Process costing

Process costing is an accounting methodology that traces and accumulates direct costs, and allocates indirect costs of a manufacturing process. Costs are assigned to products, usually in a large batch, which might include an entire month's production. Eventually, costs have to be allocated to individual units of product. It assigns average costs to each unit, and is the opposite extreme of Job costing which attempts to measure individual costs of production of each unit. Process costing is usually a significant chapter. It is a method of assigning costs to units of production in companies producing large quantities of homogeneous products.
Process costing is a type of operation costing which is used to ascertain the cost of a product at each process or stage of manufacture. CIMA defines process costing as "The costing method applicable where goods or services result from a sequence of continuous or repetitive operations or processes. Costs are averaged over the units produced during the period".
Process costing is suitable for industries producing homogeneous products and where production is a continuous flow. A process can be referred to as the sub-unit of an organization specifically defined for cost collection purpose.
The importance of process costing.
Costing is an important process that many companies engage in to keep track of where their money is being spent in the production and distribution processes. Understanding these costs is the first step in being able to control them. It is very important that a company chooses the appropriate type of costing system for their product type and industry. One type of costing system that is used in certain industries is process costing that varies from other types of costing (such as
job costing) in some ways. In process costing unit costs are more like averages, the process-costing system requires less bookkeeping than does a job-order costing system. Thus, some companies often prefer to use the process-costing system.
When is process costing applied?
Process costing is appropriate for companies that produce a continuous mass of like units through series of operations or process. Also, when one order does not affect the production process and a standardization of the process and product exists. However, if there are significant differences among the costs of various products, a process costing system would not provide adequate product-cost information. Costing is generally used in such industries such as petroleum, coal mining, chemicals, textiles, paper, plastic, glass, food, banks, courier, cement, and soap.
Reasons for use.
Company units of product in a given period of time.
Process cost procedures.
There are four basic steps in accounting for Process cost:
The journal entries for process costing are the same as those for job-order costing with one exception. The entry to transfer cost from one work-in-process account to another is:
Work-in-process inventory-second department Debit (Left)
Work-in-process-first department Credit (Right)
e.g.(1) Micro Labs Company produces house paint in two processing departments: the Mixing Department which mixes the paint colors and the Finishing Department which puts the paint in containers and labels them. The following information related to the company’s operation for October follows:
A) Raw materials were issued for use in production: Mixing department, $551,000, and the Finishing department, $629,000.
B) Direct labor costs incurred: Mixing department $230,000, and Finishing department $270,000. C) Manufacturing overhead cost applied: Mixing department $665,000, and Finishing department, $405,000. D) The cost of the mixed paint transferred from the Mixing department to the Finishing department was $1,850,000. E) Paint that had been prepared for shipping was transferred from the Finishing department to Finished Goods. Cost of the transferred paint was $3,200,000.
Required: Prepare journal entries to record items A) through E) above.
Solution(1):
 –Work in Process – Mixing 551,000
 –Work in Process – Finishing 629,000
 –Raw Materials 1,180,000
 –Work in Process – Mixing 230,000
 –Work in Process – Finishing 270,000
 –Wages and Salaries Payable 500,000
 –Work in Process – Mixing 665,000
 –Work in Process – Finishing 405,000
 –Manufacturing Overhead 1,070,000
 –Work in Process – Finishing 1,850,000
 –Work in Process – Mixing 1,850,000
 –Finished Goods 3,200,000
 –Work in Process – Finishing 3,200,000
e.g.(2) Larney Corporation uses process costing. A number of transactions that occurred in June are listed below. As follows:
A) Raw materials that cost $38,200 are withdrawn from the storeroom for use in the Mixing Department. B) Direct labor costs incurred $36,500,in the Mixing Department. C) Manufacturing overhead of $42,100 is applied in the Mixing Department. D) Units with a carrying cost of $112,400 finish processing in the Mixing Department and are transferred to the Drying Department for further processing. E) Units with a carrying cost of $143,800 finish processing in the Drying Department, the final step in the production process, and are transferred to the finished goods warehouse. F) Finished goods with a carrying cost of $138,500
Required: Prepare journal entries to record items A) through F).
Solution (2):
 –work in process-mixing department $38,200
 —raw materials $38,200
 –work in process $36,500
 –salaries/wages payable $36,500
 –work in process-mixing department $42,100
 –manufacturing overhead $42,100
 –work in process-drying department. $112,400
 –work in process mixing department $112,400
 –finished goods $143,800
 –work in process-drying department $143,800
 -costs of goods sold $138,500
 –finished goods $138,500
Operation cost in batch manufacturing.
Batch costing is a modification of job costing. When production is repetitive nature and consists of a definite number of articles, batch is used. In batch costing, the most important problem is to determine the optimum size of the batch that follows the fact that production of two elements of costs:


Single-minute exchange of die

Single-minute digit exchange of die (SMED) is one of the many lean production methods for reducing inefficiencies in a manufacturing process. It provides a rapid and efficient way of converting a manufacturing process from running the current product to running the next product. This is key to reducing production lot sizes, and reducing uneven flow (Mura), production loss, and output variability.
The phrase "single minute" does not mean that all changeovers and startups should only take "one" minute, rather, it should take less than 10 minutes ("single-digit minute"). A closely associated yet more difficult concept is one-touch exchange of die (OTED), which says changeovers can and should take less than 100 seconds. A die is a tool used in manufacturing. However SMED's utility is not limited to manufacturing (see value stream mapping).
History.
Frederick Winslow Taylor analyzed non-value-adding parts of setups in his 1911 book, "Shop Management" (page 171). However, he did not create any method or structured approach around it.
Frank Bunker Gilbreth studied and improved working processes in many different industries, from bricklaying to surgery. As part of his work, he also looked into changeovers. His book "Motion Study" (also from 1911) described approaches to reduce setup time.
Even Henry Ford's factories were using some setup reduction techniques. In the 1915 publication "Ford Methods and Ford Shops", setup reduction approaches were clearly described. However, these approaches never became mainstream. For most parts during the 20th century, the economic order quantity was the gold standard for lot sizing.
The JIT workflow of Toyota had this problem of tools changeover took between two and eight hours, Toyota could neither afford the lost production time nor the enormous lot sizes suggested by the economic order quantity. Lot reduction and set up time reduction had actually been ongoing in TPS since 1945 when Taiichi Ohno became manager of the machine shops in Toyota. On a trip to the US in 1955, Taiichi Ohno observed Danly stamping presses with rapid die change capability. Subsequently, Toyota bought multiple Danly presses for the Motomachi plant. And Toyota started to work on improving the changeover time of their presses. This was known as "Quick Die Change", or "QDC" for short. They developed a structured approach based on a framework from the US World War II "Training within Industry" (TWI) program, called ECRS – Eliminate, Combine, Rearrange, and Simplify.
Over time they reduced these changeover times from hours to fifteen minutes by the 1960s, three minutes by the 1970s and then just 180 seconds by 1990s.
During the late 1970s, when Toyota's method was already well refined, Shigeo Shingo participated in one QDC workshop. After he started to publicize details of the Toyota Production System without permission, the business connection was terminated abruptly by Toyota. Shingo moved to the US and started to consult on lean manufacturing. Besides claiming to have invented this quick changeover method (among many other things), he renamed it "Single Minute Exchange of Die" or, in short, SMED. The "Single Minute" stands for a single digit minute (i.e., less than ten minutes). He promoted TPS and SMED in US.
Example.
Toyota found that the most difficult tools to change were the dies on the large transfer-stamping machines that produce car vehicle body parts. The dies – which must be changed for each model – weigh many tons, and must be assembled in the stamping machines with tolerances of less than a millimeter, otherwise the stamped metal will wrinkle, if not melt, under the intense heat and pressure.
When Toyota engineers examined the change-over, they discovered that the established procedure was to stop the line, let down the dies by an overhead crane, position the dies in the machine by human eyesight, and then adjust their position with crowbars while making individual test stampings. The existing process took from twelve hours to almost three days to complete.
Toyota's first improvement was to place precision measurement devices on the transfer stamping machines, and record the necessary measurements for each model's die. Installing the die against these measurements, rather than by human eyesight, immediately cut the change-over to a mere hour and a half.
Further observations led to further improvements – scheduling the die changes in a standard sequence (as part of FRS) as a new model moved through the factory, dedicating tools to the die-change process so that all needed tools were nearby, and scheduling use of the overhead cranes so that the new die would be waiting as the old die was removed. Using these processes, Toyota engineers cut the change-over time to less than 10 minutes per die, and thereby reduced the economic lot size below one vehicle.
The success of this program contributed directly to just-in-time manufacturing which is part of the Toyota Production System. SMED makes Load balancing much more achievable by reducing economic lot size and thus stock levels.
Effects of Implementation.
Shigeo Shingo, who created the SMED approach, claims that in his data from between 1975 and 1985 that average setup times he has dealt with have reduced to 2.5% of the time originally required; a 40 times improvement.
However, the power of SMED is that it has a lot of other effects which come from systematically looking at operations; these include:
Implementation Techniques.
Shigeo Shingo recognizes eight fundamental techniques that should be considered in implementing SMED.
NB External setup can be done without the line being stopped whereas internal setup requires that the line be stopped.
He suggests that SMED improvement should pass through four conceptual stages:
A) ensure that external setup actions are performed while the machine is still running,
B) separate external and internal setup actions, ensure that the parts all function and implement efficient ways of transporting the die and other parts,
C) convert internal setup actions to external,
D) improve all setup actions.
Formal method.
There are seven basic steps to reducing changeover using the SMED system:
This diagram shows four successive runs with learning from each run and improvements applied before the next.
The SMED concept is credited to Shigeo Shingo, one of the main contributors to the consolidation of the Toyota Production System, along with Taiichi Ohno.
Key Elements to Observe.
Look for:
Record All Necessary Data
Parallel operations using multiple operators By taking the 'actual' operations and making them into a network which contains the dependencies it is possible to optimise task attribution and further optimize setup time. Issues of effective communication between the operators must be managed to ensure safety is assured where potentially noisy or visually obstructive conditions occur.
Parallel operations using multiple operators By taking the 'actual' operations and making them into a network which contains the dependencies it is possible to optimise task attribution and further optimize setup time. Issues of effective communication between the operators must be managed to ensure safety is assured where potentially noisy or visually obstructive conditions occur.


Resin dispensing

A resin dispensing system is a technical installation to process casting resin for the purpose of filling, sealing, covering or soaking technical parts, especially in the field of electricity and electronics like transformers, LCDs and other devices of various size.
Due to progressing miniaturization and introduction of electronics into new areas, quality requirements for the parts are rising, and thus the quality of dispensing must be increased as well. To obtain the required quality, on one hand, the resin system has to be developed and optimized accordingly. On the other hand, the resin dispensing system has to work more and more precisely to obtain best dispensing. Because of continuously increasing cost pressure, casting devices must be capable of increased quality, while also becoming faster and more reliable.
Requirements for good dispensing.
First of all, by dispensing, electrical and electronic parts have to be insulated reliably and penetration of moisture has to be excluded totally. Very often heat has to be conducted out from the part properly, an attribute that can be improved by the choice of an appropriate resin e.g. epoxy, polyurethane or silicone.
Process steps in a dispensing system.
In a dispensing system the following processes have to be performed:
A good resin dispensing system provides high quality casting of the same high standard even during long series in mass production.
Conditioning.
Several properties of the resin mix, with or without filler material, one component or two components (resin + hardener), are crucial for the quality of the product:
Even distribution of the fillers without setting is maintained by ongoing stirring.
Air and moisture are eliminated by evacuating the material tanks.
Elevated temperature is reached and maintained by thoroughly controlled heating of the tanks, the material feeding lines, the pumps and metering heads. In filled, complex resin mixes conditioning is especially crucial for the quality of the product.
Material transportation.
Which kind of feeding pump has to be used depends mainly on the viscosity of the material and the abrasiveness of the fillers.
For low to medium viscous material:
Gear pumps are not fit for abrasive material
For highly viscous material follower plate pumps are connected with an eccentric screw pump or a scooping piston pump. Metering is controlled for mass, time, and volume to determine the amount of resin dispensed.
Metering by mass.
Weighing provides very exact determination of amount, but it lengthens the cycle time. Also, a scale within a production line can be quite sensitive to malfunction and hard to use on boards populated with many parts. Because of these issues, this method is rarely used.
Metering by using Volume.
Getting constant volume is, technically, relatively simple and metering systems relying on constant volume dispensing therefore are especially simple and reliable.
A very good way is the use of piston metering heads. The ratio of resin to hardener can be determined exactly by the ratio of the width of two separate pistons, one for resin, one for hardener, where both pistons are pushed simultaneously. The amount is determined by a common stopper, limiting the stroke of both pistons equally.
State of the art (2009) are metering volumes from 0,01 mL to about 250 mL, may be even more.
Metering by using time.
This method demands that the appropriate pumps provide precisely constant flow of the material. Flow of material is started by a controlled valve and stopped after a certain time.
This method is especially susceptible to metering flaws, because the slightest change in flow speed causes different amounts of dispensed resin and/or hardener. Providing for an absolutely constant flow calls for relatively high electronic complexity, but provides much greater flexibility in adjusting the proportions of hardener to resin.
Mixing.
In two component resins, thorough mixing is crucial to obtain equal reaction between resin and hardener throughout all the material. There are three possible ways to mix:
Static mixing tube.
The components meet in a mixing tube made of plastic. The tube contains immobile walls to divide and bring together the material several times, mixing resin and hardener by this process. The mixing tube is not cleaned after use, but discarded.
Dynamic mixing.
The components meet in a mixing chamber, usually made of stainless steel and there they are mixed homogeneously by a rotating blender. To optimize mixing, the rotational speed can be controlled electronically. Mixing chamber and blender have to be cleaned with a special cleaning fluid to be used again. Usually this happens automatically.
Static-dynamic mixing.
A mixing tube made from plastic contains a helix driven by an external motor. This method is rarely used.
Dispensing.
To provide for best casting, the part and the dispensing unit have to be moved relatively to each other. In principle there are two ways:
For many applications, dispensing can only be done successfully in vacuum. This is true especially for parts with a large undercut, i.e. soaking of transformation coils. In such cases bubble free dispensing can only be obtained in vacuum. For this purpose dispensing systems are equipped with vacuum chambers. To shorten cycle times there can be an airlock at the entrance and one at the exit. In vacuum dispensing only systems where the parts are moving and the dispenser remains in place can be built reasonably.
For the production of series, dispensing systems with multifold metering heads can be used. At this time (2006) there are systems running capable to do up to thirty dispensing acts simultaneously.
Variability of dispensing.
The most simple way of dispensing is, to cast a certain amount of resin into one spot of a not moving part. Such simple systems sometimes are called metering systems. Centrifugal casting tables are available. The mold is fixed on this rotary table and while the resin mix is dispensed into the mold, centrifugal force ensures a solid, clean bubble free fill. The part is also stronger due to stress hardening. In some cases, the parts are equal to pressure injection dispensing.
By using adequate controls, many variations of casting are available. For instance, dams can be cast in different forms. Cast from highly viscous, thixotropic material, dams can be filled with resin of low viscosity (dam & fill). The deposition speed of the resin can be varied during casting or casting can be done in several portions. At the same time the part can execute complex movements. Using additional options of that kind make it possible to solve difficult casting problems.
Implementation of Dispensing into a Production Line.
A casting system can be combined with many different production steps within a production line. So casting becomes an integrated part of the whole manufacturing of a part. To account for the delicate requirements of dispensing in all production steps in the best way, the most significant manufacturers are active in automation as well. The newest development in this area is the design of a production line from prefabricated, ideally adapted modules. This speeds up the development of individual solutions and decreases their costs.
Examples for Application of Dispensing.
More and more parts are sealed by casting, because this accelerates the production and increases the lifetime and functionality of the parts. On the other side, sealed parts cannot be repaired.
Sealing of electronic parts.
Electronic units, plugged into a board, usually are sealed by resin to protect them from environmental influences and from mechanical damage. In those cases dispensing usually means just to fill up a form, a relatively simple process.
Production of LEDs.
Light-emitting diodes are produced in fully automated lines. Part of it is the dispensing in transparent plastics. Here short working cycles are of great significance to lower the price of the little lights. This an example for the use of multiple metering heads.
Soaking of electrical windings.
In electric motors and in transformers, multiple layers of windings of fine copper wire are essential. Today they usually are soaked in resin to protect them from environmental influences and to improve insulation from each other. Because of the fine structure of the space between the windings and because of much undercut, soaking of such windings puts highest demands to the used dispensing device.


Resin casting

Resin casting is a method of plastic casting where a mold is filled with a liquid synthetic resin, which then hardens. It is primarily used for small-scale production like industrial prototypes and dentistry. It can be done by amateur hobbyists with little initial investment, and is used in the production of collectible toys, models and figures, as well as small-scale jewellery production.
The synthetic resin for such processes is a monomer for making a plastic thermosetting polymer. During the setting process, the liquid monomer polymerizes into the polymer, thereby hardening into a solid.
Single-monomer resins may be used in the process, which form homopolymers (polymers containing only one type of polymer). In such uses, the "curing agent" mixed with the resin contains what is loosely referred to as a "catalyst," but which is more technically an initial source of free radicals (such as MEKP) to act as an initiator in a free-radical chemical chain reaction polymerization. Alternately, resin casting may be accomplished with a resin plus a nearly equal amount of a "hardener" liquid (as in many epoxy resin or polyester resin systems), which functionally contains a second polymer, for use in forming a final product plastic which is a copolymer. Copolymers contain two different alternating chemical entities in the final polymer molecule.
Process.
Most commonly a thermosetting resin is used that polymerizes by mixing with a curing agent (polymerization catalyst) at room temperature and normal atmospheric pressure. The resins are named by analogy with plant resins, but are synthetic monomers for making polymer plastics. The so-called synthetic resins used include polystyrene resin, polyurethane resin, epoxy resin, unsaturated polyester resin, acrylic resin and silicone resin.
Epoxy resin has a lower viscosity than polyurethane resin ; polyester resin also shrinks markedly while curing. Acrylic resin, in particular the methyl methacrylate type of synthetic resin, produces acrylic glass (also called PMMA, Lucite, Plexiglass), which is not a glass but a plastic polymer that is transparent, and very hard. It is suitable for embedding objects (such as, for example, acrylic trophies), for display purposes. Styrene is a similar liquid monomer at room temperature, which will also polymerize into clear glass-like polystyrene plastic, with addition of a suitable catalyst.
A flexible mold can be made of latex rubber, room temperature vulcanized silicone rubber, of which there are two types:Tin catalysed (sometimes called condensation cured due to the alcohols weeping out as a by product of the reaction) or Platinum (or addition cured, thus no byproduct) catalysed. Other similar materials can be used at relatively low cost, but can only be used for a limited number of castings.
The simplest method is gravity casting where the resin is poured into the mold and pulled down into all the parts by gravity. When the two part resin is mixed air bubbles tend to be introduced into the liquid which can be removed in a vacuum chamber. The casting can also be done in a vacuum chamber (when using open molds) to either extract these bubbles, or in a pressure pot, to reduce their size to the point where they aren't visible. Specialist equipment can enable closed molds to be filled whilst under vacuum, a process known as resin vacuum casting, where air and gas bubbles are completely removed from the cast part. Pressure and/or centrifugal force can be used to help push the liquid resin into all details of the mold. The mold can also be vibrated to expel bubbles.
Each unit requires some amount of hands-on labor, making the final cost per unit produced fairly high. This is in contrast to injection molding where the initial cost of creating the metal mold is higher, but the mold can be used to produce a much higher number of units, resulting in a lower cost per unit.
Collectibles and models.
Resin casting is used to produce collectible and customized toys and figures like designer toys, garage kits and ball-jointed dolls, as well as scale models, either individual parts or entire models of objects like trains, aircraft or ships. They are generally produced in small quantities, from the tens to a few hundred copies, compared to injection-molded plastic figures which are produced in many thousands. Resin casting is more labor intensive than injection molding, and the soft molds used are worn down by each cast. The low initial investment cost of resin casting means that individual hobbyists can produce small runs for their own use, such as customization, while companies can use it to produce small runs for public sale.
The creation of a toy or figure start with the traditional sculpting process where the artist designs a clay sculpture. Where appropriate, for example when making a garage kit, the sculpture is dissected into several parts like head, torso, arms and legs. A flexible mold made from room temperature vulcanized (RTV) silicone rubber is made for each part.
After the mold has been made, a synthetic resin - such as polyurethane or epoxy - mixed with a curing agent, is poured into each mold cavity. Mixing the two liquid parts causes an exothermic reaction which generates heat and within minutes causes the material to harden, yielding castings or copies in the shape of the mold into which it has been poured. The molds are commonly half-divided (like the hollowed chocolate Easter eggs with candy inside) and a release agent may be used to make removal of the hardened/set resin from the mold easier. The hardened resin casting is removed from the flexible mold and allowed to cool.
Due to aggressive nature of most compounds used for casting and the high temperature of the reaction the mold gradually degrades and loses small details. Typically, a flexible mold will yield between 25 and 100 castings depending upon the size of the part, the intensity of the heat generated.
Depending on the type of product it may then be cut or sanded to remove any casting artefacts like sprues and seams. Some products are also assembled and painted, while some models and kits, which are intended for the consumer to assemble, are left unfinished.
The ability of RTV silicone molds to reproduce even the tiniest detail means that many of these low volume castings are of very high quality. Quality of both original masters and resin castings varies due to differences in creator's skill, as well as casting techniques.


Elastomeric connector

Elastomeric connectors, also known by the registered trademark ZEBRA connectors, consist of alternating conductive and insulating regions in a rubber or elastomer matrix to produce overall anisotropic conductive properties. The original version consisted of alternating conductive and insulating layers of silicone rubber, cut crosswise to expose the thin layers. They provide high-density redundant electrical paths for high reliability connections. One of the first applications was connecting thin and fragile glass liquid-crystal displays (LCDs) to circuit boards in electronic devices, as little current was required.
Because of their flexibility, they excel in shock and anti-vibration applications. They can create a gasket-like seal for harsh environments. Conductor material possibilities include carbon, silver, and gold. The length, width and height may be specified as well as the stripe pitch. Frequently a recess with ribs is specified that captures and provides the elastomer reference surface for alignment (while allowing the lateral dimension of the elastomer to increase as it is compressed) with a deflection stop to control the final part separation, and alignment pins for substrate alignment.
They are used in two ways:
A "matrix" version consists of short, fine, metallic wires, 300 to 2,000 per square centimeter, aligned parallel but not touching each other, embedded in a rubber sheet. The wires can either protrude slightly from the top and bottom of the rubber sheet, or be curved and flush with the top and bottom planes; the latter is used for repeated assembly or inspection.


Case (goods)

A case of some merchandise is a collection of items packaged together. A case is not a strict unit of measure. For consumer foodstuff such as canned goods, soda, cereal, and such, a case is typically 24 items, however cases may range from 12 to 36, typically in multiples of six. For larger bottles such as gallon jugs, a case is typically 4.
Book manufacture.
The term "case binding" in the book manufacturing industry refers to a collection of pages contained in a "case" which is attached to it. (There are also cases for books e.g. slipcases which merely enclose a book.) The original "case" is often now called simply the "binding", although the integrated manufacturing process still uses the term "case" to refer to the hard cover and spine.


Productionisation

Productionisation (Commonwealth English) or productionization (American English) is the process of turning a prototype of a design into a version that can be more easily mass-produced. It is mostly a necessary step in the development of any product, since it is rare that the initial design is free from flaws or construction methods which make it difficult or more expensive to manufacture.
Prototypes are very often constructed by hand, or with more limited tooling. This is done to save costs where the design may not even be subsequently approved for manufacture. Once the go-ahead for a production run is given, the much more costly production tooling can be ordered. At this stage, the design itself may need to be reworked or altered to streamline production. The goal is to reduce costs as much as possible at the assembly stage, since costs will be multiplied by the number of units produced. For example, a prototype might be assembled using nuts and bolts, but in production such fasteners might be replaced by captive nuts or threaded holes built into the parts, making assembly much faster, easier and therefore cheaper.
Sometimes limited runs of a design might be manufactured without full productionisation.
Other examples of productionisation include:
Productionisation is a term that is increasingly prevalent in Software Development. One reason for this is the popularity of agile type development methods, which often focus on building a prototype solution to develop and refine the product to the business requirements. Prior to putting the system into production, the developers need to ensure the system is robust enough for the target environment with regard to aspects such as error handling, stability, usability, scalability and performance. This process of making the prototype ‘production or enterprise grade’ is often referred to as ‘Productionisation’.


Processing medium

In industrial engineering, a processing medium is a gaseous, vaporous, fluid or shapeless solid material that plays an active role in manufacturing processes - comparable to that of a tool.
Examples.
A processing medium for washing is a soap solution, a processing medium for steel melting is a plasma, and a processing medium for steam drying is superheated steam.


Tooling U-SME

Tooling U-SME, formerly Tooling University, is an American non-profit educational technology and blended learning organization that produces learning management system software, certifications and content for the manufacturing industry. Owned by the Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME) and headquartered in Cleveland, Ohio, Tooling U provides online industrial manufacturing training, development, and competency based apprenticeship programs.
History.
Tooling University, the original online training component of Tooling U-SME, was founded to address the shortage of skilled workers in the manufacturing industry. Tooling U began as a division of Jergens Inc., a workholding and tooling component manufacturer founded in 1942. In 2010, Tooling University was acquired by SME.
Since the acquisition, Tooling U-SME has spent recent years uniting all of its training products, launching service offering upgrades, and providing niche learning services for specific jobs like welding. The company has also been awarded multiple grants from US government institutions like the Department of Defense and the Department of Labor to develop training programs that support the development of America's workforce in manufacturing.
Competency Framework.
In early 2014 Tooling U-SME launched the Competency Framework for achieving manufacturing excellence. The Competency Framework is made up of more than 60 job competency models in nine manufacturing functional areas. Each competency model outlines knowledge and skill objectives for production workers, technicians, lead technicians and technologists, and engineers.
Products and Services.
Tooling U-SME supplies manufacturers, high schools and technical colleges with in-house and online training resources that are translatable to both certificate programs and associate degrees. Students can choose from over 70 instructor-led programs, and have 24/7 access to more than 450 online courses, covering everything from safety and maintenance to composites and machining.
Custom Training Content.
Custom in-house training and educational content for schools and organizations.
Assessments.
Online assessments for evaluating current workforce skills and developing training programs based on filling the gaps.
Certifications.
Industry-backed certifications for lean manufacturing technology, machining technology, advanced manufacturing, and manufacturing engineering, as well as certificate programs for green manufacturing. Tooling U-SME training courses adhere to the National Institute for Metalworking Skills (NIMS) Standards, SME Certified Manufacturing Technologist (CMfgT) certification, Manufacturing Skills Standards Council (MSSC) standards and American Welding Society (AWS) SENSE Level 1 standard.
Online bookstore and Knowledge Edge®.
Knowledge Edge is a subscription service digital library with more than 700 industrial training videos and clips, 1,200 eBooks and eChapters, 16,000 technical papers and 10,000 entries in the Manufacturing Knowledge Base wiki.


Computed axial lithography

Computed axial lithography is a method for 3D printing based on computerised tomography scans to create objects from photo-curable resin. The process was developed by a collaboration between the University of California, Berkeley and the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Unlike other methods of 3D printing, computed axial lithography does not build models through depositing layers of material, as fused deposition modelling and stereolithography does, instead it creates objects using a series of 2D images projected onto a cylinder of resin. It is notable for its ability to build object much more quickly than other methods using resins and the ability to embed objects within the objects.


Product requirements document

A product requirements document (PRD) is a document containing all the requirements for a certain product.
It is written to allow people to understand "what" a product should do. A PRD should, however, generally avoid anticipating or defining "how" the product will do it in order to later allow interface designers and engineers to use their expertise to provide the optimal solution to the requirements.
PRDs are most frequently written for software products, but they can be used for any type of product and also for services.
Typically, a PRD is created from a user's point-of-view by a user/client or a company's marketing department (in the latter case it may also be called a Marketing Requirements Document (MRD)). The requirements are then analyzed by a (potential) maker/supplier from a more technical point of view, broken down and detailed in a Functional Specification (sometimes also called Technical Requirements Document).
Components.
Typical components of a product requirements document (PRD) are:
Not all PRDs have all of these components. In particular, PRDs for other types of products (manufactured goods, etc.) will eliminate the software-specific elements from the list above, and may add in additional elements that pertain to their domain, e.g. manufacturing requirements.


Manipulator (device)

In robotics, a manipulator is a device used to manipulate materials without direct physical contact by the operator. The applications were originally for dealing with radioactive or biohazardous materials, using robotic arms, or they were used in inaccessible places. In more recent developments they have been used in diverse range of applications including welding automation, robotic surgery and in space. It is an arm-like mechanism that consists of a series of segments, usually sliding or jointed called cross-slides, which grasp and move objects with a number of degrees of freedom.
In industrial ergonomics a manipulator is a lift-assist device used to help workers lift, maneuver and place articles in process that are too heavy, too hot, too large or otherwise too difficult for a single worker to manually handle. As opposed to simply vertical lift assists (cranes, hoists, etc.) manipulators have the ability to reach in to tight spaces and remove workpieces. A good example would be removing large stamped parts from a press and placing them in a rack or similar dunnage. In welding, a column boom manipulator is used to increase deposition rates, reduce human error and other costs in a manufacturing setting.
Additionally, manipulator tooling gives the lift assist the ability to pitch, roll, or spin the part for appropriate placement. An example would be removing a part from a press in the horizontal and then pitching it up for vertical placement in a rack or rolling a part over for exposing the back of the part.
Specialized types.
One of the types of manipulators is balanced manipulator type MSP-250, controlled by the operator's hand. Such manipulators are used in various industries. Where there are special requirements to protect against fire and explosion, they may be driven by compressed air.
A welding manipulator can be either open arc or submerged arc. A welding manipulator can be used to weld horizontally and vertically and is ideal for job shops as they are robust, have high production volume capacity and a greater degree of flexibility in product engineering. Welding manipulators are commonly used in pipe and vessel fabrication but can be used in a cladding procedure with the aid of a proper welding fixture.
Examples.
Examples of robotic manipulators are:


GES International

GES International Limited is an engineering and manufacturing company founded as a sole proprietorship called Goh Electronics Services by Goh Lik Tuan in 1975. It is based in Singapore, Malaysia, China and the United States. It is on the SGX, the Singapore stock exchange, and it is a listed component of the Straits Times Index. In 2006, it became a subsidiary of the Singapore-based Venture Corporation.
GES has two R&D (Research and Design) centers, in Singapore and Shanghai working in original design manufacturer (ODM) and original equipment manufacturer (OEM).
GES International performs manufacture and design including ASIC design, hardware design, software design, mechanical design, power management design, technical writing, PCB design, industrial design, etc. in the field of electronics. The company began as a personal computer manufacturer in Asia, manufacturing the Datamini computer.
GES performs shipping (logistics) and aftermarket services, consisting of repair and warranty services.


John K. Stewart

John Kerwin Stewart (November 30, 1870 – June 1, 1916) was an entrepreneur and inventor. He founded the Stewart-Warner Corporation. In his lifetime he founded or purchased several companies and held 82 patents.
Biography.
He was born in 1870 in Hillsborough, New Hampshire. He married Julia Pearl Butler in 1896, the couple had three daughters.
In what became training for their futures in manufacturing, Stewart and Thomas J. Clark worked at a factory in New Hampshire that produced horse clipping machinery. The lifelong friends later moved to Providence, Rhode Island, and worked for the Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company. Then, in approximately 1890, the two traveled to Chicago, Illinois, where they entered into partnership and manufactured horse clippers, sheep clippers, bicycle handle bars and flexible shafts among other products.
He died on June 1, 1916, in New York City.
Companies founded.
Chicago Flexible Shaft Company.
In 1893 Stewart & Clark founded the Chicago Flexible Shaft Company (incorporated 1897) to manufacture flexible driveshafts and mechanical sheep shears. Stewart and Charles Timson of Wm. Cooper & Nephews partnered in founding the Cooper-Stewart Sheep Shearing Machinery Co in 1896 and sold the sheep shearing products through this new company.
In 1903 Wm. Cooper & Nephews purchased 50% ownership of the Chicago Flexible Shaft Company. In 1908 Wm. Cooper & Nephews purchased the remaining 50% of Chicago Flexible Shaft Company for $400,000. Julia Stewarts nephew remained the president of Chicago Flexible Shaft Company after the sale.
In 1910, the Chicago Flexible Shaft Company introduced its first home appliance, an electric iron, under the brand name Sunbeam. The Sunbeam Mixmaster was introduced in 1930. By 1946, Sunbeam appliances had become so successful and widely sold that the company name would change formally to Sunbeam Corporation.
Sterk Manufacturing Company.
Around 1896 Stewart and Clark founded the Sterk Manufacturing Company which produced speedometers and automobile horns. The flexible shafts from the Chicago Flexible Shaft Company were used in the production of cables needed for the speedometers.
Stewart & Clark Manufacturing Company.
In 1905 Stewart & Clark Manufacturing Company was founded and acquired all assets of the Sterk Manufacturing Company.
The partners erected a small manufacturing plant on Diversey Parkway in Chicago. This plant would eventually grow to a one million square foot (93,000 m²) manufacturing and headquarters facility for Stewart-Warner until the company left Chicago in 1988.
Due to his patents, Stewart collected $311,000 in royalties, which were calculated at $5 per speedometer sold in 1909.
Unfortunately, Clark was killed while demonstrating the Stewart speedometer in a Packard during the 1907 Glidden Tour #. Stewart acquired Clarks' share of the company.
J.K. Stewart Manufacturing Company.
Due to the need for the blades of clippers & shears to last longer and remain sharp, Stewart worked with Edward Larson to build a heat treatment furnace for tempering steel. In 1906 the two formed the E.A. Larson & Brothers Company to take advantage of the processes they developed to provide die casting for speedometer production as well as other companies in the area. In 1908, E.A. Larson was reorganized as the J.K. Stewart Manufacturing Company.
Stewart-Warner Speedometer Corporation.
Stewart and rival instrument manufacturer, Warner Instrument Company, were in heated legal battles over patent infringements by both parties. All lawsuits ceased when Stewart bought the Warner Instrument Company in 1912. Stewart-Warner Speedometer Corporation was formed the same year by consolidating the Warner Company with the Stewart & Clark Manufacturing Company. Once again the name changed in 1929 to Stewart-Warner Corporation.
Stewart Phonograph Company.
A lover of music, Stewart ventured into the phonograph market in 1915. Eventually becoming a division of Stewart-Warner, the phonograph company expanded to include radios, televisions, and the required accessories such as speakers.


GE Automation & Controls

General Electric Automation and Controls division combines what was formerly known as GE Intelligent Platforms and Alstom's Power Automation and Controls. In 2019, GE Intelligent Platforms was acquired by Emerson Electric and is now called Machine Automation Solutions.
GE Automation and Controls produce Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) and Programmable Automation Controller (PAC) based control systems, I/O, and field devices, including support to design, commission and operate industrial assets and operations. Industries served include manufacturing, food and beverage, life sciences, power, oil and gas, mining and metals, water and wastewater, and specialty machinery industries.
History.
In 1986, GE Fanuc Automation Corporation was jointly established in the US by FANUC and General Electric (GE). Under the joint venture company, three operating companies, GE Fanuc Automation North America, Inc., in the U.S., GE Fanuc Automation Europe S.A. in Luxembourg, and Fanuc GE Automation Asia Ltd. in Japan were established (the Asian company was established in 1987).
In 2007, the company was renamed to GE Fanuc Intelligent Platforms (and GE Fanuc Automation Solutions Europe SA became GE Fanuc Intelligent Platforms Europe SA). GE Fanuc Automation CNC Europe changed its name to Fanuc GE CNC Europe.
In 2009, GE and Fanuc agreed to dissolve joint venture and the software, controls and embedded business became part of GE, under the new name GE Intelligent Platforms.
In 2015, GE Intelligent Platforms, Inc. changed its name to Automation & Controls upon acquisition of Alstom's Power Automation & Controls business.
In 2018, amidst restructuring plans for the whole General Electric group, it was announced that Emerson Electric was to acquire Intelligent Platforms, and the deal was completed on February 1, 2019.


Environmental management system

An environmental management system (EMS) is "a system which integrates policy, procedures and processes for training of personnel, monitoring, summarizing, and reporting of specialized environmental performance information to internal and external stakeholders of a firm".
The most widely used standard on which an EMS is based is International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 14001. Alternatives include the EMAS.
Goals.
The goals of EMS are to increase compliance and reduce waste:
Features.
An environmental management system (EMS):
EMS Model.
An EMS follows a Plan-Do-Check-Act, or PDCA, Cycle. The diagram shows the process of first developing an environmental policy, planning the EMS, and then implementing it. The process also includes checking the system and acting on it. The model is continuous because an EMS is a process of continual improvement in which an organization is constantly reviewing and revising the system.
This is a model that can be used by a wide range of organizations – from manufacturing facilities to service industries to government agencies.
Accreditation.
Environmental Management Systems can be accredited under ISO 14001.
Other meanings.
An EMS can also be classified as:


2005 UEFA Intertoto Cup

The 2005 UEFA Intertoto Cup finals were won by Lens, Marseille, and Hamburg. All three teams advanced to the UEFA Cup.
First round.
Second leg.
"Beitar Jerusalem won 6–4 on aggregate."
"Gent won 3–2 on aggregate."
"Pogoń Szczecin won 9–2 on aggregate."
"Budućnost Podgorica won 7–2 on aggregate."
"Lokeren won 2–1 on aggregate."
"Göteborg won 5–2 on aggregate."
"Varteks won 5–3 on aggregate."
"Slaven Belupo won 2–0 on aggregate."
"Neuchâtel Xamax won 9–1 on aggregate."
"CFR Ecomax Cluj won 7–3 on aggregate."
"Gloria Bistrița won 16–0 on aggregate."
"Tampere United won 3–0 on aggregate."
"ZTS Dubnica won 2–0 on aggregate."
"Žalgiris won 2–0 on aggregate."
"Lech Poznań won 4–1 on aggregate."
"Sturm Graz won 6–1 on aggregate."
"Dinaburg won 4–1 on aggregate."
"Pobeda won 3–1 on aggregate."
"Tescoma Zlín won 1–0 on aggregate."
"Lombard-Pápa won 3–1 on aggregate."
"Inter Turku won 4–0 on aggregate."
Second round.
Second leg.
"Sigma Olomouc won 1–0 on aggregate."
"1–1 on aggregate, CFR Ecomax Cluj won in a penalty shootout."
"Wolfsburg won 5–3 on aggregate."
"Deportivo La Coruña won 4–2 on aggregate."
"ZTS Dubnica won 4–1 on aggregate."
"Slovan Liberec won 7–2 on aggregate."
"Saint-Étienne won 3–2 on aggregate."
"Gent won 1–0 on aggregate."
"Hamburg won 8–2 on aggregate."
"Slaven Belupo won 4–2 on aggregate."
"Young Boys won 6–2 on aggregate."
"Varteks won 6–5 on aggregate."
"Tampere United won 1–0 on aggregate."
"Göteborg won 4–2 on aggregate."
"Žalgiris won 3–2 on aggregate."
"Lens won 3–1 on aggregate."
Third round.
Second leg.
"Deportivo La Coruña won 4–0 on aggregate."
"Žalgiris won 5–4 on aggregate."
"1–1 on aggregate, Sigma Olomouc won on away goals rule."
"Marseille won 5–3 on aggregate."
"Lens won 5–2 on aggregate."
"1–1 on aggregate, Roda won on away goals rule."
"Hamburg won 3–0 on aggregate."
"Valencia won 2–0 on aggregate."
"Newcastle United won 5–1 on aggregate."
"Lazio won 4–1 on aggregate."
"Wolfsburg won 4–0 on aggregate."
"3–3 on aggregate, CFR Ecomax Cluj won on away goals rule."
Semi–finals.
Second leg.
"CFR Ecomax Cluj won 7–2 on aggregate."
"Lens won 4–0 on aggregate."
"Valencia won 4–0 on aggregate."
"Hamburg won 4–0 on aggregate."
"Deportivo La Coruña won 4–2 on aggregate."
"Marseille won 4–1 on aggregate."
Finals.
Second leg.
"Lens won 4–2 on aggregate."
"Marseille won 5–3 on aggregate."
"Hamburg won 1–0 on aggregate."


Autocollimator

An autocollimator is an optical instrument for non-contact measurement of angles. They are typically used to align components and measure deflections in optical or mechanical systems. An autocollimator works by projecting an image onto a target mirror and measuring the deflection of the returned image against a scale, either visually or by means of an electronic detector. A visual autocollimator can measure angles as small as 1 arcsecond (4.85 microradians), while an electronic autocollimator can have up to 100 times more resolution.
Visual autocollimators are often used for aligning laser rod ends and checking the face parallelism of optical windows and wedges. Electronic and digital autocollimators are used as angle measurement standards, for monitoring angular movement over long periods of time and for checking angular position repeatability in mechanical systems. Servo autocollimators are specialized compact forms of electronic autocollimators that are used in high-speed servo-feedback loops for stable-platform applications. An electronic autocollimator is typically calibrated to read the actual mirror angle.
Electronic autocollimator.
The electronic autocollimator is a high precision angle measurement instrument capable of measuring angular deviations with accuracy down to fractions of an arcsecond, by electronic means only, with no optical eye-piece.
Measuring with an electronic autocollimator is fast, easy, accurate, and will frequently be the most cost effective procedure. Used extensively in workshops, tool rooms, inspection departments and quality control laboratories worldwide, these highly sensitive instruments will measure extremely small angular displacements, squareness, twist and parallelism.
Laser analyzing autocollimator.
Today, a new technology allows to improve the autocollimation instrument to allow direct measurements of incoming laser beams. This new capability opens a gate of inter-alignment between optics, mirrors and lasers.
This technology fusion between a century-old technology of autocollimation with recent laser technology offers a very versatile instrument capable of measurement of inter-alignment between multiple line of sights, laser in respect to mechanical datum, alignment of laser cavity, measurement of multiple rollers parallelism in roll to roll machinery, laser divergence angle and its spatial stability and many more inter-alignment applications.
Total station autocollimator.
The concept of autocollimation as an optical instrument was conceived about a century ago for non-contact measurements of angles. Hybrid technology fulfills a need recently developed by novel photonics applications has created for the alignment and measurement of optics and lasers. Implementing motorized focusing offers an additional measurement dimension by focusing on the area to be examined and performing alignment and deviations from alignment on the scale of microns. This is relevant in the adjustment phase as well as final testing and examination phases of integrated systems. Recent progress has been made in with the aim to serve the photonics AR/VR industry, involving development in interalingment, fusion of several wavelengths including NIR into one system, and measurements of multi laser array such as VCSEL in respect with other optical sensors, to improve angular accurate optical measurements to a resolution of 0.01 arcseconds.
Typical applications.
An electronic autocollimator can be used in the measurement of straightness of machine components (such as guide ways) or the straightness of lines of motion of machine components. Flatness measurement, of granite surface plates, for example, can be performed by measuring straightness of multiple lines along the flat surface, then summing the deviations in line angle over the surface. Recent advancements in applications allow angular orientation measurement of wafers. This could also be done without obstructing lines of sight to the wafer's surface itself. It is applicable in wafer measuring machines and wafer processing machines. Other applications include:
Optical measurement applications:


Forging

Forging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of metal using localized compressive forces. The blows are delivered with a hammer (often a power hammer) or a die. Forging is often classified according to the temperature at which it is performed: cold forging (a type of cold working), warm forging, or hot forging (a type of hot working). For the latter two, the metal is heated, usually in a forge. Forged parts can range in weight from less than a kilogram to hundreds of metric tons. Forging has been done by smiths for millennia; the traditional products were kitchenware, hardware, hand tools, edged weapons, cymbals, and jewellery. Since the Industrial Revolution, forged parts are widely used in mechanisms and machines wherever a component requires high strength; such forgings usually require further processing (such as machining) to achieve a finished part. Today, forging is a major worldwide industry.
History.
Forging is one of the oldest known metalworking processes. Traditionally, forging was performed by a smith using hammer and anvil, though introducing water power to the production and working of iron in the 12th century allowed the use of large trip hammers or power hammers that increased the amount and size of iron that could be produced and forged. The smithy or forge has evolved over centuries to become a facility with engineered processes, production equipment, tooling, raw materials and products to meet the demands of modern industry.
In modern times, industrial forging is done either with presses or with hammers powered by compressed air, electricity, hydraulics or steam. These hammers may have reciprocating weights in the thousands of pounds. Smaller power hammers, or less reciprocating weight, and hydraulic presses are common in art smithies as well. Some steam hammers remain in use, but they became obsolete with the availability of the other, more convenient, power sources.
Advantages and disadvantages.
Forging can produce a piece that is stronger than an equivalent cast or machined part. As the metal is shaped during the forging process, its internal grain texture deforms to follow the general shape of the part. As a result, the texture variation is continuous throughout the part, giving rise to a piece with improved strength characteristics. Additionally, forgings can achieve a lower total cost than casting or fabrication. Considering all the costs that are incurred in a product's life cycle from procurement to lead time to rework, and factoring in the costs of scrap, and downtime and other quality considerations, the long-term benefits of forgings can outweigh the short-term cost savings that castings or fabrications might offer.
Some metals may be forged cold, but iron and steel are almost always hot forged. Hot forging prevents the work hardening that would result from cold forming, which would increase the difficulty of performing secondary machining operations on the piece. Also, while work hardening may be desirable in some circumstances, other methods of hardening the piece, such as heat treating, are generally more economical and more controllable. Alloys that are amenable to precipitation hardening, such as most aluminium alloys and titanium, can be hot forged, followed by hardening.
Production forging involves significant capital expenditure for machinery, tooling, facilities and personnel. In the case of hot forging, a high-temperature furnace (sometimes referred to as the forge) is required to heat ingots or billets. Owing to the size of the massive forging hammers and presses and the parts they can produce, as well as the dangers inherent in working with hot metal, a special building is frequently required to house the operation. In the case of drop forging operations, provisions must be made to absorb the shock and vibration generated by the hammer. Most forging operations use metal-forming dies, which must be precisely machined and carefully heat-treated to correctly shape the workpiece, as well as to withstand the tremendous forces involved.
Processes.
There are many different kinds of forging processes available; however, they can be grouped into three main classes:
Common forging processes include: roll forging, swaging, cogging, open-die forging, impression-die forging (closed die forging), press forging, cold forging, automatic hot forging and upsetting.
Temperature.
All of the following forging processes can be performed at various temperatures; however, they are generally classified by whether the metal temperature is above or below the recrystallization temperature. If the temperature is above the material's recrystallization temperature it is deemed "hot forging"; if the temperature is below the material's recrystallization temperature but above 30% of the recrystallization temperature (on an absolute scale) it is deemed "warm forging"; if below 30% of the recrystallization temperature (usually room temperature) then it is deemed "cold forging". The main advantage of hot forging is that it can be done more quickly and precisely, and as the metal is deformed work hardening effects are negated by the recrystallization process. Cold forging typically results in work hardening of the piece.
Drop forging.
Drop forging is a forging process where a hammer is raised and then "dropped" into the workpiece to deform it according to the shape of the die. There are two types of drop forging: open-die drop forging and impression-die (or closed-die) drop forging. As the names imply, the difference is in the shape of the die, with the former not fully enclosing the workpiece, while the latter does.
Open-die drop forging.
Open-die forging is also known as "smith forging". In open-die forging, a hammer strikes and deforms the workpiece, which is placed on a stationary anvil. Open-die forging gets its name from the fact that the dies (the surfaces that are in contact with the workpiece) do not enclose the workpiece, allowing it to flow except where contacted by the dies. The operator therefore needs to orient and position the workpiece to get the desired shape. The dies are usually flat in shape, but some have a specially shaped surface for specialized operations. For example, a die may have a round, concave, or convex surface or be a tool to form holes or be a cut-off tool. Open-die forgings can be worked into shapes which include discs, hubs, blocks, shafts (including step shafts or with flanges), sleeves, cylinders, flats, hexes, rounds, plate, and some custom shapes. Open-die forging lends itself to short runs and is appropriate for art smithing and custom work. In some cases, open-die forging may be employed to rough-shape ingots to prepare them for subsequent operations. Open-die forging may also orient the grain to increase strength in the required direction.
Advantages of open-die forging
"" is the successive deformation of a bar along its length using an open-die drop forge. It is commonly used to work a piece of raw material to the proper thickness. Once the proper thickness is achieved the proper width is achieved via "edging". "" is the process of concentrating material using a concave shaped open-die. The process is called "edging" because it is usually carried out on the ends of the workpiece. "" is a similar process that thins out sections of the forging using a convex shaped die. These processes prepare the workpieces for further forging processes.
Impression-die forging.
Impression-die forging is also called "closed-die forging". In impression-die forging, the metal is placed in a die resembling a mold, which is attached to an anvil. Usually, the hammer die is shaped as well. The hammer is then dropped on the workpiece, causing the metal to flow and fill the die cavities. The hammer is generally in contact with the workpiece on the scale of milliseconds. Depending on the size and complexity of the part, the hammer may be dropped multiple times in quick succession. Excess metal is squeezed out of the die cavities, forming what is referred to as "flash". The flash cools more rapidly than the rest of the material; this cool metal is stronger than the metal in the die, so it helps prevent more flash from forming. This also forces the metal to completely fill the die cavity. After forging, the flash is removed.
In commercial impression-die forging, the workpiece is usually moved through a series of cavities in a die to get from an ingot to the final form. The first impression is used to distribute the metal into the rough shape in accordance to the needs of later cavities; this impression is called an "edging", "fullering", or "bending" impression. The following cavities are called "blocking" cavities, in which the piece is working into a shape that more closely resembles the final product. These stages usually impart the workpiece with generous bends and large fillets. The final shape is forged in a "final" or "finisher" impression cavity. If there is only a short run of parts to be done, then it may be more economical for the die to lack a final impression cavity and instead machine the final features.
Impression-die forging has been improved in recent years through increased automation which includes induction heating, mechanical feeding, positioning and manipulation, and the direct heat treatment of parts after forging. One variation of impression-die forging is called "flashless forging", or "true closed-die forging". In this type of forging, the die cavities are completely closed, which keeps the workpiece from forming flash. The major advantage to this process is that less metal is lost to flash. Flash can account for 20 to 45% of the starting material. The disadvantages of this process include additional cost due to a more complex die design and the need for better lubrication and workpiece placement.
There are other variations of part formation that integrate impression-die forging. One method incorporates casting a forging preform from liquid metal. The casting is removed after it has solidified, but while still hot. It is then finished in a single cavity die. The flash is trimmed, then the part is quench hardened. Another variation follows the same process as outlined above, except the preform is produced by the spraying deposition of metal droplets into shaped collectors (similar to the Osprey process).
Closed-die forging has a high initial cost due to the creation of dies and required design work to make working die cavities. However, it has low recurring costs for each part, thus forgings become more economical with greater production volume. This is one of the major reasons closed-die forgings are often used in the automotive and tool industries. Another reason forgings are common in these industrial sectors is that forgings generally have about a 20 percent higher strength-to-weight ratio compared to cast or machined parts of the same material.
Design of impression-die forgings and tooling.
Forging dies are usually made of high-alloy or tool steel. Dies must be impact- and wear-resistant, maintain strength at high temperatures, and have the ability to withstand cycles of rapid heating and cooling. In order to produce a better, more economical die the following standards are maintained:
Barrelling occurs when, due to friction between the work piece and the die or punch, the work piece bulges at its centre in such a way as to resemble a barrel. This leads to the central part of the work piece to come in contact with the sides of the die sooner than if there were no friction present, creating a much greater increase in the pressure required for the punch to finish the forging.
The dimensional tolerances of a steel part produced using the impression-die forging method are outlined in the table below. The dimensions across the parting plane are affected by the closure of the dies, and are therefore dependent on die wear and the thickness of the final flash. Dimensions that are completely contained within a single die segment or half can be maintained at a significantly greater level of accuracy.
A lubricant is used when forging to reduce friction and wear. It is also used as a thermal barrier to restrict heat transfer from the workpiece to the die. Finally, the lubricant acts as a parting compound to prevent the part from sticking in the dies.
Press forging.
Press forging works by slowly applying a continuous pressure or force, which differs from the near-instantaneous impact of drop-hammer forging. The amount of time the dies are in contact with the workpiece is measured in seconds (as compared to the milliseconds of drop-hammer forges). The press forging operation can be done either cold or hot.
The main advantage of press forging, as compared to drop-hammer forging, is its ability to deform the complete workpiece. Drop-hammer forging usually only deforms the surfaces of the work piece in contact with the hammer and anvil; the interior of the workpiece will stay relatively undeformed. Another advantage to the process includes the knowledge of the new part's strain rate. By controlling the compression rate of the press forging operation, the internal strain can be controlled.
There are a few disadvantages to this process, most stemming from the workpiece being in contact with the dies for such an extended period of time. The operation is a time-consuming process due to the amount and length of steps. The workpiece will cool faster because the dies are in contact with workpiece; the dies facilitate drastically more heat transfer than the surrounding atmosphere. As the workpiece cools it becomes stronger and less ductile, which may induce cracking if deformation continues. Therefore, heated dies are usually used to reduce heat loss, promote surface flow, and enable the production of finer details and closer tolerances. The workpiece may also need to be reheated.
When done in high productivity, press forging is more economical than hammer forging. The operation also creates closer tolerances. In hammer forging a lot of the work is absorbed by the machinery; when in press forging, the greater percentage of work is used in the work piece. Another advantage is that the operation can be used to create any size part because there is no limit to the size of the press forging machine. New press forging techniques have been able to create a higher degree of mechanical and orientation integrity. By the constraint of oxidation to the outer layers of the part, reduced levels of microcracking occur in the finished part.
Press forging can be used to perform all types of forging, including open-die and impression-die forging. Impression-die press forging usually requires less draft than drop forging and has better dimensional accuracy. Also, press forgings can often be done in one closing of the dies, allowing for easy automation.
Upset forging.
Upset forging increases the diameter of the workpiece by compressing its length. Based on number of pieces produced, this is the most widely used forging process. A few examples of common parts produced using the upset forging process are engine valves, couplings, bolts, screws, and other fasteners.
Upset forging is usually done in special high-speed machines called "crank presses". The machines are usually set up to work in the horizontal plane, to facilitate the quick exchange of workpieces from one station to the next, but upsetting can also be done in a vertical crank press or a hydraulic press. The initial workpiece is usually wire or rod, but some machines can accept bars up to in diameter and a capacity of over 1000 tons. The standard upsetting machine employs split dies that contain multiple cavities. The dies open enough to allow the workpiece to move from one cavity to the next; the dies then close and the heading tool, or ram, then moves longitudinally against the bar, upsetting it into the cavity. If all of the cavities are utilized on every cycle, then a finished part will be produced with every cycle, which makes this process advantageous for mass production.
These rules must be followed when designing parts to be upset forged:
Automatic hot forging.
The automatic hot forging process involves feeding mill-length steel bars (typically long) into one end of the machine at room temperature and hot forged products emerge from the other end. This all occurs rapidly; small parts can be made at a rate of 180 parts per minute (ppm) and larger can be made at a rate of 90 ppm. The parts can be solid or hollow, round or symmetrical, up to , and up to in diameter. The main advantages to this process are its high output rate and ability to accept low-cost materials. Little labor is required to operate the machinery.
There is no flash produced so material savings are between 20 and 30% over conventional forging. The final product is a consistent so air cooling will result in a part that is still easily machinable (the advantage being the lack of annealing required after forging). Tolerances are usually ±, surfaces are clean, and draft angles are 0.5 to 1°. Tool life is nearly double that of conventional forging because contact times are on the order of 0.06-second. The downside is that this process is only feasible on smaller symmetric parts and cost; the initial investment can be over $10 million, so large quantities are required to justify this process.
The process starts by heating the bar to in less than 60 seconds using high-power induction coils. It is then descaled with rollers, sheared into blanks, and transferred through several successive forming stages, during which it is upset, preformed, final forged, and pierced (if necessary). This process can also be coupled with high-speed cold-forming operations. Generally, the cold forming operation will do the finishing stage so that the advantages of cold-working can be obtained, while maintaining the high speed of automatic hot forging.
Examples of parts made by this process are: wheel hub unit bearings, transmission gears, tapered roller bearing races, stainless steel coupling flanges, and neck rings for liquid propane (LP) gas cylinders. Manual transmission gears are an example of automatic hot forging used in conjunction with cold working.
Roll forging.
Roll forging is a process where round or flat bar stock is reduced in thickness and increased in length. Roll forging is performed using two cylindrical or semi-cylindrical rolls, each containing one or more shaped grooves. A heated bar is inserted into the rolls and when it hits a spot the rolls rotate and the bar is progressively shaped as it is rolled through the machine. The piece is then transferred to the next set of grooves or turned around and reinserted into the same grooves. This continues until the desired shape and size is achieved. The advantage of this process is there is no flash and it imparts a favorable grain structure into the workpiece.
Examples of products produced using this method include axles, tapered levers and leaf springs.
Net-shape and near-net-shape forging.
This process is also known as "precision forging". It was developed to minimize cost and waste associated with post-forging operations. Therefore, the final product from a precision forging needs little or no final machining. Cost savings are gained from the use of less material, and thus less scrap, the overall decrease in energy used, and the reduction or elimination of machining. Precision forging also requires less of a draft, 1° to 0°. The downside of this process is its cost, therefore it is only implemented if significant cost reduction can be achieved.
Cold forging.
Near net shape forging is most common when parts are forged without heating the slug, bar or billet. Aluminum is a common material that can be cold forged depending on final shape. Lubrication of the parts being formed is critical to increase the life of the mating dies.
Induction forging.
Unlike the above processes, induction forging is based on the type of heating style used. Many of the above processes can be used in conjunction with this heating method.
Multidirectional forging.
Multidirectional forging is forming of a work piece in a single step in several directions. The multidirectional forming takes place through constructive measures of the tool. The vertical movement of the press ram is redirected using wedges which distributes and redirects the force of the forging press in horizontal directions.
Isothermal forging.
Isothermal forging is a process by which the materials and the die are heated to the same temperature ("iso-" meaning "equal"). Adiabatic heating is used to assist in the deformation of the material, meaning the strain rates are highly controlled. This technique is commonly used for forging aluminium, which has a lower forging temperature than steels. Forging temperatures for aluminum are around , while steels and super alloys can be .
Benefits:
Disadvantages:
Materials and applications.
Forging of steel.
Depending on the forming temperature steel forging can be divided into:
For industrial processes steel alloys are primarily forged in hot condition. Brass, bronze, copper, precious metals and their alloys are manufactured by cold forging processes; each metal requires a different forging temperature.
Forging of aluminium.
Due to the narrow temperature range and high thermal conductivity, aluminium forging can only be realized in a particular process window. To provide good forming conditions a homogeneous temperature distribution in the entire workpiece is necessary. Therefore, the control of the tool temperature has a major influence to the process. For example, by optimizing the preform geometries the local effective strains can be influenced to reduce local overheating for a more homogeneous temperature distribution.
Application of aluminium forged parts.
High-strength aluminium alloys have the tensile strength of medium strong steel alloys while providing significant weight advantages. Therefore, aluminium forged parts are mainly used in aerospace, automotive industry and many other fields of engineering especially in those fields, where highest safety standards against failure by abuse, by shock or vibratory stresses are needed. Such parts are for example pistons, chassis parts, steering components and brake parts. Commonly used alloys are AlSi1MgMn (EN AW-6082) and AlZnMgCu1,5 (EN AW-7075). About 80% of all aluminium forged parts are made of AlSi1MgMn. The high-strength alloy AlZnMgCu1,5 is mainly used for aerospace applications.
Forging of magnesium.
Magnesium alloys are more difficult to forge due to their low plasticity, low sensitivity to strain rates and narrow forming temperature. Using semi-open die hot forging with a three-slide forging press (TSFP) has become a newly developed forging method for Mg-Al alloy AZ31, commonly used in forming aircraft brackets. This forging method has shown to improve tensile properties but lacks uniform grain size. Even though the application of magnesium alloys increases by 15–20% each year in the aerospace and automotive industry, forging magnesium alloys with specialized dies is expensive and an unfeasible method to produce parts for a mass market. Instead, most magnesium alloy parts for industry are produced by casting methods.
Equipment.
The most common type of forging equipment is the hammer and anvil. Principles behind the hammer and anvil are still used today in "drop-hammer" equipment. The principle behind the machine is simple: raise the hammer and drop it or propel it into the workpiece, which rests on the anvil. The main variations between drop-hammers are in the way the hammer is powered; the most common being air and steam hammers. Drop-hammers usually operate in a vertical position. The main reason for this is excess energy (energy that is not used to deform the workpiece) that is not released as heat or sound needs to be transmitted to the foundation. Moreover, a large machine base is needed to absorb the impacts.
To overcome some shortcomings of the drop-hammer, the "counterblow machine" or "impactor" is used. In a counterblow machine both the hammer and anvil move and the workpiece is held between them. Here excess energy becomes recoil. This allows the machine to work horizontally and have a smaller base. Other advantages include less noise, heat and vibration. It also produces a distinctly different flow pattern. Both of these machines can be used for open-die or closed-die forging.
Forging presses.
A "forging press", often just called a press, is used for press forging. There are two main types: mechanical and hydraulic presses. Mechanical presses function by using cams, cranks and/or toggles to produce a preset (a predetermined force at a certain location in the stroke) and reproducible stroke. Due to the nature of this type of system, different forces are available at different stroke positions. Mechanical presses are faster than their hydraulic counterparts (up to 50 strokes per minute). Their capacities range from 3 to 160 MN (300 to 18,000 short tons-force). Hydraulic presses use fluid pressure and a piston to generate force. The advantages of a hydraulic press over a mechanical press are its flexibility and greater capacity. The disadvantages include a slower, larger, and costlier machine to operate.
The roll forging, upsetting, and automatic hot forging processes all use specialized machinery.


Bourns, Inc.

Bourns, Inc. is an American electronics company that develops, manufactures and supplies electronic components for a variety of industries including automotive, industrial, instrumentation, medical electronics, consumer equipment and portable electronics.
Established in Altadena, California in 1947 by Marlan and Rosemary Bourns, graduates of the University of Michigan, the company was founded to develop and sell electronic components and sensors to the aerospace industry.
Bourns has 15 manufacturing facilities around the world and has continued growing through the development of new products and technologies as well as through acquisitions. The company has approximately 9000 employees worldwide.
Its current Chairman of the Board and CEO is Gordon Bourns, the son of the co-founders.
History.
Marlan and Rosemary Bourns started the company in their garage in Altadena, California in 1947. Their invention of linear motion and vane position potentiometers provided a method of accurately determining an aircraft's pitch, and helped to grow their business into a global corporation.
Headquartered in Riverside, California, Bourns makes and provides a broad range of electronic components and circuit protection devices including automotive sensors, circuit protection solutions, magnetic and inductor products, specialty engineering and manufacturing services, precision potentiometers, panel controls, encoders and resistive products.
Technology innovations.
In 1952, Bourns patented the trimming potentiometer, trademarked "Trimpot". In 1995, Bourns acquired VRN's Trimmer assets and introduced the first 4 mm surface-mount sealed tact switch. In 2008, Bourns acquired the Transient Blocking Unit (TBU) assets of Fultec Semiconductor, Inc.


Future Supply Chains

Future Supply Chain Solutions Ltd. (FSC) is an Indian supply chain and logistics company.
FSC caters to corporates in Food & FMCG; Apparels, Footwear & Accessories; Home and Furniture, Consumer Electronics & Hi- Tech; Automotive; Pharma and Light Engineering domain.
History.
Future Supply Chain Solutions Ltd. (FSC) was incorporated in March, 2006.


Cemented carbide

Cemented carbides are a class of hard materials used extensively for cutting tools, as well as in other industrial applications. It consists of fine particles of carbide cemented into a composite by a binder metal. Cemented carbides commonly use tungsten carbide (WC), titanium carbide (TiC), or tantalum carbide (TaC) as the aggregate. Mentions of "carbide" or "tungsten carbide" in industrial contexts usually refer to these cemented composites.
Most of the time, carbide cutters will leave a better surface finish on a part and allow for faster machining than high-speed steel or other tool steels. Carbide tools can withstand higher temperatures at the cutter-workpiece interface than standard high-speed steel tools (which is a principal reason enabling the faster machining). Carbide is usually superior for the cutting of tough materials such as carbon steel or stainless steel, as well as in situations where other cutting tools would wear away faster, such as high-quantity production runs. In situations where carbide tooling is not required, high-speed steel is preferred for its lower cost.
Construction.
Cemented carbides are metal matrix composites where carbide particles act as the aggregate and a metallic binder serves as the matrix (analogous to concrete, where a gravel aggregate is suspended in a cement matrix). The structure of cemented carbide is conceptually similar to that of a grinding wheel, but the abrasive particles are much smaller; macroscopically, the material of a carbide cutter appears homogeneous.
The process of combining the carbide particles with the binder is referred to as sintering or hot isostatic pressing (HIP). During this process, the material is heated until the binder enters a liquid phase while the carbide grains (which have a much higher melting point) remain solid. At this elevated temperature and pressure, the carbide grains rearrange themselves and compact together, forming a porous matrix. The ductility of the metal binder serves to offset the brittleness of the carbide ceramic, resulting in the composite's high overall toughness and durability. By controlling various parameters, including grain size, cobalt content, dotation (e.g., alloy carbides) codice_1 and carbon content, a carbide manufacturer can tailor the carbide's performance to specific applications.
The first cemented carbide developed was tungsten carbide (introduced in 1927) which uses tungsten carbide particles held together by a cobalt metal binder. Since then, other cemented carbides have been developed, such as titanium carbide, which is better suited for cutting steel, and tantalum carbide, which is tougher than tungsten carbide.
Physical propertiescodice_1.
The coefficient of thermal expansion of cemented tungsten carbide is found to vary with the amount of cobalt used as a metal binder. For 5.9% cobalt samples, a coefficient of 4.4 µm·m−1·K−1 was measured, whereas 13% cobalt samples have a coefficient of around 5.0 µm·m−1·K−1. Both values are only valid from to due to non-linearity in the thermal expansion process.
Applications.
Inserts for metal cutting.
Carbide is more expensive per unit than other typical tool materials, and it is more brittle, making it susceptible to chipping and breaking. To offset these problems, the carbide cutting tip itself is often in the form of a small insert for a larger tipped tool whose shank is made of another material, usually carbon tool steel. This gives the benefit of using carbide at the cutting interface without the high cost and brittleness of making the entire tool out of carbide. Most modern face mills use carbide inserts, as well as many lathe tools and endmills. In recent decades, though, solid-carbide endmills have also become more commonly used, wherever the application's characteristics make the pros (such as shorter cycle times) outweigh the cons (mentioned above). As well, modern turning (lathe) tooling may use a carbide insert on a carbide tool such as a boring bar, which are more rigid than steel insert holders and therefor less prone to vibration, which is of particular importance with boring or threading bars that may need to reach into a part to a depth many times the tool diameter.
Insert coatings.
To increase the life of carbide tools, they are sometimes coated. Five such coatings are TiN (titanium nitride), TiC (titanium carbide), Ti(C)N (titanium carbide-nitride), TiAlN (titanium aluminium nitride) and AlTiN (aluminium titanium nitride). (Newer coatings, known as DLC (diamond-like carbon) are beginning to surface, enabling the cutting power of diamond without the unwanted chemical reaction between real diamond and iron.) Most coatings generally increase a tool's hardness and/or lubricity. A coating allows the cutting edge of a tool to cleanly pass through the material without having the material gall (stick) to it. The coating also helps to decrease the temperature associated with the cutting process and increase the life of the tool. The coating is usually deposited via thermal chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and, for certain applications, with the mechanical physical vapor deposition (PVD) method. However, if the deposition is performed at too high temperature, an "eta phase" of a Co6W6C tertiary carbide forms at the interface between the carbide and the cobalt phase, which may lead to adhesion failure of the coating.
Inserts for mining tools.
Mining and tunneling cutting tools are most often fitted with cemented carbide tips, the so-called "button bits". Artificial diamond can replace the cemented carbide buttons only when conditions are ideal, but as rock drilling is a tough job cemented carbide button bits remain the most used type throughout the world.
Rolls for hot-roll and cold-roll applications.
Since the mid-1960s, steel mills around the world have applied cemented carbide to the rolls of their rolling mills for both hot and cold rolling of tubes, bars, and flats.
Other industrial applications.
This category contains a countless number of applications, but can be split into three main areas:
Some key areas where cemented carbide components are used:
Non-industrial uses.
Jewellery.
Tungsten carbide has become a popular material in the bridal jewellery industry, due to its extreme hardness and high resistance to scratching. Given its brittleness, it is prone to chip, crack, or shatter in jewellery applications. Once fractured, it cannot be repaired.
History.
The initial development of cemented and sintered carbides occurred in Germany in the 1920s. ThyssenKrupp says [in historical present tense], "Sintered tungsten carbide was developed by the 'Osram study society for electrical lighting' to replace diamonds as a material for machining metal. Not having the equipment to exploit this material on an industrial scale, Osram sells the license to Krupp at the end of 1925. In 1926 Krupp brings sintered carbide onto the market under the name WIDIA (acronym for = like diamond)." Machinery's Handbook gives the date of carbide tools' commercial introduction as 1927. Burghardt and Axelrod give the date of their commercial introduction in the United States as 1928. Subsequent development occurred in various countries.
Although the marketing pitch was slightly hyperbolic (carbides being not entirely equal to diamond), carbide tooling offered an improvement in cutting speeds and feeds so remarkable that, like high-speed steel had done two decades earlier, it forced machine tool designers to rethink every aspect of existing designs, with an eye toward yet more rigidity and yet better spindle bearings.
During World War II there was a tungsten shortage in Germany. It was found that tungsten in carbide cuts metal more efficiently than tungsten in high-speed steel, so to economise on the use of tungsten, carbides were used for metal cutting as much as possible.
The name became a genericized trademark in various countries and languages, including English (widia, ), although the genericized sense was never especially widespread in English ("carbide" is the normal generic term). Since 2009, the name has been revived as a brand name by Kennametal, and the brand subsumes numerous popular brands of cutting tools.
Uncoated tips brazed to their shanks were the first form. Clamped indexable inserts and today's wide variety of coatings are advances made in the decades since. With every passing decade, the use of carbide has become less "special" and more ubiquitous.
Regarding fine-grained hardmetal, an attempt has been made to follow the scientific and technological steps associated with its production; this task is not easy, though, because of the restrictions placed by commercial, and in some cases research, organisations, in not publicising relevant information until long after the date of the initial work. Thus, placing data in an historical, chronological order is somewhat difficult. However, it has been possible to establish that as far back as 1929, approximately 6 years after the first patent was granted, Krupp/Osram workers had identified the positive aspects of tungsten carbide grain refinement. By 1939, they had also discovered the beneficial effects of adding a small amount of vanadium and tantalum carbide. This effectively controlled discontinuous grain growth.
What was considered 'fine' in one decade was considered not so fine in the next. Thus, a grain size in the range 0.5–3.0 μm was considered fine in the early years, but by the 1990s, the era of the nano-crystalline material had arrived, with a grain size of 20–50 nm.
Pobedit.
"Pobedit"  is a sintered carbide alloy of about 90% tungsten carbide as a hard phase, and about 10% cobalt (Co) as a binder phase, with a small amount of additional carbon. It was developed in the Soviet Union in 1929, it is described as a material from which cutting tools are made. Later a number of similar alloys based on tungsten and cobalt were developed, and the name of 'pobedit' was retained for them as well.
Pobedit is usually produced by powder metallurgy in the form of plates of different shapes and sizes. The manufacturing process is as follows: a fine powder of tungsten carbide (or other refractory carbide) and a fine powder of binder material such as cobalt or nickel both get intermixed and then pressed into the appropriate forms. Pressed plates are sintered at a temperature close to the melting point of the binder metal, which yields a very tight and solid substance.
The plates of this superhard composite are applied to manufacturing of metal-cutting and drilling tools; they are usually soldered on the cutting tool tips. Heat post-treatment is not required. The pobedit inserts at the tips of drill bits are still very widespread in Russia.


Die cutting (web)

Die cutting is the general process of using a die to shear webs of low-strength materials, such as rubber, fibre, foil, cloth, paper, corrugated fibreboard, chipboard, paperboard, plastics, pressure-sensitive adhesive tapes, foam, and sheet metal. In the metalworking and leather industries, the process is known as clicking and the machine may be referred to as a "clicking machine". When a "dinking die" or "dinking machine" is used, the process is known as dinking. Commonly produced items using this process include gaskets, labels, tokens, corrugated boxes, and envelopes.
Die cutting started as a process of cutting leather for the shoe industry in the mid-19th century. It is now sophisticated enough to cut through just one layer of a laminate, so it is now used on labels, postage stamps, and other stickers; this type of die cutting is known as "".
Die cutting can be done on either flatbed or rotary presses. Rotary die cutting is often done inline with printing. The primary difference between rotary die cutting and flatbed die cutting is that the flatbed is not as fast but the tools are cheaper. This process lends itself to smaller production runs where it is not as easy to absorb the added cost of a rotary die.
Rotary die cutting.
Rotary die cutting is die cutting using a cylindrical die on a rotary press and may be known as a rotary die cutter or RDC. A long sheet or web of material will be fed through the press into an area known as a "station" which holds a rotary tool that will cut out shapes, make perforations or creases, or even cut the sheet or web into smaller parts. A series of gears will force the die to rotate at the same speed as the rest of the press, ensuring that any cuts the die makes line up with the printing on the material. The machines used for this process can incorporate multiple "stations" that die cut a particular shape in the material. In each of these stations lie one or more of these geared tools or printing cylinders, and some machines use automatic eye registration to make sure the cuts and/or printing are lined up with one another when lower tolerances are required.
Dies used in rotary die cutting are either solid engraved dies, adjustable dies, or magnetic plate tooling. Engraved dies have a much higher tolerance and are machined out of a solid steel bar normally made out of tool steel. Adjustable dies have removable blades that can be easily replaced with other blades, either due to wear or to cut a different material, while magnetic plate tooling has a cylinder that has magnets placed in it, and an engraved metal plate is attached or wrapped around the base cylinder holding onto it by the force of the magnets.
Dinking.
Dinking is a manufacturing process. Dinking uses special dies called dinking dies, which are hollow cutters. The edges of the dies are usually beveled about 20° and sharpened. The material is punched through into a wood or soft metal block in order to not dull the edges. The die may be pressed into the material with a hammer or a mechanical press.