Supply chain risk management

Supply chain risk management (SCRM) is "the implementation of strategies to manage both everyday and exceptional risks along the supply chain based on continuous risk assessment with the objective of reducing vulnerability and ensuring continuity".
SCRM applies risk management process tools after consultation with risk management services, either in collaboration with supply chain partners or independently, to deal with risks and uncertainties caused by, or affecting, logistics-related activities, product availability (goods and services) or resources in the supply chain.
Supply chain exposures.
SCRM attempts to reduce supply chain vulnerability via a coordinated, holistic approach ideally involving all supply chain stakeholders, collectively identifying, analysing and addressing potential failure points or modes within or affecting the supply chain. Risks to the supply chain range from unpredictable natural events (such as tsunamis and pandemics) to counterfeit products, and reach across quality, security, to resiliency and product integrity.
Mitigation of supply chain risks can involve logistics, cybersecurity, finance and risk management disciplines, the ultimate goal being to maintain supply chain continuity in the event of scenarios or incidents which otherwise would have interrupted normal business and hence profitability. The cost-effectiveness of resilience and other measures is an important factor since, as long as things are running smoothly, they add to the costs of production. To reduce interruptions to supply chain management in terms of logistic there are logistics risk management programs which includes Defensive Driver Trainings, Fleet Audits, Cargo Loss Minimization, Road Safety, Warehouse Safety etc.
Some supply chain logistics techniques such as supply-chain optimization and lean manufacturing can prejudice continuity and resilience. It is also becoming more common among businesses especially manufacturers to extend supplier quality management practices throughout supply chains. This approach is shown to increase transparency, reduce overhead costs, and improve operational efficiency.
Extent of supply chain disruption.
A survey in 2011 conducted by the Business Continuity Institute (BCI) and Zurich, with responses from over 559 companies across 65 countries, found that over 85% of companies had suffered at least one supply chain disruption during the year. Later BCI surveys have reported some reduction in this percentage (70% in 2016, down from 74% the previous year).
The 2011 survey respondents also noted that 40% of the reported disruptions originated upstream with sub-contractors rather than prime contractors or first-tier suppliers.
The 2016 survey also noted that one in three organizations had experienced cumulative losses of over €1 million per year because of supply chain disruptions, and 22% of businesses had experienced 11 or more disruptions.
Resilience.
Supply chain risk management typically involves four processes: identification, assessment, treatment, risk reporting and communication, and monitoring of supply chain risks. However, due to the complexity of many supply chains, these processes might not be sufficient to ensure that all eventualities are prepared for. Therefore, the concept of supply chain risk management, which is cause-oriented, is often combined with the concept of supply chain resilience, which aims to ensure that the supply chain can cope with or bounce back from incidents irrespective of their cause or nature. Supply chain resilience is defined as "the capacity of a supply chain to persist, adapt, or transform in the face of change" Some theorists believe that technological updating to modernize management methods -to include digitalization, artificial intelligence, big data and robotics- along the entire path of supply chains will considerably contribute to their sustainability and resilience.
Time to recover.
"Time to recover" (TTR) is a valuable metric measured in weeks, originally introduced by Cisco and adopted by the Supply Chain Risk Leadership Council. TTR measures the time it takes a company to restore full operational output following a major supply chain disruption. The determination of TTR assumes that a facility is essentially unusable due to a major event, requiring extensive repairs and reconstruction, as well as re-sourcing and re-qualifying of key equipment used in manufacturing and other operations.
Measuring risk.
Supply chain risk is a function of likelihood of an event's occurrence and its impact. Although this is the most popular methodology for quantifying risk, a drawback in the context of supply-chain risk is that it requires assessing likelihood or probability of many different event types across a number of supply-chain organisations and locations (potentially hundreds of thousands for, say, a major vehicle manufacturer). Thus, the range of possibilities is huge, frustrating and limiting the analysis possible in practice. The methodology may be appropriate for a smaller subset of locations and/or types or categories of risk.
Most companies rely on 'risk scores' of various types such as financial risk score, operational risk score, resiliency score (R Score). These are readily available, relatively simple to understand and analyze, and hence can be effective, at least for first-pass identification of risks worthy of further analysis. Standards and certified compliance (such as ISO 9001) are also effective ways to raise the baseline to a known level.
Supply chain resilience options.
Some options to engineer an acceptable risk level in supply chains include:


Riihimäki glass

Riihimäki glass  was a reputed glass company in Riihimäki, Finland, in operation from 1910, when it was founded by Mikko Adolf Kolehmainen, to 1990. Their production ranged from basic to high quality glass ornaments, which are now sought after as collectibles, especially some of their vases. Riihimäki products are readily available via collectors' web sites, as are their values.
It produced everyday glassware and art glass until 1976 and cut glass until 1977. After that, it made only machine produced glass and plastic packaging. Ahlstrom Corporation purchased the company in 1980, and closed the Riihimäki plant in 1990.
Among the designers associated with Riihimäki in its early decades were , Gunnel Nyman, and after 1945, (1959–1976), (1954–1955), Timo Sarpaneva, and (1968–1976), as well as Helena Tynell. It was Nanny Still who joined the design team by winning the Nordic art competition the firm held in 1949.
Finnish Glass Museum.
Since 1980, the Finnish Glass Museum has been housed in then a glass factory building where Riihimäki Glass started a manufacturing blown glass in 1921. The original owner of that facility was Paloheimo since 1914, which financially supported Riihimäki Glass at its latter stage of operation. The manufacturing at that factory shifted from glass to plastic packaging, then to screen printing.


Army engineering maintenance

Army engineering maintenance consists of those engineers, technicians, and military organizations responsible for the expert repair and maintenance of army vehicles, weapon systems, and other equipment.
Army engineering maintenance should not be confused with military engineering which is distinctly separate and analogous to civil engineering while the former analogous to mechanical engineering and electrical engineering.
Operational and tactical level focus.
At the operational and tactical levels, army engineering maintenance is focused on the repair and scheduled maintenance work required to keep army equipment fleets operational.
Strategic level focus.
At the strategic level, army engineering maintenance is closely linked to military logistics. At this level, it includes work such as the design, development, and testing of new vehicles and weapon systems. It also includes lifecycle management activities once new systems become operational.


DO-204

DO-204 is a family of diode semiconductor packages defined by JEDEC. This family comprises lead-mounted axial devices with round leads. Generally a diode will have a line painted near the cathode end.
Common variants.
Several common packages are archived in DO-204 as variants, and may be referred to using their alternative names.
DO-7.
The DO-7 (also known as DO-204-AA) is a common semiconductor package for 1N34A germanium diodes.
DO-35.
The DO-35 (also known as DO-204-AH or SOD27) is a semiconductor package used to encapsulate signal diodes (i.e., diodes meant to handle small amounts of current and voltage). It is often used to package small signal, low power diodes such as 1N4148 (a 100 V, 300 mA silicon diode.)
DO-41.
The DO-41 (also known as DO-204-AL or SOD66) is a common semiconductor package used to encapsulate rectifier diodes (i.e., diodes meant to handle larger currents and voltages than signal diodes). The name is derived from the JEDEC descriptor "Diode Outline, Case Style 41". DO-41 diodes are larger than signal diode packages such as DO-35, which are not required to handle large currents. The most common diode using this packaging is the 1N4001 to 1N4007 series of rectification diodes.


Protean Electric

Protean Electric is an automotive technology company specializing in in-wheel motor technology. The company has developed an in-wheel, electric-drive system for hybrid, plug-in hybrid, and battery electric vehicles. Their technology creates a permanent magnet e-machine with relatively high torque and power density with the power electronics and controls packaged within the motor itself. Their in-wheel motor product is intended to be produced in low volume by Protean Electric and licensed in high volume to global automotive and Tier 1 automotive supply companies. Protean Electric is a privately held company with approximately 114 employees. Protean Electric has operations in the United States, United Kingdom, and China.
Technology.
Protean Electric's in-wheel motor is intended to save space on board the vehicle by allowing the drive system to be mounted behind a conventional road wheel and apply torque directly to the wheel and tire.
Each of Protean's in-wheel motors can deliver 80 kW (100 hp) and 1250 Nm (935 lb-ft) and weigh 36 kg (75 lbs.). They are sized to fit within the space of a conventional 16- or 18-inch road wheel. The electric motors are designed for use in front-, rear- and all-wheel drive vehicle applications and can be adapted to existing internal combustion engine powered cars and trucks to turn them into hybrids.
Since Protean Electric’s motors fit behind the wheels of a vehicle, they can be used as part of a drive system that does not require a gearbox, differential, or drive shafts. This creates an energy-efficient drivetrain that potentially saves cost, reduces weight and frees up space on board the vehicle that was previously dedicated to drivetrain components. According to Protean Electric, its in-wheel motors can increase fuel economy by over 30 percent depending on the battery size and driving cycle in a hybrid or plug-in hybrid vehicle. It is also capable of enabling torque vectoring by applying individual torque at optimal levels to each wheel to improve vehicle safety and handling.
Protean has been awarded over 120 patents for its technology and design, and more than 100 additional patent applications have been filed and are pending internationally and with specific countries in North America, Europe and Asia.
In-wheel motors offer the benefits of drastically improved vehicle packaging, simplified two-wheel or all-wheel-drive layouts, the option of through-the-road hybridization, more efficient regenerative braking, and the most direct wheel control possible. The downside is added unsprung weight which can impact handling performance. During their research efforts, Protean Electric and Lotus found that most negative effects of added unsprung mass could be eliminated by adding suspension damping, and that the ability to utilize accurate torque vectoring actually improved car's handling so much that the net effect of the whole arrangement was positive.
Another drawback of in-wheel motors is the fundamental physical reality that their location inside the wheel places them in much closer proximity to road impacts. In other words, an in-wheel motor must directly cope with these forces exerted on the wheel, without the cushioning effect of a suspension. This type of layout stands in contrast to the traditional mounting location of the motor in the vehicle body, an arrangement that ensures that a sudden road impact to the wheel is directly and immediately dealt with by the suspension, thereby ensuring that the vehicle body (containing the motor and all other components) is exposed to very little of the road shock.
Furthermore, an in-wheel motor must also operate in much closer proximity to physical insults from the road, including road grit, water, and saltwater (from road-deicing salts in cold climate). These concerns must be addressed in the design and engineering of such motors.
Additionally, the location of in-wheel motors, combined with the fact that four of them are needed (for a four-wheel-drive vehicle), may result in more complicated maintenance. However, on the other hand, with in-wheel motors, no differentials are required, so this aspect serves to simplify the maintenance aspect.
Company Background.
Protean has been developing in-wheel electric motors for several years. Protean Electric was founded in 2009 after PML Flightlink was put into administration in 2008. Protean Electric began to focus entirely on the in-wheel technology for automotive applications.
Protean has been owned by BEDEO since October 2021, after buying the company from NEVS.
The suppliers and partners are: SKF, FEV, AB Mikroelektronik GmbH, Alcon, ATS Automation Tooling Systems, and Trelleborg Sealing Solutions.
Protean Electric’s in-wheel motor technology was recognized by the World Economic Forum, which named Protean a 2012 Technology Pioneer and received recognition from Car and Driver magazine as one of the ten most promising technologies for 2013.


Knowledge-based configuration

Knowledge-based configuration, or also referred to as product configuration or product customization, is an activity of customising a product to meet the needs of a particular customer. The product in question may consist of mechanical parts, services, and software. Knowledge-based configuration is a major application area for artificial intelligence (AI), and it is based on modelling of the configurations in a manner that allows the utilisation of AI techniques for searching for a valid configuration to meet the needs of a particular customer.
Background.
Knowledge-based configuration (of complex products and services) has a long history as an artificial intelligence application area, see, e.g. Informally, configuration can be defined as a "special case of design activity, where the artifact being configured is assembled from instances of a fixed set of well-defined component types which can be composed conforming to a set of constraints". Such constraints are representing technical restrictions, restrictions related to economic aspects, and conditions related to production processes. The result of a configuration process is a product configuration (concrete configuration), i.e., a list of instances and in some cases also connections between these instances. Examples of such configurations are computers to be delivered or financial service portfolio offers (e.g., a combination of loan and corresponding risk insurance).
Theory and complexity of configuration.
Numerous practical configuration problems can be analyzed by the theoretical framework of Najmann and Stein, an early axiomatic approach which does not presuppose any particular knowledge representation formalism. One important result of this methodology is that typical optimization problems (e.g. finding a cost-minimal configuration) are NP-complete. Thus they require (potentially) excessive computation time making heuristic configuration algorithms the preferred choice for complex artifacts (products, services).
Configuration systems.
Configuration systems or also referred to as configurators or mass customization toolkits, are one of the most successfully applied artificial intelligence technologies. Examples are the automotive industry, the telecommunication industry, the computer industry, and power electric transformers. Starting with rule-based approaches such as R1/XCON, model-based representations of knowledge (in contrast to rule-based representations) have been developed which strictly separate product domain knowledge from the problem solving one - examples thereof are the constraint satisfaction problem, the Boolean satisfiability problem, and different answer set programming (ASP) representations. There are two commonly cited conceptualizations of configuration knowledge. The most important concepts in these are components, ports, resources and functions. This separation of product domain knowledge and problem solving knowledge increased the effectiveness of configuration application development and maintenance, since changes in the product domain knowledge do not affect search strategies and vice versa.
Configurators are also often considered as "open innovation toolkits", i.e., tools which support customers in the product identification phase. In this context customers are innovators who articulate their requirements leading to new innovative products. "Mass Confusion" – the overwhelming of customers by a large number of possible solution alternatives (choices) – is a phenomenon which often comes with the application of configuration technologies. This phenomenon motivated the creation of personalized configuration environments taking into account a customer's knowledge and preferences.
Configuration process.
Core configuration, i.e., guiding the user and checking the consistency of user requirements with the knowledge base, solution presentation and translation of configuration results into bill of materials (BOM) are major tasks to be supported by a configurator. Configuration knowledge bases are often built using proprietary languages.
In most cases knowledge bases are developed by knowledge engineers who elicit product, marketing and sales knowledge from domain experts. Configuration knowledge bases are composed of a formal description of the structure of the product and further constraints restricting the possible feature and component combinations.
Configurators known as characteristic based product configurators use sets of discrete variables that are either binary or have one of several values, and these variables define every possible product variation.
Software and service configuration.
Recently, knowledge based configuration has been extended to service and software configuration. Modeling software configuration has been based on two main approaches: feature modeling, and component-connectors. Kumbang domain ontology combines the previous approaches building on the tradition of knowledge based configuration.


Metallurgical failure analysis

Metallurgical failure analysis is the process to determine the mechanism that has caused a metal component to fail. It can identify the cause of failure, providing insight into the root cause and potential solutions to prevent similar failures in the future, as well as culpability, which is important in legal cases. Resolving the source of metallurgical failures can be of financial interest to companies. The annual cost of corrosion (a common cause of metallurgical failures) in the United States was estimated by NACE International in 2012 to be $450 billion a year, a 67% increase compared to estimates for 2001. These failures can be analyzed to determine their root cause, which if corrected, would save reduce the cost of failures to companies.
Failure can be broadly divided into functional failure and expected performance failure. Functional failure occurs when a component or process fails and its entire parent system stops functioning entirely. This category includes the common idea of a component fracturing rapidly. Expected performance failures are when a component causes the system to perform below a certain performance criterion, such as life expectancy, operating limits, or shape and color. Some performance criteria are documented by the supplier, such as maximum load allowed on a tractor, while others are implied or expected by the customer, such gas consumption (miles per gallon for automobiles).
Often a combination of both environmental conditions and stress will cause failure. Metal components are designed to withstand the environment and stresses that they will be subjected to. The design of a metal component involves not only a specific elemental composition but also specific manufacturing process such as heat treatments, machining processes, etc. The huge arrays of different metals that result all have unique physical properties. Specific properties are designed into metal components to make them more robust to various environmental conditions. These differences in physical properties will exhibit unique failure modes. A metallurgical failure analysis takes into account as much of this information as possible during analysis. The ultimate goal of failure analysis is to provide a determination of the root cause and a solution to any underlying problems to prevent future failures.
Failure investigation.
The first step in failure analysis is investigating the failure to collect information. The sequence of steps for information gathering in a failure investigation are:
Techniques used.
Various techniques are used in the investigative process of metallurgical failure analysis.
Non-destructive testing":" Non-destructive testing is a test method that allows certain physical properties of metal to be examined without taking the samples completely out of service. NDT is generally used to detect failures in components before the component fails catastrophically.
Destructive testing":" Destructive testing involves removing a metal component from service and sectioning the component for analysis. Destructive testing gives the failure analyst the ability to conduct the analysis in a laboratory setting and perform tests on the material that will ultimately destroy the component.
Metallurgical failure modes.
There is no standardized list of metallurgical failure modes and different metallurgists might use a different name for the same failure mode. The failure mode terms listed below are those accepted by ASTM, ASM, and/or NACE as distinct metallurgical failure mechanisms.
Potential root causes.
Potential root causes of metallurgical failures are vast, spanning the lifecycle of component from design to manufacturing to usage. The most common reasons for failures can be classified into the following categories:
Service or operation conditions.
Failures due to service or operation conditions includes using a component outside of its intended conditions, such as an impact force or a high load. It can also include failures due to unexpected conditions in usage, such as an unexpected contact point that causes wear and abrasion or an unexpected humidity level or chemical presence that causes corrosion. These factors result in the component failing at an earlier time than expected.
Improper maintenance.
Improper maintenance would cause potential sources of fracture to go untreated and lead to premature failure of a component in the future. The reason for improper maintenance could be either intentional, such as skipping a yearly maintenance to avoid the cost, or unintentional, such as using the wrong engine oil.
Improper testing or inspection.
Testing and/or inspection are typically included in component manufacturing lines to verify the product meets some set of standards to ensure the desired performance in the field. Improper testing or inspection would circumvent these quality checks and could allow a part with a defect that would normally disqualify the component from field use to be sold to a customer, potentially leading to a failure.
Fabrication or manufacturing errors.
Manufacturing or fabrication errors occur during the processing of the material or component. For metal parts, casting defects are common, such as cold shut, hot tears or slag inclusions. It can also be surface treatment problems, processing parameters such as ramming a sand mold or wrong temperature during hardening.
Design errors.
Design errors arise when the desired use case was not properly accounted for, leading to a ineffective design, such as the stress state in service or potential corrosive agents in the service environment. Design errors often include dimensioning and materials selection, but it can also be the complete design.
Use of computational methods for failure analysis.
Computational methods have been increasing in popularity as a method to test possible root because they do not need to sacrifice a component to prove a root cause. Common cases where computational methods are used are for failures due to erosion, failures of components under complex stress states, and for predictive analyses. Computational fluid dynamics is used to determine the flow pattern and shear stresses on a component that had failed due to erosive wear. Finite element analysis is used to model components under complex stress states. Finite element analysis as well as phase field models can be used for predicting crack propagation and failure, which are then used to prevent failure by influencing component design.


Temper mill

A temper mill is a steel sheet or steel plate processing line composed of a horizontal pass cold rolling mill stand, entry and exit conveyor tables and upstream and downstream equipment depending on the design and nature of the processing system.
The primary purpose of a temper mill is to improve the surface finish on steel products.
Components.
A typical type of temper mill installation includes entry equipment for staging and accepting hot rolled coils of steel which have been hot wound at the end of a hot strip mill or hot rolled plate mill. Also included in a typical temper mill installation are pinch rolls, a leveler (sometimes two levelers), a shear for cutting the finished product to pre-determined lengths, a stacker for accumulating cut lengths of product
Sometimes a temper mill installation includes a re-coil line where the finished product is a coil instead of bundles of cut lengths of product. Maximum product flexibility capability could be attained if the installation was arranged to produce both coils and bundles of cut to length product.
The heart of the temper mill is the cold rolling mill stand which produces the temper pass. It will include electric powered drive motors and speed reduction gearing suited to the process desired. The design of the rolling mill can be a 2-high or 4-high (even 6-high in some cases). The mill stand can be work roll driven or back up roll driven. The mill can be designed with hydraulic work roll bending or back up roll bending. Installations typically have a single rolling mill stand, but may have two. Pinch rolls provide back tension for the pay off reel in the entry section and entry and exit tension for the temper pass.
Function.
The process goal is physical property enhancement through cold forming of the steel product in the bite of the work rolls. The physical properties that are enhanced by the temper pass due to elongation of the product include:
Typical elongation produced in the product is 0.5% to 2%. Product dimensions vary. Thicknesses include typical sheet metal gauges up to 1.00" thick plate. Widths vary from 36" to 125".
The finish of the rolled product is controlled by using rolls having a variety of surface finishes designed to impart the desired finish to the product. Roll finishes range from ground and polished rolls to impart a bright finish, to shot-blasted or electric-discharged textured rolls that produce a dull, velvety finish on the steel surface.
Typical auxiliary equipment includes PLC based controls, overhead traveling cranes, roll changing equipment, roll grinding equipment, hydraulic power unit(s), bundle lifting devices, Coil handling devices, etc.


Pallet racking

Pallet rack is a material handling storage aid system designed to store materials on pallets (or “skids”). Although there are many varieties of pallet racking, all types allow for the storage of palletized materials in horizontal rows with multiple levels. Forklift trucks are usually required to place the loaded pallets onto the racks for storage. Since the Second World War, pallet racks have become a ubiquitous element of most modern warehouses, manufacturing facilities, retail centers, and other storage and distribution facilities. All types of pallet racking increase storage density of the stored goods. Costs associated with the racking increases with increasing storage density.
Selective pallet racking systems.
Selective pallet racking is a common pallet racking system in use today. Selective pallet racking systems typically come in one of two configurations: a roll formed, or clip-in configuration, and a structural bolt-together configuration.
Structural pallet racking can be designed into the structure of the building itself, so that the upright columns are simultaneously used to support the roof of the storage facility, in which case the structural pallet rack uprights replace the storage building's vertical support I-beams. This system is a rack supported building.
Selective pallet rack systems provide easy accessibility to all products at all times - important if the inventory is rapidly depleted and restocked (called quick turnover). A selective pallet rack system is commonly used in a "big-box" distribution application, as well as in retail store inventory rooms, cold storage applications, wholesale stores, etc.
Common components of selective rack include the following:
Very narrow aisle (VNA) is the use of selective pallet racking in a tighter configuration to provide maximum space utilization within a storage facility. These systems typically operate in conjunction with wire-guided or rail-guided reach-truck systems. A wire-guided system consists of a wire embedded in the concrete floor that provides tracking for the reach-truck. A rail-guided system consists of angle iron bolted to the floor down the length of each row. Typically, the angle iron is 4” by 3” and ¼” - ⅜” inches thick. A distinct advantage of a narrow aisle pallet racking is fast picking without large aisles which results in improved use of space. When there is limited space, a compact storage method is ideal. Fully adjustable system flexibility and space saving aisles can be manipulated as one to give the greatest amount of pallet storage locations.
Other common types.
Many types of pallet storage racks are available with different designs to fulfill specific functions or create specific advantages. To create the ideal pallet racking system, several considerations should be taken into account:
Some of the most common types of pallet rack systems used include:
Mobilized storage system has helped many organizations reduce or eliminate new building construction costs, auxiliary warehouses, building expansions, and decrease ongoing operational costs (lighting, energy, insurance) by redistributing the use of their storage floor space.
Some disadvantages of high density pallet storage systems are; less access to all stock at any given moment (although if the stored product is all the same, it should not matter), and the expense of such systems. Selective pallet rack systems are considerably less expensive per pallet position than their higher density counterparts. In most medium to large facilities, however, high density pallet rack systems are essential, since they provide the efficiency of time and high cost facility space is better optimized.
Identifying the brand of racking systems is important to order compatible shelving or resell the racks. It is possible to differentiate between the many pallet rack brands by looking at the shape of the vertical beams, increments of height adjustment and the shape of the holes on the vertical beams.
Safety considerations.
Because of the size and weight of pallets, safety is relevant.
Workers must pay attention to any loose components in the pallet rack system, and also take the time to report any damage in the pallet rack frame. Such frame damage could cause the pallets to fall.
It is the owner's legal responsibility to communicate this important warning to all who are around storage racks: "Never climb on racks during or after assembly. Storage racks are not designed to be stepped on or climbed on. A slip or fall may result in serious injury." 'It is especially important to have highly visible warning signs if the pallet rack system is used in retail environments, such as wholesale centers, where the public is present.
Quality pallets that are not damaged must be used. To save money, or perhaps from neglectful management, some warehouses use pallets until they become faulty and dangerous. Regular inspection of pallets for broken or fractured planks or stringers, protruding nails, and missing support blocks is essential. Damaged pallets can cause loading and unloading problems; for example, loose stringers can get hung up on the pallet racks, which can cause loads to fall from high positions. Also, faulty pallets can cause obstruction problems in flow systems by jamming certain pallet rack designs.
Proper motorized equipment must be used for the application. Obstructing the end of aisles by staging pallets in these areas can cause severe and potentially fatal injuries and accidents. Overloading or exceeding the recommended load specifications for a racking system may cause a catastrophic failure of your storage rack system. Rack audits (safety checks) must be performed regularly by a qualified inspector familiar with RMI design and safety standards. Food products must follow FDA regulations and use approved pallet racks.
Load containment systems for pallet racks.
Pallet racks are used throughout industry and distribution facilities for bulk storage of items. Generally, the items stored are boxed goods stacked on pallets which are placed on the rack. The pallets are accessed by some type of mechanized lifting and retrieval device. Sides of a pallet rack must be accessible by the mechanized device for storage and retrieval of goods. Thus these "access sides” must be open; entry to them cannot be permanently blocked/guarded.
However, there are instances where an aisle way is designated along a row of pallet rack for pedestrian or other traffic and not for operational access by the lifting or retrieval device. When a pedestrian or other traffic aisle way is designated along a run of pallet racking it is good practice to guard the aisle way from a potential hazard created by objects that may fall from the pallet rack. In these situations, load containment systems are added to the designated aisle way side of the pallet rack to prevent or control any item from falling off of the back of the rack system or potentially falling on and injuring a person in the aisle. Containment systems may also be placed between back to back installations to prevent items on one side of rack potentially pushing items off the adjacent rack.
There are two types of load containment systems for pallet racking: steel mesh containment panels and netting containment systems.
Netting containment systems.
Load containment safety netting was originally adapted from cargo-based maritime netting used throughout the centuries for nautical trade and exploration. Safety netting has found widespread industrial use in load containment, driven in part by the post-war expansion of warehouse distribution systems. Netting types of varying break-strength and deflection allowances can be used within a load containment netting system. Widely accepted as an alternative to metal or other solid barrier systems, load containment safety netting provides a light weight, high-strength, easily customizable means to protect goods and personnel while allowing airflow, humidity control and clear visibility within sectioned containment areas.
Netting containment systems are used on rack bays or gravity-flow rack channels to contain loose or falling objects. Palletized parts or boxes can become dislodged during bay loading. Rack netting containment systems can be placed vertically at the front, or pick face, and/or at the rear sides of racking systems prevent dislodged objects or full pallets from falling. Netting containment systems can be applied across multiple bays or as single bay units and secured by varying fasteners determined by frequency of access, load requirements and net or load sizes. Actuating systems can also be found in current netting containment systems to allow remotely operated rack bay access by use of pull cords or other means. In addition to vertical placement, horizontal netting can also be utilized in rack systems to protect against objects falling from one level to another or into tunnel areas, and to provide barriers between storage between and rack supports.
Steel mesh containment panels.
As the distribution industry grew, alternative methods were sought for containing items dislodged from palletized storage while stored on pallet rack systems. Distributors found steel wire mesh panels were a viable alternative to netting containment systems. The following are the two types of steel mesh containment panels used for pallet racking:


Swarf

Swarf, also known as chips or by other process-specific names (such as turnings, filings, or shavings), are pieces of metal, wood, or plastic that are the debris or waste resulting from machining, woodworking, or similar subtractive (material-removing) manufacturing processes. Swarf can be small particles (such as the gritty swarf from grinding metal or the sawdust from sawing or sanding wood); long, stringy tendrils (such as the springy chips from turning tough metals, or long shavings from whittling); slag-like waste (such as is produced within pipe during pipefitting work); or stone fragments and dust (as in masonry).
Some of these terms are mass nouns (such as "swarf" and "sawdust") and some of them are count nouns (such as "chips", "filings", or "shavings").
Wood swarf is discussed at "sawdust".
Metal swarf.
Chips can be extremely sharp and they can cause serious injuries if not handled correctly. It is not uncommon for chips flying off the cutter to be ejected with great force and to fly several yards.
Due to its high surface area, swarf composed of some reactive metals can be highly flammable. Swarf may also spontaneously combust, especially if the swarf is coated with cutting oil. To extinguish swarf fires, a special fire extinguisher is needed, designed for fighting (metal) fires.
When machining without coolant, swarf is usually very hot and can easily burn the machine operator. Machinists typically wear long pants, eye protection and other personal protective equipment for this reason.
Some common engineering materials such as beryllium are hazardous when finely divided and appropriate measures should be taken to prevent exposure.
For ease of transport and handling, swarf may be compressed into "bricks". Metal swarf can usually be recycled.


Rum Aladdin

Rum Aladdin was created in 2002 as a merger of Rum Metal Manufacturing Company and Rum-Aladdin Industries. Rum Aladdin is based in Jordan and is headquartered in Amman.
The company's stock is represented on the Amman Stock Exchange's ASE Weighted Index.
Operations.
The company is composed of two merged manufacturing companies:
Rum Metal.
Rum Metal was established in 1972. It is a manufacturing company, producing tools and dies, performing sheet metal work, paint work and assembly work.
Rum Aladdin Industries.
Rum Aladdin Industries was established in 1981. It is involved with assembling gas heaters, TVss and electric heaters, water heaters, ladders, LCD.


Coin (disambiguation)

A coin is a small, flat, round piece of metal or plastic that is used as money.
Coin or Coins may also refer to:


Stock depth

Stock depth is the total stock level build up in a supply chain, from the firm most upstream to the firm most downstream in the chain. The stock depth of the supply chain is calculated as the sum of the stock levels of all firms in a given supply chain.
Relation with Lehman wave.
Stock depth is an important element in the behavior of the Lehman wave.
If the growth of an end market changes X% in a period t, the supply chain on average changes (1+0.5*Stock depth/t)*X%
Therefore Y%= Stock Multiplier * X% = (1+SD/t) * X%.
If SD=1 and t=1 the multiplier for the average supply chain is . If the change is more sudden, say, within 6 months, the multiplier is 2, and if the change is very sudden, say within 3 months, the multiplier is as high as 3.
In a market with stable growth the effects are small. The further away a company is from the end market, the bigger the reaction. Firms that are far from the end market thus experience higher variations in growth. During a Lehman Wave, firms start active destocking. If the stock depth of a supply chain is large, the variation in growth becomes larger too, explaining why firms upstream in the supply chain experienced heavy growth variations during the Lehman Wave. During the Lehman Wave, companies upstream were hit more than companies downstream in the supply chain.
When the sales of automobiles suddenly dropped in Q4 2008, the suppliers to the automotive producers not only had to absorb the decline itself, but also the corresponding re-active destocking in the whole supply chain that followed the declining end market. This is because the Automotive industry started active destocking.


Press check (printing)

The printing press check is a step in the printing process. It takes place after a printing press is set up but before the print run is underway.
While errors should be corrected during the Color Proofing and proofreading stages, the main purpose of a press check is to make sure that the color on press comes as close as possible to the color proof. Color proofs are valuable guides, but due to the inherent differences between color proofing techniques and printing itself, proofs will match the printed sheet with varying degrees of exactness.
Areas that are commonly evaluated at a press check are:
Post press check.
While some printing jobs are delivered as printed, most printing is usually not complete until it is converted into a "finished" product. Post press includes various types of finish work such as trimming, embossing, foiling, die-cutting, scoring, folding and bindery. Post press checking can include:


Electrically conductive adhesive

An electrically conductive adhesive is a glue that is primarily used for electronics.
The electric conductivity is caused by a component that makes ca. 80% of the total mass of an electrically conductive adhesive. This conductive component is suspended in a sticky component that holds the electrically conductive adhesive together. The particles of the conductive component are in contact to each other and in this way make electric current possible.
Composition.
The conductive component can be silver, nickel, copper or graphite. Other conductive materials are possible but unusual. The adhesive component can be a varnish, synthetic resin, or silicone. Variations in conductive component's type and concentration change the resistivity of the adhesive. A typical silver-based conductive adhesive such as that made by Electrolube contains ingredients in the following proportions:
They are specifically formulated in paste (micro-particles) for use in scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and other electron optical applications find use in producing or repairing printed circuit board (PCB) tracks, to paint-on an electrical screen, or to make electrical connections to non-solderable surfaces.


Saginaw 9.5-inch axle

The Saginaw 9.5-inch axle is an automotive axle manufactured by American Axle & Manufacturing, Inc. This differential has three major variants. A rear solid axle, a front solid axle and independent front suspension. General Motor's Saginaw Division started production of this axle in the late 1970s and all three variations are still in production today. The maximum GAWR for this axle is 6000 pounds.
Saginaw 9.5-inch rear axle.
The Saginaw 9.5-inch axle began production in the late 1970s for GM's truck, van and suburban line up. It is a Semi-floating axle made for "light duty" 3/4 Ton vehicles.
GM 9.25 IFS.
The GM 9.25 IFS has been the main front differential in Four-wheel drive 3/4 Ton and 1 Ton GM trucks since 1988. The Dana 60 solid axle front end was used selectively in trucks with a higher GVWR from 1988 to 1991. The original Saginaw 9.5 differential, ring and pinion were modified to work with the independent front suspension. The ring and pinion were also reverse-cut as well.
AAM 9.25.
The AAM 9.25 solid axle was developed for 3rd generation Dodge Rams (3/4 and 1 Ton). The axle uses a modified Saginaw 9.5 differential, ring and pinion. The differential housing covers are identical except for one bolt hole at the 3 o’clock position. Model year 2010 and later Rams use larger universal joints than the 2003-2009 models.


Ultrasonic soldering

Ultrasonic soldering (U/S soldering) is a flux-less soldering process that uses ultrasonic energy, without the need for chemicals to solder materials, such as glass, ceramics, and composites, hard to solder metals and other sensitive components which cannot be soldered using conventional means.
Ultrasonic soldering is finding growing application in soldering of metals and ceramics from solar photovoltaics and medical shape memory alloys to specialized electronic and sensor packages. It has been used since 1955 to solder aluminum and other metals without the use of flux.
Process.
Ultrasonic soldering is a distinctly different process than ultrasonic welding. Ultrasonic welding uses ultrasonic energy to join parts without adding any kind of filler material while ultrasonic soldering uses external heating to melt filler metal materials, namely solders, to form a joint.
Ultrasonic soldering can be done with either a specialized soldering iron or a specialized solder pot. In either case the process can be automated for large-scale production or can be done by hand for prototyping or repair work. Initially, U/S soldering was aimed at joining aluminum and other metals; however, with the emergence of active solders, a much wider range of metals, ceramics and glass can now be soldered.
Ultrasonic soldering uses either ultrasonically coupled heated solder iron tips (0.5—10 mm) or ultrasonically coupled solder baths. In these devices, piezoelectric crystals are used to generate high frequency (20—60 kHz) acoustic waves in molten solder layers or batch, to mechanically disrupt oxides that form on the molten solder surfaces. The tips for ultrasonic soldering irons are also coupled to a heating element while the piezoelectric crystal is thermally isolated, in order to prevent degradation of the piezoelectric element. Ultrasonic soldering iron tips can heat (up to 450 °C) while mechanically oscillating at 20—60 kHz. This soldering tip can melt solder filler metals as acoustic vibrations are induced in the molten solder pool. The vibration and cavitation in the molten solder then permits solders to wet and adhere to many metal surfaces.
The acoustic energy created by the solder tip or ultrasonic solder pot works via cavitation of the molten solder which mechanically disrupts oxide layers on the solder layers themselves and on metal surfaces being joined.
Cavitation in the molten solder pool can be very effective in disrupting the oxides on many metals, however, it is not effective when soldering to ceramics and glass since they themselves are oxides or other non-metal compound that cannot be disrupted since they are the base materials. In the cases of soldering direct to glasses and ceramics, ultrasonic soldering filler metals need to be modified with active elements such as In, Ti, Hf, Zr and rare earth elements (Ce, La, and Lu). Solders when alloyed with these elements are called "active solders" since they directly act on the glass/ceramic surfaces to create a bond.
Adoption.
The use of ultrasonic soldering is expanding, since it is clean and flux-less in combination with active solders being specified for joining assemblies where either corrosive flux can be trapped or otherwise disrupt operation or contaminate clean production environments or there are dissimilar materials / metals / ceramic / glasses being joined. To be effective in adhering to surfaces, active solder's own nascent oxide on melting need to be disrupted and ultrasonic agitation is well suited.


Highpoint hitch

The highpoint hitch (or high post hitch) is a type of knot used to attach a rope to an object. The main feature of the hitch is that it is very secure, yet if tied as a slipped knot it can be released quickly and easily with one pull, even after heavy loading. The highpoint hitch is tied in the same manner as a slipped buntline hitch until the final turn, where they diverge.
Security.
The highpoint hitch is very secure, since any load will tighten the turns against each other, at the same time tightening the grip on the working end.
Releasing.
To release the slipped version of this knot, pull the working end in the direction of the load. This action pulls the two turns apart at the same time as releasing the draw-loop, and the whole knot simply falls apart.
Tying.
To tie the hitch around a pole, begin by passing the working end a half turn round the pole. Next, pass a half turn round the standing part. Then, pass a half turn round both the working end and the standing part, above the first turn (i.e. closer to the pole). Finally, push a bight of the working end through the middle of the hitch - between the two half turns, and between the standing part and the working end. Pull on the standing part to tighten, if necessary sliding the hitch snugly up against the pole.


Deep hole drilling (DHD) measurement technique

The deep hole drilling (DHD) measurement technique is a residual stress measurement technique used to measure locked-in and applied stresses in engineering materials and components. DHD is a semi-destructive mechanical strain relaxation (MSR) technique, which seeks to measure the distribution of stresses along the axis of a drilled reference hole. The process is unique in its ability to measure residual stresses at a microscopic level with a penetration of over , without total destruction of the original component. Deep hole drilling is considered "deep" in comparison to other hole drilling techniques such as centre hole drilling.
Technique overview.
DHD involves drilling a hole through the thickness of the component, measuring the diameter of the hole, trepanning (cutting a circular slot around the hole) a core of material from around the hole and finally re-measuring the diameter of the hole. For engineering metals, the trepanning process is typically performed using electrical discharge machining (EDM) to minimise the introduction of further stresses during the cutting. The differences between the measured diameters before and after stress release enables the original residual stresses to be calculated using elasticity theory. An animated YouTube video explaining the DHD technique can be viewed here: YouTube: Deep Hole Drilling Technique.
DHD procedure.
Firstly, reference bushes are attached to the front and back surfaces of the component at the measurement location, to minimise "bell-mouthing" and assist with aligning the data sets during analysis. A reference hole is then drilled through a component; in engineering metals, a gun-drill is typically used due to the smooth and straight hole profile they produce. After drilling, the diameter of the reference hole is measured at frequent intervals along the full length and circumference of the measurement and reference bushes with an air probe. This is a thin rod with pressurised air forced from the end via two small holes at a normal to the reference hole axis. As the air probe is moved through the hole, changes in hole diameter will result in changes in pressure, which are detected with a calibrated transducer to convert the pressure change into a voltage. A cylinder (i.e. a core) of material containing the reference hole along its axis is then cut (trepanned) from the component using electro-discharge machining (EDM), in order to relax the stresses acting on the reference hole. Finally, the diameter of the reference hole is re-measured through the entire thickness of the cylinder and reference bushes, with the diameter measurements taken at the same locations as those measured prior to the trepanning.
Incremental DHD technique (iDHD).
If high magnitude residual stresses (>60% yield stress) are present in the component then the DHD technique can be modified to account for plastic behaviour during the stress relief process. The risk of plastic deformation during stress relaxation is a problem in hole drilling techniques due to the approximately x3 stress concentrating factor of holes, effectively "amplifying" the stress relaxation and increasing the chance of yielding. Therefore, for iDHD, the procedure is changed to be performed "incrementally", with the core being cut (trepanned) in several steps of increasing depth and the diameter measurements being performed in between each step. The analysis then incorporates this sequence of incremental distortions for calculating the high magnitude residual stresses.
Interpretation of the results.
The DHD method seeks to measure the distribution of stresses along the axis of the reference hole. The relationship between the original residual stresses acting on the reference hole and the measured changes in the hole diameter creates the basis of the analysis. The DHD technique uses an elastic analysis to convert the measured distortions of the reference hole into a residual stress profile. The accuracy of the results is dependent on sources of error in the measurement, but is also dependent on the elastic modulus of the material. A lower elastic modulus will result in larger distortions for a given stress release, meaning a higher measurement resolution and thus a greater achievable accuracy. The DHD technique has a nominal accuracy of ±10MPa for Aluminium, ±30MPa for Steel and ±15MPa for Titanium.
Appraisal of the DHD technique.
Advantages and disadvantages of DHD, relative to other residual stress measurement techniques, are listed below.
Validation.
Several studies have been conducted to validate the DHD technique using samples with "known" stress states, by applying a defined load in the plastic range to create an internal stress state in a component, or by loading the component in the elastic range throughout the duration of the measurements.
For example, a beam component was plastically bent to introduce a known residual stress profile. These residual stresses were then measured using multiple residual stress measurement techniques including Neutron Diffraction, Slitting, Ring Core, Incremental Centre Hole Drilling, Deep Hole Drilling and Incremental Deep Hole Drilling, as well as modelled with finite element software to provide further numerical validation. The correlation between the results from techniques is strong, with DHD and iDHD displaying the same trend and magnitudes as both the numerical simulation and the other experimental techniques. The results from this comparison are shown in the Figure.


Colonial (Shaw automobile)

The Shaw renamed the Colonial for 1921, was an American luxury automobile that was manufactured in Chicago, Illinois from 1920 until 1921. At the end of 1921 the Colonial was rebranded the Ambassador.
History.
Walden W. Shaw and John D. Hertz, owners of the Walden W. Shaw Livery Corporation, decided they wanted to expand into the production car market with a luxury car. Walden W. Shaw Livery Corporation owned the Yellow Cab Manufacturing Company. The new luxury automobile was introduced as a Shaw at the Hotel Congress during Chicago Automobile Show week in February 1920.
With Shaw taxicabs being so well known, using the Shaw name for a luxury car would not help sales so the name was changed to Colonial. This may have been no improvement, as several car makes had already been called Colonial. The Colonial was built on a 136-inch wheelbase and was offered as a 2, 4 or 7 passenger touring car priced at $5,000, .
Shaw and Hertz also change their mind about the engine. Initially it was a four-cylinder Rochester-Duesenberg. By July 1920, that unit was replaced by a Weidely twelve-cylinder to boost sales using the cachet of more cylinders. By the time of the Chicago Automobile Show of 1921, John Hertz was in complete charge of the company and he reintroduced the same car with a new Continental engine and a new name, the Ambassador.


Contact protection

Contact protection methods are designed to mitigate the wear and degradation occurring during the normal use of contacts within an electromechanical switch, relay or contactor and thus avoid an excessive increase in contact resistance or switch failure.
Contact wear.
A “contact” is a pair of electrodes (typically, one moving; one stationary) designed to control electricity. Electromechanical switches, relays, and contactors “turn power on” when the moving electrode makes contact with the stationary electrode to carry current. Conversely, they “turn power off” when the moving electrode breaks contact and the resulting arc plasma stops burning as the dielectric gap widens sufficiently to prevent current flow. Power relays and contactors have two primary life expectancy ratings: “mechanical life” is based on operating either without current or below the wetting current (i.e., “Dry”) and “electrical life” is based on operating above the wetting current (i.e., “Wet”). These different ratings are due to contacts being designed to compensate for the destructive arcing that naturally occurs between the electrodes during normal Wet operation. Contact arcing is so destructive that the electrical life of power relays and contactors is most often a fraction of their respective mechanical life.
Every time the contacts of an electromechanical switch, relay or contactor are opened or closed, there is a certain amount of contact wear. If the contact is cycling without electricity (dry), the impact of the contact electrodes a slightly deformed by the resulting cold forging. When the contact is operating under power (wet), the sources of the wear are the result of high current densities in microscopic areas, and the electric arc. Contact wear includes material transfer between contacts, loss of contact material due to splattering and evaporation, and oxidation or corrosion of the contacts due to high temperatures and atmospheric influences.
While a pair of contacts is closed, only a small part of the contacts are in intimate contact due to asperities and low-conductivity films. Because of the constriction of the current to a very small area, the current density frequently becomes so high that it melts a microscopic portion of the contact. During the close-to-open ("BREAK") transition, a microscopic molten bridge forms and eventually ruptures asymmetrically, transferring contact material between contacts and increasing the surface roughness. This can also occur during the open-to-close ("MAKE") transition due to contact bounce.
The electric arc occurs between the contact points (electrodes) both during the transition from closed to open ("BREAK") and from open to closed (make) when the contact gap is small and the voltage is high enough. Heating due to arcing and high current density can melt the contact surface temporarily. If some of the melting material solidifies while the contacts are closed, the contact may stick closed due to a micro-weld, similar to spot welding.
The arc caused during the contact "BREAK" ("BREAK" arc) is similar to arc welding, as the "BREAK" arc is typically more energetic and more destructive. The arc can cause material transfer between contacts. The arc may also be hot enough to evaporate metal from the contact surface.
The high temperatures can also cause the contact metals to more rapidly oxidize and corrode.
Contacts reach end of life for one of two reasons. Either the contacts fail to "BREAK" because they are stuck (welded) closed, or the contacts fail to make (high resistance) because of contact corrosion or because excessive material is lost from one or both contacts. These conditions are the result of cumulative material transfer during successive switching operations, and of material loss due to evaporation and splattering.
There are additional mechanisms for stuck closed failures, such as mechanical interlocking of rough contact surfaces due to contact wear.
Protection.
The degradation of the contacts can be limited by including various contact protection methods.
Below 2 Amperes, a variety of transient suppressing electronic components have been employed with varying success as arc suppressors, including: capacitors, snubbers, diodes, Zener diodes, transient voltage suppressors (TVS), resistors, varistors or in-rush current limiters (PTC and NTC resistors). However, this is the least effective method as these neither significantly influence the creation of nor suppress the arc between the contacts of electromechanical power switches, relays and contactors.
Historically, the two most common approaches to contact protection (above 2 Amperes) have been making the contacts themselves larger, i.e., a contactor and/or making the contacts out of more durable metals or metal alloys such as tungsten.
The most effective methods are to employ arc suppression circuitry including electronic power contact arc suppressors, solid state relays, hybrid power relays, mercury displacement relays and hybrid power contactors.


Cofersa

Cofersa. Construcciones Ferrusola S.A. (Cofersa) was a Spanish motorcycle manufacturer between 1954 and 1962, using Hispano-Villiers engines of 125 and 200cc.
Origins.
José Mercader, the manufacturer, had begun building auxiliary engines to install on bicycles. With this experience, he created Construcciones Ferrusola SA in 1953, to undertake the manufacture of motorcycles in Madrid.
Motorcycles.
The first unit was put on sale in 1954, a 125cc model, emphasizing their functionality and quality of construction. Mechanical durability was ensured by the incorporation of Hispano-Villiers (Villiers manufactured under license in Spain) engines. With a conventional design, the make was highlighted by the robustness.
During the first year the company produced only a hundred motorcycles, but in a short time the staff of employees exceeded the number of 100, to meet the demand.
The JM model appeared in 1957, incorporating stamped sheet metal and four-speed gearbox. In 1959 the model Helix went on sale, with stamped metal construction again, and a protective grid on the rear fenders, probably to make it easier for women to sit aside on the motorcycle without the skirts been tangled with rear wheel.
As a manufacturer of motorcycles, Cofersa activity ceased in 1962.


Air carbon arc cutting

Air carbon arc cutting, also referred to as metal arc gouging, and previously as air arc cutting, is an arc cutting process where metal is cut and melted by the heat of a carbon arc. Molten metal is then removed by a blast of air. It employs a consumable carbon or graphite electrode to melt the material, which is then blown away by an air jet.
This process is useful for cutting a variety of materials, but it is most often used for cutting and gouging aluminum, copper, iron, magnesium, and carbon and stainless steel. Because the metal is blown away by the air jet, it does not need to be oxidized. This process differs from plasma cutting operations because in air carbon cutting an open, unconstricted arc is used, and the arc operates separately from the air jet.
Air pressure for the jet usually varies from 60 to 100 psi (4-7 bar). The carbon electrode can be worn away by oxidation due to heat buildup. This can be reduced by coating the electrodes with copper.
As the sharpened carbon electrode is drawn along the metal, an arc forms and melts the metal. The air jet is used to blow away molten material. This can be dangerous, as the molten material can be blown substantial distances. The process is also very noisy. Metal removal is rapid, and when properly done, a smooth half-cylindrical cavity is created.


Gruppo TUO

Gruppo TUO is an Italian holding company dealing, through its subsidiaries, in the beverages and catering large-scale distribution sector. It was founded by Italian entrepreneur Antonino Faranda. The group owns the Italian discount supermarket chains Tuodì, InGrande and Fresco Market. In 2011 the Italian brewing company Peroni Brewery has agreed on the sale of the entire share capital of Doreca srl, the holding company of the Doreca distribution group, to Gruppo TUO. In 2015 Gruppo TUO was among the five major supermarket chains in Italy.


Richard E. DeVor

Richard Earl DeVor (1944–2011) was a College of Engineering Distinguished Professor of Manufacturing and research professor at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. His research interests consist of mathematical modeling/simulation of material removal processes and mathematical modeling of the end milling/face milling processes. He attained his PhD at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He died in July 2011.


Anti-set-off spray powder

In printing, anti-set-off spray powder is used to make an air gap between printed sheets of paper. This enables the ink to dry naturally and therefore avoid the unwanted transfer of ink from one printed sheet to another. The problem can occur with most types of printing.
Anti-set-off spray powder is generally made from natural starches from plants and vegetables. There remains a demand for soluble powders (sometimes known as vanished powders) based on natural sugars which are often used when the final printed sheet is to be varnished. In addition there is still a relatively small amount of powder made from minerals (e.g. Calcium Carbonate, rather than Talc) used in offset litho printing; however these mineral powders are not so popular because of the potential health implications and abrasive properties.
Spray powder is used to separate printed sheets to enable air to naturally dry the printing ink. The diameter of the powder used is relative to the density (g/m2) of the stock (paper or board) being printed. For 150 g/m2 paper the ideal anti-set-off spray powder would be 15 μm in diameter, for 200 g/m2 20 μm, through to 70 μm for heavy board (700 g/m2).
Most manufactures of spray powder offer both coated and uncoated powders. Uncoated powders are generally less expensive and are based on natural food-grade starches typically derived from corn (maize), wheat, semolina, potato, tapioca and rice depending on the diameter required. Coated powders use the same range of raw materials but are encapsulated with a minuscule amount of natural coatings which enable the powders to flow freely though the spray guns on sheet-fed offset-litho printing presses. Enhanced versions of these coatings are used to give specific electrostatic (anti-static) and hydrophobic properties.
Spray powder is not used on rotary presses including rotary letterpress, web offset (often used for printing magazines), flexographic (often used for printing flexible packaging and labels) or gravure (often used for printing long-run catalogues). Similarly, spray powder is not generally used in sheet-fed (silk) screen-printing, ink-jet or toner based digital printing.
In the UK, many Carrom players use a version of anti-set-off spray powder from the printing industry which has specific electrostatic properties with particles of 50 micrometres in diameter.
Modern developments.
As health and safety has become more important to the environment and to the work forces, a small number of anti-set-off spray powder manufacturers had introduced highly clarified powders by 2007, in advance of EU legislation. This new generation of powders have typically less than 3% of particles of less than 10 μm and almost no particles below 5 μm which are generally regarded in the industry as dust. To put this in context typical human hair is 20 – 40 μm.
The printing industry regards anti-set-off spray powder as a necessary evil. Ideally printers would prefer not to use it, but it remains the only practical way to ensure a stack of printed paper at the end of a printing press does not set-off. In recent years there has been an emergence of printing presses which use inks that are cured (dried) with powerful UV lamps. As each sheet is individually dried there is no need for spray powder. However, as these machines require specialty inks which are much more expensive than conventional inks, and the UV lamps use a significant amount of energy, the vast majority of new sheet-fed presses sold in 2007 still used anti-set-off spray powder.
Other uses.
In addition to its use in the printing and packaging industry, spray powder is also used in the manufacture of float glass to enable the large sheets to slide easily over each other. It is also used in the manufacture of plastic food wrap and similar products to help prevent pieces of plastic from sticking together because of static electricity.
In the UK, many carrom players use a version of anti-set-off spray powder from the printing industry which has specific electrostatic properties with particles of 50 micrometres in diameter.


Sensors for arc welding

Sensors for arc welding are devices which – as a part of a fully mechanised welding equipment – are capable to acquire information about position and, if possible, about the geometry of the intended weld at the workpiece and to provide respective data in a suitable form for the control of the weld torch position and, if possible, for the arc welding process parameters.
Introduction.
The quality of a weld depends, besides the weld parameters which are important for the welding process (e.g. voltage, current, wire feed and weld speed) also mainly from the type of input of process energy and of the used filler material. The positioning of the torch exerts a direct influence on the material flow. The heat input for the melting of the component edges and the steady heat flow are, furthermore, directly connected with the torch guidance and exert substantial influence on the weld quality and on the resulting residual stresses. In fully mechanised and automated shielded gas welding, the inaccuracies of torch guidance, workpiece handling, groove preparation and thermal distortion are adding to the variations of the edge position and edge geometry. In fully mechanised welding, the information which is required for the weld quality is detected via sensors. Sensors are applied for checking the position of the component (detection of weld start and end of weld), for joint tracking and for the adaptation of the process parameters to changes of the joints/grooves. It is possible to use the sensors online (together/at the same time with the welding process) or offline (in a separate working step before welding). Sensors are mainly used in online joint tracking.
Principles.
All physical principles which are capable to provide information about the position of an object are suitable to serve as the starting basis for a sensor function. The ambient conditions prevailing during arc welding and also the requirements which are made by fully mechanised equipments have, however, many restrictions as a consequence. Figure 1 depicts the system overview. The monitoring strategy of the sensor (process or geometry) has been chosen as the superordinate criterion, the further subdivision is orientated on the measuring principle. A further distinctive feature of sensor systems is their design. Leading sensors are, thus, marked by the fact that measuring point and joining point are not located in the same position. Here, the measuring and joining process are mainly running in sequence. For making position-relevant statements about the welding process, those systems require calibration of the relative position. If process-oriented sensors are used, the measuring point and the joining point are identical.
What the measuring principles all have in common is the fact that through the evaluation of the sensor signal, geometrical information about the joint and its relative position to the measuring head is provided. The individual active principles allow different processing speed for acquiring the information.
Geometry-oriented.
Geometry-oriented sensors acquire their signals from the geometry of the groove or from an edge or area the course of which is in accordance with the groove.
Tactile sensors.
Electric contact sensors for joint tracking and/or work piece measurement are representing one type of tactile sensors. The sensor makes electric contact with the workpiece, the electrically conductive workpiece is included into the measuring circuit of the sensor.
The mechanical contact sensors belong to the second category of the tactile sensors. The mechanical deflection of a scanning element which makes contact with the workpiece is evaluated.
Electric contact sensors.
Following a determined searching strategy, the electric contact sensor systems are scanning the weld start or other track points via contacting the work piece with parts/components which have been subjected to voltage (direct voltage of several ten Volt up to 1 KV, depending on material and surface) of the welding equipment (shielding gas nozzle, welding electrode, stylus, or similar.) This means the offline-measuring of the weld start, the part position or part geometry before welding. Knowing the scheduled path, a transformation of the track points in accordance with the measured conditions is carried out. In this case, corrective action is not carried out during the welding process.
Thermal.
Here, the heat flow is measured with two thermo-couples which are arranged on the welding torch, the thermal flow is used for the side/lateral- and height control of the torch. The orientation of the torch towards the groove is detected via the comparison of the sensor temperature of the two thermo-couples. If the orientation of the torch is symmetrical, the difference of the radiated thermal flow equals to zero, so do the temperature differences of the thermo-couples. Dependent on the lateral misalignment of the torch the thermo-couples are subject to different heat flows, by the deformation of the arc and also by the changed position of the molten pool.
Mechanical contact.
Mechanical contact systems transform the deflection of the scanning element directly into electric control signals. The following transformer principles are differentiated:
Due to the required distance of the acting/break points in one level, transformers which are equipped with micro-switches have a control hysteresis in the working point which has the consequence of a restricted reproducible accuracy. Electric displacement of the working point is not possible. The other, above-mentioned transformer systems (the use of optical systems is probably limited due to design reasons) produce analogous signals in proportion to the scanning element deflection and allow thus the error-proportional weld head tracking and also the electric working point displacement through the superordinate control, e.g. in multiple layer welding. The output signals of the most commonly used inductive measuring transformer systems are between 0 and 10 V DC, depending on the scanning element deflection (Figure 2).
Boundary conditions.
Any impairment of the electric contact between sensor scanning element and workpiece is, in the case of electric-contact sensors, problematic, e.g. welding spatters at the shielding gas nozzle, scale and rolling skin on the workpiece surface or through a wire electrode end which has molten spheroidally and has adherence of slag.
When mechanical-contact sensors are used, the scanning elements must be adapted to the respective groove shapes. Butt welds with a square butt joint preparation must have a groove gap of more than 3 mm; in overlap joints the top plate must have a thickness of more than 3 mm.
The sensor must be mounted separately from the welding torch.
Thus, the groove scanning is mainly carried out in a leading position in front of the torch. If the welds are mainly straight, this adjustment is no problem. It is also possible to use scanning element arrays (e.g. fork callipers or separated scanning elements for height and lateral scanning which allow scanning in the torch level and thus weld scanning which is almost free from errors. Apart from the torch guidance along a weld groove, mechanical contact sensors can also be applied for detection of the weld start and end of the weld.
Optical.
Optical sensors belong to the group of non-contact measuring, geometry-oriented sensors (Figure 1). For information retrieval, the weld groove is scanned via a radiation detector which records the emitted optical radiation of the measured object. Semiconductor image sensors are applied for the detection of radiation. The optical measuring principles are differentiated into sensors with and without active structured lighting. If there is no active structured lighting, a camera is used for signal acquisition. The camera observes the workpiece and extracts the required information from the two-dimensional halftone picture. Active structured lighting means the application of a light source for the defined lighting of specified regions of the part. For the subsequent acquisition, single photo elements, lines or arrays can be used, depending on their design.
Operating mode.
For optical measurement without active structured lighting, a camera is directed on the region of the weld groove and the scene of interest is observed directly. This is used, for example, for SA welding processes in order to provide the welder with a live photograph of the weld groove on the monitor.
We know two semiconductor technologies for image sensing. The CCD camera (CCD: Charged Coupled Device) is the best known, most widely spread camera type, it is also used in standard video cameras.
If a CMOS image sensor has been used, the high input dynamics allow, even with a burning arc, to record a usable image of the weld groove.
The method of optical measuring technique with active structured lighting, mainly generated by a laser with a defined wavelength, is often used for the automation of welding processes. It is differentiated between 1, 2 and 3-D measuring systems. Since measuring in the arc directly is not possible, a defined distance (advance) which depends on the type and size of the arc itself must be maintained.
If one-dimensional measuring systems are used, the distance from sensor to workpiece surface is determined. This is carried out via measurement of the running time. A further, frequently used method is laser triangulation (Figure 4).
The distance of the workpiece is determined from the known dimensions of the sensor and the triangulation angle α.
This type of one-dimensional optical distance measurement systems is widely used in the field of industrial automation technique and is therefore offered by many companies. In automated welding, they are often used for the detection of the part and/or groove position before the start of the welding process.
There are different types of design of the two-dimensionally measuring sensor systems. From the 1D triangulation sensor, the two-dimensional laser scanner can be derived from the oscillation movement. Here, the groove geometry is detected via a scanning movement transverse to the groove (Figure 5). This is mainly carried out via a movable mirror unit which is integrated in the sensor head.
As an alternative, an oscillating movement of the entire sensor head can be carried out, this is, however, only considered a special application of a one-dimensionally measuring system. An advantage of the laser scanner is that, with according processing speed, the lighting conditions can be adapted for every single point-shaped distance measurement which results in illumination uniformity. Moreover, due to the point-shaped illumination, the laser point is through the concentrated laser power and also through appropriate optical filters, compared with the interfering arc radiation, easier to detect by the detection element.
The light-section sensor avoids the disadvantage of moving parts in the sensor head (Figure 6). Here, the surface is not scanned pointwise, the entire geometry is, moreover, captured in one image. For this purpose, the point-shaped laser beam is expanded via an optics to a line which is projected onto the surface of the workpiece transverse to the groove in accordance with the scan line of the scanner. The laser line is, in accordance with the same geometrical principle of triangulation, again acquired with a detector element, this time, however, two-dimensionally. For the acquisition, CCD and CMOS cameras with the above-mentioned properties can be used.
As the output signal after the pre-processing of sensor signals with a laser scanner and light-section sensor, the so-called height profile of the measured groove geometry is achieved. It represents the surface of the workpiece along the section at the projected laser line.
3 D measuring systems with active illumination are mainly using the light-section method in combination with the projection of several parallel laser lines. In doing so, each line generates a height profile. Through the arrangement of several lines along the weld groove, a further dimension is achieved which shows the change of the height profiles of the groove geometry. Through the number of the lines, the resolution in groove longitudinal direction is increasing, however, the data processing expenditure is also increasing. Similar to the projection of several parallel lines, the measurement via a projected circle or other geometrical figures on the workpiece surface is possible.
Boundary conditions.
What all optical measuring methods have in common is that the determined groove points must be transformed from the sensor coordinates of the cameras into machine and/or work piece coordinates. To this end, they must be calibrated on test work pieces before the welding process takes place and calibration matrices must be provided. Moreover, for the application of image processing algorithms, information about the groove profile must also be provided in advance. This is carried out via teaching of templates, input of geometrical parameters or teach-in via test work pieces. A more comprehensive image processing for 2 and 3 D sensor systems requires normally a PC system for the evaluation; this is why commercially available PC interfaces are used for data exchange, uniform sensor interfaces do, however, not yet exist.
Application problems.
In optical sensor systems, problems occur due to the operation principle through the scattered light of the open arc. Therefore, measuring in the working point directly is in most cases not possible when optical sensors are used, a certain advance/distance must be maintained. Further process trouble stems from weld spatters which may exert a negative influence on the detection results. Screening systems between sensor and torch provide a remedy to a certain extent. The direct observation of the arc with special cameras for process monitoring remain an exception.
The running of the sensor in front of the arc causes the limited accessibility of corners in the parts. In order to reduce this problem, a design/structure which is as compact as possible and a short advance distance are most important. The pre-defined orientation of the sensor is, moreover, restricting the working space of the robot. For untroubled operation of the optical components also stronger soiling/impurification (dust and deposition of weld fume particles) should be avoided, if possible. Exchangeable protective glasses and safety screens in the form of compressed air curtains provide a remedy. The quality of the surface which is to be measured has substantial influence on the measuring result. If the surface is strongly reflecting, unwanted reflection and faulty measurements may occur, lustreless surfaces are less difficult. Ever-changing surface qualities also lead to problems.
Since optical systems are equipped with semiconductor detectors and comprehensive electronics, it is most important to pay attention to safe electro-magnetic screening. This applies to the sensor, the image processing unit and the connecting cables thereof. Sensor systems with active laser illumination are reacting particularly sensitive to strong temperature fluctuations since the emitted light wavelength of the used laser diodes depends on the temperature of the laser. If the ambient temperature and thus the wavelength of the active illumination are changing, the light is no longer capable to penetrate through the narrow-band optical filter to the photodetector. Therefore, appropriate screening against the welding process or the cooling of the sensor head is required. Depending on the applied laser power, particular caution must be taken when sensors with active illumination are applied. The wavelength of the applied systems are often in the field of vision, which means the classification into the hazard classes 3A and 3B. The respective accident prevention regulations must be strictly adhered to.
The application of optical sensors demands the consideration of following points:
Inductive.
Inductive sensors evaluate the attenuation of a high-frequency electro-magnetic field which has been generated by eddy currents in the work piece. The application of single-coil design types allows side or height correction. Multiple-coil sensors allow correction in two coordinate directions and, moreover, influence on the weld torch orientation.
Capacitive.
Capacitive sensors measure the capacity between the work piece and an electrically conductive plate with small dimensions. They offer the possibility of distance measurement in media with unchanged dielectricity constant.
Process-oriented.
Process-oriented sensors are acquiring their signals from the primary or secondary process parameters.
Arc sensors are using the primary process parameters (weld current and/or voltage) of one moving or two unoscillated arcs for the generation of height and side/lateral correction signals.
These sensors require, of course, also a scannable groove geometry; the measuring and the joining point are, however, compared with geometry-oriented sensors, located in the same position.
Arc.
Stable working points in arc welding are developing as interface between process characteristic and power source characteristic (Figure 7). The process characteristic specifies the connection between a stable arc voltage and the appropriate current rating of the process under constant boundary conditions. A family of characteristics is achieved via the variation of the arc length / torch distance.
In TIG welding.
TIG welding belongs to the welding processes with non-melting electrode. Therefore, the process characteristic is often designated as arc characteristic. A direct change of the working distance is compensated via the length of the arc. As a result, the arc resistance is changing. Short arcs have a lower electric resistance than long arcs.
In TIG welding, typically power sources with a steeply drooping characteristic are applied. A change of the arc length leads, therefore, directly to the change of the process voltage. A comparative measurement allows the determination of the distance to the workpiece.
In GMA welding.
In GMA welding, the process characteristic in the voltage-current diagram is a result from the interaction of the electric properties of the wire stick-out and of the arc. In principle, stable working points are achieved through the application of suitable power source characteristics or through super-imposed control strategies.
There is a stable equilibrium in point 1 of Figure 8 where the energy which has been input into the process is sufficient for the melting of the continuously fed wire electrode. In the case of a rapid change of distance, the arc compensates the length change, point 2. The lower resistance of the short arc brings about the increase of the current intensity which leads to the faster melting of the wire stick-out until again a stable working point is reached, point 3. This compensation process takes approximately between 100 and 200 ms. The arc sensor evaluates the remaining change in current intensity between point 1 and point 3 in order to achieve a distance-proportionate parameter. In principle, this evaluation concept is also applicable to pulsed arc welding. The concept which has been specified above is, in the case of most arc sensors, extended by the transversal scanning of the groove geometry. The deflection of the process to the fusion faces allows the comparative measurement of the torch distance. By calculating the difference of the distance values, the lateral positioning of the torch can be evaluated. The mean value of both distance values indicates the height of the torch above the groove. Different concepts are applied for the deflection (Figure 9). Mechanical oscillation is most widely spread and is frequently used, especially with robots. Basically, fast deflectory systems, e.g. with magnetic or rotatory deflection offer the improvement of the signal rate and the signal quality, a higher apparatus expenditure must, however, be calculated when these systems are used. In double-wire technique, both fusion faces are scanned at the same time with one wire each.
Boundary conditions.
Arc sensors are evaluating the stable working points in arc welding. Disturbance variables of the process must be compensated via suitable filtering and evaluation strategies which are not susceptible to disturbances.
In the case of a simultaneous height and side control attention must be paid to the fact that only those groove geometries are suitable for arc sensor systems whose geometry allows the lateral position determination via comparative measurement of the fusion faces. V-type welds and fillet welds are suitable without any restrictions. Square butt welds without gap are not suitable for side/lateral control. Commercially available arc sensors are, so far, not applicable for aluminium materials.
Secondary process parameters.
Sensor types which are observing the molten pool are restricted in their applicability range by the fact that molten pool size and arc radiation are dependent on geometrical factors, e.g. material density or composition (alloying constituents). The optical observation of the molten pool region determines changes of the molten pool contour. The deflection from a contour which is defined as “ideal” is interpreted as malposition or as a change of the process behaviour and is compensated subsequently.
Spectral analysis.
The spectral analysis of the process signals compares the emission spectres of the arc or of the molten pool with assumed ideal values. Deflections point to a changed chemical composition or to energetic changes of the process zone.


Brake tester

There are at least three different types of brake tester used to calculate the braking efforts and efficiencies of a motor vehicle:
Roller brake testers.
A roller brake tester is a method of allowing the dynamic assessment of the braking system of a motor vehicle, whilst the vehicle itself is in a static condition. This type of brake tester is normally used in UK garages when used as part of an inspection lane for the MOT test.
Roller brake testers consist of a mechanical floor unit which contains electrical motors, two independent sets of three measuring rollers, brake force transducers and additional safety sensors.
The driving rollers operate at a low (known) speed using a gearbox and motor arrangement and during a test measurements of the maximum braking force are taken by applying the vehicle brakes which induces a reaction force on the electric motor itself. An electric transducer with strain gauges then measures the individual induced forces which are acting during the deceleration phase in order to calculate the individual braking forces for each wheel.
In order to minimize any inaccuracy and variation in the measurement, the roller diameter is sufficiently large to reduce the effects of the mechanical relaxation, or flexing, of the tire itself. A special coating on the rollers is designed to be very wear resistant and provide good friction values, both in wet and dry conditions.
A third smaller roller, on each side between the driving rollers, has two functions: The first is to detect if a vehicle is present in the roller bed (a built in safety device to prevent the motor from starting up unless a vehicle is in the brake tester), the second function is to detect when and if tyre slippage occurs in order to make the measurement before a maximum, predefined value of time passes.
During the test, the computer measures the brake force values and the system will calculate the imbalance between the left and right brake forces of an axle, as well as the brake efficiency of the service brake and the parking brake provided that a vehicle weight is either inputted manually or by using an integrated weighing system.
Plate brake testers.
A plate brake tester is a method of measuring a vehicles braking system in a dynamic test. The unit consists of two moving parallel plates mounted on force transducers. A measurement of the braking force is made when a vehicle passes over the plates and then applies its brakes. The braking action causes the individual plates to ‘slip’ forwards allowing a calculation of braking force to be made. Brake imbalance between the left and right hand side can also be measured by the differences in voltage measured on each of the force transducers under the chassis. Due to the nature of it dynamic operation, plate brake testers are far less common than roller brake testers in UK garages although they are also an extremely accurate method of measurement.
The extremely accurate plate brake method of measuring a vehicle's braking performance in countries such as Australia and New Zealand is increasingly becoming a far more popular alternative to basic decelerometers due to not only accuracy, measurement speed, and the ease of use, but predominately the greatly improved safety offered by removing the need for vehicle inspectors to brake test vehicles on public roads amongst other road users .
Decelerometers.
A decelerometer is a hand held device for measuring dynamic braking forces during a vehicle road test. A vehicle decelerometer operates as if it were, and it could also be known as, an accelerometer as it calculates braking efficiency by using those forces captured during a vehicle's deceleration. A decelerometer is a basic method by which braking effort can be accessed quickly and easily but it is generally used as an indicator to acceptable brake performance. Low efficiency readings should lead to further investigation on either a plate brake tester or a roller brake tester.


Quill drive

A quill drive is a mechanism that allows a drive shaft to shift its position (either axially, radially, or both) relative to its driving shaft. It consists of a hollow driving shaft (the quill) with a driven shaft inside it. The two are connected in some fashion which permits the required motion.
Examples.
Drill press.
One example of a quill drive is found in a drill press where the quill allows the chuck to move vertically while being driven rotationally.
Railroad locomotive.
Quill drives have been extensively used in railroad electric locomotives to connect between frame-mounted traction motors and the driven wheels. The two are linked by a flexible drive which allows a degree of radial motion and possibly a small amount of axial motion. This allows the motors to be mounted on top of the suspension system, moving independently of the wheels. This smooths the drive from the motors and isolates them from mechanical shock. This also decreases the unsprung weight borne directly by the wheels, thus decreasing wear on the track.
Quill drives were used by many electric locomotives in the United States, particularly those of the Pennsylvania Railroad—their long-lasting GG1 design being perhaps the best known. Many locomotives built in France, Germany, Italy and Poland used quill drives as well, allowing higher locomotive speed. The English Electric–built NZR ED class used a quill drive, but was found to be hard on the track.