How Much Is Too Much?
1. Why do you recommend that people follow the American Heart Association dietary limit for added sugar when there are others?
Currently, we do not have a federal dietary limit on sugar, like those for salt, trans fats and other food additives. Until we have one, we recommend that people rely on the recommendations of impartial, expert panels convened by nonprofit and governmental authorities. There is, however, a global recommendation provided by the World Health Organization, the health agency of the United Nations.
The American Heart Association’s guideline is the most frequently used guideline by public health officials. It suggests limiting added sugar to less than 6 teaspoons/day (25 g) for women, 3-6 tsp. (12-25 g) for children, and 9 tsp. (36 g) for men. The World Health Organization limit is fairly similar: It suggests that we should be consuming no more than 5% of our daily calories in added sugar, which amounts to about 25 g of added sugar in a 2,000-calorie diet.
A panel convened by the Institute of Medicine recommended the highest dietary limit, that no more than 25% of daily calories should be consumed in added sugar. We do not support this high a limit because studies have shown that consuming sugar at this level could significantly increase your chance of death from heart disease and stroke ,1 as well as affect your metabolism in ways that put you at risk for a range of chronic diseases.2
2. You say that the average American consumes 19-1/2 teaspoons of added sugar every day. I’ve heard that it’s 22 teaspoons. Where did you get this number?
The 22 teaspoons figure used to be correct, but Americans have started to cut back on added sugar consumption since then. To provide you with the most accurate and easily understood estimate, we used estimates from representative surveys of the US population conducted by the federal government, called the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2005-2010 (NHANES).3 Our estimate is averaged across men and women. According to the survey, men tend to consume slightly more added sugar than women, but not enough to be significant.
We converted grams into teaspoons using the following conversion factor: There are 4.2 grams in one teaspoon of granulated sugar.
3. You say the average American consumes 66 pounds of sugar every year. I’ve heard much different numbers. A lot of people say that we are consuming 150 pounds of sugar per year. Who’s right?
You may hear many different estimates for how much added sugar Americans consume on a daily basis. We fact-checked the numbers and are reporting to you what we believe are the most reliable, unbiased estimates. The 150 lbs. figure refers to total sugar – all the sugars we consume throughout our diet. But the naturally occurring sugars in fruits and milk aren’t a concern for health; only added sugar is a concern. So, we calculated the amount of added sugar in the American diet – and 66 pounds is a lot.
Here’s how we did it: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) conduct regular surveys of Americans that carefully measure what we eat, a study called the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). We used data from this survey for the most recent year, 2010, to arrive at our estimates. The CDC data are reported in calories-per-day of added sugar. Since that's not the easiest to figure for people to understand, we converted teaspoons and grams of sugar. There are 16.9 calories and 4.2 grams in a teaspoon of granulated table sugar.
Another source of data comes from the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). Each year, it quantifies the amount of sugar delivered for use as added sugar by consumers and the food industry. Then USDA analysts make adjustments for the amount likely to be wasted, to estimate how much we probably consume. When we ran the numbers comparing the CDC and USDA data, we were reassured to find that the estimates were similar, indicating that our reported estimate is pretty reliable.
- U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2013). NCHS Data Brief, No. 122: Consumption of Added Sugars Among U.S. Adults, 2005â€“2010. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db122.pdf
- (2011, October). Consumption of fructose and high fructose corn syrup increases postprandial triglycerides, LDL-cholesterol, and apolipoprotein-B in young men and women. . J Clin Endocrinol Metab. , 96(10), E1596-605. doi:PMID: 21849529. Retrieved from http://press.endocrine.org/doi/full/10.1210/jc.2011-1251
- (2014, February 3). Study Examines Consumption of Added Sugar, Death for Cardiovascular Disease. JAMA Internal Medicine . doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.12991. Retrieved from http://media.jamanetwork.com/news-item/study-examines-consumption-of-added-sugar-death-for-cardiovascular-disease/
World Health Organization
The World Health Organization (WHO) is the directing and coordinating authority for health within the United Nations system. It is responsible for providing leadership on global health matters, shaping the health research agenda, setting norms and standards, articulating evidence-based policy options, providing technical support to countries and monitoring and assessing health trends. Website: http://www.who.intSugarScience Glossary
Sucrose, also called granulated sugar, is two simple sugars stuck together in a single molecule. Sucrose is made of one fructose and one glucose molecule. On this website, one level teaspoon of table sugar weighs 4.2 grams and has 16.8 calories.SugarScience Glossary
Also called trans fatty acids. Almost all of these are fats that are added to foods during processing. Trans fats raise bad cholesterol (LD) and decrease good cholesterol (HDL) and raise the chances that you will have heart disease, stroke and type 2 diabetesSugarScience Glossary
A broad term for a group of chronic diseases of the heart, these diseases include problems with blood supply to heart muscle, problems with heart valves and the electrical system of the heart. Another term you will see used to mean the same thing is cardiovascular disease.SugarScience Glossary
Any sugar added in preparation of foods, either at the table, in the kitchen or in the processing plant. This may include sucrose, high fructose corn syrup and others.SugarScience Glossary
Diseases which last months or years, do not go away on their own, and are usually managed and not cured. For the first time in history diseases that are not caused by infection (non-communicable diseases) are causing more injury and death worldwide than are those caused by infection. In the US this has been true for decades but the rest of the world is catching up as our diet and lifestyle are becoming more common globally.SugarScience Glossary
Sugars are chemicals made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen found which taste sweet and are found in food. They are an important part of what we eat and drink and of our bodies. On this site, sugar is used to mean simple sugars (monosaccharides) like fructose or glucose, and disaccharides like table sugar (sucrose). Sucrose is two simple sugars stuck together for example (see Table sugar). Sugars are a type of carbohydrate. Carbohydrates are energy sources for our bodies Sugars enter the blood stream very quickly after being eaten.SugarScience Glossary
Rapid loss of blood supply to a portion of the brain causing brain damage. This may lead to difficulty with memory, thought, speech, sensation, and movement. Stroke is usually due to blockage of blood vessels in the neck or brain. It is more common as people age, and is associated with high blood pressure, heart disease and diabetes.SugarScience Glossary


What Is Dunkel?
Are you searching for an answer to the question: What is dunkel? On this page, we've collected the most accurate and complete information to ensure that you have all of the answers you need. So keep reading!
You may wonder, what does dunkel mean beer? darkThe German-style dunkel is a bottom-fermented lager style beer. The word “dunkel” is German for “dark,” and this dark beer style offers beer lovers balanced flavors of chocolate, bread crust and caramel.
Similarly one may ask, what does a dunkel taste like? The flavor profile is malt-forward, often showing notes of nuts, toffee, freshly baked bread, chocolate, and even licorice, but never veering off into heavily roasted coffee-like accents. Hop bitterness is moderate, with international bitterness units usually in the low 20s, and hop aromatics are subtle.
Besides above, what is the difference between dunkel and stout? DARK LAGERS
Dunkels are wonderfully balanced with less roasted flavors than a stout. Dunkel literally means “dark” in German. Schwarzbier is another great option for stout lovers, particularly if you're a fan of dry Irish stouts. These inky lagers have a lighter body and balanced bitterness like a good dark chocolate.
Likewise, how do you pronounce dunkel beer? If you prefer darker beers, then you probably know the word Dunkel … the German word for dark. The letter 'u' is pronounced differently in German. If you want to sound like a true German, don't pronounce it 'dunk-el,' say 'doonk-el.”
What is the opposite of Dunkel in German?
≡ Helle ≡ Helligkeit ≡ Lichtflut ≡ Lichtfülle.
Why does German beer taste like bananas?
Isoamyl acetate is an ester, a functional designation of organic compounds and a byproduct of yeasts, known to “afford a fruity character to beer.” This particular ester is often found in fruits such as bananas and pears.
Why do Hefeweizens taste like banana?
Hefeweizen and Belgian yeast strains will produce very high levels of isoamyl acetate, which is why Hefeweizen beers have such a pronounced banana flavor and aroma, but American-style wheat beers do not.
Why is Belgian beer so strong?
This is because unlike most beers, they're fermented twice, which is also why they're stronger. "In high concentrations alcohol is bad for the gut but if you drink just one of these beers every day it would be very good for you," he said.
Is Dunkel a German name?
The surname Dunkel is thought to have originated from within the Rhineland, an ancient region of Germany. The earliest known member Georg Dunckel is mentioned in a written chronicle where it is stated that he lived in Köln around the year 1186.
What does the last name Dunkel mean?
Ancient records reveal the name Dunkel is derived from the Old German word dunk, which referred to a small hill in a swampy area. The surname Dunkel is also of nickname origin and derived from the word dunck, or dunkel which means dark.
Why is Dunkel Beer dark?
Franconian Dunkel is brewed as a lager with Munich malt, two-row malt and some roaster malts. German hops are used to spice it from Hallertau and German lager yeast, to give the beer a nice dark colour.
What Is Dunkel - What other sources say:
German-Style Dunkel - CraftBeer.com?
The German-style dunkel is a bottom-fermented lager style beer. The word “dunkel” is German for “dark,” and this dark beer style offers beer ...
Dunkel - Wikipedia?
Dunkel, or Dunkles, is a word used for several types of dark German lager. Dunkel is the German word meaning dark, and dunkel beers typically range in color ...
What is Dunkel Beer? The Best Dunkel Beers You Must Try?
The word Dunkel is German and means dark beer. But it doesn't only refer to one beer, instead, it refers to several types of dark German ...
dunkel - Craft Beer & Brewing?
Dunkel is the dark lager style that for many years was the everyday beer of Bavaria. Although it has now been dethroned by helles, dunkel can boast a reign ...
What Is a Dunkel Beer? - Best Beer Near Me?
There's a catch, though. Dunkel is German for “dark” and Weizen is German for “wheat” giving us a dark wheat beer. This is a traditionally ...
dunkel - Wiktionary?
AdjectiveEdit · dark · unclear, uncertain · mysterious, obscure ...
Munich Dunkel - BeerAdvocate?
Name | Brewery ABV Ratings > Avg Last Active Negra Modelo · Grupo Modelo S.A. de C.V. 5.40 3,796 3.36 09‑30‑2022 Warsteiner Premium Dunkel · Warsteiner Brauerei 4.90 1,771 3.54 09‑23‑2022 Hofbräu Dunkel · Hofbräuhaus München 5.50 1,453 3.79 09‑25‑2022 View 50 more rows
Shop Dunkel - Buy Online | Drizly?
Dunkel beer is a subcategory of lager that undergoes a bottom-fermenting process. It mostly contains Munich malt, which, thanks to a process called the Maillard ...
Best Dark Lager - Dunkel / Tmavý in the World - RateBeer?
NAME COUNT ABV SCORE 1 Calumet Dark 86 5.4% 3.77 2 Godspeed Tmavý Ležák ‑ Filtered 18 4.7% 3.7 3 Tired Hands Nothing 12 4.3% 3.67 View 47 more rows
What does Dunkel mean? - Definitions.net?
Dunkel, or Dunkles, is a word used for several types of dark German lager. Dunkel is the German word meaning dark, and dunkel beers typically range in ...


Don't fall for Internet scams
Sept. 1, 2009
KALAMAZOO--More than 9 million Americans will have their identities stolen this year. Western Michigan University wants to make sure you're not one of them.
Personal security is an afterthought for many college students. In a recent survey conducted by the Identity Theft Resource Center, only 21 percent of college students said they were concerned about having their identities stolen. Yet the 18-29 year-old age bracket continues to account for almost 30 percent of all identity theft complaints.
There are many tactics used for stealing personal information. Thieves rummage through trash looking for bills and papers that contain personal information. They steal credit card numbers, mail, purses and wallets. More recently, they've put the Internet to work for them, using electronic data breaches, computer viruses, phishing and Internet scams to siphon billions of dollars each year from unsuspecting, ordinary people just like you.
You can avoid falling victim to identity theft and other Internet scams by protecting your personal information and following these guidelines for safe online communication.
If you receive a questionable e-mail message, forward it to firstname.lastname@example.org, then delete it immediately, advises Thom Myers, WMU director of electronic communication.
Media contact: Tonya Durlach, (269) 387-8400, email@example.com


CEC is assisting the Little Sewickley Creek Watershed Association (LSCWA) with evaluating the surface water quality in the Little Sewickley Creek Watershed just outside of Pittsburgh. This project recently offered an educational experience for a group of Quaker Valley High School students known as the QV Creekers.
CEC Pittsburgh and CEC Monroeville staff took the opportunity to educate the students on environmental and biological matters within the watershed. LSCWA and CEC brought three students along during a daylong sampling event. The students learned about CEC’s safety and sampling procedures and also gained valuable insight into the findings from CEC staff.
LSCWA’s mission is to protect and conserve the natural beauty and environmental health of Little Sewickley Creek and its watershed. This ongoing study is focused on gaining a better understanding of the existing base-flow water quality and the location of potential contaminant sources.
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Electronic and electrical engineering principles lie at the heart of some of the world’s biggest industries. Combining core topics across electronic engineering with a variety of specialist modules, this course will equip you with the knowledge and skills to work in a wide range of electronics careers.
You’ll develop your knowledge of the mathematical and scientific principles that underpin electronic and electrical engineering, as well as key topics like circuit design and communications networks. Specialist modules will allow you to build on this foundation in areas like power electronics, energy conversion, control circuits and electric drives.
Taught by expert researchers, you’ll learn in world-class facilities and undertake project work in every year of the course to gain the knowledge and professional skills to succeed in fields from hybrid vehicles to electrical power generation and distribution.
We're 3rd in the UK for Electrical and Electronic Engineering according to The Times and The Sunday Times Good University Guide 2019, and 4th in the UK in the Complete University Guide.
You can choose to take either the four-year Integrated Masters (MEng, BEng) or the three-year Bachelor’s (BEng) degree on this course.
Find out more about the MEng, BEng and BEng
You’ll have access to world-class facilities, including the ARM Embedded Systems Laboratory and the Keysight Technologies Wireless Communications Laboratory, which features professional-standard equipment including arbitrary function generators and 100MHz 4-channel oscilloscopes.
For your final-year project, you could also have access to facilities such as our bionanoelectronics research laboratory, terahertz imaging laboratory, or ABB robotic arm laboratory.
The MEng, BEng is accredited by the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET) on behalf of the Engineering Council for the purposes of fully meeting the academic requirement for registration as a Chartered Engineer (CEng).
The BEng is accredited by the IET on behalf of the Engineering Council for the purposes of fully meeting the academic requirement for registration as an Incorporated Engineer and partly meeting the academic requirement for registration as a Chartered Engineer.
Accreditation is the assurance that a university course meets the quality standards established by the profession for which it prepares its students. For this course, these are the quality standards set by the IET.
All of our core electronic and electrical degree courses have a common first two years. This lays the foundations of your studies and gives you a thorough understanding of key topics, but it also means you can easily change between these courses until the end of Year 2.
You’ll learn about the physical principles that affect the function of electronic components and electrical systems, as well as circuit theory, analysis and design. You’ll also study communications systems and networks, power electronics and modules designed to improve your mathematical skills for engineering.
In Year 3 you’ll take more specialised modules that focus on topics such as embedded systems and integrated circuit design – and you’ll have the chance to choose a module in either digital communications or radio frequency and microwave design.
If you choose to continue to Year 4 for the MEng qualification, you’ll have a wider variety of choice in topics such as medical electronics, using renewable sources to generate electric power and wireless communications systems. You’ll also undertake a substantial research project to apply what you’ve learned, and complete a dissertation on an aspect of the electronics industry to help prepare you for professional life.
Every year of the course gives you hands-on experience of project work. This gives you the opportunity to explore your subject further as well as developing valuable skills in problem solving, communication and teamwork.
Find out more about our Projects
You’ll study engineering ethics as part of your course, with lectures and/or seminars in each year of your study. Visit our engineering ethics webpage to find out more.
The list shown below represents typical modules/components studied and may change from time to time. Read more in our Terms and conditions.
- Circuit Analysis and Design 20 credits
- Communications Networks and Signals 10 credits
- Communications Systems 10 credits
- Digital Electronics and Microcontrollers 20 credits
- Further Engineering Mathematics 10 credits
- Electronic Design Project 10 credits
- Physical Electronics 1 10 credits
- Physical Electronics 2 10 credits
- Introduction to Engineering Mathematics 20 credits
- Engineering Mathematics 10 credits
- Algorithms and Numerical Mathematics 10 credits
- Electronic Circuit Design 10 credits
- High Frequency Electronics 10 credits
- Transistors and Optoelectronic Devices 20 credits
- Communications Theory 20 credits
- Power Electronics 10 credits
- Control Systems 10 credits
- Embedded Systems Project 20 credits
- Microprocessors and Programmable Logic 20 credits
- Professional Studies 10 credits
- Integrated Circuit Design 10 credits
- Electric Machines 10 credits
- Electric Power Systems 10 credits
- Embedded Systems 20 credits
- Group Design Project 50 credits
- RF and Microwave Engineering 10 credits
- Digital Communications 10 credits
- Modern Industry Practice 15 credits
- MEng Individual Project 45 credits
- Wireless Communications Systems Design 15 credits
- Data Communications and Network Security 15 credits
- Power Electronics and Drives 15 credits
- Electric Power Generation by Renewable Sources 15 credits
- FPGA Design for System-on-Chip 15 credits
- Control Systems Design 15 credits
- Medical Electronics and E-Health 15 credits
Broadening your academic horizons
At Leeds we want you to benefit from the depth and breadth of the University's expertise, to prepare you for success in an ever-changing and challenging world. On this course you broaden your learning through core and/or optional modules. Find out more on the Broadening webpages.
Learning and teaching
You’ll benefit from our integrated style of learning and teaching. Laboratory classes, project work, and industrial visits allow you to gain first-hand experience investigating and applying material from your lectures and tutorials to real life work situations. Together they will equip you with in-depth knowledge and key practical skills that will put you in a good position to compete in science and technology-related careers. Our close links with industry also mean that you have direct contact with industry and potential employers from an early stage in your course.
Our personal tutorial system will provide academic and pastoral support. You will have a designated personal tutor throughout your studies at Leeds. He or she will be an academic member of staff: you will have weekly academic tutorials with your tutor throughout your first year, in your tutor group (of typically 5 students), as well as one-to-one meetings twice per semester.
In addition, our excellent student support team is based close to where you’ll work and study to help with anything from academic advice to timetabling and project submission enquiries.
Most modules are assessed by more than one component. These components can include written examinations held at the end of each year, in-class and online tests, example sheets, assignments, and coursework in the form of reports, projects, presentations and posters.
Entry requirements, fees and applying
A-level: AAA including Mathematics.
Where an A-Level Science subject is taken, we require a pass in the practical science element, alongside the achievement of the A-Level at the stated grade.
Excludes A-Level General Studies or Critical Thinking.
Extended Project Qualification - We recognise the value, effort and enthusiasm applicants make in the Extended Project, and where an applicant offers an A in the EPQ we may make an offer of AAB at A-Level (any required subjects such as Mathematics must still be at grade A).
GCSE: English Language at grade C (4) or above, or an appropriate English language qualification.
Access to HE Diploma
Pass 60 credits overall with 45 credits at Level 3, 30 credits with Distinction (including Mathematics) and the remaining 15 credits with Merit or above.
D*DD with Distinctions in all Mathematics units plus a diagnostic Maths test. Mathematics units must usually include Further Maths and/or other appropriate Maths units. Some may be optional on your BTEC but are required by the Faculty. Please contact us for further information.
D3, D3, D3 including Mathematics.
35 points overall, with 18 points at higher level to include 5 points in Mathematics.
Irish Highers (Leaving Certificate)
H1 H2 H2 H2 H2 H2, including Mathematics.
Scottish Highers / Advanced Highers
AA at Advanced Higher level, including Mathematics and AABBB at Higher Level.
Engineering Diploma: A (plus A-level Mathematics at grade A or above).
Read more about UK and Republic of Ireland accepted qualifications or contact the Schools Undergraduate Admissions Team.
Were committed to identifying the best possible applicants, regardless of personal circumstances or background.
Access to Leeds is an alternative admissions scheme which accepts applications from individuals who might be from low income households, in the first generation of their immediate family to apply to higher education, or have had their studies disrupted.
Find out more about Access to Leeds and alternative admissions.
If you do not have the formal qualifications for immediate entry to one of our degrees, you may be able to progress through a foundation year. We offer a BSc Studies in Science for students without a science background at A-level and an Interdisciplinary Science Foundation Year for applicants who meet specific widening participation criteria.
We accept a range of international equivalent qualifications.
If you have the ability to study for a degree but don’t have the qualifications to enter directly to level one, you might consider studying a foundation year. We have formal links with the following foundation year programmes:
If you are applying from an alternative foundation year provider, please contact our admissions team to find out if your qualification is suitable for entry to our courses.
English language requirementsIELTS 6.0 overall, with no less than 5.5 in each section.. For other English qualifications, read English language equivalent qualifications.
Improve your English
If you're an international student and you don't meet the English language requirements for this programme, you may be able to study our undergraduate pre-sessional English course, to help improve your English language level.
How to apply
Apply to this course through UCAS. The institution code for the University of Leeds is L23. Check the deadline for applications on the UCAS website.
International students apply through UCAS in the same way as UK/EU students. Our network of international representatives can help you with your application. If you’re unsure about the application process, contact the admissions team for help.
Read about visas, immigration and other information in International students. We recommend that international students apply as early as possible to ensure that they have time to apply for their visa.
Suitable applicants will be invited to an applicant day, for which we strongly encourage attendance as this gives you the opportunity to meet our students, academic and admissions staff, and find out more about your course. You’ll take part in a practical electronics activity, see a taster lecture, have a question and answer session with current students, and see the School’s laboratories. The school foyer will have student projects on display so you can get an idea of what you can work towards in the future.
During the day you’ll get a chance to ask questions of an academic member of staff to check it’s the right course for you and your career plans, and find out more about studying at the University of Leeds.
After you apply we will send you a link to book your place on the applicant day. Please let us know as soon as possible if you cannot attend, so your place can be allocated to another applicant.
Please note, if the entry requirements for your qualification include a diagnostic mathematics test, attendance at an applicant day is required.
UK/EU: See fees section below
International: £22,750 (per year)
Tuition fees for 2019 entry
For UK and non-UK EU full-time students starting in 2019, the fee for 2019/20 will be £9,250.
The fee may increase in future years of your course in line with inflation, and as permitted by law. For example, the increase of 2.8% in 2017/18 was based on the government’s forecast for the RPI-X measure of inflation.
The UK government has confirmed that non-UK EU students starting in the 2019/20 academic year will have home fee status and be eligible for UK government student loans for the duration of their course. The UK government has not confirmed the situation for future years, so keep checking our website for updates.
Tuition fees for 2020 entry
For all full-time students starting in 2020, our fees for 2020/21 have not yet been confirmed and we expect to publish an update later in 2019.
Visit our Brexit page for the latest information on the effect of the UK's exit from the EU on current students and applicants to the University.
Tuition fees for a study abroad or work placement year
If you take a study abroad or work placement year, you’ll pay a reduced tuition fee during this period. For more information, see Study abroad and work placement tuition fees and loans.
Read more about paying fees and charges.
Visit our Brexit page for the latest information on the effect of the UK's exit from the EU on current students and applicants to the University.
The School of Electronic and Electrical Engineering offer a range of scholarships for Home, EU and International students. Find out more.
All of our degrees will equip you with the skills you need to succeed in industry, including design, problem solving, numeracy and analysis skills, together with ‘transferable skills’, such as communication and working as a team. Because of the nature of the electronics industry, the demand for high calibre electronic engineering graduates is high and wide-ranging employment opportunities exist both in large multinational corporations and small start-up companies working on next-generation products and technologies.
Graduates have gone on to roles as software, electrical, project and instrument engineers among a host of other roles. They’ve established careers at organisations like BAE Systems, BP, Filtronic, Intel Technology Malaysia, Motorola, Mott MacDonald, Omron Electronics, Siemens, Signalling Solutions Limited, Simulations Systems Ltd., Tata Steel Europe and Transport for London.
Read our alumni profiles to find out more about where our students are working
You’ll have access to our dedicated Employability team, located centrally in our Employability Suite, who will provide you with specialist face-to-face support and advice to help you find relevant work experience, internships and year-in-industry placements, as well as graduate positions.
You’ll benefit from timetabled employability sessions, ongoing support during internships and placements, and presentations and workshops delivered by employers. The team also works closely with the University’s Careers Centre, which is one of the largest in the country.
Find out more about careers support and employability
Study abroad and work placements
If you choose to take the MEng course, you can apply to spend your third year studying at a university overseas. We’ll advise you on finding a university of your choice, which will need to offer similar modules to the ones you would study in Leeds, and the Programme Leader will approve appropriate matches.
Find out more about Study abroad
With the help and support of our faculty Employability Team, you can choose to undertake a placement at one of the 100+ companies that we work with. If you decide to undertake a placement year, this will extend your degree by 12 months and on successful completion, you will be awarded the ‘industrial’ variant in your degree title to demonstrate your unique expertise to future employers.
Find out more about work placements
“I have really enjoyed being involved in a wide range of engineering activities from design to installation. This has really helped me identify where I would like to specialise in the future.” Read more
Stephen Agyeman-Kuma, Industrial placement year at Siemens Rail-IT


In multivariate decision tree construction, we take a linear combination of features. Our main purpose is to find the coefficients wi for these features. But using all of the features may be costly and may lead to overfitting on a small training set. So in order to get rid of these unnecessary features, we use feature selection, thereby effectively setting wi of unnecessary features to 0.
Feature selection algorithm proceeds as follows: Firstly the coefficients of all attributes are determined. Afterwards, each attribute xi is dropped by setting wi = 0 and the increase in the impurity for that attribute is found. If dropping an attribute increases impurity significantly, it is an important attribute. Applying this rule we can find the most and least important attributes. Then we check if the impurity increase for the least important attribute is less than the impurity increase for the most important attribute by a constant (normally 0.1 or 0.2). If the difference is smaller we conclude that it is an unnecessary attribute and we drop it. We repeat this process until this condition is not satisfied for any attribute.
3.4.Classification and Regression Trees (CART)
CART algorithm (Breiman et. al., 1984) for finding the coefficients of the available features is a step-wise procedure, where in each step, one cycles through the features x1, x2, …, xf doing a search for an improved linear combination split. If there are symbolic features, they are converted to numeric features. Each instance is normalized by centering each value of each feature at its median and then dividing by its interquartile range. CART algorithm is very similar to ID3.
Finding the best split with CART algorithm is done as follows:
While disorder decreases
For each of the feature xi
Let the current split be v c, where v = m xm, the aim is to find the best split of the form v - (xi + ) c.
Divide the instances into two groups as
, xi + 0 and , xi + < 0.
For each instance:
Calculate un = . Divide the instances into two groups as for all un such that xi,n + 0, the algorithm finds the best split of the form u 1. For all un such that xi,n + < 0, the algorithm also finds the best split of the form u 2. Take the better of these two splits and let be the corresponding threshold.
These three best splits are compared and , values corresponding to the best of the three are used to update v as follows:
v’ = ’m xm, ’i = i - , ’m = m, m > 1 and c’ = c + .
t this point the updated split is of the form vl cl. The cycle is completed by finding the best split of the form vl cl’ as cl’ ranges over all values.
FIGURE 3.4.1 A step in CART algorithm
Figure 3.4.1 shows the first step of the CART algorithm for an example data set. The initial line is given as x1+x2<0. The lines shown as –0.25,0 and 0.25 are the best splits found for = -0.25,0 and 0.25. Here only the coefficient of attribute x1 is changed. The line with = 0 will be selected for further iteration.
Once the best split is found, we create two children as v = m xm < c and v > c, and divide the set of instances into two. We then continue recursively until either a subset is pure enough or the subset is small enough.
This algorithm has a complexity of O (6 * k * f * n) where k is the number iterations done while disorder decreases, f is the number of features, N is the number of instances. Loop (1) is iterated k times, loop (2) is iterated three times, loop (3) is iterated f times and loop (4) is iterated 2*n times. Also the algorithm is called for each node one time so the total complexity in training phase is O (6 * k * f * n).
The testing phase of the algorithm is as follows: Each instance is first normalized according to the median and quartile computed from the training set. Then the tree is traversed until a leaf node is encountered, by taking the linear combination of input attributes with the coefficients found by the CART algorithm for that node. If the instance has the class code same as the code of the leaf node, it is correctly classified else it is misclassified.
Although CART is a good multivariate algorithm it has some basic limitations. First of all, it is fully deterministic as ID3. There is no built in mechanism for escaping local minima, although such minima may be very common for some domains. Secondly, it sometimes makes adjustments that increase the impurity of the split. This feature was probably included to overcome local minima problem but it also has a drawback.
There is no upper bound on the time spent at any node in the decision tree. Loop (1) halts when no perturbation changes the impurity more than , but because impurity may increase and decrease, the algorithm can spend arbitrarily long time, or in some times infinite time, at a node. To overcome this problem, we have included also an iteration constant. If the algorithm cycles more than this iteration constant, it stops and returns the current split.


In 2004, members of the engineering community formed a coalition to encourage academically prepared girls to enroll in engineering programs. After extensive research revealed some of the reasons girls were not interested in pursuing engineering, the coalition developed and tested new messages that emphasized how varied and creative engineering can be and what a difference engineers make in the lives of others. The messages—creativity has its rewards, explore the possibilities, and make a world of difference—are now part of a national campaign designed to encourage college bound girls to explore engineering. The Engineer Your Life Web site is the centerpiece of the national campaign, and is meant for high school girls and the adults in their lives (parents, counselors, teachers, and other educators) who want to learn more about what life and work are like for engineers. The campaign will:
• Introduce high school girls to young women
engineers who embody these messages.
• Showcase engineering careers and illustrate that
an education in engineering is both desirable and
within their reach.
• Help school counselors and teachers better
understand engineering and give them the
resources and training they need to advise
• Mobilize America’s more than one million
engineers with compelling resources, training, and
messages to use in their ongoing outreach efforts.
See the site's Privacy and Copyright Statements.
Major funding for Engineer Your Life provided by The National Science Foundation and Northrop Grumman Foundation. Additional funding provided by Stephen D. Bechtel, Jr and the United Engineering Foundation (ASCE, ASME, AIChE, IEEE, AIME).


Sept. 17 is Constitution Day. At 225 years young, the U.S. Constitution is the oldest continuous constitution in existence.
In late May 1787, 55 delegates met in Philadelphia to either revise or write a new constitution. The Articles of Confederation, which was established in 1781, was simply too weak and was more like a “league of friendship” rather than a united states government.
They toiled in sweltering muggy heat for over three months to pound out one of the most brilliant documents ever written by man, the Constitution of the United States.
Although knowing that, “Power corrupts, and absolute power, corrupts absolutely,” the delegates set up a stronger United States government than the Articles of Confederation, but because of its unique system of checks and balances between the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, that stronger power was spread out among the branches making it far less easy to corrupt. For the Legislature, they cleverly devised an equitable way to divide power, giving each state two senators regardless of size and making Congress proportionate to the size of each state’s population. In essence, we got a stronger central government, but with the powers spread out and therefore diluted.
After the convention, a person asked, “Well, Doctor, what have we got – a republic or a monarchy?” Benjamin Franklin replied, “A republic, if you can keep it.”
I worry about the younger voting generation, as most haven’t been taught that we are a republic based on the rule of law from our Creator, and not a democracy based on the rule of man. I worry that most don’t know that the role of our federal government was meant to be very limited. I worry that there is a fair possibility that President Obama will be re-elected and continue to work to redistribute the wealth, circumvent the Constitution, and radically transform America into something that is barely recognizable to our nation’s seniors.
Then I realize that God is still in control and there are plenty of purple states that with a little work, are ready to turn red.


The Luwian hieroglyphic symbols can be traced back to 2000 BCE, and for a long time had coexisted with Luwian texts written in cuneiform. Because both scripts were found in Hattuša, until a few years ago scientists called the Luwian hieroglyphic script “Hittite hieroglyphs.” This meant that almost every archaeological site on which Luwian hieroglyphs had been found was automatically – and incorrectly – assumed to have been part of the Hittite empire.
Current state of knowledge
For the representation of their language, the Hittites assumed a northern Syrian variant of the Akkadian cuneiform writing that was originally invented in Babylon. Using Akkadian cuneiform, Hittite scribes recorded texts in different languages: Nešili, the language of the Hittites; Hattili, the language of the indigenous people of Hatti, Luwili (Luwian), the language of the south and west of Asia Minor, and Palaic, spoken in the north and represented by only a few texts.
In addition to Luwian texts written in cuneiform, an independent Luwian hieroglyphic writing existed. Already in 1812, the Swiss traveler Jean Louis Burckhardt, who was the first European to visit Petra and Mecca, noticed in the Syrian city of Hama blocks of stone marked with unknown hieroglyphics. The English philologist Archibald Henry Sayce suggested in 1876 that these inscriptions should be regarded as Hittite. In the first half of the 20th century, many more such inscriptions were discovered, mainly in Carchemish and Hattuša. In 1917, the Austrian-Czech linguist and orientalist Bedřich Hrozný succeeded in deciphering the cuneiform tablets of the Hittites. Thereafter, in 1919, the Swiss Assyriologist and Hittitologist Emil Forrer was able to read documents from the archives in the cuneiform Luwian language for the first time. But only after 1953, when the Luwian cuneiform texts from Hattuša were published, could documents in cuneiform and in hieroglyphic script of Luwian origin be brought into relation to one another. Consequently, the Luwian hieroglyphic script, with its 520 symbols, could be largely deciphered and understood.
The hieroglyphic script can be tracked back to at least 2000 BCE when its symbols appeared on a seal found at the archaeological site of Beycesultan. Early evidence of hieroglyphic writing is recorded particularly in official seals, in which the name and title in the center were written in hieroglyphics but surrounded by cuneiform texts. More lengthy hieroglyphic inscriptions became common during the last century of the Hittite Empire. These include the 8.5-meter wide Nişantaş inscription in Hattuša, in which the last Great King Suppiluliuma II reported his conquest of Cyprus. After the cuneiform script had disappeared in Asia Minor with the collapse of Hittite Empire around 1190 BCE, Luwian hieroglyphic writing started to spread. In southeast Asia Minor and Syria up to 600 BCE, substantial evidence of Luwian hieroglyphic writing can be found, especially in monumental royal inscriptions, but also in the form of correspondence written on strips of lead.
Preserving the knowledge of writing for 1400 years
The origins of Luwian hieroglyphic writing are still obscure. The Dutch linguist Fred Woudhuizen has argued for quite some time that the Luwian hieroglyphic script was already common during the Middle Bronze Age (2000–1700 BCE). The knowledge of writing has long been regarded to have developed out of economic need. Western Asia Minor possessed abundant natural resources – and therefore may have required a script early on. On the other hand, ancient orientalists now see a connection between religious-cultic practices and the earlierst forms of writing, and this may indeed apply to the first Luwian inscriptions too. In any case, evidence for hieroglyphic writing in western Asia Minor has often been considered proof of the presence of Hittites, because the Luwian hieroglyphic script was initially called “Hittite hieroglyphs.” This terminological confusion may have contributed to the fact that, on maps, the Hittite Empire is shown to have grown westward until it even had a common border with Mycenaean territory. Linking the finds of Luwian hieroglyphs to Hittite domination, however, is neither plausible nor justified.
After the fall of the Hittites and the apparently gradual disappearance of the cuneiform script, only the hieroglyphic form of writing was maintained. It has been preserved primarily in the form of monumental rock inscriptions in public, often executed on orthostats or stelae. However, inscriptions on lead indicate that the script was also used on perishable and reusable material. The stone inscriptions usually describe the founding of a city and the achievements and honors of rulers, even their servants are included. The German classicist Hubert Cancik (2002, 79) says the following about the scribes:
Some of these so-called writers were personalities of high rank who knew diplomatic practices, many languages and multiple scripts in different media (stone, clay, lead, wood). They mastered the forms, topics from building reports to accounts of glorious victories, and were able to create archaistic texts by reusing archaic templates found in their libraries.
Beckman, Gary M. & Harry A. Hoffner (1999): Hittite diplomatic texts. Writings from the ancient world, Scholars Press, Atlanta, Georgia, 1-224.
Bryce, Trevor (2011): “The Late Bronze Age in the West and the Aegean.” In: The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia 10,000-323 B.C.E. Sharon R. Steadman & Gregory McMahon (eds.), Oxford University Press, New York, 363-375.
Cancik, Hubert (2002): “Die hethitische Historiographie: Geschichtsschreibung vor den Griechen I.” In: Die Hethiter und ihr Reich – Das Volk der 1000 Götter. Helga Willinghöfer (ed.), Theiss, Stuttgart, 74-77.
Cancik, Hubert (2002): “Die luwische Historiographie: Geschichtsschreibung vor den Griechen II.” In: Die Hethiter und ihr Reich – Das Volk der 1000 Götter. Helga Willinghöfer (ed.), Theiss, Stuttgart, 78-81.
Günel, Sevinç (2011): “Çine-Tepecik Höyüğü.” Kazı Sonuçları Toplantısı 33 (2), 19-37.
Güterbock, Hans G. (1956): “Review of M. Riemschneider, ‘Die Welt der Hethiter.’“ Orientalistische Literaturzeitung 51, 513-522.
Oreshko, Rostislav (2013): “Hieroglyphic Inscriptions of Western Anatolia: Long Arm of the Empire or Vernacular Tradition(s)?” In: Luwian Identities: culture, language and religion between Anatolia and the Aegean. Alice Mouton, Ian Rutherford & Ilya S. Yakubovich (eds.), Brill, Boston, 345-420.
Payne, Annick (2010): Hieroglyphic Luwian – An introduction with original texts. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1-215.
Winckler, Hugo (1913): “Nach Boghasköi!” Der alte Orient 14 (3), 1-32.
Yakubovich, Ilya (2008): “Luwian Migration in Light of Linguistic Contacts.” In: Anatolian Interfaces: Hittites, Greeks and Their Neighbours: Proceedings of an International Conference on Cross-Cultural Interaction. Billie Jean Collins, Mary R. Bachvarova & Ian Rutherford (eds.), Oxbow Books, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, 123-134.
Yakubovich, Ilya (2011): “Luwian and the Luwians.” In: The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia 10,000-323 B.C.E. Sharon R. Steadman & Gregory McMahon (eds.), Oxford University Press, New York, 534-537.
From about the beginning of the 1880ies an awareness arose that next to or rather between the two great cultures of the Euphrates-Tigris countries and the Nile valley a third one situated in Asia Minor and Syria had to be distinguished. Albeit not being of equal rank of importance with the two others, the development of its own writing system [Luwian hieroglyphs] warranted a certain independence. It also forced us to look at the peoples who bore this culture with somewhat different eyes, compared to most others that we know from cuneiform or Egyptian reports.
Hugo Winckler 1913, 3
By whom and for what language was the hieroglyphic writing developed? By Luwians, for Luwian, in Luwian lands.
Hans G. Güterbock 1956, 518
The speakers of Luwian inhabited a vast area stretching from the eastern shore of the Aegean Sea to the Euphrates valley.
Ilya Yakubovich 2008, 124
Although the Luwians played at least as important a role as the Hittites in the history of ancient Anatolia, Luwian studies have traditionally been considered a relatively insignificant appendix to Hittitology. … The situation begins to change with the growing realization among Hittitologists that most of the groups called Hittites by themselves or in foreign traditions were either Luwian speakers or included Luwian language communities.
Ilya Yakubovich 2011, 534
There is actually no reason to claim a connection of the hieroglyphic inscriptions of western Anatolia with the Hittite presence in the region and regard them as a “grip of the Empire.” On the contrary, the extant material, however scanty it is, strongly speaks for the view that they are products of the independent vernacular scribal tradition or, rather, traditions.
Rostislav Oreshko 2013, 401


17 September 2020
Unless the spread of the disease is contained, COVID-19 will likely lead to reduced life expectancy in severely affected areas, according to a new study published in the journal PLOS ONE. The study examined the impact of COVID-19-related deaths on life expectancy for four broad world regions across multiple rates of infection and age groups.
“Our study provides the first assessment of the potential impact of COVID-19 on period life expectancies according to a range of scenarios of prevalence rates over a one-year period,” says IIASA researcher Guillaume Marois, who led the study.
Period life expectancy is a measure of the number of years that an average person may expect to live. Improved healthcare, socioeconomic conditions, and education are among the key factors influencing our health and how long we live. Life expectancy has been used as a measure of human development across countries and regions. Indeed, over the past century, life expectancy has increased significantly in many regions of the world.
In the new study, IIASA researchers built a microsimulation model that simulates the probability of getting infected by COVID-19, the probability of dying from it, and the probability of dying from another cause for a period of one year, taking into account the different fatality rates from the disease for different age groups. They then calculated the impact of COVID-19 on life expectancy by reconstructing life tables and life expectancies from the simulation and comparing them with those used for the inputs.
They found that at very low prevalence rates, the COVID-19 pandemic would not affect life expectancy, but at prevalence rates of only 2%, it could cause a drop in life expectancy in countries where average life expectancy is high - roughly around 80 years. At higher prevalence rates, the impact on life expectancy would be greater, especially in Europe and North America.
“At 10% prevalence, the loss in life expectancy is likely to be above one year in high life-expectancy countries such as those in Europe and North America. At 50%, it would translate into three to nine years of life lost in high life-expectancy regions. In less developed regions, the impact is smaller given that there is already lower survival at older ages,” says Marois. “However, even in the most affected regions, the life expectancy will likely recover once the pandemic is over,” he adds.
IIASA researcher Sergei Scherbov, who also worked on the study, says, “It took Europe almost 20 years for average life expectancy at birth to increase by six years — from 72.8 years in 1990 to 78.6 years in 2019. COVID-19 could thus set back this indicator in 2020 to the values observed some time ago. However, we do not know what is going to happen further. In many countries fatality from COVID is strongly decreasing, probably because the protocol of COVID treatment became better defined.”
This type of analysis is useful to decision makers as it shows in broad strokes the potential cost of human lives lost due to the disease.
IIASA World Population Program Deputy Director Raya Muttarak, a study coauthor, adds, “These ‘what-if’ scenarios can give policy-relevant information on what could potentially happen to life expectancy under different levels of prevalence, which vary with public health strategies to reduce and prevent the spread of COVID-19. We show that if the virus spread widely in the population, for instance, in the absence of any lockdowns and social distance measures, this could result in a notable drop in period life expectancy.”
The new study provides an important first estimate of the impact of COVID-19 on life expectancy, but new developments in healthcare or broader impacts of the pandemic on healthcare access or economic systems could also affect mortality rates and life expectancies. The researchers point out that the potential overload of health care systems at higher rates of prevalence would inevitably lead to higher mortality. On the other hand, as healthcare providers gain more experience and knowledge in treating the disease, mortality rates may decrease.
Marois G, Muttarak R, & Scherbov S (2020). Assessing the potential impact of COVID-19 on life expectancy. PLOS ONE DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0238678
Last edited: 18 September 2020
International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA)
Schlossplatz 1, A-2361 Laxenburg, Austria
Phone: (+43 2236) 807 0 Fax:(+43 2236) 71 313


is included to sense normal source failure, initiate starting of the engine
generator, and transfer the load to the generator. When the normal source
is restored, the switch will automatically transfer the load back to the
normal source and shutdown the engine after a predetermined time.
18.104.22.168 Multiple Ground Points. Emergency or standby power supplies in
conjunction with the normal incoming utility service for low-voltage systems
can introduce objectional stray currents because of the multiplicity of
neutral grounds. A properly designed ground system is necessary to
eliminate stray neutral current paths and undesirable ground-fault current
sensing path. Grounding arrangements for emergency and standby power
systems are discussed in the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE) 446, Recommended Practice for Emergency and Standby Power
Systems for Industrial and Commercial Applications.
8.3 Operating Control Requirements. Requirements depend upon the size,
complexity, and voltage level of the plant. Requirement covered herein
apply to medium-voltage, multiple-unit plants and should be adjusted as
appropriate for low-voltage plants which are often single-unit plants.
Devices should be arranged on control switchboards or switchgear in a simple
and distinctive number of circuit breakers to be operated provides a complex
electric configuration, consider providing a mimic bus. Organize devices by
unit control, synchronizing control, and system monitoring.
8.3.1 Unit Control.
Minimum unit control should provide the following
b) Power sources such as generators or commercial input require
Voltage regulator adjusting rheostat.
Voltage regulator manual-off-automatic switch.
Watthour (Wh) demand meter.
Elapsed operating time meter.
8.3.2 Synchronizing Control. The synchronizing control is energized
through the synchronizing control switch at the selected source and consists
of the following devices:


- First part of the answer should outline the strategy to manage such situations and a course of action to prevent such incidents in future.
- Second part of the answer should bring out the use of emotional intelligence in these kinds of circumstances.
- The third part of the answer should outline factors (emotional and attitudinal) which flame racial hatred.
- Also, analyze them in brief.
a) Strategy to manage such situations:
- Empathetic listening to their grievances.
- Promise to take strict actions in future.
- Promise of fair trial.\
- More police patrolling in neighbourhoods having a high presence of members from North East Community.
- New helpline for distress calls.
These actions would help in rebuilding the trust and faith among the North East communities and people protesting.
Plan for the future:
- Legal awareness campaigns in neighbourhoods that have a significant presence of members from the North East community and on introducing lectures on legal rights for university students.
- Social media can be used for improving connectivity and communication with the community. A dedicated Facebook page can be created and nodal police officers should be in constant touch with members of the community on WhatsApp.
- Sports can be used to increase the bonding between people of different communities.
b) What is the use of emotional intelligence in such situations?
Emotional intelligence is the use of emotions to guide thinking and behaviour and preventing being overwhelmed by them. It enables us to recognize and regulate emotions of our own self and that of others. The situation given in the question asks for emotional intelligence to manage the emotions aggrieved students group.
- An emotionally intelligent person will understand the feelings of the outraged public by understanding the reasons behind it. Also, understanding those reasons one is in a better off position to make bonding with the aggrieved party and build trust. It will sooth their impulse and bring rationality in behaviour.
- Emotional intelligence will help him to cope with stressful situations.
- Becoming more aware of emotional triggers that can instigate an angry violent response.
As empathy is one of the core elements of emotional intelligence. It helps in caring. An empathetic attitude will help to tone down impulses and alleviate the suffering of the minorities.
(c) What are the social and attitudinal factors responsible for racial discrimination.
Emotional and Attitudinal factors:
- Prejudice: A negative attitude toward an individual based on his or her membership in a religious, racial, ethnic, political, or other group. Racism is a specific form of prejudice, involving prejudicial attitudes or behaviour towards members of an ethnic group. Prejudice has cognitive, affective, and behavioural components. Based on beliefs, it can affect one’s emotions and behaviour, sometimes leading to discrimination.
- Stereotyping: It is attributing a series of traits to individuals based on the one trait that signals their membership in a particular group. By definition, stereotypes are limiting and disregarding people’s individuality. They also lend themselves to negative and derogatory assumptions.
- Social categorization: In social categorization, we place people into categories. People also reflexively distinguish members of in-groups (groups of which the subject is a member) from members of out-groups. Furthermore, people tend to evaluate out-groups more negatively than in-groups. In this way, social categories easily lend themselves to stereotypes in general and to negative stereotypes in particular.
- Discrimination: Discrimination is generally understood as biased behaviour, which includes not only actions that directly harm or disadvantage another group, but those that unfairly favour one’s own group.
- Self Esteem: People sometimes use prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behaviour to boost their own self-esteem. When people’s self-esteem is threatened, prejudicial actions such as racism appear to restore esteem.
- Dominance: Racism may be driven by dominance motives. Evolutionary psychologists argue that humans, like many other primates, are hierarchical animals. To have a hierarchy, there must be status differences between people. Racism helps preserve status differences because it oppresses minority groups.
- Survival: Prejudice and racism, in particular, may be driven, in part, by basic survival motives. Humans evolved as a species that thrives in groups, and groups compete over scarce resources.
- Fear: People often fear groups that they do not understand. Fear of ‘other’ can easily lead to discrimination, rejection, hatred, etc.
- Impulse: People generally react with impulse against people of different groups
Lack of Empathy (Cultural sensitivity): Lack of cultural sensitivity is the root cause of such attacks and discriminations.


New Zealand scientist Dr John Baker has been nominated as a candidate for the World Food Prize this year, which is due to be announced on Jun. 12. His invention, the cross-slot seed drill, helps retain soil health and has mostly been applied to cereal crops such as rice, wheat, maize and barley. He tells www.freshfruitportal.com about the destructive nature of tilling and how horticulture needs to catch up with other agricultural fields, building a more sustainable industry at the core level of microbes and foodstuffs.
The idea of horse and plough farming stirs up images of mankind at its roots; a traditional and healthy nostalgia in a world of large scale agriculture, tractors, research labs, high pressure irrigation and gigantic refrigerators.
No great economic revolution has ever come without a reliable and affordable food supply; a concerning fact considering the world's population will hit eight billion by 2030, and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) statistics show there are still 925 million undernourished people around the globe.
Without the profound development of agricultural technology, the number of hungry people on this earth would be significantly higher still.
For Baker, the Malthusian population versus land equation has very serious implications for mankind, which means the available soil for cultivation needs to be treated and utilized carefully.
"In order to feed the increasing population in the world, the opportunities for creating new agricultural or horticultural land are just about completely expended.
"I guess some would argue that they can cut down some more of the Amazon Rainforest, but the reality is that only 4% of the world’s surface can grow crops.
"We have to learn to grow our food more sustainably, and that means to be able to use the same piece of soil repetitively without destroying the soil health, or having it disappear through a lack of water or wind erosion, and that essentially means stopping tilling the soil."
Today, horses may have been replaced with tractors, but it is the way we plant seeds that needs to change. When farmers till their fields they oxidize the soil, breaking up the carbon that is stored within it and killing a lot of microorganisms.
"If you oxidize the carbon in the soil, you’ve just destroyed the foodstuff of the microbes, you've killed macrofauna like worms physically, and the food source becomes just a physical medium instead of a biological medium for plants to grow in.
"That greatly reduces the yield potential, but more importantly it exposes the soil to soil erosion from wind and water, and eventually that soil washes away and blows away, and in parts of the world we’re left with bedrock, and it takes 1000 years to create an inch of soil.
"All we’re doing is eating ourselves out of house and home; add to that that we build all our cities and buildings on the best soil anyway, because that’s where the civilizations start up, on the edge of rivers and harbors, which is usually where all the best soil is."
It is difficult to change these habits, but Baker believes the industry will be convinced when it sees how profitable an alternative seeding method that preserves organic matter can be.
"How do you reverse this process? One, by not physically disturbing the soil, not ploughing it, and two by leaving the residues from each successive crop, the bit that we don’t use, and in agriculture we mostly use just the harvested seeds, leaving the rest to decompose on the surface of the soil.
"Of course that's what the microbes want, and they are the mechanism to take the carbon back into the soil, what’s called sequestration, and giving it back to the crop.
"Man is very bad at changing his habits if it costs him money, but this actually doesn’t. It makes him money. The soil becomes more productive, so it’s a win-win for mankind."
He says people often underestimate the importance of soil microbes and how many there are in the soil.
"In a teaspoon full of soil there are something like six billion microbes in healthy soil, and if you beat that up with a plough and other tillage equipment, you beat that figure down substantially and therefore you reduce the potential of the soil to support plant life, which is what we eat."
He adds it is sad that many so-called 'organic' farmers also till their fields.
"That's the most inorganic thing you can possibly do to the soil."
The next step
Baker's input to solving this problem has been a seeding drill that preserves carbon in the soil, which has been applied across millions of hectares in 17 countries.
His focus to date has been on cereal crops as they account for the staple diet of the world's population, but now this has been achieved his next great task is to apply the same technology to horticulture.
He says even if the technology doesn't come from his company, its advancement is inevitable.
"The next big development over the next 30 to 40 years will be horticultural machinery to do no tillage," he says.
"The message for me is that agriculture is way ahead of horticulture in not tilling the soil. South America - particularly Argentina and Brazil, but also Chile, Uruguay and Paraguay - is leading he world in terms of adoption of no tillage practices for agriculture.
"Horticulture is going to have to make the same move, because it actually uses the soil more intensively than agriculture, but the development of machinery for horticulture to do this has lagged behind."
"In terms of soil health and how the machine works, it’s all applicable to horticulture, and would be interesting for vegetable growers who think they’d like to get more out of the ground."
He says the change would present a serious conundrum for some large companies such as tractor businesses, but others like large seed selectors would benefit.
"We have by far, and this is acknowledged by the USDA and FAO, the best soil engaging tools for the business end of actually sowing the seed in the ground.
"We need to, or someone else needs to, marry that to some of the very sophisticated seed selection mechanisms that already exist in the horticultural field, but that hasn’t happened yet."
Baker points to one recent customer in Australia who is using the company's technology to plant lucerne crops in between citrus rows, in a bid to build plant matter and restore soil nutrition.
"They previously poured loads of chemicals into the ground to keep away pests and all the rest of it, and the end result is that the ground is almost barren between the rows, and the citrus itself doesn’t add a lot of organic matter because it’s an evergreen and doesn’t drop a lot of leaves; the ground has had very little carbon and organic matter added to it for a long period of time.
"What he’s saying is that if he can grow a decent crop of lucerne, which would probably grow in the order of 10,000kg (22,000lbs) of dry matter per year and regularly mow that, the mower throws it to the side under the trees, he's going to start rebuilding that organic matter, and that's going to be good for the trees and add nitrogen to the soil too."
He says another argument for restoring plant matter is that it stores water and reduces the need for large dam projects.
"As those soils get less able to support crops, the first thing mankind says is we need water, so they dam up the rivers and now we’ve got irrigation, and so we’re bringing the last little drop we can out of available water to feed them.
"But in reality one kilogram (2.2lbs) of humus or mulch has the same amount of water as nine kilograms (19.8lbs) of clay.
"As societies we have focused on the wrong things; we’ve focused on storing water by damming rivers, when we could have prevented much of the loss of that water by recycling the carbon in the form of humus into the soil."


Animal Husbandry In Madhya Pradesh
Mppsc Prelims Unit 3
Agriculture and animal husbandry are closely related with each other especially in any developing country as most of the farmers of Madhya Pradesh are involved in animal husbandry as well. According to the livestock census 2019 Madhya Pradesh ranks third in overall livestock in the country.( Uttar Pradesh > Rajasthan > Madhya Pradesh).
- The department of animal husbandry and dairying Under Ministry of fisheries animal husbandry and dairying performs livestock census after certain intervals.
- The livestock census in India has started since 1919.
- So far 20 livestock census have been performed.( livestock census 2019 was twentieth Census of livestock).
- The total livestock population in the country is 535.78 It has increased 4.6% over livestock census 2012.
- The total number of livestock in Madhya Pradesh is 40.6 million(As per 2019 census).
- The highest increase in the number of livestock is in West Bengal.
Important facts related with livestock in Madhya Pradesh
- Madhya Pradesh is in 7th rank for milk production.
- Madhya Pradesh has the largest number of goats in the country.
- Dairy development board was established in 1975.
- Madhya Pradesh Gau Seva Aayog adhiniyam was enacted in 1995.
- Bull reproduction centre in Madhya Pradesh is located at Jabalpur.
- Madhya Pradesh Livestock and Poultry Development Corporation was established in November 1982, it is also known as Madhya Pradesh Rajya Pashudhan Avam Kukkut Vikas Nigam. Its headquarter is in Bhopal.
- Madhya Pradesh state fisheries Development Corporation was established in 1979 in Bhopal, Later it was replaced by Matsya Mahasangh in 1999.
- Jheenga Hechri is in Balaghat.
- The highest number of animals are in Sidhi.
- The least number of animals are in Burhanpur.
- Morena produces the highest amount of milk.
- The maximum density of animals is in Tikamgarh and the minimum is in Hoshangabad.
- Beej Gram Scheme Was launched in 2005-06, its main purpose was to provide training for efficient storage of seeds.
- Kisan Call Centre was established in Bhopal.
- Madhya Pradesh Krishi upaj Mandi Act was passed in 1960.
- Madhya Pradesh Bhumi Vikas Bank was est. in 1977-78.
- In 1962 animal husbandry department was established under the department of agriculture in Madhya Pradesh.
- Kamdhenu gou abhyaran ( Kamdhenu cow sanctuary) is in Susner, Agar Malwa.
- Khurpaka muh Paka and langdi are diseases of livestock.
- Nanaji Deshmukh veterinary Medical Science University is in Jabalpur.
- Government Veterinary College is in Mhow Indore.
- Madhya Pradesh health has a total nine poultry breeding farms.
- Bull mother farm is in Bhopal.
- Nandi Shala scheme was launched in 2005 to improve the breed of cows in rural areas.
- MP’s first fishery policy was announced at Matsya Panchayat in Jabalpur in 2008.
- The highest fish production in Madhya Pradesh is in Jabalpur and the second position is in Seoni.
- Veterinary colleges in Madhya Pradesh are in Jabalpur,Mhow, Rewa, Bhopal and Morena.
Local breeds of Madhya Pradesh
- Kadaknath :- It is a breed of poultry,found in Alirajpur, Jhabua and Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh. Madhya Pradesh has received G I tag for kadaknath.It is also considered as pride of Madhya Pradesh.Its flesh and eggs are highly nutritious especially known for high percentage of protein and hemoglobin. kadaknath has four subcategories – Golden, Back, Silver, Pencil.
- Bhadawari :- It is a breed of Buffalo, generally found in Bhind and Gwalior district of Madhya Pradesh. Its appearance – Medium height, small head, long tail, short and stout legs.
- Jamnapari :- It is a local breed of goat found in Madhya Pradesh Bhind district. It has long swing ears and flat horns, moreover it has a Red White spot on its body and produces 23 litre milk per day.
- Nimadi :- Nimadi is a breed of cow(red in colour), it is also known as queen of Nimar.It primarily found in Khargone and Khandwa district of Madhya Pradesh, moreover it produces 4 to 5 litre milk per day.
- Malawi :- It is a breed of cow found in Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh. District – Mandsaur, Shajapur, Rajgarh. It produces 4 to 5 litre milk per day and is of grey black colour.


The Beaufort Scale is a means of measuring wind speed by visual inspection of indirect factors like rustling leaves or waves on water. I think its a useful means of assessing flight safety in the field.
The British National Meteorological Library and Archive published an excellent history and overview of the development of the Beaufort Scale, and in the back was a comic, drawn in 1906 by George Simpson, an explorer and meteorologist who extended the Beaufort Scale from observations at sea to observations on land. The comic is great. I cleaned it up so that it would display better and could be used as a print handout:


Vudoshicage This system lists Horn before Trumpet. The first number stands for Violinthe second for Violathe third for Celloand the fourth for Double Bass. Playlists Featured All Recommended. Editor Edwin Arbxn Goldman If you find the biography content factually incorrect or highly offensive you can edit this article at Wikipedia. Other Required and Solo parts follow the strings:. Why am I seeing this?
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Arban covers the range of the cornet trumpet. He also details alternate fingerings and describes the use of the tuning slide. Arban states his opinion that the mouthpiece should be two-thirds on the lower lip and one-third on the upper. Arban then stresses the proper "attack" technique. He uses the "tu" pronunciation, in contrast with modern authorities, which often use "tee. First Studies Arban then begins his method with a focus on tone Studies The next studies familiarize the student with fingerings, develop his or her range, and instill a habit of precision in attacking the notes.
In the next section, which is devoted to syncopation, goes from a simple quarter-half-quarter rhythm to a sixteenth-eighth-sixteenth repeated rhythm. Next, Arban focuses on the dotted eighth-sixteenth and eighth-double sixteenth rhythms.
Playing Methods: Slurring or Legato Playing Professor Arban devotes the next section of his vast method to slurring or legato playing. He begins with simple slurs that are accomplished by the variation of valves. He suggests pronouncing "taw-ee" while playing. The editor recommends adding little more air on the top note. Such a technique is also needed to accomplish trills. Arban devotes half of this whole section, though, to lip slurs. He concludes this section with a series of advanced studies combining slurred and staccato playing.
Arban admits to giving minor scales "limited treatment," but Gordon refutes this by citing the nonexistence of "limits on the use of the Trumpet and Cornet. Arban concludes the fourth section by combining the various ornaments and integrating them into various tunes. Tonguing Next, Arban focuses on triple tonguing, double tonguing, and fanfare tonguing. Arban uses various "tu-ku" pronunciation combinations, and Gordon subsequently replaces these with "tee-kee" combinations.
In his studies on double tonguing, Arban includes a score of studies in which he combines double tonguing with slurs occurring on various beats and within them. The Art of Phrasing: Classic and Popular Melodies Now that Arban has taught the student his or her basics and instilled within him or her all the best of playing habits, he integrates these into performable songs.
All of these, however, require their performers to be synchronized with one another. His concluding remarks preceding these are as follows: Those of my readers who…want to attain…perfection, should…try to hear good music well interpreted. They must seek out…the most illustrious models, and…purify their taste, verify their sentiments, and bring themselves as near as possible to that which is beautiful. Each accompaniment includes pauses for the various cadenzas in each song.
CARNIVAL OF VENICE ARBAN PDF


Honoring potato chips inventor George Crum, born George Speck (1828 – 1914) of African and Native American Indian ancestry.
Every time a person crunches into a potato chip, he or she is enjoying the delicious taste of one of the world’s most famous snacks – a treat that might not exist without the contribution of Afro Native American inventor(s) George Crum and his sister Catherine Speck Wicks.
George Crum was working as a chef in the summer of 1853 when he incidentally invented the potato chip with the assistance of his sister Catherine Speck Wicks. George Speck “Crum” and Catherine “Kate” Speck Wicks were born to Abraham and Catherine Speck.
Anthropologist, historian, and museum consultant Margaret M. Bruchac believe that George Speck and his sister Catherine Speck Wicks both identified as members of the St. Regis Mohawk tribe. George Speck is believed to be the son of a Black father and a Native American Indian mother. He also used the name Crum (George Crum), as his father did while a jockey.
Most stories say that George Speck aka George Crum spent his youth as a guide in the Adirondack Mountains of New York, and by 1953, he was working for Cary Moon at Moon’s Lake House.
It all began when a patron who ordered a plate of French-fried potatoes sent them back to George Crum’s kitchen because he felt they were too thick and soft. To teach the picky patron a lesson, Crum sliced a new batch of potatoes as thin as he possibly could, and then fried them until they were hard and crunchy.
Finally, to top them off, he added a generous heaping of salt. To Crum’s surprise, the dish ended up being a hit with the patron and a new snack was born!
In 1860 George Speck “Crum” purchased a building on Malta Avenue near Saratoga Lake, NY and within a few years was catering to wealthy clients including William Vanderbilt, Cornelius Vanderbilt, Jay Gould, and Henry Hilton.
A basket of potato chips was placed on every table. Though George Crum never attempted to patent his potato chip invention, the snack was eventually mass-produced, sold in bag without giving any credits to the real potato chip inventor(s) George Speck Crum and/or his sister Catherine Speck Wicks.
- 1853 George Crum invents the Saratoga Chip, a thin French fry, now known as the potato chip.
- 1860 George Crum opened his own restaurant, featuring potato chips in a basket placed on every table.
- 1895 William Tappendon of Cleveland, Ohio begins selling potato chips as food in grocery stores.
- 1908 Leominster Potato Chip Co., Leominster, MA (later changed the name to Tri-Sum)
- 1910 Mikesell’s Potato Chips, Dayton, Ohio.
- 1910 George Dentler, Houston, Texas.
- 1913 Dan Dee Pretzel and Potato Chip Company, Cleveland, Ohio.
- 1918 Num Num, Cleveland, Ohio
- 1919 Blue Bell – Illinois
- 1921 Wise Delicatessen Company, Berwick, Pennsylvania.
- 1921 Utz – Hanover, Pennsylvania. started as the Hanover Home Brand Potato Chips
- 1921 Magic Food Co, later Golden Flake*, Birmingham, Alabama.
- 1924 Moore’s, Bristol, Virginia.
- 1926 Scudder’s – Monterey Park, California
- 1930 Better Made – Detroit, Michigan
- 1932 Lay’s – founded by Herman Lay of Nashville, Tennessee
Note: Afro Native American or African Native American? People who call themselves “Black Indians” are people living in America of African-American descent, with significant heritage of Native American Indian ancestry, and with strong connections to Indian Country and its Native American Indian culture, social, and historical traditions. Black Indians are also called Afro Native American people, Black American Indians, Black Native Americans and Afro Native. Connecting with our ancestors.
SOURCE: Based on materials from ideafinder.com and brooksidemuseum.org


If there was ever a universal language that speaks to people of all nationalities and backgrounds, it would have to be the smile. No matter where you go in the world, a smile can help to open doors, build rapport and make connections – even with complete strangers. Amazingly, smiling not only makes others feel better about you, it can also improve your overall health and wellbeing.
Here are some of the transformative effects of smiling that you probably didn’t know about:
We’ve all been told that eating healthy and regular exercise are important contributors towards our body’s immune system, but how many of us know that smiling can bring about similar benefits? According to psychological studies, when you smile, your body releases ‘feel good’ neurotransmitters – like endorphins and dopamine – that makes you more relaxed, lowers your heart rate and blood pressure.1 When your body feels relaxed and less stressful, it can also improve and strengthen your immune system.2 The simple act of smiling everyday can therefore give your immune system a boost, which in turn, increases your defence against bacteria and viruses that causes colds, flus and other health ailments.2
In line with studies that showed the effects of smiling on our positive emotions, psychological scientists Tara Kraft and Sarah Pressman of the University of Kansas, discovered through a social experiment that smiling during brief periods of stress may help reduce the body's stress response, regardless of the person’s state of emotions at the time.3 The research also suggested that smiling helps to lower heart rates after a person recovers from a stressful activity.3
The practical inference that can be made is this: Although you may be in a foul mood, smiling or simply faking a grin – no matter how awkward that sounds – may actually help you to perceive stress differently and your heart cope better during times of stress. This research is supported by other findings that link the medical benefits of smiling to lower levels of stress hormones like cortisol and adrenaline.5
Findings of another study, published in the journal Neuropsychologia, suggested scientific reasons why others might view you favourably – sincere, relaxed and reliable – when you smile.1 According to the report, looking at a smiling face can activate a person’s orbitofrontal cortex, the part of your brain that processes sensory rewards.1
Happy and smiling faces, a research study in Pyschology found, has an impact on the accuracy and bias of age estimates.5 There you have it, smiling not only makes you more appealing to others, but can also help you appear youthful.
Scientists at Wayne State University conducted a research analysing players’ smiles on 1952 baseball cards.6 Interestingly, they found a difference of 7 years in life expectancy between players who grinned versus those who did not smile at all. The Fort Wayne studies attributed the findings to well-documented therapeutic benefits of smiling.5
As can be seen, your smile is one of your most valuable assets to a healthier and more fulfilling life. Clearly, you have a duty not only to use it often, but also to look after it well. Keep smiling!
At Face Value Dental, we offer a range of Dental Treatment Options that are designed to protect and rejuvenate your smile. If you’re interested to find out more, please contact us on (07 3221 0677 or visit our webpage http://www.facevaluedental.com for more information.
1. Riggio, Ronald E. "There's Magic In Your Smile." Psychology Today. June 25, 2012. https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/cutting-edge-leadership/201206/there-s-magic-in-your-smile.
2. "How to Boost Your Immune System." New Health Guide. November 07, 2014. http://www.newhealthguide.org/How-to-Boost-Your-Immune-System.html.
3. "Smiling Reduces Stress And Helps The Heart." Medical News Today. August 01, 2012. http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/248433.php.
4. "Smiling Reduces Stress And Helps The Heart." Medical News Today. August 01, 2012. http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/248433.php.
5. Collins, Danica. "Danica Collins." Underground Health Reporter. July 14, 2014. http://undergroundhealthreporter.com/smiling-extends-your-lifespan/.


|Scientific Name:||Eleutherodactylus corona|
|Species Authority:||Hedges & Thomas, 1992|
|Red List Category & Criteria:||Critically Endangered A3c; B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) ver 3.1|
|Assessor(s):||Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas|
|Reviewer(s):||Global Amphibian Assessment Coordinating Team (Simon Stuart, Janice Chanson, Neil Cox and Bruce Young)|
Listed as Critically Endangered because a population decline of greater than 80% over the next ten years, is predicted from severe degradation of the species' habitat: and because its Extent of Occurrence is less than 100km2 and its Area of Occupancy is less than 10km2, all individuals are in a single population, and the extent of its forest habitat on the Massif de la Hotte, Haiti, is declining.
|Range Description:||This species is known from only one site on the Massif de la Hotte, in Haiti, at 1,120m asl.|
|Range Map:||Click here to open the map viewer and explore range.|
|Population:||It is known from fewer than 10 specimens, and is probably very rare.|
|Habitat and Ecology:||It is an arboreal species, occurring in high-elevation cloud forest. It has been recorded only from forest edge but this is probably not suitable habitat. Males call from bromeliads or orchids, which they appear to require for reproduction. The species breeds by direct development.|
|Major Threat(s):||Severe habitat destruction is taking place in its range, primarily due to logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.|
|Conservation Actions:||The species occurs only in the Parc National Macaya, but there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area, in order to ensure the persistence of this species as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area. Survey work is required to determine the population status of this species.|
Hedges, S.B. 1993. Global amphibian declines: a perspective from the Caribbean. Biodiversity and Conservation 2(3): 290-303.
Hedges, S.B. 1999. Distribution of amphibians in the West Indies. In: W.E. Duellman (ed.), Patterns of Distribution of Amphibians. A Global Perspective, pp. 211-254. The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, Maryland.
Hedges, S.B. 2001. Caribherp: database of West Indian amphibians and reptiles (http://www.caribherp.net). Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.
Hedges, S.B. and Thomas, R. 1992. Two new species of Eleutherodactylus from remnant cloud forest in Haiti (Anura, Leptodactylidae). Herpetologica: 351-358.
Henderson, R.W. and Powell, R. 1999. West Indian herpetoecology. In: B.I. Crother (ed.), Caribbean Amphibians and Reptiles, pp. 223-226. Academic Press, San Diego, California.
Henderson, R.W. and Powell, R. 2001. Responses by the West Indian herpetofauna to human-influenced resources. Caribbean Journal of Science 37: 41-54.
IUCN. 2004. 2004 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. www.iucnredlist.org. Downloaded on 23 November 2004.
Schwartz, A. and Henderson, R.W. 1991. Amphibians and Reptiles of the West Indies: Descriptions, Distributions and Natural History. University of Florida Press, Gainesville, Florida.
|Citation:||Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas 2004. Eleutherodactylus corona. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.3. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 28 March 2015.|
|Feedback:||If you see any errors or have any questions or suggestions on what is shown on this page, please provide us with feedback so that we can correct or extend the information provided|


Students from grade four onward tend to store their papers in binders. As adults, we assume that the use of a binder comes naturally and is just common knowledge. For some people that is true, but for others, it does not come naturally, and is a skill that needs to be taught.
The easiest system for most students who travel between classrooms is to have one large binder that holds everything. They always have everything with them, and there is less chance of forgetting what they need for a particular class.
If only one binder is being used, it needs to be a good one. The kind that you buy at the grocery store for a couple of dollars will not hold much, and will not last. Get a sturdy, large one that will hold up through the year. I find that the fabric-covered zipper types work well. They often have the added bonus of compartments for pens etc. inside the front cover, and when zipped up, prevent things from getting lost.
Some even have file pockets for carrying homework papers or notices.
Colourful dividers keep the subjects straight. Make sure your student knows how to insert papers into the correct area. Sometimes, they just open the binder randomly and jam a paper in, without looking to see if it is in the right subject area, or (if it is) in the correct order. Yes, really. Someone needs to show them that it works like a book; the new chapter goes at the end.
A “pocket” for each subject is also helpful. There can be homework papers, projects in process, flash cards or file cards that won’t go in the holes.
A page protector or plastic pocket will hold those things safely.
If the binder does not have pencil/pen loops in the front, a zippered pencil case with just a few crucial tools (pencil, pen, eraser, small ruler) will help the student get to class with all the important stuff.


I recently wrote about some new research that connected dental x-rays to a common brain tumor called a meningioma. Unfortunately, the news media took the “connection” from the research and made some pretty sensational claims. It made a lot of dentists pretty mad and it made a lot of patients pretty nervous.
Today I got a suggestion from a Facebook friend:
“Al, I’ve seen the phrase ‘levels of radiation that are so small as to be insignificant’ used a fair bit in the last few years. Particularly in relation to the Japanese disaster and the observation of levels of radiation around the world due to it…I think it would be instructive to have hard numbers to compare to background and other common sources that are considered safe.”
I agree. I’ve been explaining how safe x-rays are to patients for so long, I’ve kind of forgotten about the actual amounts of radiation that we expose them to. So let’s talk a little bit about radiation.
Electromagnetic radiation, or EMR, is any form of energy that travels in a wave. Visible light, radio waves, microwaves and x-rays are all forms of EMR that are common to us. The different types of EMR are characterized by their wavelength and frequency. Longer wavelength radiation like radio waves and have a lower frequency and are considered “low energy.” The shorter the wavelength the higher the frequency of the energy and generally these are “higher energy.” Very high energy like x-rays and gamma rays that can cause an electron to break away from an atom are considered ionizing radiation. These are the kinds of radiation that can cause health problems. Too much ionizing radiation can cause damage to the DNA in a person’s cells, which can lead to tumor formation and even cancer. The high energy state of x-rays is also what makes them so useful for seeing structures inside the body. Visible light is stopped by the skin and soft tissues around your bones and teeth, but x-rays can penetrate through them to show us things that we cannot see with visible light alone.
Harm from radiation sources is “dose dependent,” which means that more is worse. So in order to maintain safe levels of radiation in the dental office we need to know what kind of dose that we’re giving. The dose of radiation is measured in millirems or mrem. You can actually calculate common radiation doses using this chart from the American Nuclear Society.
So what is a “safe” level of radiation dosage? According to the American Nuclear Society the average level of radiation per person in the United States is 620 mrem/year. The safe allowable dose for people that are exposed to radiation in their work (nuclear plant workers, radiology technicians) is 5000 mrem/year.
Here are some examples of radiation dosages for different common exposures:
- 1 bitewing or PA dental x-ray: 0.5 mrem
- 2 hours in a jet plane: 1 mrem
- 1 panoramic dental x-ray: ~3 mrem
- living in a stone, adobe or concrete house (instead of wood frame): 7 mrem/year
- a full mouth set of dental x-rays: 9 mrem
- chest x-ray: 10 mrem
- 1 pack of cigarettes each day: 36 mrem/year
- chest CT scan: 700 mrem
- whole body CT scan: 1000 mrem
These numbers reflect conventional film x-rays. Many dentists use digital x-ray technology which needs significantly less radiation to make x-ray images. In some cases the amount of radiation needed is 80% less than conventional film radiography, which would yield even lower radiation doses.
Even though dental x-rays have an incredibly low dose of radiation, it makes sense to limit the amount of radiation as much as possible. Patients with a proven track record of low decay rate are an example of a type of patient that may not need diagnostic x-rays each year. Other diagnostic methods like high magnification with intense lighting, evaluating saliva flow and dietary evaluation can help determine a patient’s risk for new decay. For patients who have experienced cavities recently or new patients that don’t have a track record with their dentist, taking dental x-rays on a regular basis is necessary diagnostic tool.
So what’s a patient to do? How do you know if an x-ray is necessary? You need to ask your dentist. And if you don’t feel like your dentist is hearing you, perhaps you need to find another. Having a relationship with a dentist whose opinion you trust is a great way to know that you’ve found a good balance between too many x-rays and not enough information to prevent dental problems.
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If you’re looking for a dentist in Saginaw, we’re always happy to accept new patients! You can request an appointment online or call the office at (989) 799-9133. And, as always, you can email me at firstname.lastname@example.org. I always answer my own emails!