on a better adaption of the structured shapes. Further, the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of the glass material is adapted to silicon. This results in low stress in the bonded wafer pair. The glass has to flow and wet the soldered surfaces well below the temperature where deformation or degradation of either of the joined materials or nearby structures (e.g., metallization layers on chips or ceramic substrates) occurs. The usual temperature of achieving flowing and wetting is between .
Glass frit bonding can be used for many surface materials, e.g., silicon with hydrophobic and hydrophilic surface, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, aluminium, titanium or glass, as long as the CTE are in the same range. This bonding procedure also allows the realization of metallic feedthroughs to contact active structures in the hermetically sealed cavity. Glass frit as a dielectric material does not need additional passivation for preventing leakage currents at process temperatures up to .
The process begins with the deposition of glass paste onto the surfaces to be treated. It is then heated to burn out additives and fire it in order to form the glass layer. The bonding process reconfigures the sintered glass into the desired state. Finally, the reconfigured glass is cooled down.
Glass frit bonding is used to encapsulate surface micro-machined sensors, i.e. gyroscopes and accelerometers. Other applications are the sealing of absolute pressure sensor cavities, the mounting of optical windows and the capping of thermally active devices.
Procedure.
Deposition.
The glass frit bond procedure is used for the encapsulation and mounting of components. The coating of glass frit layers is applied by spin coating for thickness of 5 to 30 μm or commonly by screen printing for thickness of 10 to 30 μm.
Screen printing, as a commonly used deposition method, provides a technique of structuring for the glass frit material. This method has the advantage of material deposition on structured cap wafers without any additional processes, i.e. photolithography.
Screen printing enables the possibility of selective bonding. So only in areas where bonding is required the glass frit is deposited.
The risk of glass frit flowing into the structures can be prevented by optimization of the screen printing process. Under high positioning precision the sizes of the structures in the range of 190 μm with a minimum spacing of wettability of the printed surface, 10 to 20% wider than the designed screen.
To ensure a uniform glass thickness, all structures should have the same width. The printed glass frit high is about 30 μm and provides a gap of 5 to 10 μm between the bonded wafers after bonding (compare to cross sectional SEM images). A bond surface activation is not necessary to promote a higher bonding strength.
Thermal conditioning.
The printed glass frit structures are heated to form compact glass. The heating process is necessary to drive out the solvents and binder. This results in a subsequent particle fusion of the glass powder. Using mechanical pressure the wafers are bonded at elevated temperatures.
Thermal conditioning transforms the glass paste into a glass layer and is important to prevent voids inside the glass frit layer. The conditioning process consists of:
The initial step comprises drying for 5 to 7 minutes at 100 to 120 °C in order to diffuse solvents out of the interface. This starts the polymerization of the organic binder. The binder molecules are linked to long-chain polymers what solidifies the paste.
The organic binder of the glass paste has to be burned with heating up to a specific temperature (325 to 350 °C) where the glass is not fully melted for 10 to 20 minutes. This so-called glazing ensures the outgassing of the organic additives.
Further, a pre-melting or sealing step heats the material to the process temperature between 410 and 459 °C for 5 to 10 min. The material fully melts and forms a compact glass without any inclusions. The inorganic fillers are melted down and the properties of the bond glass are fixed. The melting of the glass starts at the silicon-glass interface directed to the glass surface. During the melting process the porosity of the glass eliminates and based on the compression of the intermediate layer the thickness of the glass decreases significantly.
Bonding process.
The glass frit bonding, starting with alignment of the wafers, is a thermo-compressive process that takes place in the bonding chamber at specific pressure. Under bonding pressure wafers are heated up to the process temperature around 430 °C for a few minutes. On the one hand a short bonding time causes the glass frit to spread insufficiently, on the other hand a longer bonding time causes the glass frit to be overflown subsequently leaving voids.
The alignment has to be very precise and stable to prevent shifting. This can be realized using clamps or special pressure plates. Shifting can occur through temporarily staggered pressure, not precise vertical pressure based on misalignment of the bonding tools or the difference of thermal expansion between the bonding tools.
During bonding a supporting tool pressure is applied to improve the thermal input into the bonding glass and equal wafer geometry inadmissibility (i.e. bow and warp) supporting wettability. Based on the sufficiently high viscosity of the glass, bonding can take place nearly without pressure.
The bonding temperature needs to be high enough to reduce the viscosity of the glass material and ensures a good wetting of the bond surface, but also low enough to prevent overspreading of the glass frit material. The heating up over 410 °C enables the wetting of the bond surface. A good wetting is indicated by a low edge angle. The atomic wafer surface layers are fused into the glass at an atomic level. This forms a thin glass mixture at the interface which forms the strong bond between the glass and the wafer.
Cooling.
During cooling down under pressure a mechanically strong and hermetically sealed wafer bond is formed. The cooling process leads especially at higher temperatures to thermal stress in the glass frit layer that has to be considered in the lifetime analysis of the bond frame. The wafer pair is removed from the bond chamber at lower temperatures to prevent thermal cracking of the wafers or the bond interface by thermal shocks.
The bonding strength is mainly dependent on the density, the spreading area of the glass frit layer and the surface layer of the bonding interface. It is high enough, around 20 MPa, for most applications and comparable to those achieved with anodic bonding. The hermeticity ensures the correct function and a sufficient reliability of the bond and therefore the product. Further, the bonding yield of glass frit bonded wafers is very high, normally > 90 %.
Types.
Two types of glass solders are used: vitreous, and devitrifying. Vitreous solders retain their amorphous structure during remelting, can be reworked repeatedly, and are relatively transparent. Devitrifying solders undergo partial crystallization during solidifying, forming a glass-ceramic, a composite of glassy and crystalline phases. Devitrifying solders usually create a stronger mechanical bond, but are more temperature-sensitive and the seal is more likely to be leaky; due to their polycrystalline structure they tend to be translucent or opaque. Devitrifying solders are frequently "thermosetting", as their melting temperature after recrystallization becomes significantly higher; this allows soldering the parts together at lower temperature than the subsequent bake-out without remelting the joint afterwards. Devitrifying solders frequently contain up to 25% zinc oxide. In production of cathode ray tubes, devitrifying solders based on PbO-B2O3-ZnO are used.
Very low temperature melting glasses, fluid at , were developed for sealing applications for electronics. They can consist of binary or ternary mixtures of thallium, arsenic and sulfur. Zinc-silicoborate glasses can also be used for passivation of electronics; their coefficient of thermal expansion must match silicon (or the other semiconductors used) and they must not contain alkaline metals as those would migrate to the semiconductor and cause failures.
The bonding between the glass or ceramics and the glass solder can be either covalent, or, more often, van der Waals. The seal can be leak-tight; glass soldering is frequently used in vacuum technology. Glass solders can be also used as sealants; a vitreous enamel coating on iron lowered its permeability to hydrogen 10 times. Glass solders are frequently used for glass-to-metal seals and glass-ceramic-to-metal seals.
Production.
Glass solders are available as frit powder with grain size below 60 micrometers. They can be mixed with water or alcohol to form a paste for easy application, or with dissolved nitrocellulose or other suitable binder for adhering to the surfaces until being melted. The eventual binder has to be burned off before melting proceeds, requiring careful firing regime. The solder glass can be also applied from molten state to the area of the future joint during manufacture of the part. Due to their low viscosity in molten state, lead glasses with high PbO content (often 70–85%) are frequently used. The most common compositions are based on lead borates (leaded borate glass or borosilicate glass). Smaller amount of zinc oxide or aluminium oxide can be added for increasing chemical stability. Phosphate glasses can be also employed. Zinc oxide, bismuth trioxide, and copper(II) oxide can be added for influencing the thermal expansion; unlike the alkali oxides, these lower the softening point without increasing of thermal expansion.
To achieve process temperatures beneath 450 °C leaded glass or lead silicate glass is used. The glass frit is a paste consisting glass powder, organic binder, inorganic fillers and solvents. This low melting glass paste is milled into powder (grain size cordierite particles (e.g. Mg2Al3 [AlSi5O18]) or barium silicate, are added to the melted glass paste to influence properties, i.e. lowering the mismatch of thermal expansion coefficients between silicon and glass frit. The solvents are used to adjust the viscosity of the organic binder. Several glass frit pastes are commercially available, e.g. FERRO FX-11-0366, and every single one need individual handling after deposition. The choice of the paste depends on various factors, i.e. deposition method, substrate material and process temperatures.
The glass used for MEMS applications consists of particles and lead oxide. Latter lowers the glass transition temperature below 400 °C. The reduction of lead oxide by the silicon leads to the formation of lead precipitations at the silicon-glass interface. Those precipitations decrease the strength of the bond and are reliability risks that have to be considered for the lifetime predictions of the devices.
Uses.
Glass solders are frequently used in electronic packaging. CERDIP packagings are an example. Outgassing of water from the glass solder during encapsulation was a cause of high failure rates of early CERDIP integrated circuits. Removal of glass-soldered ceramic covers, e.g., for gaining access to the chip for failure analysis or reverse engineering, is best done by shearing; if this is too risky, the cover is polished away instead.
As the seals can be performed at much lower temperature than with direct joining of glass parts and without use of flame (using a temperature-controlled kiln or oven), glass solders are useful in applications like subminiature vacuum tubes or for joining mica windows to vacuum tubes and instruments (e.g., Geiger tube). Thermal expansion coefficient has to be matched to the materials being joined and often is chosen in between the coefficients of expansion of the materials. In case of having to compromise, subjecting the joint to compression stresses is more desirable than to tensile stresses. The expansion matching is not critical in applications where thin layers are used on small areas, e.g., fireable inks, or where the joint will be subjected to a permanent compression (e.g., by an external steel shell) offsetting the thermally introduced tensile stresses.
Glass solder can be used as an intermediate layer when joining materials (glasses, ceramics) with significantly different coefficient of thermal expansion; such materials cannot be directly joined by diffusion welding. Evacuated glazing windows are made of glass panels soldered together.
A glass solder is used, e.g., for joining together parts of cathode ray tubes and plasma display panels. Newer compositions lowered the usage temperature from by reducing the lead(II) oxide content down from 70%, increasing the zinc oxide content, adding titanium dioxide and bismuth(III) oxide and some other components. The high thermal expansion of such glass can be reduced by a suitable ceramic filler. Lead-free solder glasses with soldering temperature of were also developed.
Phosphate glasses with low melting temperature were developed. One of such compositions is phosphorus pentoxide, lead(II) oxide, and zinc oxide, with addition of lithium and some other oxides.
Electrically conductive glass solders can be also prepared.
Advantages.
The following advantages result from using the glass frit bonding procedure:


Reactive bonding

 Reactive bonding describes a wafer bonding procedure using highly reactive nanoscale multilayer systems as an intermediate layer between the bonding substrates. The multilayer system consists of two alternating different thin metallic films. The self-propagating exothermic reaction within the multilayer system contributes the local heat to bond the solder films. Based on the limited temperature the substrate material is exposed, temperature-sensitive components and materials with different CTEs, i.e. metals, polymers and ceramics, can be used without thermal damage.
Overview.
The bonding is based on reactive nano scale multilayers providing an internal heat source. These foils are combined with additional solder layers to achieve bonding. The heat that is required for the bonding is created by a self-propagating exothermic reaction of the multilayer system. This reaction is ignited by an energy pulse, i.e. temperature, mechanical pressure, electrical spark or laser pulse. The generated heat is localized to the bonding interface and limited due to a short term heating phase within milliseconds.
This heat is an advantage of this approach, so the used materials are not exposed to high temperatures and allow rapid cooling. A drawback is that this approach is not applicable for bond frame dimensions of few ten micrometres. This is based on the limited handling and structuring abilities of the foils at this small dimensions.
The material used for multilayer systems is a bilayer of alternating elements, commonly Ni/Al, Al/Ti or Ti/a-Si. The metallic layer is usually 1 to 30 nm thick and can be arranged as horizontal or vertical nano scale material films and are a combination of a reactive and a low melting component. With increased bilayer thickness, the reaction velocity decreases and the reaction heat increases. Therefore, a specific balance between high reaction velocity and high reaction heat is necessary.
A commercial example of such material is NanoFoil. The corresponding bonding process is known as NanoBond.
Preprocessing.
Two different reactive structures are established, conventional lateral layer-by-layer (multilayer) and vertical arranged structures. Based on difficulties, that occur during handling, patterning and positioning of the freestanding foils, the multilayer films are directly deposited onto the silicon substrate. The deposition of the multilayer systems on silicon is achieved by magnetron sputtering, electroplating or etching. The vertical nano structures are also created directly on the substrate surface.
The substrate surfaces are deposited with a solder layer, i.e. gold (Au), using physical vapor deposition (PVD). The PVD process promotes the wetting of the solder. The intermixing of the used components during deposition influences the reaction parameters and to prevent this the substrates are cooled.
A commonly used deposition method for multilayer structures is magnetron sputtering. A multilayer system consists of thousands of thin single layers of the component combination that are alternately sputtered on the substrate surface.
For electroplating or electrochemical deposition (ECD) multilayer deposition two approaches are established. On the one hand a two bath method exist, which means an alternating deposition in two different plating baths. On the other hand, a one bath method, with an electrolyte containing both film components in one bath, can be used. The ECD process reduces process time and complexity. In addition, this method enables pattern plating to prevent complex etching process of structures.
Vertical nanostructures are created in two steps. At first, needles in the silicon substrate are created by dry etching. The other used material is deposited using sputtering to cover those needles. This approach reduces the process time and complexity drastically due to the deposition omission of the thousands of single layers. Further, reactive foil patterning can be realized by applying an electrochemical machining process.
Bonding.
The bonding process is based on the reaction of the nanoscale multilayer to release energy concentrated at the interface. The self-propagating reaction is caused by the reduction of chemical bond energy in the multilayer system (compare to figure "Schematic self-propagating reaction in a multilayer system after ignition").
The system alloy, or an intermetallic compound, (AB) is formed from the intermixing elements (A+B) due to atomic diffusion.
The reactive foil is ignited by an energy pulse resulting in an immediate self-propagating reaction (compare to figure "Schematic reactive bonding process with a reactive multilayer as heat source").
This local intermixing process produces heat that is transmitted to the adjacent element layers. The reaction spreads through the foil in milliseconds. This energy release leads to a high temperature in the bonding interface. Meanwhile, the components outside the interface are not exposed to the high temperatures of the reaction. Besides the high interface energy, this reaction is also promoted by the low thickness and therefore the reduced diffusion path of the single metallic layers.
The resulting internal heat melts the solder layers to form a bond with the multilayer system and the substrate based on diffusion. This exothermic reaction can be ignited in reactive materials like compacted powders, e.g. Ni/Ti or Ti/Co, as well as in nanostructured multilayer systems, e.g. Ni/Al. The bonding can take place in various environments, i.e. vacuum, with a force providing a defined mechanical pressure at room temperature. A high applied mechanical pressure enhances the solder flow and therefore can improve the wetting of the substrate.
Examples.
Reactive bonding approach is used to assemble MEMS components including die attachment and the hermetic sealing of micro-system packages. The process is used to join temperature sensitive biological activated substrates for diagnostics or medical devices. In addition disposable microfluidic devices with sensing function and immobilized cells can be fabricated.


Cap torque tester

The cap torque tester is used in the packaging industry to measure the opening or closing torque of the screwing cap. It is a piece of specific quality control equipment that can be placed on the production line or in the laboratory.
Packaging development.
A torque tester is required during the packaging design process. It can be used as a destructive tester to identify if there is any material weakness of the packaging during the screwing process. It also allows one to define the torque tolerances of the capping machine. The lower torque limit is considered the minimum pressure of the cap to avoid any leak of the product. This torque test needs to be combined with a leak test with secure seal analyzer. The higher torque limit is the maximum torque the customer can apply to open or close the product's cap.
Production line control.
Once torque tolerances have been defined, the cap torque tester is used as a torque control device on the final product. If measurements are out of the limits, the capping machine needs to be adjusted. Depending on the production process, it could be necessary to control the opening torque, 24 hours after the packaging process. Temperature variations can modify product characteristics with a result of different torque measurement.


Apple Daisy Wheel Printer

The Apple Daisy Wheel Printer is a daisy wheel printer manufactured by Qume and sold by Apple Computer, Inc. in the 1980s. It utilized the ASCII character set and used continuous form paper, or with an optional feeder, cut sheet paper. The printer included several different 130-character "daisy" print wheels (e.g., Courier, Prestige Elite, Gothic, Executive) in English, French, German, and other languages. These 130-character print wheels are unique to the Apple DWP; the standard Qume printwheel has 96 characters.
It could be used with the Lisa system, Apple III system, and Apple IIe or Apple II Plus system if the Super Serial Interface Card was installed.
When used with the Lisa, the printer could produce simple graphics by microstepping the print head and using the period, pipe ( | ), and slash characters. The period is reinforced with brass to prevent it wearing out.
This printer is also referred to as the Apple Letter Quality printer.


Institut für Integrierte Produktion Hannover (IPH), which literally translates as "Hanover institute of integrated production", is a non-profit limited company providing research and development, consulting, and training in industrial engineering.
History.
On January 1, 1988, three German engineering professors founded IPH as a spin-off company of Leibniz University Hannover. As the non-profit company dealt with computer-integrated manufacturing, it was originally called “CIM-Fabrik Hannover” (CIM factory of Hanover). The name was later changed to IPH – Institut für Integrierte Produktion Hannover.
In 1991, the company and its 26 employees moved from the inner city to “Wissenschaftspark” in Marienwerder, in the Northwest of Hanover. To create room for an increasing number of employees, the company building was extended just eight years later.
The death of professor Eckart Doege, co-founder and managing partner of the IPH, in 2004 marked the end of an era. Bernd-Arno Behrens, professor of forming at Leibniz University Hannover, was appointed as his successor. Co-founders professor Hans Kurt Toenshoff and professor Hans-Peter Wiendahl left the company in 2007 resp. 2008. They were succeeded by two professors of Leibniz University Hannover: Ludger Overmeyer, professor of automation engineering, and Peter Nyhuis, professor of production systems and logistics.
The change of the management board led to a strategic transformation of research topics. In addition to logistics, production automation, and process technology, xxl goods was added to the IPH portfolio as another research topic. The research engineers apply the term xxl goods to products such as planes, ships, wind energy plants but also motor parts of utility vehicles, and jet engines. The company’s aim is to promote research dealing with the production of these large scale goods. Currently, IPH is the only research institute exploring this theme from a scientific point of view.
Organization.
The company is composed of three departments focusing on logistics, production automation, and process technology. Research dealing with xxl goods is done by all departments.
IPH is run by three managing partners and a managing director. As a non-profit research company, it is funded by public research funding but also by the money earned through industry consulting.
Business activities.
The IPH offers Research and development, consulting, and training in production engineering. Customers range from local small and medium-sized businesses to multinational companies.
Fields of activity include:
Process technology.
Since 2000 the IPH has been part of the special research field dealing with flashless precision forging (“Sonderforschungsbereich 489”). Funded by the German Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, DFG), this consortium conducts research on the process chain of high-performance parts forged without flash. According to Doege et al., the term “flashless precision forging” is commonly used in two ways: On the one hand, it describes forging without flash. On the other hand, it is used for forged parts with a tolerance of IT 7 to IT 9. Latest research findings indicate that it is possible to forge complicated parts, such as crankshafts, without flash. In order to forge crankshafts without flash, appropriate preforming processes are necessary. At IPH, the main focus is on multi-directional forging and cross wedge rolling.
IPH engineers also conduct research on cross wedge rolling within the context of process chain design of warm forging. The influence of temperature on both the process and part quality is studied for cross wedge rolling and forge rolling. Also, wearing of forging tools is investigated. A recent approach to reduce wear is the coating of parts with layers of DLC.
Further research efforts include hydro forming (e.g. of titanium). In this context, material and composite material are studied. “Tailored hybrid tubes” is another research area about to be investigated. The term describes material combined of both steel and aluminum.
A new way of forging developed by IPH is hybrid forging. This technique combines both forging and joining of massive parts and sheet metal in one single operation.
Another development fostered by IPH is a module for automatized stud welding with tip ignition that is integrated into sheet metal working tools. This development reduces the process chain significantly. As a result, costs of extra positioning units and time needed for positioning are cut.
In the field of sheet metal forming, efforts are made to increase effectiveness of sheet forming machines. The key performance indicator OEE is used to determine improvements in the elimination of perturbations during the forming process.
Production automation.
In the field of production automation, IPH focuses on artificial intelligence, distributed systems, and the use of wireless communication on production sites.
Since the beginning of the new millennium, the IPH has been researching the use of methods of artificial intelligence in industrial engineering. The company’s main focus is on the performance-oriented and cost-effective design of interlinked assembly lines through the use of data mining.
Recent research centers on the positioning of cooling channels in injection molding tools, the design of pre-forming geometries for forging processes, and autonomously controlled automated guided vehicles (AGV).
Distributed systems are also subject of research at IPH. As a result of a project funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung, BMBF), an electric tool log was developed. In another research project funded by the German Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, DFG), intelligent diamond cutting discs were designed. In this particular case, the distributed system consisted of piezoelectric sensors detecting tool vibrations, a measuring system processing and enhancing signals, and a radio module processing signals to a measuring computer.
IPH also concentrates its research efforts on wireless communication and the use of this technology on production sites. To fight the production of counterfeit medications, a new method of integrating RFID tags and antennas into drug packages was developed as part of the EZ pharm project (www.ez-pharm.de). Lately, the Zigbee technology has been applied to an abrasive sheet during a cutoff grinding process.
Recent research in the field of production automation focuses on optical communication. To enable automated guided vehicles to detect their position, a system based on visible light is being designed (www.isi-walk.de). Also, for the use in intralogistics, a new method of identifying goods is being developed.
Logistics.
With regard to logistics, IPH engineers do research on how to design and control production networks efficiently, both ecologically and economically. For example, the project "synchronization of logistic responsiveness in production networks" revealed that structural interactions within networks have a strong influence on dynamic behavior and thus logistic performance.
Furthermore, a scientific method aiming at the economic and organizational planning and assessment of transformability in supply chains is currently being developed as part of the research project “ISI-WALK” (www.isi-walk.de). The method is supposed to help companies to identify e.g. the right point of time to initiate transformation processes.
In various research projects, IPH employees investigate in-plant production logistics. In the special research field dealing with flashless precision forging (“Sonderforschungsbereich 489”), a new batch size calculation method has been developed. It allows for the consideration of bulk forming tool endurance, and thus helps forging companies to avoid additional costs.
An IPH development that has become part of business life is the logistics key performance indicator system developed in a research project called LogiBEST. The KPI system applies to procurement, production, and distribution. Based on this KPI system, the Association of German Engineers (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure, VDI) developed its guideline “VDI-Richtlinie 4400“.


Tool management

Tool management is needed in metalworking so that the information regarding the tools on hand can be uniformly organized and integrated. The information is stored in a database and is registered and applied using tool management. Tool data management consists of specific data fields, graphics and parameters that are essential in production, as opposed to managing general production equipment.
Unlike hand tools, a tool in numerically (digitally) controlled machines is composed of several parts, such as the cutting tool (which may be one piece or comprise a body plus indexable inserts), a collet, and a toolholder with a machine taper. Putting the parts together accurately into an assembly is required to achieve error-free production.
Processing a part with a CNC (computer numerically controlled) machining operation requires several tool assemblies that are documented in a list. Each component, each assembly and each list has an identifier under which the specifications are found. Tool management is divided into documentation (master data) and logistics (transaction data). The documentation includes information needed for a trouble-free and a comprehensible production process. Spare parts, experiences in production and the corresponding data can be managed. Several functions are available to manage, process, print and combine with other applications.
Logistics deals with demand planning, supplies and tool location. This includes, on one hand, the location in the warehouse and the purchasing of individual parts with the corresponding consumption report. It also allows for the planning and coordination of the movements of the assemblies within the shop floor.
In the decades of the 2000s and 2010s, tool management has increasingly moved toward a universal, industry-standard, machine-readable format for encoding tooling information, which makes possible better software, greater automation, and better simulation. ISO 13399 (Cutting tool data representation and exchange) "is an international standard designed to give industry a common language to describe cutting tool products in a digital format."
Master data.
Master data describes tools' geometric characteristics, composition and usage. The information is divided into specifications and usage instructions. Master data describes the tool in its qualitative aspects, but does not provide quantities and locations.
Components.
The components are individual elements that can be combined into an assembly. Components are purchased as a unit and stored in a tool room. Cutting components (e.g. inserts) wear out during use and therefore must be purchased and replaced periodically. Non-cutting components (e.g. collets) are practically unlimited. They are often acquired together with a new machine. (Clamping equipment is handled like non-cutting components.)
Generally, four types of graphic illustrations are used:
Tool assemblies.
The tool assembly is built using several components. The component at the rear end must connect the machine tool, and the cutting component is found on the other end (ex.: drill or insert). Varying components are used intermediately (ex.: extension, collets) to reach the desired geometry. The assembly documentation describes how the components are assembled, to ensure that the applied geometry in the CAM system matches that of the real tools in the CNC machine.
Tool lists / manufacturing operation.
The tool list includes all tool assemblies needed for a machining operation. It is printed as a pick list and is used for commissioning and providing advice for assembly setup. Often instructions and information are not directly related to the tools (e.g. clamping, clamping fixtures, the name of the NC program, etc.) to ensure that all documents for an operation can be viewed together.
Auxiliary tables.
In addition to the main tool data, auxiliary data tables simplify data acquisition, using values selected from a table. Compared to manual input, this ensures more comfortable and consistent data collection.
Transaction data (logistics).
Logistics is concerned with inventory, storage areas and purchasing. Within logistics, the components and the assemblies are separate. The components differentiate between internal material flow and purchasing goods from external suppliers (stock control).
Stock control of components.
The logistics of components includes primarily inventory management, requirements planning monitoring of minimum stock levels. When reaching the minimum level, tool management triggers a procurement process. The logistics of tool management use a workplace-tuned user interface and interfaces to storage systems and other facilities within the shop floor. The requirement for coordinated component inventory is a central tool organization in which all components of a production unit are stored at one location, and each withdrawal is recorded reliably.
In-house logistics of components.
In-house logistics is mainly interested in where a wanted component currently is, and at what cost center it is consumed. This method only consumes wear parts (cutting), the other components (holders, clamping devices) are moved between toolroom, storage places and machine tool. Component booking at the individual cost centers and locations occurs simultaneously when withdrawn/restored to the toolroom. The preparation of tools and resources is triggered by a production order. It refers to a tool list in the master data, that lists required components. Prior to usage in the machine tool, the components are assembled, according to the specifications and work instructions in the tool list. When scheduling production orders, inventory for each component will be checked.
In-house logistics of assemblies.
Assemblies are built from components, and after usage usually disassembled into components and restored again. From one assembly, multiple copies can be assembled simultaneously, if the components are available in sufficient numbers. The logistics of assemblies refers to the condition and location of these copies.
Each copy of an assembly can typically be in one of three states:
When scheduling a production order, the relevant tools, for the work are known, based on the tool list. Also, known is which assemblies, required for the machining process, are already located on the machine tool. Necessary, but not yet available assemblies are calculated and printed in a net loading list. They either have to be assembled or removed from the intermediate storage. With a coordinated logistic of the assemblies, it is possible to reduce the time required for providing and replacement of assemblies at the machine.
Integration of tool data.
Tool management guarantees efficient and faultless order processing. Existing knowledge is made generally available and the guidelines stated in the master data are noticed. The integration of tool data enables other applications to use the tool data which is maintained with tool management. Applications either fall back on the tool management database, or the data will be replaced by the interfaces. Especially in CNC manufacturing where several persons are involved in the production process, integration avoids faults, delays and duplicate data recording.
PDM (documentation).
In product data management (PDM) systems every product's work plan is saved which comprises CAD Models, the description of working steps and a list of needed equipment. The detailed description of the equipment takes place in tool management because the PDM system does not offer functions and data fields do describe them in detail. It typically offers links to external data. Production orders are generated with the ERP system which links to the work plan in the PDM system. Needed resources such as NC programs, tools, and instructions are requested in production from tool management. Integration guarantees availability of the information in tool management. The basic objective for integration is a systematic numbering of documents and resources.
ERP (purchasing).
The ERP system plans raw material, consumable items and other resources. It closely connects with PDM and assumes the tasks of materials management and logistics. Related to the tools, this concerns the consumable components. If the component inventory is conducted with tool management, purchase orders will be transmitted as purchase requisitions to the ERP system which issues the actual order. This requires that the products be registered in both systems with the same number. Additionally all internal stock movements of tool components for the costing can be handed to the ERP system with the integration.
CAM.
CAM systems generate the G-Code commands (NC program) for the CNC machine. Geometry, description and cutting conditions are selected and received directly from tool management. This ensures that all tools used are documented and consistent with the reality in the workshop. From the CAM system, all tools used in an NC program are automatically saved as tool lists in tool management. This ensures the correct use of the tools during the preparation of the work process.
Storage systems.
Besides conventional tool cabinets, storage systems that provide the operator with the shelf containing the desired product are often used. The relationship between the item number and the storage location is saved in tool management. When booking a tool removal in the logistics area of tool management the storage system is operated automatically. Alternatively, assignment of storage locations can be configured in the storage system. The removal is then performed on the storage system and the inventory change is transmitted to tool management.
Presetting.
At the processing to the tools' positioning the CNC machine needs their exact measurements. Therefore, the length and diameter of the complete tools must be entered when connecting them to the machine. These settings of the tools can be measured with an external pre-setter. Convenient pre-setters assume the nominal values, tolerances and designation from tool management and pass the measured values directly to the CNC machine. The integration of tool management with the pre-setters takes place in the exchange format of the respective equipment manufacturers and includes graphics and information about the measurement method.
Tool catalogues.
To reduce the cost of initial data acquisition of the components in tool management, tool manufacturers provide the data and graphics in an appropriately conditioned form. For technical data, the DIN 4000 and the ISO 13399 exchange formats are currently used. Where required, 2D graphics are provided in accordance with the ISG / BMG DXF standard. For 3D graphics, no standard is defined. Normally, STL and STEP format are offered and axis position is chosen according to the application on the machine.
Motivation for tool management.
Greater ROI.
The bottom-line motivation for tool management, as with all manufacturing technologies, is greater return on investment through higher efficiency. This is achieved as follows:
Utilization of new technologies.
Rising demands in design and quality, combined with time and cost pressures, force companies to regularly invest in more efficient equipment and procedures. Modern CNC-Machines (i.e. Mill-Turn-Machines) are highly productive, however they demand rigorous preparation and application. A prerequisite for their successful use is therefore the simultaneous adaptation of the organization together with the management of necessary operational information. The knowledge can subsequently be included in operational procedures and made available for each necessary task. This avoids the flawed or incomplete information that can interrupt production.
Supplying the right information.
Newly purchased equipment is supplied with specific usage information (i.e. cutting data with tools). This information is found in supplier specific documentation (i.e. the maximum allowed diameter of a fine boring tool). Before the new acquisition can be used, the data must be integrated in the company-specific task format. (i.e. The exact setup values for a required fine boring tool). Furthermore, this information must be made available to all participating work areas. (i.e. the exact adjusted diameter must be made known to the NC programming and tool store departments). Processed company information is then made available as part data instructions (i.e. appropriate cutting values for a particular tools usage with a specified material) and must be managed and integrated within workflows to prevent production capacity loss or shortening tool life.
Make information more easily available.
Tool and production data is managed within a company database and in a specific format. For this purpose a software application provides accessed across all departments and used without registering duplicate data. Such data can be utilized by other software applications (i.e. CAM-Systems, tool pre-setters, shop floor logistics). Suitable interfaces are integrated to secure smooth, seamless workflows. Central data management reduces errors and production stoppages.
Value.
The importance of exchanging information between operational areas varies according to the type of company. Generally it can be said that missing or unclear information is the source of errors that cost capacity and generate delays and inefficient workflow. Manual interfaces and information passed by word of mouth are potential error sources and obstacles. Especially important are binding specifications that are involved in complex work situations to reduce the chance of machine damage as well as the risks involved with defective deliveries.


Factory (disambiguation)

A factory is an industrial site where goods are manufactured or processed.
Factory or The Factory may also refer to:


Contract packager

A contract packager, or co-packer, is a company that packages products for their clients. The packaging and labeling services can be used for many types of products including foods, pharmaceuticals, household products, and industrial products.
Functions of contract packaging.
There can be a variety of reasons for using contract packaging.
Industries served.
Contract packagers can serve an array of industries. Below are some of the most common industries served, and the products that may be packaged:
Relationships.
The details of the relationship between the manufacturer, brand owner, and contract packager can vary. Some contract packagers perform limited operations, with all materials provided by the primary manufacturer. Product engineers are sometimes present to observe and supervise packaging operations. Other contract packaging firms are active in the package design process, provide purchasing services for materials and components, and provide shipping and logistics operations.
A Contract manufacturer can also be a contract packager. If not a separate contract packager can be employed by the contract manufacturer.
Contract packaging equipment.
Contract packaging companies make use of a range of different machines, typically utilized on automated lines for faster production and turnaround times. Automated bottling lines may be used for containing liquids such as water, soft drinks, beer, and wine, and are capable of filling bottles at a rate of 30,000 bottles per hour. Auger filling machines can be used for packaging dry products including powders, seeds, vitamins, and other small items.
Other complex machines exist in the contract packaging industry, such as the vertical form fill sealing machine. This machine produces plastics bags from a roll of film while simultaneously filling the bags with liquid or solid products.
Contract packagers may utilize different pieces of equipment to achieve the desired product packaging, whether the items need to be shrink wrapped, or contained in blister packs, clamshells, sealed food trays, stand-up pouches, bottles or cartons.


Parts locator

A parts locator or inventory locator is a computer program that enables users to locate spare parts or other inventory items in a number of different storage locations, usually of different owners.
A parts locator can be used to improve spare parts management by increasing parts availability and decreasing obsolescence.
Parts locators can be included in other (packaged) software such as Dealership Management Systems (DMS) or inventory control systems; or can be offered as a separate program. Due to the purpose of the software, it becomes more valuable when it has more users, as the number of inventories that are made available increases with the number of users.
Examples of specialised suppliers of parts locators are OEConnection, PareX Parts Exchange (PareX) and Inventory Locator Service, LLC (ILS).