Katherine Kellertuya September 13, 2021 Template
It is important for kindergarten students to develop this skill early so that they can master writing the alphabet. This template would be useful when your kid is writing for the first time ever.
Kindergarten story writing template. Kindergarteners are often enthusiastic writers and they will weave writing activities into their play. Make a map tour story map esri. Looking for some help teaching writing to elementary aged students?
Provide budding writers with experiences that give them something to write about. This type of writing paper for kindergarten, preschool and early elementary (1st grade and 2nd grade) school kids is a great to practice writing. A fun activity for book loving kids to write and illustrate their own story book.
Give the children a text or picture outline of the bare bones of the story and let them fill in the rest. Narrative writing is most likely one of your state standards that will be covered during kinder. There are a total of 7 units included in this comprehensive writing curriculum:
Provide budding writers with experiences that give them something to write about. Discover practical worksheets, captivating games, lesson plans, science projects, & more! Please view the preview to see a larger image of this product!
Practice creative writing with some simple sentence prompts. Some contain story starter sentences and other provide spaces where kids can illustrate their own stories. There are templates available in both portrait and landscape format.
Basic story map template for kindergarten. The kindergarten writing paper pdf you see below is easy to print and has solid and dotted lines. Download ten printable writing paper templates and a sheet of creative writing prompts for kids.
Writing the alphabet takes some motor skills. Make your own book for kids! Explore 4,000+ activities on education.com.
Click the checkbox for the options to print and add to assignments and collections. Writing to teach and inform: Provide the end of the story :
Kindergarteners are often enthusiastic writers and they will weave writing activities into their play. Looking for some creative writing pages, editing checklists, and story planners?look no further! Kindergarten writing worksheets learning to write the alphabet our kindergarten writing worksheets offer both cursive and print letters.
Some of the worksheets for this concept are 4 square writing method2 kindergarten first grade writing folder four square chart wilson writing grid fundations writing numbers work touchmath kindergarten sample work from lined cursive writing paper template. 1/4 inch writing paper with name printable handwriting homework paper with names the homework paper template on this page is meant to help preschool, kindergarten or early elementary grade students who are learning their handwriting skills. Provide a story board :
Narrative writing is a big deal in kindergarten! Invented spelling is normal at this age, as children are translating the sounds of spoken words into writing. Ad looking for resources for your kindergartener?
Today i will start with some of my favorite narrative writing activities and then get into kinderwriting unit 4. Give the children the last sentence or paragraph of the story and allow them to develop the plot based on that sentence. With activities suited for young writers of all ages, these narrative writing worksheets provide practice in creating characters, sequencing events in logical order, and plenty of.
I value constructive feedback and new followers! Stories are a great way to get your kids excited to write, and our narrative writing worksheets and printables make it easy to teach essential storytelling skills. Explore 4,000+ activities on education.com.
This year i thought i’d get a head start on our writing process and created some helpful printables to help make writing a little easier and a little more fun! Students can use the empty square on the top half of the page to illustrate their creations. Invented spelling is normal at this age, as children are translating the sounds of spoken words into writing.
Discover practical worksheets, captivating games, lesson plans, science projects, & more! Writing plan academic writing writing workshop writing papers writing ideas preschool writing kids writing library activities kindergarten activities. Ad looking for resources for your kindergartener?


Wild Pantex – Spotlight on Wildlife
Article by Jim Ray, Pantex Wildlife Biologist/Scientist
Our pickup made its way slowly down the dusty two track pasture road. We were two miles into a 24-mile spotlight survey that we had begun once it had gotten good and dark. Our crew consisted of a spotlighter for each side of the vehicle, a Security Police Officer to provide key support and, on this night, a co-worker had come along to help us out as a data recorder. And trust me, our night had been well coordinated – assistance by Security, and notification to the Pantex Operations Center, Carson County Sherriff’s Office, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, and Texas Tech Research Farm.
As we crept along, one million-power spotlights shown out each side of the vehicle. Its holder would watch for eye-shine, or even the outline of the animal itself if close enough to the vehicle. We stop and glass (binoculars) an animal when we need to, but otherwise we record what we have seen at the end of every mile.
We had already observed two deer and a few cottontails when Monty Schoenhals asked me to stop and identify a set of eyes that would occasionally light-up as it made eye contact with us. Through my binoculars I could tell it was a deer, but I needed it to stand-up in order to have a chance of identifying the species. A quick blow on a predator call and it did just that. An eventual glimpse of its light-colored rump and rope-like tail positively identified it as a mule deer and off we went continuing along the survey route.
Spotlight surveys are an important element of our natural resources surveillance program. We spend much time and effort trying to document and monitor our natural resources, and we utilize that information for protecting them, and making land management decisions. I initiated the spotlight surveys back in 2000, my second year at Pantex. Initially, they were aimed at trying to detect swift fox, then, a subject of much debate as to its presence or absence. I had participated in many a deer survey over the years and had also assisted with those for swift fox. Although, not a good technique to estimate numbers of swift fox in an area, you can sure detect their presence if there is a population. Although there is no hint of a swift fox at Pantex, the surveys have been continued due to the opportunity to document and monitor the other nocturnal animals that we come across.
A typical spotlight survey will take us from two to three hours to conduct depending on how many stops that we have to make to glass and identify eyes that are a considerable distance from the vehicle. Animals that we have recorded over the years on these surveys include badgers, black-tailed jackrabbits, bobcats, cottontails, coyotes, gray fox, feral cats, mule deer, raccoons, striped skunks, and white-tailed deer. In some years, it may be the only means of documenting a badger, a gray fox or, less so, a white-tailed deer.
We use the spotlight data every year to supplement other data gathered by a variety of survey methods. For the most part, I just use it for presence/absence-type data and this is included in annual reports and all-time species lists.
Whether in Palo Duro Canyon, the Canadian River bottom, or on the flat plains of Pantex, it sure is a different world out there at night in the lit-up beam of a spotlight. It is another view of our Wild Pantex, one that most will not get to see, and one that we look forward to every year.


Christopher Monckton • Willie W.-H. Soon •
David R. Legates • William M. Briggs
Received: 27 August 2014 / Accepted: 12 November 2014 / Published online: 8 January 2015
Science China Press and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015
An irreducibly simple climate-sensitivity model is designed to empower even non-specialists to research the question how much global warming we may cause. In 1990, the First Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) expressed “substantial confidence” that near-term global warming would occur twice as fast as subsequent observation. Given rising CO2 concentration, few models predicted no warming since 2001. Between the pre-final and published drafts of the Fifth Assessment Report, IPCC cut its near-term warming projection substantially, substituting “expert assessment” for models’ near-term predictions. Yet its long-range predictions remain unaltered. The model indicates that IPCC’s reduction of the feedback sum from 1.9 to 1.5 W m-2 K-1 mandates a reduction from 3.2 to 2.2 K in its central climate-sensitivity estimate; that, since feedbacks are likely to be net-negative, a better estimate is 1.0 K; that there is no unrealized global warming in the pipeline; that global warming this century will be <1 K; and that combustion of all recoverable fossil fuels will cause <2.2 K global warming to equilibrium. Resolving the discrepancies between the methodology adopted by IPCC in its Fourth and Fifth Assessment Reports that are highlighted in the present paper is vital. Once those discrepancies are taken into account, the impact of anthropogenic global warming over the next century, and even as far as equilibrium many millennia hence, may be no more than one-third to one-half of IPCC’s current projections.
Keywords Climate change Climate sensitivity Climate models Global warming Temperature feedbacks Dynamical systems


Two things that Professor Ian Plimer confidently touted during his presentation at the SA Skeptics annual conference was (1) the relevance of David Evan’s so-called missing tropical hotspot (as supposed proof against greenhouse theory) and (2) that sub-sea volcanoes along the Gakkel Ridge is likely to be the cause of accelerated melting of the Arctic summer sea ice. So what is the latest scientific opinion on these?
Well, regarding (1), as RealClimate reports, Dr Ben Santer (who recently gave a talk at my Institute at the University of Adelaide), Dr Tom Wigley (now retired to Adelaide and an Adjunct Professor at the University of Adelaide) and 15 other colleages, have published a new paper in the International Journal of Climatology on this very issue. It thoroughly quashes the Evan’s claim, and also hammers the related critiques of climate science, by Dr David Douglass, Dr John Christy, Dr Benjamin Pearson and Dr S. Fred Singer, which claimed a significant discrepancy between theory and observations in terms of the warming of the lower atmosphere. What’s particularly good news for the large non-scientific community who has interest in science behind these issues, is that the paper’s authors have also put together a FAQ. In it, they explain, using non-technical language, all the key sceptical arguments on this issue, and the latest evidence. The figure above is from the fact sheet. I’ll just quote a couple of key points from it:
Using state-of-the-art observational datasets and results from a large archive of computer mode simulations, a consortium of scientists from 12 different institutions has resolved a long-standing conundrum in climate science – the apparent discrepancy between simulated and observed temperature trends in the tropics. Research published by this group indicates that there is no fundamental discrepancy between modeled and observed tropical temperature trends when one accounts for: 1) the (currently large) uncertainties in observations; 2) the statistical uncertainties in estimating trends from observations. These results refute a recent claim that model and observed tropical temperature trends “disagree to a statistically significant extent”. This claim was based on the application of a flawed statistical test and the use of older observational datasets.
The bottom line is that we obtained results strikingly different from those of Douglass et al. The “robust statistical test” that they used to compare models and observations had at least one serious flaw – its failure to account for any uncertainty in the “signal component” of observed temperature trends (see QUESTION 7). This flaw led them to reach incorrect conclusions. We showed this by applying their test to randomly generated data with the same statistical properties as the observed temperature data, but without any underlying “signal trend”. In this “synthetic data” case, we knew that significant differences in temperature trends could occur by chance only, and thus would happen infrequently. When we applied the Douglass et al. test, however, we found that even randomly generated data showed statistically significant trend differences much more frequently than we would expect on the basis of chance alone. A test that fails to behave properly when used with random data – when one knows in advance what rresults to expect – cannot be expected to perform reliably when applied to real observational and model data.
Go read the whole thing (there are 10 frequently-asked-questions answered in all).
Then there is question of the influence of those sub-sea Arctic volcanoes. Could they possibly be the cause of the melting surface ice, due to a slow diffusion of heat from the ocean floor, many kilometres deep, to the surface waters? (and, one presumes, a recent increase in volcanic activity). NY Times investigative journalist Andy Revkin handballed this question to his extensive scientific contact list, to get a decent spread of informed answers. The response on this issue, by 7 different scientists who work in this area, is an unequivocal NO! I’ll quote a couple below, but I suggest you read the two posts by Revkin on this issue, here and here, for the full story and links.
Jamie Morison, University of Washington (I went with Dr. Morison and the rest of the North Pole Environmental Observatory team to the North Pole sea ice in 2003):
It occurs to me that we have primary evidence that heat from the bottom is not reaching the ice. Temperature profiles from virtually everywhere in the Arctic Ocean display a maximum temperature at a depth from 200-400 [meters]. This is associated with the Atlantic Water entering the basin from the Norwegian Sea. Fundamental laws of physics require that below the depth of this maximum, the heat flux is downward. Very near the bottom temperatures have been found to increase with depth indicating a small upward heat flux from geothermal sources, which help to heat only the very deepest water.
The heat flux above the Atlantic temperature maximum is upward. The rate of this flux of Atlantic Water heat flux is variable depending on depth of the maximum and overlying stratification (stratification is controlled by salinity in the Arctic Ocean). Treshnikov estimated it from Atlantic Water heat content to be a couple of Watt/m2 in much of the Euarasian Basin. It is smaller farther from Fram Strait and greater near Fram Strait. How this flux changes is potentially very important to the ice cover. Changes in geothermal heat flux are not.
Dr. Schlindwein sees almost no chance of surface disruption from the eruptions:
I am currently working on a reconstruction of the Gakkel volcanic episode from 1999-2007 integrating seismicity data and water column observations and I have started to look at sea ice images as well. We know pretty well when the 1999 eruption took place; it will be easy to check for effects on the sea ice. I doubt there will be such effects:
In 2001, the volcano at 85E was still erupting explosively, although in a less vigorous mode (Schlindwein et al., GRL, 2005). The associated event plume in the water column is well surveyed and described in Edmonds et al. (Nature 2003). That plume of relatively “warm” water – temperature anomaly less than 1/10 degree – reaches a minimum water depth of about 1700 m, its center being around 2500 m water depth. These data make it very evident that the sea ice is not influenced by the heat released from the ongoing eruption.
So, two more sceptical questions bite the dust. But I wonder if Ian Plimer, David Evans, Fred Singer and others who have put store in these theories, will pay any attention?


Think about these two expressions…
2/3 x 6 6 x 2/3
Do you think differently about each?
Does your solution approach change?
I had not really given this much thought because we do both in 5th grade, multiply a fraction by a whole number and whole number by a fraction. However, recently, when working with a group of 4th grade teachers and looking more closely at the standards and my curriculum, I am beginning to see a distinct difference. I now look at each expression from a different perspective. Not that both ideas do not arise at multiple grade levels in some form or another, but it is so interesting to me as to which thinking would come before the other.
Let’s first look at the standards…
Interesting. For me, taking a fraction of a group feels more “natural” and intuitive than multiplying a whole number by a fraction, however in the learning trajectory of multiplication and building of unit fractions composing a whole, the multiplication of a whole by a fraction feels like the natural next step.
For our upcoming Illustrative Mathematics professional development, I was collecting work samples for the following problem (thanks Jody:)
“Presley is wrapping 6 packages. Each package needs 2/3 of a yard of ribbon. How much ribbon will she use for wrapping the 6 packages?”
As anticipated, I received a wide variety of solutions to arrive at 4 yards of ribbon. Here are just a few examples in what I think is the progression I expect (some of them got finished quickly and opted to show a few ways to solve).
They all finished fairly quickly and as I was walking around I thought it was really interesting to see such a variety in the equations they used to represent the problem. We came together as a whole group and I asked them for the equations they thought best represented the problem. The most common answers were: 2/3 x 6 = 4, 6 x 2/3= 4 and 2/3 + 2/3 + 2/3 + 2/3 + 2/3 + 2/3= 12/3 = 4.
I asked them if there was a difference between the equations and there was a unanimous “No” because they mean the same thing. “They all get 4.” In my head I was very excited that commutativity was something they see when finding a solution, but I was also curious if it worked the same in the opposite direction. I asked if we could narrow it down to two equations and they all agreed that the repeated addition was the same as 6 x 2/3 because it was “six groups of 2/3.” Interesting, so they see that in the numeric representation but not contextually?
I then asked them to write 6 x 2/3 and 2/3 x 6 on the top of their journal page and think about them without the previous context. I posed, “If I gave you these two problems to solve, would you think about them the same way? Do you think about them differently?” I was curious to hear their thoughts on the commutativity.
The conversation after was so great and interesting! There is a difference when going from number to context, however when put in context, I think students use whatever strategy is easiest for them to arrive at the answer. Is this what is truly meant by contextualizing and decontexualizing in the SMPs?
To further intrigue me, I went and pulled a few fourth graders to interview during my planning period. It was so interesting that they saw this as a whole number times a fraction because it was “six 2/3’s.” Their connection to multiplication and “groups of” was evident. I did love how they did 3 of the 2/3s first to get 2 and then doubled that to get 4.
This 4th grader was the most interesting..
She solved it as 2/3 of 6 and arrived at 4. I asked her if she could write an equation for the problem she solved and she wrote 2/3 of 6 = 4. Completely because I am so nosy, I asked her to write 6 x 2/3 under that. I asked how she thought about that problem? Would she solve it the same? She said, “No, that is 6 of the 2/3’s so I have to multiply the 2 and 3 by 6.” She proceeded and ended with 12/18. She saw the numerator and denominator as numbers in and of themselves and used the distributive property to arrive at her answer instead of thinking about the 2/3 as a number. This was something I had never thought of before! I wish I had more time with her because I SO wanted to ask if that makes sense, but since my planning runs into dismissal, she had to get back to class! Argh!
This progression (to me) now seems to be more about building on student’s understanding of multiplication then about what is more intuitive for students to do. That is such a revelation to me. In second and third grade students do so much in “sharing” situations, that I had assumed it was en route to this skill of taking a fraction of a number when in fact it is more about the operations. It builds multiplication and division. Those operations then progress from operations with whole numbers to operations with fractions and from there students start to build deeper understandings of the properties of operations.
This is of course, all my interpretation based on my experiences and perspective of the student work, but how awesome! I cannot wait to share this with the 4th grade teachers along with the video of the kids chatting with me about this, awesome stuff!!


Rabbi Brent Gutmann
Beth Shalom, Auckland, New Zealand
This Shabbat is Shabbat Shekalim, the first of several special Shabbatot leading up to Passover. It commemorates a time when the Temple in Jerusalem stood, when every Jew was commanded to contribute a half shekel to the Temple treasury prior to the festival of Passover. Rich or poor, every person gave the same amount, but more significantly, we learn of this census we study in Parashat Ki Tisa that every Jew gave.
Can you imagine if every Jew gave money in support of their community – every Jew, no matter how rich or how poor? Can you imagine every Jew belonging to a Synagogue when no more than 40% of all Jews are affiliated? Think of all that would be possible if every Jew gave some of their money or their time.
In Pirkei Avot we find the teaching, “Where there is no flour there is no Torah and where there is no Torah there is no flour – Ein Kemach, Ein Torah V’ein Torah, Ein Kemach.” (Avot 3) Our communities desperately need the generosity of all our members to flourish. Moreover, acts of charity, tzedaka, are traditionally emphasized during this holiday season. In a few weeks on Purim we will be giving gifts Mishloach Manot to others in community, and Passover, which approaches faster than we realize, includes a focus on giving ma’ot chitim. Wheat money. tzedaka which is necessary to ensure the most needy in a community are able to have a Seder in recognition that it is, not the fate of the rich, but the fate of the poorest amongst us on which a community’s health is judged.
This Talmudic passage, Ein Kemach Ein Torah, and the fact that the sages chose this reading for Shabbat Shekalim emphasize the need for all to give to build a thriving community.


The Krebs Cycle is one of the most crucial series of chemical reactions to take place in the human body. The products of the cycle play an essential role in maintaining energy levels and brain health.
If you’re experiencing brain fog, chronic fatigue, or a general lack of energy, the cause could be an inefficiency in your citric acid (Krebs) cycle.
This article provides an in-depth examination of the steps of the cycle, the importance of its products, and whether supplementation of these products could help boost energy levels.
- The Krebs Cycle is also known as the citric acid or tricarboxylic acid cycle
- It is the second of a total of three stages in cellular respiration
- The cycle is an aerobic process with nine steps, each controlled by different enzymes
- It turns pyruvate into acetyl CoA, which undergoes several reactions to produce ATP, carbon dioxide, NADH and FADH2
- The TCA cycle is essential for energy production and amino acid and fatty acid synthesis in the body
Krebs Cycle Overview
Also known as the citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle, the process is vital to the survival of cells in humans, animals, plants, and fungi. It was named after Hans Adolf Krebs, who discovered and studied the cycle in 1937.
What Is the Krebs Cycle?
The Krebs Cycle is a series of chemical reactions or steps that uses oxygen to produce energy through cellular respiration. It is the second step of three stages involved in cellular respiration.
The Krebs Cycle is sometimes called the citric acid cycle because the chemical formed after the first step is called citric acid.
What Is the Role of the Krebs Cycle?
The Krebs Cycle is responsible for the aerobic respiration of glucose derivatives, fatty acids, and protein to produce energy, along with many other products necessary for building amino acids and adenosine triphosphate .
Where Does the Krebs Cycle Take Place?
The Krebs Cycle takes place in the matrix of a cell’s mitochondria. Most of the enzymes required for the cycle to take place are also found in the matrix, while some are located in the inner membrane of the mitochondria.
Krebs Cycle and Brain Health
The citric acid cycle is essential to maintaining brain health and energy levels .
Unlike the rest of your body, your brain can and will use lactate as an energy source in the tricarboxylic acid cycle . Besides energy, the most important product of the TCA cycle is hydrogenated NAD or NADH.
Does NAD Heal the Brain?
NADH is one of the final products of the citric acid cycle and is vital to brain health and functioning. NAD+ is a coenzyme that is of critical importance to all body cells, not only the brain.
However, NAD+ can counteract the effects of some neurodegenerative diseases like :
- Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
With age, your NAD+ levels naturally decline . Taking an NAD+ supplement can help increase your body’s level of this coenzyme and possibly improve brain health.
Does NAD Help Brain Fog?
Despite brain fog not being a medical diagnosis, it can cause genuine problems for people who suffer from it, including:
- Memory loss
- Feeling spaced out
- Feeling slow
Brain fog is caused by various mental stressors, including anxiety, lack of sleep, depression, and malnutrition.
Due to the positive effect of NAD on brain health and energy levels, taking nicotinamide riboside (NR) or NAD supplements could boost the levels of NAD produced by the citric acid cycle and help combat the symptoms of brain fog, and improve cognition and blood flow to the brain .
Let’s take a closer look at the various steps of the Krebs cycle and how NAD, NADH, and NAD+ are formed.
What Are the 9 Steps of the Krebs Cycle?
There is widespread debate over the number of steps involved in the Krebs Cycle. Some incorrectly believe there are only five, while others claim the actual number is eight.
The reasoning behind the eight-step process is because some scientists believe the Krebs Cycle starts when citrate is formed.
Others insist the first step is the oxidative decarboxylation of acetyl CoA. Some scientists believe this is an initial reaction and refer to it as Step 0.
Below are the complete nine Krebs Cycle steps.
1. Oxidative Decarboxylation of Acetyl Coenzyme A
Oxidative decarboxylation is the link between glycolysis and the citric acid cycle. For each glucose molecule undergoing glycolysis, two pyruvate molecules are formed.
Each pyruvate or pyruvic acid molecule, in turn, forms one acetyl coenzyme A, one NADH, and one carbon dioxide molecule, a reaction catalyzed by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, which is found in the matrix of the mitochondria .
Acetyl CoA moves on to the next step, which is where many believe the Krebs Cycle begins.
|Pyruvate (pyruvic acid)||Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex||Acetyl CoA, carbon dioxide, NADH|
2. Citrate Formation
Also known as the condensation of acetyl CoA, this step involves the bonding of oxaloacetate, containing four carbon atoms, to the acetyl CoA molecule, which is a two-carbon atom compound.
Oxaloacetate bonds to the acetyl group in acetyl CoA. A water molecule breaks the bond between the acetyl group and the rest of the molecule, and coenzyme A is released from the compound. This step of the reaction is catalyzed by the citrate synthase enzyme .
This leaves a molecule of citrate (citric acid), which contains six carbon atoms, as one of the reaction’s products.
|Acetyl CoA, oxaloacetate, water||Citrate synthase||Citrate (citric acid)|
3. Reshuffling of the Citrate Molecule
A reshuffling reaction involves the dehydration and rehydration of a chemical compound or molecule. The reshuffling of citrate produces an isomer called isocitrate .
First, citrate undergoes dehydration to form cis-aconitase. Then, the rehydration of cis-aconitase produces isocitrate. This relocates the -OH group as a water molecule from one part of the citrate molecule to another.
This reaction is reversible and catalyzed by the enzyme aconitase.
4. Oxidative Decarboxylation of Isocitrate
The oxidative decarboxylation of isocitrate is the first of four redox reactions.
Redox reactions involve the gain (reduction) and loss (oxidation) of an electron. In this step, the isocitrate is oxidized, releasing a molecule of carbon dioxide and forming a molecule called alpha-ketoglutarate, containing five carbon atoms .
The electron released from the oxidation reaction reduces nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) to form NADH.
The enzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase catalyzes this step.
|Isocitrate||Isocitrate dehydrogenase||α-ketoglutarate, carbon dioxide, NADH|
5. Oxidative Decarboxylation of α-Ketoglutarate
The second redox reaction in this step oxidizes the alpha-ketoglutarate and reduces another NAD+ ion into NADH + H+. A carbon dioxide molecule is released in the process.
The remaining molecule, containing four carbon atoms, bonds with coenzyme A to form succinyl CoA.
The reaction is catalyzed by a complex of 24 enzymes known as α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase .
|α-ketoglutarate||α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase||Succinyl CoA, carbon dioxide, NADH, H+|
6. Oxidative Phosphorylation of Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) or Guanosine Diphosphate (GDP)
The phosphorylation of ADP or GDP occurs when the link between the CoA group in succinyl CoA is broken and releases enough energy to add an inorganic phosphate group to the ADP or GDP, producing either adenosine triphosphate (ATP) or guanosine triphosphate (GTP), respectively.
The split between succinyl CoA and its CoA group forms succinate.
This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme succinyl-CoA synthase .
|Succinyl CoA||Succinyl-CoA synthase||Succinate, ATP/GTP|
7. Dehydrogenation of Succinate
The dehydrogenation of succinate forms a molecule called fumarate. This is the only dehydrogenation/oxidation process in the Krebs Cycle where NAD+ isn’t involved.
Instead, flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) acts as an electron carrier and hydrogen acceptor to form FADH2. The enzyme responsible for catalyzing this reaction is succinate dehydrogenase and is found in the mitochondrial inner membrane.
In some cases, the two hydrogen atoms attach to a carrier called ubiquinone to form ubiquinol instead of the flavin adenine dinucleotide. Either ubiquinol or FADH2 carries electrons to the electron chain and eventually enables the production of two ATP molecules .
8. Hydration of Fumarate
In a reversible reaction, fumarate is hydrated to form a four-carbon molecule called L-malate. This step is catalyzed by fumarate hydratase (fumarase) .
|Fumarate||Fumarate dehydrase (fumarase)||L-malate|
9. Oxidation/Dehydrogenation of L-Malate
The last step of the citric acid cycle involves the oxidation of L-malate to regenerate oxaloacetate. The reaction is reversible and catalyzed by L-malate dehydrogenase, which is found in the matrix of the mitochondria .
L-malate is oxidized, and NAD+ is reduced to form NADH.
The formation of oxaloacetate both completes and enables the cycle to start again. The NADH produced through reduction can participate in the oxidative phosphorylation of step six.
Citric Acid Reactions Overview
Each glucose molecule produces two pyruvic acid molecules. That means one glucose molecule is responsible for two turns of the cycle.
Acetyl CoA + 3NAD+ + ubiquinone + GDP or ADP + phosphate + two water molecules → CoA-SH + 3NADH + 3H+ + QH2 + GTP or ATP + two carbon dioxide molecules
What Are the Products of the Krebs Cycle?
Each of the citric acid cycle products plays an essential role in bodily functions or other chemical reactions.
The most significant Krebs Cycle products formed by each turn of the cycle are listed below:
Guanosine triphosphate is a molecule similar to ATP that assists in protein and amino acid synthesis .
Although ATP and GTP have two closely linked pathways, the specific metabolic pathway of GTP is unique to the molecule.
One ATP Molecule
One ATP molecule is produced at each turn of the cycle. That means two ATP molecules are produced for each glucose molecule that enters glycolysis.
Adenosine triphosphate is the primary energy carrier in your body. When phosphate is removed from the molecule, energy is released, and the molecule is now called adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
Your body needs to produce ATP to provide energy for several functions, including :
- Muscle contractions
- Ion movement
- Chemical synthesis
- DNA/RNA synthesis
Each aerobically respired glucose molecule produces 36 ATP molecules .
Three NADH Molecules
Three NADH molecules are produced from one molecule of pyruvic acid. NADH is critical for energy metabolism and gene expression .
NADH is often prescribed to treat symptoms of chronic fatigue syndrome, including :
- Prolonged fatigue
- Low-grade fever
- Difficulty sleeping
FADH2 is an electron carrier that acts as a high-energy transport molecule carrying electrons to the electron transport chain .
Two Carbon Dioxide Molecules
Two carbon dioxide molecules are produced from each turn of the citric acid cycle.
Carbon dioxide levels in the body must be regulated as the molecules play an essential role in blood pH maintenance, respiratory drive, and the affinity of the hemoglobin in your red blood cells for oxygen .
Excess carbon dioxide is expelled through your lungs when you exhale.
Below are some of the most commonly asked questions about the TCA cycle.
What Is the Difference Between the TCA Cycle, Citric Acid Cycle, and Krebs Cycle?
There is no difference between the three. The TCA cycle, citric acid cycle, and Krebs Cycle are all different names for the same process that uses pyruvic acid molecules to produce ATP or GTP that provides our body with energy.
What Is the Krebs Cycle in Simple Terms?
The citric acid cycle is an integral part of, and the second step in, cellular respiration.
It uses pyruvic acid molecules, converts them to acetyl CoA molecules, and then inputs them into a series of reactions that eventually produce ATP or GTP, carbon dioxide molecules, NADH, and FADH2.
What Is the Main Function of the Krebs Cycle?
The primary function of the citric acid cycle is cellular respiration. The ATP produced by the cycle contains three phosphates. When one of the phosphates is removed from the molecule to form ADP, energy is released.
This energy is what allows the cells in our bodies to survive and keep doing their jobs.
Other intermediate products the Krebs Cycle produces also play essential roles in:
What Are the Three Steps of Cellular Respiration?
The three steps of cellular respiration are:
- Glycolysis: Involving reactions that turn one molecule of glucose into a pair of pyruvate molecules. This process also results in producing two ATP molecules and reducing NAD+ to NADH.
- TCA Cycle: The pyruvate molecules go through a series of enzyme-controlled chemical reactions to produce one ATP molecule, three NADH, one FADH2, and two carbon dioxide molecules for each pyruvate molecule that enters the cycle.
- Electron Transport: Here, the reduced NADH and FADH2 are oxidized and donate their electrons to the electron transport chain. As electrons move along the chain, the energy produced is used to fuel another process that eventually results in the production of up to 32 ATP molecules. The oxidized NAD+ and FAD are made available to participate in the next turn of the cycle.
What Does Citric Acid Do to Your Body?
Citric acid is not only produced during the TCA cycle; it can also be found in many foods like citrus fruits.
Besides its role in the TCA cycle, citric acid also provides several benefits to your body, including:
- Promoting the absorption of nutrients like calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus
- The prevention and treatment of kidney stones [26, 27]
However, too much citric acid in your body could cause adverse side effects, including :
- Joint pain and swelling
- Muscle pain
- Abdominal discomfort
- Mental fatigue
How Do You Make Citric Acid?
Citric acid can be found in a variety of foods, especially fruits, including :
Eating a lot of these fruits will naturally increase the concentration of citric acid in your body.
Another crucial source of citric acid is the citric acid cycle, where it’s one of the first chemicals created through the reactions in the cycle.
Despite the Krebs Cycle being a vital part of the body’s energy production process, very few people have a working knowledge of its reactions.
Although it appears complex at first, understanding each step of the process could help you get a better idea of how your body functions, produce energy and help you identify the cause of several adverse symptoms like chronic fatigue and forgetfulness.
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- Mishkovsky, Mor, et al. “In Vivo Detection of Brain Krebs Cycle Intermediate by Hyperpolarized Magnetic Resonance.” Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism : Official Journal of the International Society of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, Nature Publishing Group, Dec. 2012, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3519415/.
- Gallagher, Clare N., et al. “Human Brain Utilizes Lactate via the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle: a 13C-Labelled Microdialysis and High-Resolution Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Study.” OUP Academic, Oxford University Press, 20 Aug. 2009, academic.oup.com/brain/article/132/10/2839/331774.
- Lautrup, Sofie, et al. “NAD+ in Brain Aging and Neurodegenerative Disorders.” Cell Metabolism, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 1 Oct. 2019, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6787556/.
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- La Cognata U;Landschütze V;Willmitzer L;Müller-Röber B; “Structure and Expression of Mitochondrial Citrate Synthases from Higher Plants.” Plant & Cell Physiology, U.S. National Library of Medicine, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8979399/.
- O;, Krebs Ha;holzach. “The Conversion of Citrate into Cis-Aconitate and Isocitrate in the Presence of Aconitase.” The Biochemical Journal, U.S. National Library of Medicine, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13018271/.
- RF;, Colman. “Mechanisms for the Oxidative Decarboxylation of Isocitrate: Implications for Control.” Advances in Enzyme Regulation, U.S. National Library of Medicine, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1977/.
- JP;, Sheu KF;Blass. “The Alpha-Ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase Complex.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, U.S. National Library of Medicine, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10672230/.
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- S;, Wang Y;Hekimi. “Understanding Ubiquinone.” Trends in Cell Biology, U.S. National Library of Medicine, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26827090/.
- Ajalla Aleixo MA;Rangel VL;Rustiguel JK;de Pádua RAP;Nonato MC; “Structural, Biochemical and Biophysical Characterization of Recombinant Human Fumarate Hydratase.” The FEBS Journal, U.S. National Library of Medicine, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30761759/.
- M;, Minárik P;Tomásková N;Kollárová M;Antalík. “Malate Dehydrogenases–Structure and Function.” General Physiology and Biophysics, U.S. National Library of Medicine, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12537350/.
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- MH;, Dunn J;Grider. “Physiology, Adenosine Triphosphate.” National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31985968/#:~:text=ATP%20is%20consumed%20for%20energy,a%20high%20demand%20for%20ATP.
- Melkonian, Erica A. “Biochemistry, Anaerobic Glycolysis.” StatPearls [Internet]., U.S. National Library of Medicine, 1 Oct. 2020, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK546695/.
- W;, Ying. “NAD+ and NADH in Cellular Functions and Cell Death.” Frontiers in Bioscience : a Journal and Virtual Library, U.S. National Library of Medicine, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16720381/.
- Forsyth LM;Preuss HG;MacDowell AL;Chiazze L;Birkmayer GD;Bellanti JA; “Therapeutic Effects of Oral NADH on the Symptoms of Patients with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome.” Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology : Official Publication of the American College of Allergy, Asthma, & Immunology, U.S. National Library of Medicine, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10071523/.
- Cooper, Geoffrey M. “The Mechanism of Oxidative Phosphorylation.” The Cell: A Molecular Approach. 2nd Edition., U.S. National Library of Medicine, 1 Jan. 1970, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9885/.
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- Berg, Jeremy M. “Amino Acids Are Made from Intermediates of the Citric Acid Cycle and Other Major Pathways.” Biochemistry. 5th Edition., U.S. National Library of Medicine, 1 Jan. 1970, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22459/.
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- NII, Yoshitaka, et al. “Effect of Citrus Fruit (Sudachi) Juice on Absorption of Calcium from Whole Small Fish in Healthy Young Men.” Food Science and Technology Research, Japanese Society for Food Science and Technology, 15 May 2007, www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/fstr/12/1/12_1_27/_article/-char/en.
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We are told that mental health problems are on the rise in the Western world, particularly among young women. Supposedly, these issues will only be exacerbated if “left untreated.”
In an article at The Guardian, clinical psychologist Nihara Krause states that during 2014-2015 only 20 per cent of those who “needed help” in the UK received it. By “help,” Krause means “therapy.” Experts like Krause say this increase in “mental health issues” is related to issues such as financial difficulties, homelessness, pressure to perform (in school and on social media), and (in the case of women) severe insecurities about our bodies. Despite knowing this, psychology does not exist or function to address these issues and the systemic reasons behind them — the oppression of the poor, racialized, and female, for example. Rather, therapy aims only to address each individual’s emotional reaction to their circumstances. It can make you wonder what good psychology actually does for society at large, and for women, in particular.
During a workshop at a women’s gathering I attended this summer in France, Sheila Jeffreys argued that psychology individualizes the effects of patriarchy and separates women from each other. This once common feminist analysis was completely new to me, and I realized, as I discussed it with other young women (most of us in our 20s), that I had been living in a bubble wherein psychology was never questioned.
I’m not the only one. In response to our friends’ struggles, women are quick to suggest therapy to deal with issues like lack of self-esteem, distress in social situations, habits of self-harming, relationship problems, or difficulty accepting their female body — all issues that are impacted by living under patriarchy, as can be inferred from the sex discrepancy in, for example, self-mutilation and anxiety. “Seek therapy” has become a standard piece of advice. The words, “You need help” are accepted as well-meaning and sound, when directed at friend and foe alike. What “help” refers to is understood by all, since alternatives are generally not offered.
We don’t question whether or not therapy is useful, but even psychologists acknowledge that it is impossible to prove which (if any) kind of therapy is the most effective. An author at Psychology Today writes:
“We cannot even agree what a ‘successful’ result should be. Symptom relief? Personality change? Improved relationships? Better ability to love and work? Personal growth and fulfillment? All of the above?”
What do these things even mean, outside of a psychology framework? And how would you determine and measure the results? Personal growth, improvement, realization, actualization, and empowerment sound like noble aims, so we are understanding and encouraging when women name them as “personal goals.” We are all exhausted, stressed out, depleted, depressed, and distressed, and so can relate to and empathize with women experiencing the same. But, as feminists, we know patriarchy exists and that we face various forms of oppression in this world, so why don’t we question the oft-repeated advice, “Take care of yourself first,” when a sister expresses her troubles, and instead say, “Let’s help one another.”
Divide and conquer is the oldest trick in the oppressor’s book, and it is working against us. In her 1975 book, Psychotherapy: The Hazardous Cure, Dorothy Tennov detailed what therapy truly is, in terms of a profession and study, demonstrating how difficult it is to prove that it’s helpful at all, at a time when psychology was gaining traction. Many of her concerns for the continued normalization of psychotherapy have come true, as it has become more and more socially accepted for women to see therapists, and become therapists themselves. But the destigmatization of therapy is not a positive for the feminist movement. As Tennov concluded:
“There is no question that the person who goes to a psychotherapist and learns to adapt to a situation, to adjust herself, is less likely to apply pressure outward in an attempt to bring about change in society. Psychotherapy is a distraction from other pressures.”
We have been taught, through the normalization of therapy, to individualize our struggles and look inward, rather than outward. Therapy works to prevent us from connecting with one another. It isolates us — each of us is appointed our own therapist, who teaches us how to cope with our “issues” privately. We learn we must take care of ourselves, and work on our personalities in order to better cope with the world around us, before we can act. What therapy doesn’t teach us is that women’s anger is justified, that our suffering is real, and that what we often describe as “mental health issues” are mostly caused — or greatly exacerbated — by structural oppression. Psychology pretends that the solution to — or “treatment” for — our problems is in improving our attitudes and ability to cope, instead of tackling the problems together.
Writing for The Conversation, Zoë Krupka explains that therapists are taught to look to blame at least part of the problem their clients are facing on the clients themselves. Because they cannot dismantle systematic oppression or empower their clients in a genuine sense (that is to say, by giving them actual power in society) in private sessions, therapists have to find issues to resolve within their client. In cases of male violence, for example, the terms “trauma-bonding,” “co-dependency,” and “Stockholm syndrome” all exist to place some blame on the victim (the woman), while the existence of “anger management” exists as apologist propaganda for the perpetrator (the man). “This contributes to women’s disempowerment and to our overall inability to see the violent forest for the trees,” Krupka writes.
There are many examples of how psychology has infiltrated our vocabularies and shaped discourse, for example the idea that women may suffer from “internalized” misogyny or homophobia, rather than speaking about these issues as being a result of external, systemic prejudice and hatred. It has also influenced how we approach friendships and relationships with other women. Venting to a friend is sometimes described as “therapeutic,” and women will often say they played “armchair therapist” when consoling, advising, and listening to their friends. Good therapists are described as being empathetic, attentive, and, most of all, people we trust and can speak openly to without being judged. These are all qualities one would hope describes a good friend, but we have been taught that we are not enough, and that there are “professionals” who are simply better at empathy than us. When our friends and loved ones are deeply upset, we support them in seeking “professional help,” as if a one-sided arrangement, wherein a stranger — detached from their everyday lives, in a position of power over them, and paid for — will be better able to care for them than we would be. We don’t trust ourselves to care for our own because there is an alternative “professional” option.
This professionalization of empathy and care has deeply affected the feminist movement, as rape crisis centres and battered women’s shelters become increasingly staffed by those with the ability to get degrees, rather than by regular women — including those who have been victims of male violence and may have sought help at these shelters themselves. Vancouver Rape Relief and Women’s Shelter (VRRWS), Canada’s longest standing rape crisis center, still operates through a peer counselling model and as a collective. The trend of professionalization of anti-violence work has impaired our ability to help and act as feminists, as Pauline Funston, for VRRWS, explains:
“Now we see ‘clients’ and provide a ‘service,’ a clear indication of the dilution of feminist principles and practice. The battered women who come to the transition houses now sees us as other rather than the same as they are…
… The erosion of feminist standards towards professionalism is costing battered women their dignity, autonomy, and their right to participate in the feminist movement.
… We are reduced to becoming another social service which then individualizes the battered woman’s experience and works against political change for her and all women.”
Therapy opposes collective feminist action both by determining some of us are unfit to support other women if we don’t have degrees, and also by claiming we are unfit mentally — in need of therapy ourselves. It places the burden of overcoming the effects of patriarchy, along with the blame for it, onto us as individuals. I myself was often told by therapists, when I expressed how powerless I felt in terms of my ability to improve the situation of women in our society, that I could not focus on trying to save the world until I first saved myself. I was in too fragile a mental state to make any difference, they said. I couldn’t be an activist without damaging myself in the process. Just as our foremothers were labelled hysterical, we are taught that we are too mentally unwell or unstable to be effective activists. We learn that we suffer from things like social anxiety, depression, various phobias, bipolarity, and trauma that we need to personally overcome and heal from, through professional “help,” before we can focus on organizing and changing anything beyond ourselves.
In the past, women learned through consciousness raising that they were not alone, and this was a source of strength. Their anger was not debilitating, their sadness was not a character flaw, and their fear was not a diagnosis. Their “problems” were not only personal, but broad, and affected all of womankind. It was through meeting and sharing with other women, in person, that women were able to shed light on and name things like patriarchy, male supremacy, misogyny, racism, anti-lesbianism, abuse, poverty, and oppression, instead of “depression,” “mental illness,” “internalized self-hatred,” and “stress.”
Even young women who scoff at the idea that “self-empowerment” can be found in makeup and clothing still fall for the idea that we can empower ourselves through therapy and self-care. Instead of using our pain and our anger, we have to assimilate with the mentally stable status quo. As if there were a state within patriarchy for women that is more natural and logical than upset and rebellion.
The idea that we must first heal ourselves before we can act to our full extent is as fallacious as the idea that we must first “love ourselves” in order to be loved by others. As they watched the lesbian and feminist community get swallowed by psychobabble, Celia Kitzinger and Rachel Perkins, in their 1993 book, Changing Our Minds, wrote:
“Psychology claims that ‘loving ourselves’ is an essential prerequisite to loving others, and to effective political work. We cannot believe this claim…
Loving others, and being effective politically, is not something you magically become able to do once you ‘truly love yourself.’ Rather, you learn how to love in the process of loving, how to engage politically through political engagement.” [emphasis theirs]
This message remains just as important today, as the notion of psychology has gone largely unchallenged by modern feminists.
In order to move forward, we have to rid ourselves of the idea that we need mental health “professionals” to be our friends and allies, and that a different attitude and mindset is what will enable us to bring patriarchy to its knees. Systemic oppression is not addressed by learning to cope with it, by processing it with a paid professional, or by becoming that professional. It needs to be dismantled as an institution, through unrelenting organized feminist action open for all women, as does the institution of psychology which traps us in our own minds, isolated from each other, and structural analysis.
Ironically, it is often a mental block that hinders so many young women from being effective feminists. But that block is not anxiety, depression, or stress — rather, it is the idea that our emotions and problems are personal, and to be overcome on our own. We have to let go of the idea that the wrong is with us, and not with the world. We have to reach out and organize in real life, help each other, be supportive and understanding, listening and empathetic, tolerant and kind, but also firm and truthful. We must understand that we are all hurt, frustrated, and angry — and that this is not something we have to deal with alone.
I urge young feminists who feel powerless and frustrated to meet each other in real life. Look for established feminist groups in your city or area to join, women’s shelters to volunteer in, reading circles, book clubs, self-defence classes — and if you can’t find any, start your own group. Be each other’s support network and strength, show up to rallies and demonstrations in groups; make signs, slogans, stickers, and pamphlets to distribute together; organize activities and protests. I strongly encourage having ties to older women, in order to learn from their experience and knowledge, though it is equally important to act independently as a new generation of feminists and form our own networks. I was able to find friends and eventually form a feminist organization, aimed at facilitating women-separatist spaces, through radical feminist forums on Facebook and blogs on Tumblr. Dare to take the next step and meet up in real life. Join the organizations and groups you’ve been eyeing forever. Push yourself to go out and meet new women.
Our goals should not be self-empowerment or self-improvement, but the liberation of womankind.
To those who may feel defensive, let me say that, as someone who was diagnosed with “clinical depression” for a decade, and saw eight different therapists during this period (a new one each time it returned): since quitting therapy and becoming an activist, using my emotions for this cause, and finding friends within this movement — true sisters — I have never felt better, mentally.
Tove Happonen is a Swedish activist, a member in the feminist organization Kvinnofronten and a co-founder of the radical feminist organization Kvinnorum, which strives to facilitate women-separatist spaces and gatherings. The opinions expressed here are only representative of her own.


Multitude of symptoms falls under the category of TMD ( jaw joint disorder ). Dr. Kundel has gone through the gamut of feelings, sensations, and treatments himself. There was anxiety, anger, pain, fatigue, clenching, grinding, exhaustion, teeth sensitivity. Various appliances were used to alleviate discomfort. Several worked.
Treatment always begins with diagnosis. Consultation, evaluation, X rays, and even photos are needed. Conservative approach is always prefered.
Dr. Kundel possesses the needed expertise and experience to deliver proper diagnosis and treatment which is crucial in alleviating the pain and discomfort caused by the disorder.
Facts – TMJ Disorder
What are TMJ Disorder Symptoms?
It should be considered that there are many symptoms of TMJ disorder and everyone is different; therefore, the disorder can and does manifest itself in a variety of ways.
- Headaches are very common with TMJ/TMD
- Pain around the jaw joint as well as radiating pain in the face, shoulders, back, and arms
- Problems chewing – a feeling that your upper and lower teeth are not meeting as they should
- Jaws locking when you yawn or open your mouth wide
- Limited mouth opening ability
- Tooth pain
- Noise like clicking, popping or grating while chewing or moving your jaw
- Swelling around the temporomandibular joint
- Tinnitus or ringing in the ears
What is TMJ Disorder and the Temporomandibular Joint?
TMJs (The Temporomandibular Joints) in humans are complex sliding ball joints that attach the mandible (lower jaw) to the skull (specifically the temporal bone). These joints are located just in front of the ears, and you can feel them if you press your fingers to the area just in front of your ears and open and close your mouth. The TMJs enable the jaw to open and close, move forwards and backwards, left and right, and various combinations of these movements. The American Academy of Facial Pain has a helpful site on TMJ anatomy, available on their TMJ AnatomyLink
What causes temporomandibular joint disorder?
- Bruxism (grinding or clenching of the teeth) (coming soon: an article on bruxism)
- Arthritis (rheumatoid arthritis or osteoarthritis) and other degenerative conditions
- Trauma or injury
- Congenital abnormalities
- Dental work (orthodontia, wisdom teeth, dental prosthesis, malocclusion)
- Postural factors (disorders of the support structures and musculature of the head and neck)
Many patients do not have one clear event that caused their problems. It is usually a combination of several, which may include, but are not limited, to the above list.
How is TMJ Disorder Diagnosed?
TMJ disorder has many symptoms, some of which can mimic other disorders. It has been called “The Great Imposter” by many physicians, and, because of this, diagnosis should be done by a knowledgeable professional. The most common method of diagnosing TMJ disorder is by visiting a dentist. The dentist will examine your face and jaw for pain and tenderness, listen to your joint for noises, check your bite, and measure your opening. He or she will most likely take x-rays of your joints which will enable the bones and surrounding teeth to be seen and make sure that no other problems affecting these structures are causing your symptoms. Sometimes, other tests are ordered, such as CT scans, which are used to view the bony detail of the joint. MRI’s can also be ordered to view the soft tissues of the joint, including the disc.
What is the treatment for TMJ Disorder?
Treatment can vary from simple, self-care to complicated surgical procedures. It is very important when seeking TMJ treatment for the patient to exhaust all conservative options before moving to invasive treatments. When you first believe that you may have a temporomandibular joint problem, there are things you can do at home to relieve your pain, such as:
- Eating soft foods such as yogurt, eggs, cereal, oatmeal, and similar to give your joints a rest
- Avoid hard, crunchy foods (raw vegetables, chips, nuts), chewy foods (hard rolls, gum), and large foods that force you to open your mouth wide (hamburgers, big sandwiches, hot dogs, etc)
- Moist heat or cold packs if both are used, apply ice first, then do gentle stretching as directed by your physician, and apply heat. You can make your own heating pack by either wetting a washcloth or towel and microwaving it, or putting rice in a tube sock and microwaving it.
- Try over-the-counter medications such as Ibuprofen or Naproxen. Your physician may prescribe other medications such as anti-anxiety medications, muscle relaxants, narcotics, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories, and antidepressants. (PLEASE NOTE: Most, if not all medications have the potential to produce side-effects. Please ensure you exercise caution when taking any medication and if you experience any side effects, you should stop taking the medication immediately and seek professional help. Always read the label and use medication only as directed.)
- Avoid yawning widely, resting your chin on your hand, resting the phone on your shoulder, or excessive talking
- Try and practice good posture
- Be aware of clenching and grinding: try to keep your lips together and teeth apart
- Try and avoid situations which are known to cause you to feel stressed or emotionally traumatized because this can cause an exacerbation of symptoms (many people clench or grind their teeth when stressed).
Some people go through stressful situations prior to developing TMJ disorder, but there is definitely a physiological factor involved as well. This point has been debated by patients and physicians for many years. Some patients do not believe that emotional factors play a large part in their disorder, while others do. More research needs to be completed regarding issue.
What if Self-Care Treatments Fail?
If self-care fails and self-care techniques mentioned above, do not relieve your pain, your dentist might recommend moving forward with treatment that can include:
MRI, CT, X-Rays (Panorex, Tomogram), and other imaging can be used to determine the state of the joints and surrounding tissues as well as determine what treatment may be the most appropriate. MRI’s are primarily used for visualizing soft tissue such as discs and muscles. CT scans show bone in great detail. X-Rays give a basic look at the joints and their relationship with your occlusion (the way your teeth fit together).
Splints, night guards, biteplates and NTI’s (all words for similar devices) are the most common treatment for jaw-related pain and muscle disorders.
Trigger point injections are injections to address knots in muscles that cause pain. These can be done with anesthetic only (no epinephrine and no anti-inflammatory). After having these injections, your physician will direct you to use some sort of coolant such as spray or ice, and do stretching exercises to avoid discomfort. Some physicians may choose to do a type of injections called “dry needling” which involves no anesthetic or steroid. Anti-inflammatory injections are given with anesthetic followed by either a steroid or serapin (a type of anti-inflammatory derived from a natural plant source). The amount of steroid injections is limited because the structure of muscles can be compromised if excess is administered.
Some doctors will send you to physical therapy, others will perform it in their offices, or will have you do it at home. The most common modalities performed in physical therapy are TENS, ultrasound, infrared, iontophoresis, stretching exercises, hot and cold packs, massage, and evaluation of posture, ergonomics, and sleeping positions.
Some doctors will refer you to chiropractors, massage therapists, acupuncturists, biofeedback therapists or nutritionists. An osteopath is trained to perform all of these functions. An osteopath is a doctor who has different medical training than an MD. As with any medical procedure, one must do research and be comfortable both with the modality and the practitioner for it to be successful.
Variety of medications are available to treat TMJ disorders depending upon symptoms. These include muscles relaxants to relax muscles around the joint, pain medications to help with daily function, anti-depressants such as SSRI’s and tri-cyclics for pain and depression, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to assist with pain relief and inflammation, sleeping medication to assist with sleep disruption that often accompanies pain, anti-seizure medication used for nerve pain and sometimes headaches, headache abortives as many TMJ patients respond positively to migraine or headache medications for headache. Sometimes medication management gets complicated and patients are referred to pain clinics or specialists such as neurologists. These physicians will ensure that there are not interactions between medications and the medications and side effects of these medications are not exacerbating symptoms.
Referral to Specialists
Many of the symptoms of TMJ disorder can be complicated and require referral to specialists. These specialists will work with your general physician or dentist to form a team. This can include neurologists for migraines, headaches, and nerve pain, pain specialists for pain management, medication management, and neck and back pain, rheumatologist for arthritis, fibromyalgia or other related diseases and disorders, or ear nose and throat doctor for ear and hearing related symptoms. Depending on who is originally treating you, you might be referred to a “TMJ specialist” or oral surgeon.
More Advanced Treatment
If conservative treatments fail after a period of time, TMJ surgery may be considered depending on your situation. An invasive treatment should only be considered after exhausting extensive conservative, non-invasive therapies and receiving multiple opinions from independent specialists.


Pulsed Noise Radar – Media Overview
Pulsed Noise Radar: Overview
Welcome to the overview page on media on pulsed noise radars.
We selected the following information on pulsed noise radars for you:
We attribute this type of pulse radar implementation particular importance. One reason is that the Skyradar Modular Radar Training System has been implemented on the basis of a pulsed noise radar. But the main reason is that the pulsed noise radar technique (“PN”, also “stealth radar” or “noise radar”) is a modern and handy way of implementing a Pulse Radar; it works with a noise signal or a chaotic or random modulation or pulse train as the transmission signal. The echo signal is detected using a perfectly tuned receiver and the correlation of the signal with the delayed transmitted signal. Usually a high-frequency noise source is used directly as the transmission signal generator. In addition, sending a continuous sinusoidal-wave, which is amplitude, phase or frequency modulated by a noise source is possible. This has advantages in signal processing as it results in lower range or time side-lobes as well as a better energy balance when higher pulse powers cannot be achieved. In addition, this signal has a narrower bandwidth and so the receiver can have a lower dynamic range.
Significant improvements in military radar systems can be realized with the application of pulsed noise radar technologies for an extended military use. For example, in situations where it was previously not possible to use radar without the radar platform at the same time being exposed (stealth radar). Pulsed noise radar techniques can provide the best results during a military operation in a hostile environment, at the same time there is an extremely low probability of the location being detected (low probability of interception, LPI). However, this application requires some special features:
- A customized noise source with broadband transmission amplifier,
- Optimally coordinated multi-channel digital receiver with pulse compression,
- A broadband antenna, etc.
In the Pulsed noise radar, the measurement of the transit time and thus of the distance must be carried out by correlating the modulation of the transmitted and received signal. The spectrum of the modulating function determines the way, in which this correlation needs to be performed depending on the distance to a reflecting target for outputting a measured value. In practice each target distance must have its own delay line established. Steps must also be small enough to get a good distance resolution. The number of filter channels limits the range of these pulsed noise radar systems. Theoretically, both amplitude and frequency modulation can be used but frequency modulation some advantages over other types of modulation due to its limited reactivity on disturbances. This system can replace conventional radar altimeter and effectively avoids ambiguities in the distance measurement, that can occur in conventional pulse radar or FMCW radar implementations. It also avoids the systematic measurement error of these systems and is able to work with a precision of a few tens of centimeters. This even makes it suitable for an instrument landing system.
Information about SkyRadar’s modular radar solutions can be found here: SkyRadar Modular Radar Training System.
Read more on the noise radar in the portal RadarTutorial.eu.


ISO 10993-18 chemical characterisation of medical device materials, biocompatibility testing for medical devices including extractables and leachables supporting identification and control of biological hazards from material constituents
Whether you are a materials suppliers or manufacturers of medical devices, drug delivery systems or drug/device combination products, an important part of chemical characterisation requirements for biological evaluation is the identification of potential extractable substances released (under controlled extraction conditions) from the medical device materials or components. Robust data from controlled studies can support the equivalence of a proposed material to an established biocompatible material. The data from ISO 10993-18 biocompatibility testing and extractables studies can also be used to screen new materials to assess their safety and potential risks associated with leachable substances for a specific clinical application. When considering drug delivery systems, or combination products it is also likely that it will be necessary to demonstrate compliance to PRQI, FDA and ICH Guidelines. The data from chemical characterisation studies can inform the toxicological risk analysis in order to demonstrate biological safety.
The European Medical Device Regulation (EU MDR) came into force in 2021, bringing an increased focus on chemical characterization testing of medical devices including extractables and leachables. In addition, the EU MDR regulations highlight the need for identification of carcinogenic, mutagenic and reprotoxic (CMRs) substances in extractions from the medical device in control and mitigate potential release of hazardous CMR substances during intended clinical exposure.
Extractables and Leachables to Evaluate Chemical Release
A key part of the ISO 10993 Part 18 guideline are steps to determine extractables and leachables from the medical device. An extraction study can be performed to identify and quantify extractables with the goal of an extraction is to produce an extractables profile that is as comprehensive as a device’s leachables' profile. Depending on device class, application scenario and contact time the extractables and leachables study requires careful design. The extraction conditions should be selected with consideration of the nature of use of the device and the “contact category” in mind. Recommended extraction conditions include exhaustive, exaggerated, or simulated use conditions. Harsh extraction conditions might be required depending on the application scenario however overly aggressive extractions conditions can lead to an altered extractables' profile. In depth experience in the design of these studies is required to ensure an appropriate study that can be scientifically justified.
The actual chemical release, according to the ISO 10993-18 standard, can be determined with a leachables study to obtain an accurate estimate of the actual release of leachable chemical substances. Actual or accelerated extraction conditions (e.g., using elevated temperature) should be used to target substances of concern as identified during the extractables study but may also require screening for additional leachables with analysis of the leachate using sensitive and selective methods, and the levels of target or screened leachables quantified.
Multiple analytical screening techniques should be utilized to cover all compound classes from volatile to non-volatile. Our Intertek laboratory testing team use liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS) analysis, addressing both semi and non-volatile organic compounds, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS), and Headspace GC-MS to determine volatiles and semi-volatiles and inductively coupled plasma spectroscopy (ICP, ICP-MS) for elemental analysis.
Chemical Characterization of Medical Device Materials of Construction
Supplier data and raw material data can help build a picture of chemical composition; however, composition can vary during production processes or storage as the device or materials come into contact chemical substances such as processing aids, cleaning fluids, mould release agents, process contaminants and sterilization residues or undergo degradation. Biocompatibility iso 10993 characterisation studies should be focused on the identification and quantification of the materials of construction of the medical device and the chemical constituents in each material of construction (material composition) with a particular focus on screening and determination of CMR substances.
Toxicological Risk Assessment
A toxicity risk analysis is required for all marketed products. Data from the leachables studies can be reviewed in accordance with ISO 10993-17, Biological evaluation of medical devices — Part 17: Establishment of allowable limits for leachable substances. It might be possible to use known information and component supplier data to confirm minimal risk levels for transient or short-term contact devices. In the case of drug delivery systems, it is necessary to conform to ICH, PRQI and FDA Guidelines. After review of chemical and material data gathered, the Toxicological Risk Analysis (TRA) can be completed for submission to authorities. The TRA is conducted using allowable limits, Safety Concern Thresholds (SCT) and Analytical Evaluation Thresholds (AET).
An End-to-end Resource for Medical Device Biocompatibility Extractables Testing and Chemical Characterization According to ISO 10993-18
Our medical device ISO10993 chemical testing lab experts provide experienced study design and robust data to give you the confidence you need to demonstrate safety and biocompatibility of the materials and components in your device. From data collation and review, data gap review, science-led extractables and leachable studies and toxicological risk assessment, our biocompatibility testing lab team provide an end-to-end resource. We can help to ensure safety of your medical device materials and components across your device’s lifecycle, including development and screening of new materials, reprocessing, and sterilisation.
We apply our in-depth knowledge about potential contamination associated with medical device materials to evaluate, accurately, the risk of leachables for even the most complex of medical devices and combination products. Our team design and deliver robust analytical programs to support your data requirements for subsequent toxicological risk assessments or for submissions to the regulatory authorities. Expertise includes:
• Method development and validation.
• ISO 10993-18 materials characterisation
• Toxicological Risk Assessment
• Chemical Characterisation to ISO 18562
• Measurement of extractable and leachable materials from medical devices
• Extractable and leachables for pharmaceutical container closure systems
• In-use simulation studies
• Assessment of processing residuals
• Batch-to-batch verification of materials
• Support for new material or new supplier evaluation
• Particulate testing and analysis and particulate release studies
• USP Plastics and container testing
• Stability and ageing studies with controlled ICH storage conditions
• Verification of process changes to support production
Biocompatibility is a common term used to describe how compatible a material is with bodily tissues or fluids. Biocompatibility is often used in relation to the biological safety evaluation of medical device materials or components when exposed to bodily fluids or the body. Materials referred to as biocompatible are used in implantable medical devices or other devices that may come into contact with the body. These biomaterials are evaluated to determine if the produce an unwanted immunological response or leaching of substance deemed to present a toxicological risk to the patient.


Diarrhea can be caused by many things like foods, medicines, deficiency of vitamins and minerals and by some external infections. Even high level of vitamins and minerals can also cause diarrhea.
Table of Contents
Now days we are consuming many supplements directly or indirectly of vitamins, minerals and proteins. Most of the bottled or processed foods/drinks are top up with these vitamins and minerals. Many times unknowingly we consume these supplement which cause overdose of vitamins and minerals in our body which can cause several health problems like headache, nausea, diarrhea and others. So we need to check our daily diet and supplement quantity to avoid this over dosage.
Too much of vitamins can cause diarrhea
Our body needs 13 vitamins and any deficiency or over dosage or these can cause many health problems including diarrhea. Over dosage of vitamin C, B5 and A can cause diarrhea. if you are on vitamin supplement then check prescribed quantity and never over eat that supplement. Even many time foods very high in Vitamin A can cause diarrhea so eat those foods in small quantity.
Iron Supplement also causes diarrhea
Mostly iron supplement causes constipation and some time diarrhea, omitting and nausea, if you are on iron supplements then you should check your daily fiber intake. You should eat fiber rich diet along with iron supplement and drink more liquid(water).
Over dosage of Zinc Supplement can also cause diarrhea
Too much intake of zinc either from foods or supplement can also cause could cause nausea, diarrhea, and stomach cramps. Always check your requirement.
Deficiency of Calcium and Potassium can cause diarrhea
Many people with deficiency of calcium or potassium mineral have lite to mild diarrhea. Those people need to take calcium rich foods or supplement.
Note: Try to eat balance diet with. Eating variety of foods is very goods. Always take supplements in prescribed dosage. If you have some deficiency then it is always better to consult some doctor or dietician.


How to Treat a Bruised Finger
Considering the work that fingers do, it is understandable how virtually everyone has at one time or another had an injury such as a bruised finger. In continuous use throughout the day, the fingers are at constant peril of being hit, crushed, jammed or otherwise hurt. Since it is such a common occurrence, it is helpful to know how to treat the injury to hasten healing.
Fingers are composed of numerous bones, ligaments, arteries and nerves, but actually on 17 muscles. The majority of muscles that are responsible for moving the hand and fingers are in the forearm. The concentration of nerves in the digits is the reason that the fingers are one of the most sensitive areas on the human body. It is also the reason that such extreme pain is felt when an injury like a bruised finger occurs.
Bruising a finger is easier than one might think. Sports activities that include using the hands for maneuvering a ball are high on the list of ways to injure the finger. Work tasks that entail the manipulation of items can also be direct means of injury, as are home projects and accidents in general. Since we repeatedly point, gesture and motion with our hands, it is inevitable that from time to time our fingers will unexpectedly come into contact with a hard surface. Sometimes, an injury to the forearm, wrist or hand will result in a bruised finger simply through the process of gravity.
The soft tissues that surround the bones on the finger are the area directly involved in a bruise. When an injury occurs, blood vessels can be broken under the surface of the skin. Blood leaks from the broken vessels into the tissue and pools there. The outward signs of the bruise are from the color of the blood; reddish at the beginning, purplish blue or brownish black after one or two days, green or yellow within 5 to 10 days and light yellow thereafter until it disappears. The bruise fades over time as the body naturally breaks down the blood cells and eliminates them.
Most bruises will take care of themselves over time. Depending on the severity of the injury, a bruise can last anywhere from a few days to over a month. To hasten healing and to ease the pain, a finger can be taped to a neighboring finger to provide support. If additional damage such as small tears in the tissues of the tendon, joint injury or a fracture of one of the bones should occur, the bruising may very well be accompanied by swelling and fever along with the pain. When acute swelling occurs, numbness of the area may also be experienced. If these additional symptoms develop along with immediate bruising, a doctor should be consulted for an accurate diagnosis and possible x-rays to treat the finger.
When the coloration and pain are the sole symptoms of the bruised finger, treatment can usually be handled at home. Resting the finger, taping it to another finger, applying a cold compress to reduce swelling and taking aspirin or acetaminophen for the pain are the usual remedies recommended. Keeping the finger elevated keeps the blood from pooling excessively as well as controls swelling.
Fingers are used in every aspect of life, and continually throughout each and every day. With the heavy reliance we have on our fingers, it is easily understandable that one out of every 6 work injuries involve the fingers. Since these types of injuries are so common in everyday life, it is important to know how to treat a bruised finger before it happens.


The Risk Report
Volume 4 Number 6 (November-December 1998)
On August 31, 1998, North Korea launched what was initially believed to be a two-stage Taepodong 1 (TD1) missile eastward over Japan. The first stage of the missile fell into international waters roughly 400 miles east of the launch site, and the second stage flew over Japanese territory, splashing down in the Pacific Ocean approximately 930 miles from the launch site.
North Korea soon announced that it had tested a three-stage space launcher which included the release of a satellite that the DPRK claimed orbited the Earth over 100 times. Subsequent analysis confirmed that the launch did indeed feature three stages, but the third stage was not successful and did not result in the launch of a satellite.
The launch of a two-stage TD1 missile had been anticipated by U.S. intelligence, which has been tracking North Korea's progress toward an ICBM capability since the early 1990s. The TD1 is liquid fueled, reported to be roughly 25 meters tall, and has an estimated warhead capability of 3000 pounds. The two-stage missile is a significant step forward for North Korea's missile program, which had not previously moved beyond single-stage rockets.
The Taepo-dong program, encompassing both the TD1 and the untested TD2 ballistic missile, was initiated in the early 1990s. Its intent was to improve the range of North Korea's existing rockets, primarily the Scud C missile, and the Nodong, both of which are single-stage missiles. The TD1 appears to be constructed of a Nodong as a first stage and a Scud C as a second stage, whereas the TD2 is expected to couple a newly designed first stage with a Nodong as a second stage.
Evaluated as a test of a two-stage rocket, the August 31 launch appears to have been successful - both stages ignited and successfully separated. The range of the first stage could be greater than the splash-down point of the missile used in the test, with the North Koreans presumably restricting the distance the rocket flew in that instance to assure that it did not land in Japan. The second stage landed roughly 930 miles from the launch site. The missile's total range is estimated to be 1500 km to 2000 km. The Nodong missile class which preceded the TD missiles had a range of approximately 1000 km.
While the third stage of the TD1 missile launched on August 31 failed, the attempt to launch a satellite into orbit is a substantial leap forward for North Korea's missile program not anticipated by American intelligence analysts. The ability to launch a satellite into orbit brings a country close to ICBM capability. Should North Korea succeed in developing the TD2, it would have the ability to fly 4000-6000 km, which would make strikes at mainland Alaska and the Hawaiian isles a possibility. Intelligence sources estimate North Korea could flight-test the missile in 1998 and deploy it in a few years.
The launch of a three-stage North Korean rocket demonstrates two significant developments. First is the ability to implement stage separation procedures. North Korea had not previously tested two-stage rockets. American intelligence sources did not expect the North Koreans to attempt a test of a three-stage missile. Second was the use of solid fuel in the third stage, a technology North Korea was not known to possess. The appearance of solid fuel raises the question whether it was imported, and from whom.
New missile developments in North Korea are likely to spread elsewhere. The DPRK is a known missile and missile technology exporter to Iran, Syria and Pakistan. The Scud and Nodong programs have been partially funded by Iran in exchange for the delivery of missiles and the infrastructure to produce them. Iran tested a missile derived from North Korean technology in July. Pakistan, too, has been a recipient of North Korean exports, with North Korean technology and material having played a crucial role in the development of the Ghauri medium-range missile, a development of special concern in light of Pakistan's recent nuclear weapon tests. Pakistan is also believed to have received production technology for the Ghauri. North Korea bluntly announced in June that it would continue to export its missiles, so any improvement in the DPRK's missile technology is likely to filter into other weapons programs worldwide.