A Toast to Optogenetics
“This seems rather far-fetched but it is conceivable that molecular biologists could engineer a particular cell type to be sensitive to light.”
These words, published in 1999 by Francis Crick  (co-discoverer of the DNA double helix structure and a neuroscientist later in life) were incredibly prophetic. It did seem far-fetched, and yet, a mere six years after that, the first paper was published showing that mammalian neurons could be reliably activated with light. Here we are, 10 years later, and optogenetics – opto for “light” and genetics to refer to the fact that neurons are made light-sensitive by controlling gene expression – has rapidly become one of the most widely used tools in neuroscience. In honor of the 10th anniversary, let us celebrate as if optogenetics were not merely a scientific tool but rather a loved one celebrating 10 years of marriage. Let us raise our glasses for a toast and reminisce on how it all began!
But first, why the celebration? Why is optogenetics such a powerful tool that it merits an anniversary celebration at all? Imagine that you are a neuroscientist and you want to determine whether a population of neurons is important for something like memory or attention. To do that, you would need to inactivate that population and observe whether the behavior becomes impaired in order to establish that those neurons are necessary for that behavior. Depending on how strong a claim you want to make, you might even want to establish sufficiency, that activation of those neurons produces that behavior. This would require you to manipulate those neurons’ activity specifically and precisely. Manipulation has to be specific if you want to establish that those neurons alone are important for that behavior, and it has to be precise on a millisecond timescale that mirrors the activity of actual neuronal activity or else risk throwing off the entire system. Unfortunately, if you had wanted to do these experiments more than 10 years ago, you wouldn’t have been able to.
This brings us to the beginning of our anniversary slideshow, circa 2000, where we see Stanford students Ed Boyden and Karl Deisseroth pining over this very scenario. Many neuroscientists were trying to figure out how to specifically and precisely activate neurons, but most of the ideas involved magnetic or electric fields that were impossible to restrict to a single-neuron scale. Though only doctoral students at the time, Boyden and Deisseroth had the idea that light could be more precise, if only there was some way to make neurons light-sensitive…
The solution began to emerge when Boyden stumbled upon a whole field of literature on microbial opsins, which are proteins found in single-celled organisms, such as algae, that convert light into electrical energy. Most of the organisms in which these proteins had been found flourished in extremely salty environments, but for the first time in 1999, one particular protein was found whose optimal conditions were similar to the natural conditions inside the brain . A few years later in 2003, a group in Germany published a paper on the successful use of a new light-sensitive protein found in green algae, channelrhodopsin in cultured mammalian kidney cells . These findings hinted that perhaps these proteins could be viably expressed in neurons.
To fully appreciate the utility of activating neurons with light and how this might be achieved, it is necessary to understand that activity in the brain takes the form of electrical signals. At the level of a single neuron, the most basic unit of activity is an action potential, or more colloquially, a “spike”. A spike occurs when channels in the neuron’s membrane open and trigger a rush of positively-charged sodium ions into the neuron. This quick inward current and the following outward current caused by a rapid evacuation of positively-charged potassium ions out of the cell together produce the characteristic “spike” shape (Fig 1). From there, this electrical signal travels down the neuron’s axon and ultimately initiates the neuron’s release of chemical signals. When these neurotransmitters bind to the next neuron, its electrical activity is altered, and the process continues.
Channelrhodopsin (ChR2) is a membrane channel similar to the channels controlling the neuronal spikes except that blue-wavelength light causes it to open, allowing any positively-charged ion to pass through. Thus, when blue light is shined onto neurons containing ChR2, sodium ions (which are positively-charged) are able to sneak in before the other channels in the neuron’s membrane have opened. This added charge inside the cell opens the floodgates for even more sodium to rush in and, voila! You’ve got active neurons firing many spikes at your command (Fig. 2).
But back in Palo Alto in 2003, this was merely an ideal scenario that had yet to be brought to fruition. Boyden and Deisseroth procured some ChR2 from the group in Germany and began perfecting their genetic delivery of the protein to neurons in a dish (for a nice description of how this works, see another optogenetics-themed NeuWrite post!). As it turns out, they were incredibly lucky that ChR2 was in many ways the perfect construct for what they wanted to achieve. A single gene was sufficient to make the fully-functioning protein, it safely expressed in mammalian neurons, and it worked on a fast enough timescale to be compatible with neuronal communication: altogether an incredible hat-trick of good fortune. In a classic case of feverish graduate student mania, Boyden went into his lab at 1am one morning in 2004 and for the first time recorded from a neuron expressing ChR2 that was easily activated by pulses of blue light. One year later, they published their seminal paper in Nature Neuroscience , thus consummating the holy academic sacrament that we are now celebrating 10 years later.
In the last decade, optogenetics has matured into a ubiquitous, powerful, and remarkably easy-to-use tool for neuroscientists of all kinds. In the years following their big paper, Boyden and Deisseroth – freshly minted young faculty working sometimes in collaboration and sometimes in competition – expanded the optogenetics toolkit by adding proteins that, unlike ChR2, inactivate neurons when excited by particular-wavelength light. Today, there are many different genetically optimized opsins that are available to use (see many of them here), some of which can do things that even Crick may not have thought possible; for instance, there is a set of “step-function” opsins that only need a brief light pulse to turn neurons “on or off” for an extended period of time, waiting for another light pulse to set them back to normal.
But arguably the most critical advancement in the use of optogenetic tools has been in their application to subgroups of neurons. Recall our hypothetical, ideal scenario where we are able to reliably activate a specific population of neurons in order to determine their function. Optogenetics can be used to turn on or off a brain area to identify its role in behavior, but it can also be used to target specific types of cells within a single brain region. This allows you to determine these cells’ role in how that brain region processes information as well as their specific contribution to a behavior, since different cell types can play very different functional roles. An example of how this cell specificity is achieved is with mice that have been genetically modified to express a special protein called cre in only your cells of interest. A gene coding for an optogenetic protein, such as ChR2, can then be made cre-dependent so that when it is delivered to the mice, ChR2 will only be expressed in your cells of interest, thus allowing you to selectively turn them on with light. In this way, optogenetics has allowed modern neuroscientists to achieve a level of specificity that was simply impossible a decade ago. Incredibly, this cell-specific manipulation can also be achieved in vivo – in awake, behaving animals. By 2007, neuroscientists were able to express opsins in their cell types of interest in living mice, activating and inactivating them and observing their role in natural behavior.
In this video, ChR2 is expressed in the mouse’s motor cortex, the part of the brain that controls movement. Notice that when the blue light turns on, the mouse starts to run!
Beyond just being cool, the ability to turn specific cells on or off with light holds great promise for advancing our understanding of the brain. In many ways, it already has. For instance, it has elucidated some of the circuit mechanisms underlying our primary sensory systems like vision, audition, etc. as well as movement control, sleep and circadian rhythms, social behavior, and memory to name a few . Remarkably, we have also learned a lot about various brain disorders at the cellular level. For example, optogenetics in awake mice was used to manipulate two opposing pathways deep in the brain that are involved in motor control, resulting in increased or suppressed Parkinson-like behavior. Strikingly, the selective activation of one pathway dramatically improved symptoms in a Parkinsons mouse model . Recently at the annual Society for Neuroscience conference, there was a poster demonstrating that selective optogenetic activation of a specific type of cell in the brain’s frontal cortex abolished social deficits in a mouse model of autism . Bear in mind that optogenetics is nowhere close to being used safely in humans for direct clinical interventions (although arguably the most promising application is for improving disrupted vision in the human retina ). Nevertheless, optogenetics is revealing much about how the brain works in a healthy state and what is disrupted in disordered states so that other interventions can be developed.
The relationship between neuroscientists and light-sensitive proteins has been a beautiful thing to behold. It’s amazing to think that 10 years have already gone by, and yet, so much has changed since they first joined forces that it simultaneously feels like a whole lifetime has passed. Who is to say what the next decade will bring? Improved and even more sophisticated opsins? Being able to simultaneously image and control large-scale networks in the brain ? New approaches for activating neurons of interest, such as with ultrasound? It’s an exciting time in neuroscience, certainly worthy of a celebratory toast.
- Crick, F. (1999). The impact of molecular biology on neuroscience. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 354(1392), 2021–2025. http://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1999.0541
- D. Okuno et al. (1999). Chloride concentration dependency of the electrogenic activity of halorhodopsin. Biochemistry, 38, 5422-29.
- G. Nagel et al. (2003). Channelrhodopsin-2, a directly light-gated cation-selective membrane channel. PNAS, 100, 13940-45.
- Boyden, E. S., Zhang, F., Bamberg, E., Nagel, G., & Deisseroth, K. (2005). Millisecond-timescale, genetically targeted optical control of neural activity. Nat Neurosci, 8(9), 1263–1268. http://doi.org/10.1038/nn1525
- Deisseroth, K. (2015). Optogenetics: 10 years of microbial opsins in neuroscience. Nat Neurosci, 18(9), 1213–1225.
- Kravitz, A. V., Freeze, B. S., Parker, P. R. L., Kay, K., Thwin, M. T., Deisseroth, K., & Kreitzer, A. C. (2010). Regulation of parkinsonian motor behaviors by optogenetic control of basal ganglia circuitry. Nature, 466(7306), 622–626. http://doi.org/10.1038/nature09159
- Selimbeyoglu, C. K., et al. (2015). Optogenetic rescue of impaired social behavior phenotype in autism [Abstract]. Society for Neuroscience Annual Meeting. Retrieved from http://www.abstractsonline.com/Plan/SSResults.aspx
- Chow, B. Y., & Boyden, E. S. (2013). Optogenetics and Translational Medicine. Science Translational Medicine, 5(177), 177ps5–177ps5. http://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.3003101
- Boyden, E. S. (2015). Optogenetics and the future of neuroscience. Nat Neurosci, 18(9), 1200–1201.
Other general references:
Adamantidis, A., Arber, S., Bains, J. S., Bamberg, E., Bonci, A., Buzsaki, G., … Wilson, R. I. (2015). Optogenetics: 10 years after ChR2 in neurons[mdash]views from the community. Nat Neurosci, 18(9), 1202–1212.
Boyden, E. S. (2011, July 1). The Birth of Optogenetics. The Scientist. Retrieved from http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/30756/title/The-Birth-of-Optogenetics/
Boyden, E. S. (2011). A history of optogenetics: the development of tools for controlling brain circuits with light. F1000 Biology Reports, 3, 11. http://doi.org/10.3410/B3-11
Karl and Ed: http://www.photonics.com/Article.aspx?AID=57936


By Dr. Jonathan Elion, MD, FACC for HealthTECH Zone
The Photographic Painting
The value of a new technology is often not understood for many years after its invention. The first film cameras (remember those?) were initially used to capture landscapes, still life studies and portraits. In that regard, they were acting as a “photographic painting”, capturing the standard known subject matter for artists that were using traditional media. It wasn’t until much later that the technology began to realize its full potential in fields as diverse as astronomy, microscopy, high-speed photography and movies.
Computer applications in the Clinical Documentation Improvement (CDI) field are capable of making a similar transformative leap. Rather than simply recreating what we already do today with notes, simple databases and spreadsheets, new technologies allow for totally new workflows, efficiencies, integration, reporting and analysis. Some of these recent trends are starting to have a tremendous impact on CDI.
Rules-Based Expert Systems
An expert system is a specialized type of software that provides answers to problems, eliminating the need to consult a human expert. When applied to a CDI program, the expert system collects and organizes clinical information, examining its own knowledge base and applying its rules, and thereby making its documentation expertise widely available throughout a healthcare organization.
The expert system approach has already been shown to be capable of providing a number of valuable enhancements to CDI, where its rules are applied to the clinical data that has been collected. For instance an expert system could:
- Examine the list of a patient’s medications and laboratory results and suggest additional diagnoses to be considered. This can be as simple as a reminder to add the diagnosis of “hypokalemia” when the serum potassium is low, or to consider congestive heart failure if the patient is taking Furosemide.
- Ask about possible infections when the patient is receiving an antibiotic but there is not a bacterial infection diagnosis listed.
- Identify simple relationships among diagnoses, and make a comprehensive list of suggestions when there is “altered mental status” present.
- Put together more abstract diagnoses such as gastrointestinal bleeding and a low hemoglobin and hematocrit and suggest the user consider anemia, and additional suggestions looking to see if the anemia is caused by the GI bleed.
While an expert system cannot be expected to be better than the human expert, the system provides the ability to automate, process large amounts of information, and to clone the expertise of the human expert. This becomes extremely helpful in improving efficiencies and in training new staff in the subtleties of CDI.
Software as a Service
Providing such an expert system requires that the “knowledge”, or software system, be made available throughout the organization, a goal that is easily accomplished with the use of a hosted data model.
In the past, the use of “Software as a Service” approaches were met with concerns over security and confidentiality, causing many hospitals to return to or stick with a strategy of owning and maintaining their own software and hardware. However, technology and security advances have now made this “hosted data center” approach attractive once again. In addition to greater security, this approach also offers economies of scale and reduced operations and maintenance costs. The technology that underlies a hosted data center ensures that all users have continual access, while securing the patient data, and allowing for the aggregation of data which can be used for benchmarking and comparisons with peer groups. Perhaps the most significant impact of this approach is the elimination of the barrier to entry, as no hardware or software installation is required. New customers can be brought online in a matter of hours instead of weeks or months. For the small hospital, this means access to sophisticated computer systems without the need for a similarly sophisticated IT department. For the large hospital, the burden of managing software licenses and installation is eliminated.
A web-delivered product can also reduce the risks created by rogue programs and viruses on a hospital’s personal computers. Until recently, most applications required the installation of software onto the desktop, which opened the door to malware and made hospital IT departments wary. Today’s advances have eliminated that need, allowing immediate and secure access to data over the web from a browser, and ensuring that all users are running the most current version. Modern browsers can be set to eliminate the local caching of Protected Health Information (“PHI”), further reducing the risk of errant confidential data.
We’ll look at the role that Business Intelligence can play in CDI in In Part 2 of this discussion.
About the Author: Dr. Jonathan Elion, MD, FACC, is a practicing board-certified cardiologist in Providence, RI and an Associate Professor of Medicine at Brown University. With over 40 years of experience in computing and more than 25 years of experience in medical computing and information standards, Dr. Elionhas committed his career to innovations in high value services and healthcare delivery to maximize efficiency and cost effectiveness. Jon is the founder of ChartWise Medical Systems, Inc., a Rhode Island based company that recently introduced ChartWise 2.0. It is the first-to-market interactive software system designed to improve precision in quality clinical documentation and to support revenue assurance through its web-based, comprehensive built-in expertise, electronic queries and robust on-demand reporting.


Proper mask usage, cleaning explained
BATON ROUGE - More people are encouraged to wear masks in public. And when a few rules are relaxed allowing some businesses to operate Friday, workers will need them to cover their nose and mouth.
The CDC says if you're going to be out and about doing essential things, your face should be covered while maintaining a social distance. Dr. Mindy Calandro with the Baton Rouge Clinic says wearing a mask protects others from the coronavirus.
"You're wearing them to help reduce spread," she said. "If you were to have it, it helps reduce you from spreading it."
More people are wearing masks in grocery stores and when they're in public, near others. Many people are being resourceful, making them for others or themselves. There are also tutorials online to show you how to make a mask using items found around the house. Here's one from the Surgeon General.
All the mask has to do is prevent exhalation of most large particles ejected when you cough or sneeze, or launch saliva when you're talking. You're protected from inhalation when others around you wear a mask.
Certainly, N95 masks are better than a cloth mask, which helps to block the droplet particles from entering and exiting. It's why healthcare workers need them, because they're working with confirmed or suspected COVID-19 patients.
"We know that they need them, because we know that they're exposed to those particles," Calandro said.
There has been discussion about reusing and disinfecting an N95 mask. People might be inclined to do so because they're so hard to find. The N95 masks weren't designed to be reused, while cloth masks are.
It is not recommended to spray or disinfect masks with disinfectant spray. It's best to wash your cloth mask in hot soapy water or run it through a washing machine cycle.
At the state's daily news conference Tuesday, Governor John Bel Edwards spoke about the importance that everyone over the age of two wears a mask. Dr. Alex Billioux demonstrated how to properly wear, clean, and store a mask.
"When I wear a cloth mask, I'm limiting the potential virus that's shedding out of my face," Billioux said. "If we're all wearing masks, we're limiting the likelihood that if any of us are asymptomatic or symptomatic that we are shedding virus to each other."
When you're not wearing your mask, Billioux recommends that it's stored in a safe place, like a plastic bag. The mask should be folded inward so the outside is not touching the inside of the mask. The idea is that you want to touch your mask and face as little as possible. Before putting on and removing your mask, you should wash your hands and return the mask to its bag, put it in the washing machine, or wash it by hand. Billioux recommends washing the mask after each use.
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Mike wrote to the “Consult-Ant” with a number of questions about ants. I am going to try to answer each one in a separate post. For the original list of questions and links to all answers, visit here.
11) Are there some ant species that simply drink water and then other species that absorb it from the humidity of the air? Or do they all do both?
Your question reminded me of the movie Microcosmos, which contains some great footage of ants and other insects dealing with water. I’ll throw the trailer below.
The second thing I thought of was communal peeing as a flood defense, where ants drink water and then run outside to “pee,” removing excess water from their nests. You know you want to click the link and see it, so go ahead. I’ll wait for you to come back.
Ants need water. Many drink water from drops and small puddles.
Ants can obtain moisture from a variety of sources, including food. Leafcutter ants and weaver ants obtain moisture from plant sap. Many ants tend aphids and other insects of the order Homoptera for liquid honeydew, which is full of water. Other ants visit extrafloral nectaries on plants for a source of sweet liquid.
Ants have also been shown to use “tools” to help them collect larger amounts of water and sweet liquids than they could carry in their crops. Harvester ants (Pogonomyrmex) have been known to toss sand into liquid food and then carry it back to their nest. Aphaenogaster ants use bits of plant material as sponges to soak up liquids and transport it.
Mark Moffett found Diacamma ants decorate their nests with feathers, which collect dew in the early morning. (I have seen Forelius ants carrying feathers here in Arizona.) He also suggests that the dead ants spread around the nest might also serve for dew collection.
As far as “absorbing humidity,” Coenen-staß (1986) suggested that the red wood ant, Formica polyctena, might be able to absorb water vapor based on sorption rates. Other scientists have investigated desiccation resistance, and suggest that, for example, some ants can reclaim their internal water through structures called “rectal pads”(Hood and Tschinkel, 1990).
Videos showing ants drinking water:
Pay close attention to the rear section (metasoma or gaster). Look how it swells and becomes clear as the ant drinks.
Microcosmos trailer. For a review, see my Growing With Science blog.
The bottom line is that worker ants do drink water, and give it to other members of the colony. As for humidity absorption, that is relatively unknown.
For more information:
Coenen-staß, D. (1986). Investigations on the water balance in the red wood ant, Formica polyctena (Hymenoptera, formicidae): Workers, their larvae and pupae. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Physiology. 83 (1): 141-147.
Hood, G. and W.R. Tschinkel. (1990). Desiccation resistance in arboreal and terrestrial ants. Physiological Entomology, 15 (1): 23-35.
Moffett, M.W. 2010. Adventures Among Ants: A Global Safari with a Cast of Trillions. University of California Press, Berkeley.


Snus is better than cigarettes
Each year, more than 400,000 persons in the US die from smoking-related diseases. This is more than double the number that die from alcohol, drugs, traffic accidents, AIDS, murder and suicide. These were the findings of the American Council on Science and Health (ACSH) in a report published at the end of last year.
In its report "Helping Smokers Quit: A Role for Smokeless Tobacco?" the ACSH discusses the strategies pursued to date by authorities and other bodies to reduce the harmful effects of cigarette smoking. The authorities' strategies are often based on intolerant attitude towards all types of tobacco products. In this report, they are compared with Harm Reduction, which is based on the observation that most smokeless tobacco products, such as Swedish snus, are significantly less harmful than cigarettes. Therefore it is better for smokers to replace cigarettes with other less dangerous products, according to proponents.
The Swedish Experience
This is a strategy from which the authorities should also learn, according to the ACSH, which cites what is called the Swedish Experience. This experience is documented in a large number of epidemiological studies with such findings as:
- The incidence of lung cancer among Swedish men has declined over the past 20 years, which researchers link to the fact that Swedish men are smoking less and that many of them have switched to snus.
- There is no demonstrable correlation between the use of Swedish snus and oral cancer.
- Neither has any link been shown between the use of Swedish snus and intestinal or esophageal cancer.
- Mortality in cancer is not elevated among Swedish snus users, and the risk of cardiovascular diseases is much lower in this group than among smokers.
The ACSH´s report includes a summary of scientific reports and studies by Brad Rodu, professor of tobacco studies at the Brown Cancer Center at the University of Louisville. He has long been one of the most prominent proponents of Harm Reduction in the US. Brad Rodu believes that authorities and health organizations have failed to get those whom he terms confirmed smokers to completely abstain from tobacco.
"At the same time, we have a solid scientific foundation to stand on that shows that modern, smokeless products are 98 percent less harmful than cigarettes," said Brad Rodu recently in the magazine Nordic Reach.
Ideological grounds for debate
Why then are the waves of debate still so high when it comes to Harm Reduction? One explanation may be that there are studies that show elevated risks with smokeless tobacco products. These studies were not performed with Swedish snus or equivalent products, however. Through its GOTHIATEK® quality program, Swedish Match long ago virtually eliminated the content of carcinogenic tobacco-specific nitrosamines in its products that can be linked to an elevated cancer risk.
Another explanation is purely ideological, according to Freddi Lewin, who is responsible for scientific issues within Swedish Match North Europe Division.
"The polarization depends on what you believe society can do," says Freddi Lewin. "Opponents of Harm Reduction are working for a completely tobacco-free society and are therefore unyielding in their opposition to every form of tobacco use. Unfortunately, such a goal is almost an unattainable utopia. The World Health Organization (WHO) has published estimates that show the opposite and that smoking will increase over the foreseeable future. This will apply even in the most favorable scenario.
"Balanced information is therefore important so that people can make informed decisions," emphasizes Freddi Lewin who himself is an oncologist.
Evaluation within the EU
"Researchers know, for example, that nicotine does not cause cancer. Among the general public, however, there is still a perception that it is the nicotine that causes cancer. It would be a great help in public health work if authorities and researchers could dispel the myth that all tobacco is equally harmful," continues Lewin.
Despite continued debate, Freddi Lewin nonetheless believes that Harm Reduction is winning ground in the research community.
"An evaluation of smokeless tobacco products is also being performed within the EU. Our hope is naturally that this will result in the Harm Reduction strategy gaining political support, which would be desirable from a public health standpoint," concludes Freddi Lewin.


A crane hook is a point of attachment on a crane designed to connect with chains and ropes attached to loads like crates, construction beams, and machinery. Hooks come in a variety of styles to meet various needs and like other parts of the crane, they are rated for loads of a specific size and type. It is important to avoid using an underrated crane hook, as this could result in damage to the crane or loss of the load.
Cranes allow people to move materials horizontally, as well as vertically. They vary in size fromtruck-mounted cranes used at work sites to massive equipment designed to move shipping containers in ports. Hooks are a preferred method of load connection, as they are easy to use and they can be secured with locks if necessary. The crane hook can also interface with a wide variety of connectors, allowing people to move different kinds of loads without changing the hook attachment.
Using a crane can require several people. One person is responsible for hooking the crane to loads and securing it, while another operates the crane with the assistance of direction from a person on the ground with a clear line of sight. On a small job site, one person may handle all these tasks. The personnel in charge of the crane are also responsible for maintaining the device to keep it in good working order, as well as selecting the right equipment for a given lifting job. If a crane is not rated to handle a heavy load, it can tip over or break when the load is lifted.
There are several safety concerns with crane hooks. A lowering hook can pose a safety threat, ascrane hooks are large and can cause significant head injuries if someone is struck. It is important to confirm that loads are securely mounted on the hook and that people are clear of a load during raising and lowering. People must also be careful while securing loads to the crane hook, as there is a risk of trapping fingers or limbs in the load’s rigging.
In addition to being used for attaching loads, a crane hook can also serve as a point of attachment for a crane fitting like a wrecking ball. A ball and crane fitting can be used to quickly break down a structure as part of a demolition project. Crane manufacturers often produce an array of accessories designed to work with their products, including hooks of different sizes and various attachments.


How to Remove Nitrates from Well Water: The Quick and Easy Way
You might wonder how to remove nitrates from your water - and the answer is surprisingly simple! Here we will cover the various compounds that can cause nitrate problems in the water, how to decanoate those compounds out of the water using reverse osmosis, and a step-by-step guide. As long as you know what to look for and where to find it, nitrates should never be a problem again. So keep reading to learn more!
What are nitrates?
Nitrates are inorganic chemical groups consisting of two or more elements, which can be radicals or ions. Nitrates are mainly found in nature during a lightning storm. A nitrate ion becomes a nitrite radical when anaerobic bacteria steal one oxygen atom from it.
Plants need nitrates to grow, and they give plants their green color. Although humans and other animals DO NOT need nitrates to live, they are part of a nitrogen cycle that can be used for various purposes, but most commonly, as nitrite.
Nitrites can help restore lost oxygen atoms, but this process can harm the body and other mammals.
How can I remove nitrates from my well water?
If you're Concerned About nitrates in your well water, it's time to take action! Water can contain high nitrate levels, leading to health problems over time. These methods require DIY knowledge and careful preparation, but they're all worth it!
Here are the three methods you can use to reduce nitrates in your well water:
1. Reverse osmosis: This is the most expensive and time-consuming method, but it's the most effective nitrate removal.
2. Activated carbon: This low-cost and easy-to-use method works well in removing nitrates from water.
3. Filtration: This low-cost and easy-to-use method removes nitrates from water.
How do I remove nitrates from water using reverse osmosis?
Reverse osmosis is the most effective way to remove nitrates from your water. It uses a high-pressure stream of freshwater to push unwanted compounds out of the solution, leaving clean and clear water behind. Of course, you'll need to invest in a quality Reverse Osmosis unit to achieve good results, but it's worth it!
Here are some steps you'll need to take for reverse osmosis to work its magic:
1. Check your good pressure: Most wells require a minimum of 30 PSI to function optimally. If your well doesn't meet this necessary pressure, it will be difficult for reverse osmosis to remove nitrates from your water.
2. Get an accurate reading: You'll need a digital or analog meter to get an accurate reading of the level of nitrates in your water.
3. Choosing a filter specifically designed to remove nitrates is important when using reverse osmosis. 4a Install and connect the filter:
This part is relatively simple – just install the filter and connect it to your Reverse Osmosis unit. 4b Set up the system: You'll need to set up your system according to instructions provided by your manufacturer. 5a Start reverse osmosis: Turn on your Reverse Osmosis Unit and wait for it to kick in.
The pressure to increase will take a while, so be patient! As water passes through the filter, monitor the pressure online or through traditional meters. 6a When done: Once the process is complete, you'll be left with clean and clear water free of unwanted nitrates.
How can I test for nitrates in my water?
Nitrates in water can cause serious health risks, especially to pregnant women and young children. That's why it's important to regularly check your water for nitrates and take appropriate action if levels are high.
One way to test for nitrates is with a chlorine/ammonia test kit. In the event of elevated levels of nitrates, you should take action - like pouring bleach down the well or using a reverse osmosis system. Remember to check your water regularly and stay safe by drinking water from a safe source!
What are the health risks associated with nitrates in water?
Nitrates are a type of pollutant that can be found in water. When consumed, high levels of nitrates may increase the risk of public health risks. Some of these health risks include:
- Consumption of water that's contaminated with nitrate may increase the risk of public health risks.
- High levels of nitrates can affect infants' red blood cells, preventing them from being able to transport oxygen effectively.
- A high nitrogen level in an infant may cause methemoglobinemia (aka "blue baby syndrome").
- The condition "nitrate poisoning" can cause a reduction in the amount of oxygen carried by the baby's blood cells.
- Nitrate poisoning in adults does not cause the same health effects in babies or the elderly.
If you're exposed to nitrates, you may experience symptoms such as fever, vomiting, diarrhea, and blue nails and skin. If left untreated, these symptoms could potentially lead to death. Nitrate poisoning is more common in developing countries with limited access to clean drinking water.
However, it's important to be aware that anyone can be affected by nitrates in water, not just those in developing countries.
- Drinking untreated water with excessive nitrate harms pregnant women and their infants.
- Adult men and women are more at risk of health conditions when drinking tap water with high nitrates and nitrites.
The World Health Organization (WHO) believes nitrates may be carcinogenic in adults and children. The dangers of drinking tap water containing trace levels of nitrates require further research.
How do nitrates get into the water?
Nitrates can enter the water from many sources, including manure, fertilizer, and animal waste. Nitrates can also come from natural processes such as the decomposition of organic materials. To protect public health, it is important to know where nitrates come from and how they are being released into the environment.
What should I do if I find high levels of nitrates in my water?
If you find high levels of nitrates in your water, you can do a few things to remediate the problem:
Try boiling the water for 10 minutes.
Add one teaspoon of baking soda per gallon of water and let it sit for 30 minutes.
Pour a potful of cold water over the baking soda solution and wait an hour before using it for drinking or cooking.
Running a filter on your well will also help reduce the number of Nitrates in your water supply. A water softener may be able to help remove the nitrates from your water while also restoring its pH level.
There are many other ways to remove nitrates from well water, so it's important to consult with a specialist if necessary. If you find high levels of nitrates in your water, the first thing to do is to call a professional.
How does your body take up nitrates?
Nitrates can be a big problem for water drinkers. Drinking well water can lead to elevated blood nitrate levels and cause health problems. A home treatment kit is a quick and easy way to remove nitrates from well water. Two main ways your body takes up nitrates are through food and sweat.
Through food, nitrates are taken up through the digestive system and enter the blood. Nitrates are taken up through the skin and enter the blood through sweat. A home treatment kit is a quick and easy way to remove nitrates from well water. If you're looking for a more in-depth treatment, reverse osmosis water treatment systems can also be used.
How can I test my water for nitrates?
Water that contains more than ten mg/L of nitrates is considered unsafe to drink. If your water has high levels of nitrates, you'll need to take some steps to remove them. First, you can get your water tested by a private laboratory or local public health unit.
If you want to test your water for nitrates on your own, you can buy a test kit online. The kit will come with a testing strip and instructions on how to use it. Simply collect a sample of your drinking water and dip the strip into it. The strip will change color if there are high levels of nitrates in the water.
If the strip's color indicates that you have too much nitrate contamination, you should switch to bottled water for the time being.
What are some methods for removing nitrates from water?
When it comes to removing nitrates from the water, there are a few practical methods that people use. The most common way is through Reverse Osmosis. This process uses a membrane to physically separate the impurities from the water, including the nitrates. Another popular method is distillation.
Although this process can be slow, it effectively removes nitrates from water. Additionally, regular de-scaling is necessary to keep the distillation unit running smoothly.
Which method is best for me?
Nitrates can be removed from groundwater by various methods, each with advantages and disadvantages. The most common method is the P&T method, which involves extraction, treatment, and discharges back into the aquifer.
This approach is most effective when contaminant plumes can be well defined. To treat nitrate-containing groundwater, the P&T method may require more than one cycle of operation.
The application of this technology for sustainable water treatment is limited by site characteristics, co-contaminants availability, operation and maintenance, and operation scale.
What should I do if the levels of nitrates in my water are high?
If you've received news that there are high levels of nitrates in your local water, don't panic just yet. It's important to have your water tested to see if the concentration is above the maximum contaminant level set by the EPA.
If it is, don't worry! Treating your water and bringing the levels back down to a safe range in many ways. Your local water treatment professional will be able to help you out and guide you through the process.
In some cases, municipalities are responsible for treating the water before it enters people's homes. This is done to meet EPA guidelines for contamination levels. However, even if your municipality treats the water, you should still test your home's pipes for nitrate levels.
In many US households, chloramination is common, which can cause nitrate to form in drinking-water pipes. Make sure you consider all of these things when looking into high nitrate levels in your area!
Can I remove nitrates from my water myself?
You can remove nitrates from your water by using a water filter. Nitrates can be removed with various filters, but activated carbon filters are generally the best.
Compared to other filters, carbon block faucet-mounted filters are easy to install and affordable. However, if your water has high levels of nitrates, then you may need to use a reverse osmosis or ion exchange filter.
What are the sources of nitrates in well water?
Nitrates in well water can come from various sources, including fertilizers and animal waste. If your water contains nitrates, you'll need to take action to remove them. One option is to use a filter or treatment system. The best way to know if your well needs treatment is to test it for nitrate levels.
If the levels are high, follow the instructions to treat your water properly. Nitrates in well water can be a serious health hazard, so it's important to take action if you notice them in your water.
Nitrates in well water can cause water contamination and headaches. Make sure to test your water regularly and take the necessary steps to protect your well water!
What causes nitrate problems?
Nitrate problems can be a real headache. Not only do they cause water supplies to become high in nitrogen, but a variety of other factors can also cause them. Before worrying about nitrates in your water, ensure it's been tested and is free of contaminants. If you do have nitrate problems, following these simple steps will help you solve them in no time:
1. Always water plants using water that has been filtered or treated.
2. If you must water plants from your household faucet, use a garden hose or bucket connected to a fixture.
3. If you're using well water for gardening, raise vegetables only on land that has never been used for agriculture.
4. Avoid watering plants from your household faucet; use a garden hose or bucket connected to a fixture.
5. If nitrates are still a problem after following these steps, contact your water supplier for moreNitrate removal is an important task for anyone with well water. Following this simple guide, you can quickly and easily remove nitrates from your water. In addition, by testing for nitrates in your water, you can ensure that your water is safe to drink.If you find high levels of nitrates, be sure to consult with a water treatment professional. Finally, read through the blog to learn about the sources of nitrates in well water and the possible problems
Watch How to Remove Nitrates from Well Water
How to Remove Nitrates from Well Water (FAQs):
Can I still drink tap water after removing nitrates from it?
According to the Environmental Protection Agency, nitrates can be removed from water by boiling.
1. How do I know if my well water contains high levels of nitrates?
A water nitrate test can determine the water nitrate level in your well.
2. What are the best ways to test for nitrates in my well water?
Nitrate contamination testing recommendations can be found at: nitrates.nrcs.usda.gov/water-quality/. The information in these reports is updated annually and covers water quality conditions in each state. In addition, homeowners can test their water quality using water ion exchange resin (WIR) or nitrite/nitrate testing kits.
These methods require a few simple items, like water samples, nitrate test strips, and water ion exchange resin pads. Once the water samples have been collected, they can be sent to a lab for nitrite/nitrate analysis.
3 Can I remove nitrates from my well water using a home filter?
The water treatment system linked below can reduce nitrate levels in the water.
4. Can I treat my well water naturally instead of using chemicals?
You can treat your water with a natural method if you have access to a water filter.
5. What should I do if I have high levels of nitrates in my well water?
If you have high levels of nitrates in your water, you should consult a water treatment specialist. The source of information for this answer is the American Water Works Association website.
6. What are the two main ways to remove nitrates from well water?
Reverse osmosis, distillation, and nitrate removal salts such as nitrite or nitrate are two methods of removing nitrates from well water.


About 70% of melanomas are superficial spreading melanoma (SSM). They develop out of a pre existing nevus , which are the brown spots that every person has a few of. A nevus is a potential melanoma precursor lesion. There might be an incubation period of 1 to 5 years where the nevus is slowly growing, changing color, getting somewhat more raised and perhaps getting surrounded by a red line.
All those are warning signs that this nevus is dysplastic, moving towards malignant transformation. This nevus needs to be surgically removed to avoid trouble down the road. If it is not removed, the surface may become glossy and become more irregular.
Progression of dysplastic nevus to early melanoma
Here is an image of a superficially spreading melanoma where there are areas of regression of the tumor (lighter color), but the remainder of it is spreading (dark color).
There may be some notching or indentation at the perimeter of the lesion and the color may become deeper pigmented, at some areas even black looking. A small patch of the lesion may even turn amelanotic (amelanotic melanoma, looks skin colored). Women tend to have more of this type of melanoma. It tends to be less aggressive and has a better prognosis.
1. Cancer: Principles &Practice of Oncology, 4th edition, by V.T. De Vita,Jr.,et. al J.B. LippincottCo.,Philadelphia, 1993.Vol.2: Chapter on Cutaneous melanoma.
2. The Merck Manual, 7th edition, by M. H. Beers et al., Whitehouse Station, N.J., 1999. Chapter 126, p. 843-845.
3. Cancer: Principles&Practice of Oncology. 5th edition, volume 2. Edited by Vincent T. DeVita, Jr. et al. Lippincott-Raven Publ., Philadelphia,PA, 1997. Chapter on Cutaneous melanoma.
4. SA Rosenberg et al. Ann Surg 1998 Sep 228(3): 307-319.
5. SA Rosenberg Nature 2001 May 17;411(6835):380-384.
6. T Todo et al. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001 May 15 ( page not available yet).
7. GJ Tsioulias et al. Ann Surg Oncol 2001 Apr;8(3):198-203.
8. Conn’s Current Therapy 2004, 56th ed., Copyright © 2004 Elsevier
9. Ferri: Ferri’s Clinical Advisor: Instant Diagnosis and Treatment, 2004 ed., Copyright © 2004 Mosby, Inc.


Welcome to week 4 of Get Ready for K Through Play, a series that I am taking part in with some of my favorite kid bloggers. Our goal is to help you prepare your child to start Kindergarten. Last week I shared a Bubbling Addition Kindergarten Math Game, and this week we are all sharing ways to work on literacy skills. Last year for the series, I shared Sensory Sight Words as part of the Literacy component. We are playing more word games today with this Sensory Word Hunt.
You will need:
Go through your magnet letters and make up some simple to sound out words. My daughter is familiar with upper and lower case letters but if your child is not, you can stick with letters they recognize. Once you have your words, write each of them down on a separate index card.
Fill up a bin with lentils or whatever bean or sensory material you happen to have on hand. Beans are a great sensory bin filler because they are inexpensive and last a long time. We have had our sensory beans for years. When the kids are not using them, I store them in large zip top bags.
Hide the letters that make up your words in the sensory bin.
Have your child pick one word card at a time and try and sound out the word.
When they are done, they can search for the letters that make up the word.
My daughter had so much fun searching for all the letters. She noticed that each time she made a word there were less letters in the bin and they were easier to find.
When she had made all the words, she practiced reading them again. Word games are a wonderful way to get kids to work on phonics and literacy concepts. This word hunt combines the fun of a sensory bin with learning.
Be sure to visit the following bloggers and check out their Literacy posts:
Coming soon from The Pleasantest Thing
Books Your Kindergartener Will Love from Mama Smiles
Books for Beginning Readers from Mom to 2 Posh Lil Divas
What Do Phonics, Phonemic Awareness and Decoding Mean from Coffee Cups and Crayons
Letters in the Air from Rainy Day Mum
Join me here at Mess For Less on Wednesdays for Get Ready for K Through Play. Then, please check out my fellow bloggers in the series: Coffee Cups and Crayons, Mama Smiles, Mom to 2 Posh Lil Divas, Rainy Day Mum, and The Pleasantest Thing who will be bringing you some more great resources on each week's topic.
The topics are:
June 25 - Social and Emotional Skills
July 2 - Independence Skills
July 9 - Math Concepts
July 16 - Books, Reading and Literacy
July 23 - Fine Motor and Writing Skills
July 30 - Ready to Learn Skills
For even more ideas to prepare your child for Kindergarten, follow the Get Ready for K Through Play Pinterest Board.


Z Force, also known as Special Operations Executive (SOE), Special Operations Australia (SOA) or the Services Recon Dept. (SRD)—was a joint Allied special forces unit formed during the World War II to operate behind Japanese lines in SE Asia. Predominantly Australian, Z Special Unit was a specialist reconnaissance and sabotage unit that included British, Dutch, New Zealand, Timorese and Indonesian members, predominantly operating on Borneo and the islands of the former Netherlands East Indies.
The unit carried out a total of 81 covert operations in the SW Pacific Theater, with parties inserted by parachute or submarine to provide intelligence and conduct guerrilla warfare.
The best known of these missions were Operation Jaywick and Operation Rimau, both of which involved raids on Japanese shipping in Singapore harbour; the latter of which resulted in the deaths of 23 commandos either in action or by execution…
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ART-208-20, Creative Arts in Elem School (SP15)
INSTRUCTOR: Elizabeth Grimaldis
SCHEDULE/DAY/TIME: Semester/Saturdays/8:30 A.M.-11:15 A.M., 04/11/2015-05/16/2015
-This course will outline a basic understanding of the ways children use visual arts as a means of recording and communicating ideas. Skills in analyzing and interpreting children’s art expressions will be presented in order to help classroom teachers in the pre-school, kindergarten and elementary school provide art learning experiences that are appropriate for ability levels. A review of art skills and processes will be presented and practiced in order to effectively use art experiences as a learning vehicle in the classroom. Basic skills in painting, printmaking, sculpture, and crafts will be explored.
-The text, Renaissance in the Classroom, will provide a means for looking at how children learn through exploration that incorporates the arts.
A. Learn through lecture, discussion, practice, theory, and sharing
B. Develop the ability to perceive, interpret, and respond to ideas, experiences, and the environment through the visual arts.
C. Develop an understanding of the visual arts as a basic aspect of history and human experience.
D. Develop the ability to organize knowledge and ideas for expressions in the production of art.
E. Develop the ability to identify, analyze, and apply criteria for making visual aesthetic judgments.
F. Design integrated art/ academic subject area learning visuals.
G. Design unit and lesson plans in art appropriate for age and developmental levels.
Lecture, demonstration, class discussion and creative project activities will be a part of each lesson.
REQUIREMENTS AND ASSIGNMENTS:
-There will be no final exam or paper. A weekly abstract (summary) of chapter readings from the text is required. Students are expected to be able to discuss the chapter readings in class and participate in a group oral presentation of the topic/theme. Students are expected to work on art assignments in the classroom and complete unfinished assignments on their own. All necessary tools and art supplies will be provided for the assignment in the classroom.
-Only one excused absence is acceptable.
-Students who have an excused absence must submit the assignment on the date of the next scheduled class.
-Art work will be graded on successful completion of the project only. Advanced art skills and knowledge of art concepts are not a requirement for this course.
-The abstract will be graded on the presentation of a clear, concise understanding of the topic. The abstract should be one typed page.
A- All chapter abstracts submitted on time
All artwork assignments submitted on time
Attendance of all classes
Class participation in oral presentations and group work
REQUIRED TEXT(S) OR MATERIALS:
Renaissance in the Classroom
Arts Integration and Meaningful Learning
Gail Burnaford, Arnold Aprill, Cynthia Weiss
Chicago Arts Partnership in Education, CAPE
RECOMMENDED READINGS OR MATERIALS:
The instructor will provide additional handouts of recommended readings and materials
READINGS AND/OR ASSIGNMENTS TO BE DONE PRIOR TO THE FIRST CLASS:


Here are a number of ways to define writing systems: a system of more or less permanent marks used to represent an utterance in such a way that it can be recovered. Writ ng (rī′tĭng) n 1 a the act or process of producing and recording words in a form that can be read and understood: at first, most students find writing. Writing definition, the act of a person or thing that writes see more. Definition of in writing in the idioms dictionary in writing phrase what does in writing expression mean definitions by the largest idiom dictionary.
First principles there are a few basic guidelines to follow when writing a definition: wiktionary is a dictionary, not an encyclopedia a definition does. Learn about freewriting and how it's useful for different types of writing find out how freewriting can build your creativity and skills, then. To write a definition essay, you’ll need to define a word that: has a complex meaning is disputable (could mean different things to different people. How to write a dictionary definition whether you're compiling a glossary, writing a dictionary, or simply trying to sound official to play a dictionary bluffing game.
To confirm in writing meaning, definition, english dictionary, synonym, see also 'confirmed',conform',confirmation',conformist', reverso dictionary, english simple. Keep an eye out for wordy constructions in your writing and see if you can replace them with more concise words or phrases clichés in academic writing, it’s a. If you wanted to get out of an agreement, and it requires your request to be in writing, does it have to be through the mail can it be an e-mail could. In this lesson, you'll learn what an audience in writing is and see how knowing your audience can make your writing clearer and more interesting. Writing is a medium of human communication that represents language and emotion with signs and symbols in most languages, writing is a complement to speech or spoken.
Literal level what actually occurred in the essay what happened (sensory details) meaning to narrator what do the events in the essay mean to the narrator. Writing - wordreference english dictionary, questions, discussion and forums all free. The meaning of being ‘in writing’ will continue to evolve along with technological developments that allow parties to communicate in different ways. Write definition, to trace or form (characters, letters, words, etc) on the surface of some material, as with a pen, pencil, or other instrument or means inscribe.
Definition of writing: the expression of ideas by letters visible to the eye clason v bailey, 14johns (n y) 491 the giving an outward aud objective form to a. Define writing: the act or process of one who writes: such as — writing in a sentence. Definitions of writing terms language that goes beyond the normal meaning of the words used writing in which a figure of speech is used to heighten or color the. The definition of report writing is creating an account or statement that describes in detail an event, situation or occurrence, usually as the result of observation. Define in writing: in the form of a letter or a document — in writing in a sentence.
Writing meaning, definition, what is writing: words that have been written or printed: learn more. Writing definition: writing is something that has been written or printed | meaning, pronunciation, translations and examples. In legal writing in the united states, rule 53 in the bluebook citation guide governs the use of ellipses and requires a space before the first dot and between the.
In writing in her book on the ellipsis, ellipsis in english literature: signs of omission (cambridge university press, 2015). Define put something in writing (phrase) in american english and get synonyms what is put something in writing (phrase) put something in writing (phrase) meaning. Writing is (1) a system of graphic symbols that can be used to convey meaning, and (2) the act of composing a text.


Clean Storm Water is Important to All of Us
As storm water flows through yards, gutters and streets it picks up oil, sediments, litter, garden chemicals and other materials. Urban storm water runoff flows through storm drains to ponding basins, canals, creeks, and the San Joaquin River. All of these replenish groundwater – our drinking water supply. That’s why CLEAN STORM WATER is important to you!
Many ways to help prevent storm water pollution
- Grants – Information and downloadable applications for grants from the District for community storm water education and improvement projects. Classroom field trips to the San Joaquin River are also available.
- Presentations to trade, business, service, and civic organizations. E-mail your request to email@example.com.
- Illegal Dumping Reports – what, when, and how to report incidents of people using the ground, gutters, streets, and storm drains to dispose of liquid or solid wastes.
- Training materials for reducing stormwater pollution
- Compliance assistance for state and federal permit requirements for construction projects and industrial facilities
- Downloadable Storm Water Pollution Prevention Plan models
- Recognition program for business’s pollution prevention practices
- Activity books for upper and lower elementary school grades. Order your class sets here.
- Video – 5-minute water resources pollution prevention video, available for download or on DVD (upon request).
- Presentations – District staff presentations for classrooms or assemblies. E-mail your request to firstname.lastname@example.org.
PUBLIC AWARENESS SURVEYS
What do people know about the Fresno/Clovis area urban storm drainage system? What do people think the connection is between their daily actions and local water quality? Find out by looking at the results of the last three public awareness surveys conducted by the District: 2001, 2005, 2009, and the 2013 survey and focus group report.


In this lesson our instructor talks about CSS background. First, he discusses some basic background properties. Then he does an example on colors. Next, he shows an example on background image and repeating images. Finally, he talks about putting everything together to create a nice web page.
Lecture Slides are screen-captured images of important points in the lecture. Students can download and print out these lecture slide images to do practice problems as well as take notes while watching the lecture.


The area in and around Sardis Project is within the boundary of the old Choctaw Nation. The Indians of the Great Choctaw Nation arrived here in the early 1830's. Today the Choctaw influence remains strong in the area and there are many reminders of the residency of these first Americans. The name of our state is a Choctaw word meaning "Home of the Red Man". Other names like Tuskahoma, Talihina, Yanush, Honobia, Pushmataha, Broken Bow, and Eagletown cause the imagination to wander back to the time when this was "Indian Territory". The Choctaw Nation Capitol building is located 2 miles north of the town of Tuskahoma or 2.5 miles east of the Sardis Project Office. This building was erected in 1884 during the term of Principal Chief Jackson McCurtain. It is now the Choctaw National Museum.


Post author Hossam El-Asrag is is a lecturer at the department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at Princeton University.
Last week at Princeton University I listened to a talk given by Peter Evans, Director of Global Strategy and Planning at GE company. The talk was inspiring, and important to anyone who cares about the future of energy. The key ideas can be summarized as follows:
• The energy distribution maps of production and consumption are not collocated. Eighty percent of oil/gas production is concentrated in 16 countries worldwide, and most of these countries are not the major energy consumers. Primary consuming countries are Japan, European nations, and the U.S. However, the trend is shifting, and we are currently at an inflection point where other non-OCED (ex: major European countries, US, and Japan) countries will have higher energy consumption in the future, like China and India.
• Oil and gas are still the major energy sources and are expected to remain so in the foreseeable future. In 2011, $1 trillion was invested in global energy infrastructure in the U.S., 68% for oil and gas. By 2014 this will increase to 85%, and the rest is for power production. By 2025 we will have about 1 Billion more people on the planet, and about 70% power related carbon emission would be emitted from developing countries by this date.
• A highly possible energy pathway in the U.S. will depend on natural gas drilling for unconventional natural gas that is estimated to cover more than 100 years capacity. Countries like China and Turkey will switch from coal to natural gas due to the water resources constraints needed for the coal production process. The battle between Coal and natural gas, as the two major energy sources and reserves in the future, will be based on which one is more cost-effective and has fewer constraints on the environment resources. It is also a misunderstanding that natural gas drilling requires more water resources than coal. For instance, the water consumed by hydraulic fracking is a fraction of the amount used for coal mining.
From the above three bullets, it seems that the U.S. government will be investing heavily in natural gas rather than renewables and other sustainable energy resources in the next few decades. Hydraulic fracking and nonconventional gas resources will take over the importation of oil and drilling of conventional natural gas.
To me, this sounds like a sleeping pill to ease the pain for the next 100 years. In other words, we will be exporting the energy problem to our children and grand children, and counting on them to find the real solution.
Photo credit: gbleakmore on Flickr.


A Real Headache: Racism Plays Role in Migraine Care
THURSDAY, June 10, 2021 (HealthDay News) -- The color of your skin may very well determine how your headache gets treated, a new study warns.
The same percentage of white, Black and Hispanic Americans — about 15% — suffer from severe headaches and/or migraines, the investigators noted.
But the current analysis, conducted by 16 headache disorder experts, found that Black men are far less likely to receive headache treatment; that white children are three times more likely to undergo hospital imaging for their condition than children of other races; and that Black and Hispanic patients are 25% and 50% less likely, respectively, to get a migraine diagnosis than their white peers.
"While migraine and severe headache disorders are almost equally common amongst white, African American and Hispanic groups, disparities exist," stressed study author Dr. Jessica Kiarashi.
"Institutional or systemic racism plays a large role in a lot of these disparities," added Kiarashi, who is an assistant professor in the department of neurology at UT Southwestern Medical Center in Dallas. "And while there are steps that can be taken to address and rectify disparities, there needs to be a major cultural shift in our society. And particularly in the field of health care."
To examine the issue, the study team analyzed previously published headache literature.
Their review determined that while 46% of Black patients get care for migraines, that figure jumps to 72% among white patients.
Black Americans are also far less likely to get a headache diagnosis than white people: just 47% versus 70%. Black patients are similarly less likely to get a prescription for migraine medication than white patients (14% versus 37%), the findings showed.
The result: untreated headache disorders among Black Americans mean more headaches over time, greater pain intensity and worse quality of life.
The research team also found that Hispanics are 50% less likely to get diagnosed with a migraine than white patients, and less likely to get headache prevention medication when seeking care in an outpatient setting.
The racial gap is equally evident among children suffering from headaches, the investigators found. For example, non-white children and teens were found to be far less likely to be prescribed medication for an acute headache than a white child or adolescent. And Black and Hispanic children were less likely to be seen in an emergency department for a sports-related head injury — and/or to get a concussion diagnosis — than white children.
But race is not the only driver of headache treatment gaps, the study team found. For example, living in extreme poverty was linked to a higher risk for migraines. And low-income and uninsured patients were less likely to get treated for an acute migraine, raising the risk for developing a chronic problem.
The expert panel also noted that U.S. patients in rural areas were also less likely to gain access to headache treatment, due to a lack of specialists. The team noted that while large urban centers in the Northeast and mid-Atlantic are home to many headache education programs and physicians, the same is not true in other parts of the United States, such as the Western and Plain state regions.
In the report published online June 9 in Neurology, Kiarashi and her colleagues pointed to racial bias and uneven insurance coverage as the main drivers of the headache treatment gap, alongside access issues.
None of that surprises Andrea Roberts, a senior research scientist with the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, in Boston.
"Unfortunately, disparities in health care among groups with various minority racial identities and by socioeconomic status are pervasive in the U.S.," Roberts said.
The result is that "a black person presenting with a headache in the emergency room is far, far less likely than a white person in the same situation to receive the appropriate diagnostic tests and medication," she added.
So, what can be done to close the gap?
For one thing, "health care providers can examine their own treatment records to understand and address their own performance in this regard," Roberts suggested. "Similarly, health insurers could determine which practices and practitioners are undertreating minorities," which she said would be in their interest since "undertreatment in the short term can lead to far greater health care costs in the long term."
In addition, "more health care providers need to be recruited from underrepresented populations," Roberts said. "And this is, of course, in addition to working to resolve underlying racism and socioeconomic differences that drive higher prevalence of disease, including headaches, among minorities in the U.S."
There's more on headaches and treatment at the U.S. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke.
SOURCES: Jessica Kiarashi, MD, assistant professor, department of neurology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas; Andrea Roberts, PhD, MPH, senior research scientist, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston; Neurology, June 9, 2021, online


Australia’s driest year, hottest decade and devastating bushfires – the weather in Australia has been more than a little crazy.
Extreme weather events like the bushfires are being driven by climate change. There is a lot of confusing information out there so we worked with our scientist friends at the Climate Council to help unfudge the facts and explain the link between a warming planet and the bushfires. Let us explain.
ITS GETTING HOT IN HERE
Yep, it’s been one crazy hot summer and one crazy hot year. We aren’t exaggerating – 2019 was the hottest year on record ever for Australia and the 2010’s were the hottest decade the world has ever seen. While that means an excuse to blast Nelly and eat more Phish Food, its bad news for us, our climate and the world’s ecosystems.
Long-term global warming of not just Australia, but the whole planet, means more record-breaking hot temperatures and heatwaves that are longer, more frequent and more intense. When you mix this heat with bushfires, the results are catastrophic.
Once fires are burning, dry and hot weather (along with windy conditions) makes it easier for sparks to take hold and help bushfires spread. This creates hotter, bigger and more dangerous and extreme bushfires.
The heat doesn’t only make dry conditions worse, it also changes what’s going on in the sky. The increasing heat increases the risk of lightning, which is a key factor in starting fires.
Not only was 2019 Australia’s hottest year, it was also Australia’s driest year. The evidence is clear – climate change is influencing this drying trend. Hot and dry conditions mean there is more dry fuel for fires to burn. These dots are easy to join – more dry fuel to burn helps make bushfires more extreme.
If roasting marshmallows over a campfire has taught us one thing, wood that is dry burns hotter and faster. If dry soils and fuels combine with hotter temperatures, it’s like pouring gasoline on a fire. The result? You guessed it. More extreme bushfires.
LONGER FIRE SEASON
Climate change is also making the summer seasons hotter and longer, which means that fire seasons are lasting longer and there are less opportunities for fuel reduction burning.
CONNECTING THE DOTS
When you connect the dots, you can see why climate has impacted this bushfire season so badly. A fire needs to be started (ignition), it needs something to burn (fuel), and it needs conditions that help it spread (hot, dry and windy weather). All of these factors have been made worse by climate change and this has helped to supercharge the recent bushfires in Australia.
WHAT’S CAUSING THIS?
Australia is a big contributor to global climate change because of our burning of coal and gas for energy but also because of our fossil fuel exports. As the largest coal exporter in the world, we are responsible not just for the coal we burn but also Australia’s coal that is being burned in other countries and contributes to even more CO2 globally.
WHAT CAN BE DONE?
The good news? We know what the solution is - we have to reduce carbon emissions immediately. As in, NOW. We must end the extraction of all fossil fuels and we need to a demand a fast, fair, and just transition to 100% renewable energy and an immediate end to all fossil-fuel projects.
This is a huge opportunity to create a more just, equitable and sustainable Australia. Yes, please! Is it impossible? Hell, no! We’ve all seen how quickly change can come when the people rise up and demand it. HELLO democracy! Your voice is incredibly important in this – you can join the increasing number of Australian’s demanding climate action here.
Ben & Jerry’s have been fighting for climate justice since the first scoop and are doing what we can to make sure we see this change in Australia happen and fast, which is why we partnered with our friends at The Climate Council to help unfudge climate myths. If you want to find out more about the science of climate change and how it can be tackled, visit our friends at The Climate Council to learn more.


The fantastic potoo is actually a species of bird. It is probably habitats include heavy lowland forest, woodlands as well as sometimes meadows. Its coloring is actually mottled light brown as well as light grey with several tan thrown in and additionally, it has big orange yellow eyes. it is also thought to create an incredibly loud bark when It is disturbed.Its primary prey are huge insects, beetles, locusts and katydids. During the day, it continues to be motionless as it tries to mimic tree branches usually aiming its beak towards the sky. There’s almost no info about the brooding behavior of the species but from the analysis we do have it is thought that the chicks have the nest when they are around eight weeks old.


The Art of Fermentation
An In-depth Exploration of Essential Concepts and Processes From Around the WorldBook - 2012
Sandor Katz presents the concepts and processes behind fermentation in ways that are simple enough to guide a reader through their first experience making sauerkraut or yogurt, and in-depth enough to provide greater understanding and insight for experienced practitioners. While Katz contextualizes fermentation in terms of biological and cultural evolution, health and nutrition, and even economics, this is primarily a compendium of practical information -- how the processes work; parameters for safety; techniques for effective preservation; troubleshooting; and more. With full-color illustrations and extended resources, this book provides essential wisdom for cooks, homesteaders, farmers, gleaners, foragers, and food lovers of any kind who want to develop a deeper understanding and appreciation for arguably the oldest form of food preservation, and part of the roots of culture itself. Readers will find detailed information on fermenting vegetables; sugars into alcohol (meads, wines, and ciders); sour tonic beverages; milk; grains and starchy tubers; beers (and other grain-based alcoholic beverages); beans; seeds; nuts; fish; meat; and eggs, as well as growing mold cultures, using fermentation in agriculture, art, and energy production, and considerations for commercial enterprises.
Publisher: White River Junction, Vt. : Chelsea Green Pub.,
Copyright Date: ©2012
Branch Call Number: 664.024 Kat
Characteristics: xxiii, 498 pages, 32 pages of plates : illustrations (some color) ; 25 cm


The collapse of India’s coalition government has stalled the passage of the long awaited Electricity Regulatory Bill, which was to be taken up in this winter session of parliament. It is anticipated that the bill would be taken up as soon as the parliament reconvenes with a new governing party.
The bill proposed the setting up of a Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) and State Electricity Regulatory Commission (SERC) in the various states except Jammu and Kashmir. Among other objectives, the CERC and SERC would be instrumental in bringing about tariff rationalization in the State Electricity Boards.
CERC is expected to regulate the tariff for generating companies and transmission entities owned or controlled by the central government; and generating and transmission entities in the public or the private sector catering for more than one state.
It was also charged with the adjudication of disputes involving generating companies or transmission entities in the central sector or in the public or the private sector catering for one or more states. CERC would consist of three members and a Chairman. The Chairman of the Central Electricity Authority will be a member and ex-officio of the commission.
The main functions of the SERC, according to the bill, are to regulate the bulk tariff of generating companies and transmission entities functioning within the states as well as to determine the retail tariff, including the wheeling charges for the boards and licensees. SERCs are also responsible for the issue of licences in regard to generation, transmission and distribution and the supply of electricity by entities operating only within the state. A three-member state commission will be appointed by the state government on the recommendations of a selection committee. The state government will nominate one of the members as the Chairman of the commission. The selection procedure of the state commission will be as prescribed by the state government.


The De Havilland Mosquito was the fastest, highest-flying plane of the second world war, its light, streamlined body making it able to outrun all enemy aircraft. So it might come as a surprise to learn that, beneath its sleek lacquered skin, it was all made of plywood – lighter, cheaper and more aerodynamic than the metal equivalent, unhindered by bracing and rivets. It could be easily made, too, by workers in furniture factories, and easy to repair. Yet metal won out, perceived as the more “modern” material.
Plywood: Material of the Modern World, a new exhibition at the V&A, is an eye-opening story of design, technology and – as the Mosquito pictured here shows – prejudice and taste. From plywood packing cases taken to the Antarctic by Ernest Shackleton’s expedition, where they were then broken down and transformed into furniture, to the finest mid-century modern chairs, visiting the show is like walking through a particularly well-stocked bric-a-brac store, complete with plywood surfboards, boats and planes dangling from the ceiling.
The thing that most stands out is that, for its entire life, plywood has been hailed as an exciting new material. It was first “new” in 2600 BC: archaeologists have discovered that laminated timber was used to make everything from jewellery boxes to coffins for the discerning pharaohs of ancient Egypt.
It then reappeared in the 1800s as the newfangled material for moulded chairs, which look as striking and contemporary as their descendants from a century earlier. The material was still being touted as new by the Museum of Modern Art in New York in 1941, when Charles Eames and Eero Saarinen presented their competition-winning design for a moulded plywood chair. And all this time, the basic principle of gluing wafer-thin layers of wood together, with the grain of each running in an alternate direction, hadn’t changed a bit.
The exhibition begins with the birth of industrialised plywood in the 1800s, when the invention of the rotary lathe enabled entire tree-trunks to be unravelled in one go – a mesmerising process shown here in a video, and in the form of a diaphanous wafer of birch hanging from the wall like a billowing sheet. The lathe changed everything. Suddenly veneer went from being something that was only used for the finest handmade furniture to a thin disguise that could be used to hide much cheaper materials. The word entered the lexicon as a synonym for a sham.
Available at low cost for the first time, this immensely strong and flexible material was quickly discarded by luxury furniture makers, but taken up into the realms of infrastructure and engineering, inspiring a whole wave of inventions. One of the most prescient was a plan for a pneumatic railway in a great big plywood tube, designed to hang off the side of buildings like an aerial sewage pipe. The drawings, published in 1867, bear a striking resemblance to Elon Musk’s plan for a Hyperloop (which would shoot people through a similarly sized tube in capsules travelling at 760mph). A 107ft-long prototype was built for an exhibition in New York, shuttling 75,000 people back and forth in carriages propelled by large fans, but development was halted by the economic depression in the 1870s.
Nearby stands the DWK, a German family car from 1937, sliced open to reveal its plywood chassis, used because it was strong, stress-bearing, easy to repair and quieter on the road with better suspension. Plywood housing gets a look-in too (decades before today’s WikiHouse structures) in the form of the US Forest Products Laboratory’s blueprints for cheap mass housing, an early DIY model with open-source plans, prompted by President Roosevelt’s New Deal in the 1930s. Plywood’s seamless sheets suited the stripped aesthetics of modernism, too, as seen in the Isokon building in Hampstead, London, whose flats were decked out with plywood furniture and “plymax” doors, covered in sleek sheets of polished copper.
The show reveals how developments in wartime spawned a whole range of later applications, from Charles and Ray Eames’ famous ply furniture, inspired by the leg splint they developed for the US military, to DIY dinghy kits. But one thing that is all but absent from the show is what curator Christopher Wilk calls “plywood’s dirty secret”.
The rise of synthetic adhesives, developed in the 1930s, created what one historian has called the “petrochemical house” – homes drenched with toxic substances that would unleash formaldehyde on their unsuspecting residents. There are now standards for adhesives, but they are difficult to enforce, particularly now that the vast bulk of plywood is manufactured in China and south-east Asia, where the use of illegally logged wood is also on the rise, the forbidden timber being easily hidden away in the layers.
Plywood has enjoyed a recent resurgence, as the symbol of the maker movement. Its raw surfaces are used to project a green, natural image – when the truth is it can often be anything but.
- Plywood: Material of the Modern World is at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, from 15 July to 12 November
guardian.co.uk © Guardian News & Media Limited 2010