Malmö workshop discusses the evidence base on impacts of organic contaminants in sewage sludge used in agriculture.
Seventy scientists, regulators and water industry experts met at the workshop on organic contaminants and pharmaceuticals in sewage biosolids used on crops, organised in Malmö, Sweden, by ESPP and the Danish, Swedish and Norwegian waste associations (DAKOFA, Avfall Norge, Afvall Sverige).
The conference was opened by Anders Finnson, Svenskt Vatten (Swedish water & wastewater association). He explained that the water industry’s mission is to ensure health, safety and environmental quality in the two cycles, water cycle (sewage works purified discharge water, returning to the aquatic environment) and the sludge cycle (sewage biosolids containing nutrients and organic material used on farmland) and presented the REVAQ sludge quality certification scheme (see below).
Chris Thornton, ESPP, workshop moderator, outlined the meeting objectives. Currently, around 40% of Europe’s sewage biosolids are spread to fields, so returning to farmland some 115 000 tonnes P/year. This provides low-cost nutrients for farmers, or an income when sludge sale price is negative. In addition to phosphorus, nitrogen organic carbon and trace elements are also returned to farmland. However, the continuing use of sewage biosolids on farmland faces questions from consumers, from the food industry and retailers, and from regulators, because of concerns about contaminants and their possible uptake by crops.
ESPP proposed as workshop objectives to bring together information on the status of data, science and current research, and to discuss possible joint actions or input to R&D policies.
Heavy metal contaminants in sewage biosolids are identified, well understood, relatively easy to monitor, and can (for most them) be successfully reduced at source (see REVAQ below). Pathogens can be addressed by specific sanitisation processes, and are significantly reduced in composting or anaerobic digestion operated under appropriate conditions. Organic contaminants are much more difficult to address. Problematic consumer chemicals can be addressed by phase-out or use limitations, through REACH, the EU Chemical Regulation or through voluntary industry action (perfluoroalkyl substances (e.g. PFOS), polychlorinated naphthalenes and polydimethylsiloxanes were identified as priorities by Clarke & Smith 2012). Pharmaceuticals, however, are much more difficult to reduce at source.
Status of knowledge on pharmaceuticals in biosolids
Andrii Butkovskyi, Wageningen University, The Netherlands, summarised his group’s work on pharmaceuticals and organic consumer chemicals fate in source separated sanitation systems. These systems are shown to not really separate pharmaceuticals: (analgesics and anti-inflammatories, such as paracetomol, are also found in “grey water”, that is non toilet, kitchen and bath water) and household products (triclosan, galaxolide) are found in toilet wastewater. Information is lacking concerning sorption of different pharmaceuticals to biosolids in sewage. Only a minority of pharmaceuticals tend to be significantly transferred to sludge in anaerobic (UASB) sewage treatment (many remain mostly dissolved in discharge water), but personal care and household products are largely found in biosolids.
Biological sewage treatment systems, which are designed for BOD (available organic carbon) removal are not optimal for removing pharmaceuticals and household chemical biocides. On the other hand, composting shows to be effective in achieving >90% reduction for some organic household chemical biocides (e.g. triclosan triclorocarban).
Damià Barceló Cullerés, ICRA Catalan Institute for Water Research / CSIC Spain, presented conclusions of 2 years of monitoring of over 200 chemicals in 15 sewage works in Spain. Concentrations of contaminants from small industries were observed to have decreased. However, a range of consumer organic chemicals, pesticides (in particular from urban use) and pharmaceutical substances (including illicit drugs, with increased levels at weekends), as well as their metabolites, are found. Partitioning of these compounds between water and sludge has been studied. A number of pesticides are identified as adsorbing to sludge (e.g. chlorpyriphos). As above, the perfluorinated chemical PFOS (released from Teflon coatings) is identified as a problem, being found in both the water and sludge fractions. PFOS is considered an endocrine disruptor and is now on the Water Framework Directive “priority substances” list, requiring monitoring.
Prof Barceló noted that Arizona State University, USA, manages the NSSR (National Sewage Sludge Repository) and the Human Health Observatory (HHO), two archives and shared resources including sewage sludge and biosolids from over 200 cities in the U.S. and around the world, accompanied by meta data on contaminant concentrations and wastewater treatment plant information. Collaborative use of these resources is invited. He also noted that Halden 2015, a meta-analysis of 143 000 publications on contaminants of emerging concern in the environment (in general, not in sewage in particular), showed regulation of identified pollutants to be slow, with 14 years passing on average before action is taken. International sharing of knowledge and data on organic contaminants in sewage biosolids could help forward understanding and speed up the process of improving the safety and value of biosolids.
Natural robustness of soil
Jakob Magid, University of Copenhagen, presented data on heavy metals, soil biology, antibiotic resistance, pathogens, genetic contamination and nutrients, resulting from ‘accelerated’ application of sewage biosolids, manure and urban waste compost on the CRUCIAL farm test site near Copenhagen. The project has been running since 2003 with application at both normal as well as artificially high levels, the latter today equivalent to 130-210 years normal application. Results show a doubling of soil carbon, and a concomitant improvement of soil physical properties (e.g. increase in water retention and decrease in bulk density). Soil concentrations of copper and zinc increase, and the higher zinc can increase the crop value (micro-nutrient) but accumulation in soil must be limited.
The results show that soil microbial activity increases in proportion to applications, but that soil bacterial functions and soil bacterial diversity are not impacted. Antibiotic resistance of soil bacteria (pseudomonads) results from application of these materials, but this is largely reduced after 3 weeks and is no longer detectable after 6 weeks. Dr Magid concludes that the soil bacterial system is highly resilient and that organic contaminants in sewage sludge or other organic material, as applied, do not seem to pose problems.
The CRUCIAL study sites offer potential for specific study of impacts of pharmaceuticals and organic contaminants, and collaboration with interested research groups is invited.
Hannah Rigby, Imperial College London presented work with the UK Food Standards Agency on the potential for transfer and uptake of organic contaminants to food from the use of biosolids and other recycled wastes as nutrient sources in agriculture. The Food Standards Agency is supportive of use of sewage biosolids and other recycled wastes in agriculture, but wants an evidence base to demonstrate the safety of this practice.
She presented ‘worst case scenario’ testing where dairy cows were fed, under controlled experimental conditions, sewage biosolids, compost-like-output (the organic fraction from mechanical biological treatment of MSW = municipal solid waste), meat and bone meal ash, poultry litter ash and paper sludge ash, mixed into their feed (at up to 5% dry matter). Crop trials were also conducted. A range of priority organic contaminants were tested in the wastes and in the milk and crops. Preliminary results showed a significant increase in milk of dioxins (PCDD/F) compared to control cows for sewage biosolids fed to cattle at 5% dry matter intake to simulate ingestion of contaminated foliage by cattle. This is an unrealistic ‘worst case’ in that use of such materials on grassland should normally avoid risk of direct ingestion of biosolids by cattle, and even in this case, the dioxin levels in milk remained below one third of EU limits. Tests on arable fields showed no detectable uptake of ortho PCBs, ortho PBBs, PBDEs or PAHs into grain.
This work concludes that there is a minimal risk to the food chain from agriculture use of these secondary nutrients materials, but work is ongoing to complete chemical analysis of milk and crop samples for the range of priority organic contaminants found in the waste materials.
Does sludge treatment remove pharmaceuticals?
Anita Rye Ottosen, Rambøll engineering Denmark, presented data on the fate of pharmaceuticals and personal care chemicals in composting of biosolids. Studies have been carried out by Aarhus University with two Denmark composting companies (KomTek Miljø And Odense Nord Miljøcenter) and Rambøll, in outdoor “mile” composting systems, as widely used in Denmark. This followed a literature study in 2009 which suggested that data was insufficient on fate of organic contaminants in composting.
Studies in real composting (of a mixture of sewage biosolids, garden green waste and straw) looked at 20 organic contaminants, showing variable levels of degradation of household chemicals such as triclosan, musks, DEHP plasticiser, anti-inflammatory drugs (30 – 50% degradation), antibiotics (>85%) but zero degradation of female sex hormones. The degradation took place principally in the first few days of composting.
Conclusions are that organic contaminants are (mostly) significantly reduced in composting, but that further work is needed to identify which substances are degraded and under what conditions.
Jörgen Magnér, IVL Sweden, presented studies of the fate of pharmaceuticals in different sewage sludge hygienisation processes and in soils. Degradation of pharmaceuticals in anaerobic digestion (38°C, 55°C), pasteurisation, advanced oxidation (AOP), ammonia treatment and thermal hydrolysis was tested using sewage sludge spiked with 13 different pharmaceuticals (at 1 µg/kg). Although results were complex, the highest level of degradation was mostly noted in anaerobic digestion. Female hormones were however not degraded except with thermal hydrolysis. In further tests hydrothermal carbonisation showed to reduce total pharmaceuticals levels to around one third at 200°C/2h or to one tenth at 220°C/4h.
Dr Magnér also presented tests using lysimeters at Petersborg Farm, Skåne. Of 23 pharmaceuticals analysed, 15 were detected in sewage sludge, but only 4 were detected in soil after 35 years of sludge application and only one (caffeine) in water coming out of the bottom of the lysimeter. Acidic pharmaceuticals seem to move through soil more than others.
Conclusions are that sewage sludge application to farmland is an insignificant source of pharmaceuticals to the environment compared to sewage works discharge water, and that pharmaceuticals in sewage sludge are mostly retained in the surface soil and biodegraded there.
Kai Bester, Aarhus University, Denmark, summarised studies of pharmaceuticals in sewage sludge from four different Danish sewage works (WWTPs) and fate in different sludge treatment processes. Results suggest that transfer of pharmaceuticals to sewage sludge can be estimated by the substance’s partition coefficient (if >104, then 90% will go to sludge rather than being discharged in water), but that degradation is very difficult to predict. Some pharmaceuticals were not degraded in any of the four WWTPs studied, others were degraded rapidly in some of the WWTPs but not in others. No relation to biosolids properties or sludge retention time could be identified.
Further studies shows that ozonation removes some, but not all pharmaceuticals, but with a high energy cost. Composting shows different degradation performance for different pharmaceutical substances, with significant differences according to composting temperature. Biofilm reactors (fixed sand or moving bed, both anaerobic and aerobic) are effective in degrading a range of pharmaceuticals (21 out of 26 tested pharmaceuticals degraded >20% after 20 hours residence time), including recalcitrant molecules such as beta-blockers and X-ray contrast media. Further work is needed to reduced residence time and optimise the biological conditions.
Dr. Bester concludes that activated sludge degrades some pharmaceuticals, and that this can be today partly predicted for different substances. Different sludge treatments, on the other hand, have varying impacts on pharmaceutical degradation, information is lacking and degradation of different substances in different sludge treatment systems is not predictable. Overall, sludge post-treatments can remove significant amounts of pharmaceuticals, but cannot guarantee removal of all pharmaceuticals, and further work is needed into the identity and levels of metabolites generated in these degradation processes.
Marilyne Soubrand and Magali Casellas, Limoges University France, indicated that 60% of pharmaceutical substances tested entering sewage works are detected in sludges and confirmed that today there is little data available on pharmaceutical removal in sludge treatment, particularly because this is very variable for different sludge treatment processes and different pharmaceutical molecules.
They presented data from the SIPIBEL project, studying the fate of pharmaceuticals in the Bellecombe (Haute Savoie, France) sewage works (activated sludge process) which treats a mixture of hospital and municipal wastewater, with sewage sludge treated by either liming or mesophilic (c. 37°C) anaerobic digestion. Lachassagne et al. 2015 presents data from this site for 11 pharmaceuticals, showing the pharmaceuticals were generally removed in anaerobic digestion, but not in liming, but possible degradation metabolites were not assessed. For some of the pharmaceuticals, sludge treatment modifies the solid/liquid partitioning.
They further presented studies of pharmaceutical behaviour in soils. Soil column tests, with application of sewage biosolids, showed very low or non detectable concentrations of pharmaceuticals in leachate water coming out of the bottom of the soil columns. Tests showed that did not show toxicity of this leachate.
These studies are part of ongoing work in France to better understand the behaviour and possible significance of organic contaminants in sewage sludges, including the ESCo MAFOR report (see SCOPE Newsletter 109) and the IMOPOLDYN project (funded by ADEME France - interactions micro-pollutants / organic matrices in fertiliser materials of waste origin: influence on the dynamics of micro-pollutants during land-spreading. Results suggest that pharmaceuticals behaviour is not related to the ‘composition’ of sludge (e.g. lipid content) but to interactions between molecular properties (in particular, different functional chemical groups, such as hydroxides, metal ions, cationic/anionic groups) of the pharmaceutical molecule and of sewage sludge flocs.
New treatment options, such as sludge pre-treatment upstream of anaerobic digestion (e.g. by ozonation) can both reduce pharmaceuticals and increase biogas production.
Marissa de Boer, SUSPHOS, presented studies of uptake of pharmaceuticals (spiked into urine) to different recycled fertiliser products, which were then used to grow tomatoes. The lowest pharmaceutical uptake was in struvite. Uptake to tomatoes was very low: 750 kg dry weight tomatoes would have to be consumed daily to reach the ADI limit (1% of the therapeutic dose, in the worst case).
Meritxell Gros, Catalan Institute for Water Research, presented the occurrence of 40 multiple-class antibiotics and veterinary pharmaceuticals in field trials, fertilized with dairy cattle manure and pig slurry at a rate of 170 kg N/ha per year. Soil sampling was performed prior to fertilization and two and seven months after fertilization, at soil depths up to 120 cm. In cattle manure amended fields only three substances were detected at low µg/kg levels, while in pig slurry amended fields up to eight pharmaceuticals were identified at concentrations from ten to hundred µg/kg. Most of the pharmaceuticals detected were identified at all soil depths, indicating the liability of these substances to leach to groundwater bodies and deteriorate the quality of aquifers.
Håkan Jönsson, Swedish Agricultural University, Uppsala (SLU), presented the collaborative work group “Upstream work for sustainable recycling” started by VA-kluster Mälardalen. This is an open work group on upstream knowledge synthesis and research projects to address pharmaceuticals and consumer chemicals inputs to sewage, biosolids, soil and crops. Possible questions include modifying prescription/prescription free drug choices, actions in health institutions, treatment by enzymes in sewage, impacts of composting and digestion
Trine Eggen, Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety (VKM) Panel on Animal Feed, presented a risk assessment of contaminants in sewage sludge applied on Norwegian soils in 2009 using a tier-approach for prioritising pharmaceuticals. Her poster identifies 12 areas where knowledge necessary to support such risk assessments is currently lacking. She suggests that antimicrobial resistance should be an issue in future risk evaluations of sewage sludge (http://www.vkm.no/dav/2ae7f1b4e3.pdf)
Zulin Zhang, James Hutton Institute, Scotland, presented results of a field trial where municipal sewage sludge, manure (mainly cattle) and compost (food wastes) and then soil analysed for a number of organic contaminants (industrial chemicals, combustion pollutants) and for ARGs (antibiotic resistant genes). Concentrations of the organic contaminants (e.g. DEHP) were higher in sludge > compost > manure and resulted in correspondingly higher levels in soils. Multiple applications of organic fertilizers resulted in higher ARGs in comparison to inorganic fertilizer although ARG abundance in soil showed to decrease over time.
- Incineration of sewage sludge can be an appropriate solution depending on local conditions (e.g. contaminated sludge, lack of agricultural space for spreading …) but is lower down the recycling hierarchy (energy “recovery” not recycling). Even if phosphorus is recovered from ash (to produce fertiliser or for industry applications), organic carbon, nitrogen, potassium, sulphur and micro-nutrients are lost.
- Concerns about sludge contaminants must be taken seriously and addressed both by developing data and information to support risk assessments, and by taking upstream actions wherever possible to reduce contamination of sewage sludge. For industrial chemicals and consumer chemicals, this is possible by actions targeting users and households (reduce discharge to sewers), but for pharmaceuticals it is much more difficult.
- Public exposure risk to organic contaminants via sewage sludge should be put into context of exposure from other routes (both the same and other organic contaminants via direct contact and in household dust, air, water). However, this does not absolve the need to address sewage sludge use in agriculture in order to inform farmers, the food industry, consumers and decision makers.
- Veterinary pharmaceuticals and hormones are also present at significant levels in manures, and this should also be addressed, both by reductions at source where possible, and by monitoring and treatment where manure nutrients are recycled.
- There still a need for more data regarding fate of organic contaminants, including pharmaceuticals in sewage sludge. There is more data on heavy metals, and more data on organic contaminants in water (sewage works discharge, rivers, drinking water) than in biosolids. The question is multi-faceted: contaminants in biosolids, fate in sewage treatment and in sludge treatment processes, in soils, in crops, both short and medium term presence and impacts.
- Pharmaceuticals and other organic chemicals in sewage sludge are varied and complex, and cannot be considered as a single issue. Of the wide number of molecules, new pharmaceuticals and chemicals, breakdown products, which to monitor? Further data and understanding is needed to try to identify different families of substances which have similar behaviour, but without over-simplifying.
- Pharmaceuticals and hormones are important challenges, because of the inherent obstacles to upstream reductions, both in sewage sludge and in animal manures.
- More immediately however, industrial and household chemicals require monitoring and action, in particular:
- PFOS (perfluorooctane sulfonate) and other perfluorinated chemicals, e.g. from Teflon
- triclosan and triclocarban
- brominated flame retardants and substitute chemicals
- PAH (poly aromatic hydrocarbons)
- Composting is generally effective for removing many, but not all pharmaceuticals. Female hormones however are largely not degraded.
- Removal of organic contaminants in sewage treatment systems is very variable and difficult to predict, depending on contaminant molecule chemistry, sludge properties, dewatering, treatment conditions.
- Anaerobic digestion can break down some pharmaceuticals, but further work is needed to better understand how to improve this, including looking at sludge disintegration upstream of digesters (e.g. Cambi, Haarslev, Biothely). Further work is needed on degradation metabolites to verify if these pose issues.
- There is potential to develop new sludge treatment process chains in order to improve pharmaceuticals removal, e.g. treatments upstream of anaerobic digestion, or modification of conditions in digesters and in the sewage works biological treatment cycles
- Female hormones are often not degraded in sludge treatment, but this may be not of environmental or health significance. Manures either spread or going directly to soils from animals in the field often contains significant levels of such hormones.
- Antibiotic resistance is a globally important health issue, and should be better studied for sewage biosolids application. Knowledge shows that soils can naturally adapt, because soil organisms naturally release antibiotics, so that antibiotic resistance appearing after sludge application seems to be only temporary.
- Several studies confirm that movement of organic contaminants to groundwater is very low from sewage sludge land application. This is unsurprising, as the contaminants found in sludges are those which tend to partition to solids, and not to water.
- Data is needed to develop robust risk assessments of agricultural use of sewage biosolids, and also of manures, taking into account fate of and possible impacts of pharmaceuticals in sewage treatment processes, sludge treatment, in soil and possibly in crops and for grazing livestock. This cannot be feasibly done for the large number of pharmaceutical molecules and other organic contaminants, so screening is needed to identify priority substances.
Research needs and knowledge gaps
The Norwegian Food Safety Authority indicated that the 2009 VKM food safety report (Eriksen et al. 2009) assessed heavy metals and organic contaminants pharmaceuticals in sewage sludge used on farmland, concluding that use was safe if guidelines are respected. A risk assessment was also carried out for antibacterial-resistant bacteria and resistance genes in soil following application of sludge by evaluating the likeliness of development of resistance based on the drug residues in the STP water, in the dry sludge and in soil.
A mandate has recently been made by the Norwegian Food Safety Authority to engage update of this report, including the issue of antibiotic resistance and assessed pharmaceuticals in sewage sludge used on farmland, concluding that use was safe if guidelines are respected. A mandate has been made to engage update of this report.
The Swedish EPA also concluded in 2005 (Österås et al. 2015): “The results indicate that levels in soil after long term sludge additions do not pose a risk to the soil ecosystem or humans. These findings are in line with earlier findings”.
It was also noted that EU R&D funding has a JPI (Joint Programming Initiative) on Antimicrobial Resistance (http://www.jpiamr.eu). It could be proposed to include sewage-born pharmaceuticals in this work.
Areas identified as priorities for further research:
- Data, and communications summaries of data, to justify the contribution of sewage biosolids use in agriculture to nutrient recycling and to soil carbon, in particular as regards the Paris Climate Change commitment to increase soil carbon by 4/1000 (CO2 fixation)
- Antibiotic resistance in soil microbes after sewage sludge application. Is it possibly transmissible to health-relevant microbes? Is it consistently transient (natural soil adaptation) or is it a potential lasting issue of concern?
- Understanding of how different molecular properties of organic contaminants and pharmaceuticals (partitioning coefficients, chemical functional groups) fate in different sewage works processes (impacts of retention times, microbacterial species …), sludge treatment processes, sludge dewatering, in different sludges, in soils. An initial ‘wish list’ could be defined of data linking different molecular properties to behaviour.
- Fate of pharmaceuticals in anaerobic digestion of sewage sludges, including breakdown metabolites, as a function of digester operating conditions
- Adaptation of sewage works or sewage sludge treatment process chains, or new treatment systems, to improve removal of organic contaminants
- Risk assessment models for organic contaminants in land application of sewage biosolids, and also of manures, after different treatments, based on contaminant molecule characteristics, sludge treatment processes and parameters
Recommendations for action
The following actions were proposed to take forward the objectives identified above:
- Establish a simple data base of key relevant papers and reports, concerning organic contaminants in sewage sludges and their possible transfer to soil and crops. A first list of papers as proposed by workshop participants, is included below. This is open to input to update.
- Propose collaboration at a global level with similar work in other continents, e.g. US the NSSR (National Sewage Sludge Repository) and the Human Health Observatory (HHO) see above.
- Develop a document presenting the advantages of sewage biosolids recycling to agriculture: circular economy and jobs, farmers’ income, nutrient recycling, organic carbon – soils and climate change (4/1000), safety and environmental aspects, with recognition that other solutions for sludge management are appropriate according to local situations. ESPP or joint document? For decision makers.
- Input to definition of R&D programmes (EU Horizon 2020, other EU programmes, national R&D funding …) proposing relevant work on organic contaminants in sewage solids (see research priorities above), in particular data to support risk assessments. This includes:
- workshop participants to identify and communicate consultations and opportunities for making such inputs
- develop a joint document outlining R&D needs and priorities
- Identify R&D needs relevant to EU and national policies:
- EU Sludge Directive (86/278/EEC) and national sludge spreading regulations and plans
- EU and national circular economy policies
- End-of-Waste and fertiliser regulations
- Joint projects: workshop participants may develop joint projects (R&D, water industry). ESPP is not an R&D brokerage operator, but can circulate proposals or partner search offers.
Workshop on pharmaceuticals and organic chemicals in sewage biosolids: questions for recycling,Malmö (near Copenhagen) 27th October 2016, organised by ESPP in cooperation with the Nordic Phosphorus Conference (DAKOFA, Avfall Norge, Afvall Sverige). Speaker slides are available at https://dakofa.com/conference/conference/programme (click on the speaker’s name in the programme)
Papers and reports identified by workshop participants
Andersen et al. “Fate of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PCPs) by composting of biosolids” Proceedings Sardinia 2009, Twelfth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium https://www.tuhh.de/iue/iwwg/publications/conference-proceedings/sardinia-2009.html
Clarke & Smith “Review of ‘emerging’ organic contaminants in biosolids and assessment of international research priorities for the agricultural use of biosolids”, Environment International 37 (2011) 226–247 http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.652.7711&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Butkovskyi et al. “Fate of pharmaceuticals in full-scale source separated sanitation system”, Water Research, 85, 384-392, 2015 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2015.08.045
Butkovskyi et al., “Mitigation of micropollutants for black water application in agriculture via composting of anaerobic sludge”, J. Hazardous Materials, 303, 41-47, 2016 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.10.016
Smith “Organic contaminants in sewage sludge (biosolids) and their significance for agricultural recycling”, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A-Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences 367, 4005-4041, 2009 http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2009.0154
Halden “Epistemology of contaminants of emerging concern and literature meta-analysis”, J. Hazardous Materials 282 (2015) 2-9 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.08.074
Hörsing & Ledin, SVU (Svenskt Vatten Utveckling) 2016-08 “Identifiering av fokusämnen för slam – organiska miljögifter” (identification of priority organic contaminants in sludge) http://www.svensktvatten.se/contentassets/41ce07e942c24bbfad6a612525da572e/svu-rapport_2016-08.pdf
Hörsinget et al. al., SVU 2014-12 “Organiska miljögifter i sockerbetor och blast odlade på mark gödslad med kommunalt avloppsslam” (risk assessment for organic contaminants when sewage sludge after mesophilic anaerobic digestion is applied to fields) http://www.svensktvatten.se/globalassets/avlopp-och-miljo/uppstromsarbete-och-kretslopp/revaq-certifiering/svu-rapport-2014-organiska-miljogifter-i-sockerbetor-och-blast---slamgodsling.pdf
Jelic, et al. “Occurrence, partition and removal of pharmaceuticals in sewage water and sludge during wastewater treatment”, Water research 2011, 45 (3), 1165-1176 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2010.11.010
Gorga, et al. “Determination of PBDEs, HBB, PBEB, DBDPE, HBCD, TBBPA and related compounds in sewage sludge from Catalonia (Spain)”, Science of the Total Environment 2013, 444, 51-59 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.11.066
Mastroianni, et al. “Illicit and abused drugs in sewage sludge: Method optimization and occurrence”, Journal of Chromatography A 2013, 1322, 29-37 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2013.10.078
Gorga,et al. “Analysis of endocrine disrupters and related compounds in sediments and sewage sludge using on-line turbulent flow chromatography-liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry”, Journal of Chromatography A 2014, 1352, 29-37 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2014.05.028
Campo et al. “Distribution and fate of perfluoroalkyl substances in Mediterranean Spanish sewage treatment plants”, Science of the Total Environment 2014, 472, 912-922 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.11.056
Campo et al. “Occurrence and removal efficiency of pesticides in sewage treatment plants of four Mediterranean River Basins”, Journal of hazardous materials 2013, 263, 146-157 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.11.056
Levén et al., JTI 2016 , ISSN-1401-4955 “Pharmaceuticals in blackwater and fecal sludge – Treatments and risks” http://www.jti.se/uploads/jti/R-54%20LL%20m.fl.pdf
Magnér et al., IVL B2264 September 2016 “Fate of pharmaceutical residues - in sewage treatment and on farmland fertilized with sludge” http://www.ivl.se/download/18.29aef808155c0d7f05054e/1473086619449/B2264.pdf
Malmborg, SVU 2014-21 “Reduktion av läkemedelsrester och andra organiska föroreningar vid hygienisering av avloppsslam”(assessment of reduction of pharmaceutical and other organic contaminants in sewage sludge under seven different sludge treatments) http://vav.griffel.net/filer/SVU-rapport_2014-21.pdf
Malmborg & Magnér, J. Env Management 153 (2015) 1-10 “Pharmaceutical residues in sewage sludge: Effect of sanitization and anaerobic digestion” http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.01.041
Österås et al., WSP 10196232, 2015 “Screening of organic pollutants in sewage sludge amended arable soils”, report for Sweden EPA http://www.svensktvatten.se/globalassets/avlopp-och-miljo/uppstromsarbete-och-kretslopp/revaq-certifiering/naturvardsverket-rapport-screening-of-organic-pollutants-in-sewage-sludge-amended-arable-soils_151124-2.pdf
Rigby et al. “Organic contaminant content and physico-chemical characteristics of waste materials recycled in agriculture” Agriculture 5(4), 1289-132, 2015 http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/agriculture5041289
Eriksen et al. / VKM (Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety) “Risk assessment of contaminants in sewage sludge applied on Norwegian soils” , 20th August 2009 http://www.vkm.no/dav/2ae7f1b4e3.pdf
Smith “Organic contaminants in sewage sludge (biosolids) and their significance for agricultural recycling” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A – Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences, vol 367, 4005-4041 http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2009.0154
Venkatesan, et al. “United States National Sewage Sludge Repository at Arizona State University – A New Resource and Research Tool for Environmental Scientists, Engineers, and Epidemiologists”, Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. 22(3):1577-1586 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-2961-1
Zhang et al. “A study on temporal trends and estimates of fate of Bisphenol A in agricultural soils after sewage sludge amendment”, Science of the Total Environment 515/516:1-11, 2015 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.01.053
Rhind et al. “Short- and long-term temporal changes in soil concentrations of selected endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) following single or multiple applications of sewage sludge to pastures” Environmental Pollution 181: 262-270, 2013 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.06.011
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Vegetarianism is a healthy and life prolonging diet choice. According to a study by the National Institute of Health, vegetarians had lower rates of death from things like cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and even kidney failure.
These are great motivators to get started on a vegetarian diet, but before you do there are some do’s and don’ts that you will want to follow to ensure that you have the best experience.
A Vegetarian Diet: Do This!
Eat Whole Food
Instant foods are a very tempting option when you’re cruising through the frozen section of your grocery store. Unfortunately, the synthetic processes that these foods go through remove many of the natural nutrients and add unhealthy products our bodies don’t need. Avoiding processed foods will help ensure you get the most out of your vegetarian diet. Instead, make sure you’re eating a wide variety of whole foods that are unprocessed and offer only one ingredient. This gives you a huge variety of options from beans and nuts to whole grains, fruits and vegetables.
Replace Meat in Your Favorite Foods
As previously mentioned, most of your favorite foods can be made without meat. Beans are a great alternative when it comes to replacing meat in a regular dish. Milk can be replaced with almond or soy milk, and cheese can be replaced with soy cheeses. You don’t have to avoid the things you love. Just re-think the ingredients and find appropriate substitutes.
Consult A Nutritionist
A nutritionist or dietician can be a great asset when beginning a vegetarian diet plan. They can help establish a sound nutritional program that includes the foods you like to eat and can make the whole process hands-free. Also, most medical plans cover this service if it is conjunction with a health and wellness or preventive care medical program.
Keep in Mind Your Health Goals
Abstaining from meat can be difficult and there will be times when you will crave a cheeseburger or steak. It’s at these times when it’s really important to remember why you started a plant diet. It’s useful to make a list of the reasons you’re choosing to eat vegetarian before you start, so that you can refer to it when you need a little motivation.
It’s always a good idea to have people in your life who are also vegetarian or vegan. There are many support groups both locally and online that offer community and support.
Get excited about your new lifestyle choice! You are doing something good for your health.
Vegetarian Diet: Not This!
Don’t Forget The Protein
Protein is an absolute necessity. Thankfully, you have lots of options and a good variety when it comes to choosing your protein. Many vegetarian and vegan friendly foods contain protein. There are many great alternative foods that make it easy to enjoy burgers, tacos, and chili without the beef. You can eat stir fry and kabobs without the chicken. Just try different recipes to find the ones you like.
Don’t Be Afraid Of Tofu, Tempeh And Other Soy Proteins
It can be intimidating to look at a package that contains a white cube and not have any clue as to what to do with it. Don’t let fear keep you from using great soy products to replace meat in your recipes.
Go online or buy a book about how to use them and begin to experiment with recipes. Before you know it, you will be an expert vegetarian cook.
Don’t Forget The Supplements
One of the biggest mistakes vegans and vegetarians make is to not deal with their nutritional supplement needs. Supplements can be incredibly important for having a healthy, well-rounded diet when you are a vegetarian.
The first on the list is B12. It’s the superhero of vitamins and supports nerve and blood cell function as well as other important functions. It is also key to oxygen moving through the body and helps your body make DNA. Because this vitamin is such a superhero it’s not one you will want to do without, however the primary source for this wonder vitamin happens to be found in beef and liver.
This doesn’t mean you have to do without because many foods are fortified with B12 and you can get it as a supplement. When you are picking a food or drink that has been supplemented make sure that the label reads at least 25%.
Daily vitamins are also a good way to ensure that you are getting a balanced and healthy amount of the nutrients you need in addition to your regular diet. Ask your doctor or nutritionist about supplements you may need.


Daddy might still have his job, but the mass layoffs creates an environment of tension and stress for every working adult. What does this do to our children? It creates a huge burden and a palpable tension that impacts them. Bottom line, whether you are discussing the situation with your children or not- they know something is up. The nation is in a state of financial emergency and how parents react to that emergency will directly impact their children. Here are some simple strategies for keeping your children calm and addressing the financial satiation.
1. Keep you composure. Your anxiety and distress directly impact your children. While you may understand why you are acting this way young children may not. All they are able to see is a parent or parents who are on edge and upset. The more in control you are the more they will be.
2. Limit their news intake. Just like a natural disaster- children may not understand how information coming from media impacts them directly. Watch with them so you can explain.
3. Don’t kid about the situation. Subtle humor about going broke or not having enough food to eat may alleviate your tension but young children are likely to interpret that information literally. Speak to your children honestly about the situation.
4. Don’t over inform. Different ages can understand different amounts of information so before you speak to your children remind yourself of their age and what they can handle.
5. Assure their safety and wellbeing. They may not like the fact that there isn’t enough money to buy a toy but they need to know that you will protect them and that they will be safe.
6. Let them help. Give children a chance to make an impact by simple actions like cutting coupons, having bake sales, saving allowance. While the finacial impact will not be great, they will feel more at ease by contributing.
7. Be patient. Children process information differently and more slowly so be prepared for many questions repeated over and over.
8. Look for warning signs. Children, who are not sleeping, complaining of headaches or stomachaches, are tired, or who are irritated may be experiencing stress.
How you react directly effects how they react... Be a good parent-- think about them...


Our readings on autonomous weapons featured some very direct back and forth on the idea of banning “killer robots.” I think the issue can be split into three broad categories, focusing on the ethics of the development and use of autonomous weapons, the issues they face in international law, and the practicality of their use and prohibition.
Ethics. Gubrud raises the idea that it is contrary to the principles of a shared humanity to allow machines to determine an end to human lives. There is some value in humans making the decision the decision to kill. Opponents to this idea believe that humans killing other humans is no more ethical than robots killing humans, and that the substantive question in this issue relates to matters of practicality. Is it more ethical for a human to be the decisionmaker, and if so, is it enough reason to oppose the development of these weapons?
International Law. Gubrud also presents the argument that autonomous weapons should already be illegal under international law. He argues that robots cannot satisfy the principles of distinction and proportionality which determine just conduct in war; AI can neither reliably distinguish combatants from noncombatants nor weigh collateral damage against military gain. Ackerman opposes this view in his article, claiming that the codified Rules of Engagement are something that an AI can certainly understand and base decisions upon; Gubrud mentions the US’s “collateral damage estimation methodology”, which could serve as a base for a robot to determine proportionality. Neither side claims that the data-gathering and decision-making abilities of the technology is adequate to meet legal requirements yet; in your opinion, will it ever be? What advantages would robots have in this regard, and what challenges would you anticipate for those working on this technology?
On a different note legally, Gubrud also brings up the Martens Clause, supporting the idea that the strong public consensus against autonomous weapons can also determine the standing of autonomous weapons in international law. What role should public opinion play in this legal question, and what should be considered along with public opinion?
Practicality. There are a number of issues related to the practical implications of the development or ban of autonomous weapons.
First, would a ban even be effective? Gubrud points to an already developing international consensus for caution with the technology as a sign that a ban could develop and work, and he, Russell, Tegmark, and Walsh point to successes in banning other types of weapons. Ackerman counters by claiming that robots offer too much of a technological advantage for a state to resist and that the technology is too accessible, even to regular citizens, to effectively control. Trying to ban the tech would be a waste of effort better devoted to preventing abuse. We’ve studied weapons bans as they relate to nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons; is the issue of controlling autonomous weapons fundamentally different? What effects would a ban have on the use of robots for domestic suppression? Terrorism? Are there alternate means to prevent abuses?
Another aspect to consider will be the effect on international stability. With no emotional attachment to these robots, and little political cost for their loss, will they lead to riskier, more aggressive, and more frequent military actions? What are the prospects for an arms race featuring dozens of countries, similar to the broad interest and investment in drone technology today?
What will be the effects on consumer technology? The open letter opposing the development of autonomous weapons argues that public backlash against killer robots will hurt support for the entire fields of robotics and AI. Ackerman alludes to the idea that military research is a key driver of progress in consumer technology.
Finally, is there any aspect of the debate that these authors failed to address? — Trevor


Articulated Tensegrity Systems
Tensegrity systems consist of pressurized and tension elements.
Pressurized elements (or expansion elements) press outwards or resist being pressed inwards. They float relative to each other to maintain adjustability during change.
Tensioned elements pull inwards or resist being pressed outwards. They are connected in a network that distributes stresses among themselves.
Where pressurized elements give the structure shape and volume, tensioned elements hold the structure together, integrating it, hence the term tensegrity, a combination of the words tension and integrity.
Articulated Tensegrity Systems are a special type of tensegrity designed to change shape while maintaining tensegrity at key points in the system. Our bodies could be thought of as Articulated tensegrity systems.
An important quality of tensegrity systems is that they allow growth while remaining their integrity.
A balloon is a tensegrity system with air comprising the pressured elements and the rubber skin of the balloon the tension element. Fill a balloon with air and it expands in all directions. Allow the air to escape and the balloon shrinks.
The skin of the balloon, the tensioned element, can freely redistribute stress because the molecules of air inside the balloon can move freely with respect to each other.
This idea of being able to grow (or simply "change") while retaining integrity is important biologically.
Imagine the brain growing. In order to accommodate the increase in side the bones of the skull have to expand. The sutures (tension elements or T-elements) which hold the bones of the skull (P-Elements) in place are what allow the individual bones to grow and the skull as a whole to expand outwards. The cranial sutures hold the bones in a relatively fixed relationship to each other while at the same time floating them so that they don't come into direct contact with each other.
The pelvis is another structure which can rely on tensegrity to hold it together, particularly during an event like child birth. But even as the pelvis grows it is important that its bones be allowed to adjust to each other to maintain integrity while also allowing growth. The SI joints and to a lesser extent the pubic synthesis maintain the floating relationship between the sacrum and hip bones so that they can maintain their relationship even as they change or are subject to change.
Skeletal articulations, where bone meets bone to form joints, also allow growth. Synovial joints are made up of joint capsules which have an envelope of connective tissue holding the ends of bones together while within the envelope is synovial fluid which presses the bones apart. Bones can grow and the growth can be accommodated by the joint capsule without losing joint integrity.
In creating tensegrity in yoga poses I talked about modifying a bicycle wheel so that the relationship between the hub and the rim was both controllable (or responsive) and sensible. Smart spokes would have built in tension motors for adding tension as well as stretch sensors for measuring stretch. At any moment in time the information from stretch sensors in the wheel could give the relative position of rim and hub. The tension creating motors controlled tension to allow the relationship between hub and rim to be changed or maintained.
This Smart Wheel (version 1.0a) could be used to approximate the hip joint. Albeit a hip joint that doesn't connect to a lower back, or knee joint. The idea was to show how the the hip joint might be controlled (by the brain), and also how we might be able to consciously interact with the hip joint, directly feeling and controlling the muscles that act on it and the positions of the bones relative to each other at the joint itself.
To make tensegrity systems easier to understand it may be useful to think in terms of two environments: the external, that is whatever is outside of the tensegrity system, and the internal, what is going on inside the system itself. The system boundary connects the internal to the external environment. It is where the internal environment relates to the external.
Change could be defined as anything that tries to alter a relationship. The relationship being altered could be between parts of the system (within the internal environment) or the relationship between the internal and external environment.
Change could be externally driven (i.e. coming from the external environment) or internally driven (i.e. created by the components of the wheel itself, the internal environment.)
Looking at our smart wheel (1.0a) and assuming no externally driven changes we can assume the following basic scenarios:
These scenarios are very simple and are the equivalent of learning to ride a bicycle in an empty car park. Because there are no external environmental factors to worry about the focus can be on learning to deal with the bicycles systems.
Assuming that now there is externally driven change, we can assume these scenarios:
the smart spokes might be relaxed so that the rim flops around relative to the rim, driven by the external change,
they might be active and maintaining a particular relationship between hub and rim despite the external change,
they might be active and trying to change the relationship despite the external change.
Carrying on with the metaphor of learning to ride a bike, we could first practice dealing with regular predictable changes, then from there move on to dealing with random changes.
When external change is present, a sensitivity to external as well as internal change can be beneficial. Then, when appropriate external change can be used to help drive the change the desired internal change. Less effort is then expended to create the desired change in relationship.
One area in which our smart wheels (version 1.0a) are lacking is direct sensitivity of the external environment. For this it might be helpful to add pressure sensors to the rims to sense what part of the rim is in contact with the ground (or some other object or surface.) This could be used to augment information from the tension sensors. And so now we have an upgrade to smart wheels (version 1.0b)
Where the tension sensors in the smart spokes could help determine the current relationship between hub and rim, pressure sensors in smart rim could help determine the current relationship between the wheel and the earth (or between the wheel and anything else externally contacting it).
A regular bicycle wheel is more than just a rim, spokes and a hub. While this structure provides strength and durability while at the same time being light, it doesn't do a lot to absorb the small shocks and jolts of riding (even with smart spokes and rims).
Stick a tire on, inflate it, we not only have a smoother ride, we also have another example of a tensegrity system.
With a bike that is ridden, and focusing on the rear wheel (since it generally bears more weight than the front wheel), the weight of the rider passes through the frame stays to the hub. The uppermost spokes transfer that weight to the rim, which at it's point of contact with the ground, transfers the weight of the bike and the rider to the earth.
Between the rim and the earth is an air filled tire, a tensegrity system in its own right. Assuming just enough air to keep the rim from contacting the earth, but not enough air to make the tire rigid, the tire will bulge near the point of contact with the earth. The air molecules inside redistribute and the rubber in this part of the tire bulges to accommodate the weight of the rider and bike pressing down into the earth. As the wheel rolls the bulge moves around the tire following the point of contact.
If the tire doesn't have enough air pressure, or the rider is too heavy, the tire bulges to the point that the rim contacts the earth. The result is a rougher, potentially damaging ride. If the tire has alot of pressure, the rim is in no danger of contacting the earth but the ride becomes less comfortable and the tire itself could conceivably wear out faster because of the high pressure.
With just the right amount of pressure the ride is comfortable, tire life is potentially longer and the rim is in no danger of bouncing on the ground. (There can be other considerations, more tire pressure gives better handling and less rolling resistance, lower tire pressure can give better grip, particularly with knobbly tires.)
Ideal tire pressure will depend on the weight of the rider. For a heavier rider we need more tire pressure, for a lighter rider, potentially less. For smart tires we need a mechanism for sensing weight, or changes in weight. We could build stretch sensors into the walls of the tire.
So that changes in weight could be acted upon we could have a mechanism within the tire to increase tire pressure when the stretch sensors are activated. This could be some sort of pump and reservoir that could both add air to the tire and extract it again. Of course then the whole tire would be stretched by the increase in pressure. And so sensors would have to be differentiated. In addition some protocol would have to be in place to signal when to reduce pressure.
Another means of making the tire smart would be having some means of varying the flexibility of the tire itself so that for a heavier rider the tire become less flexible (stiffer) and for a lighter rider, more flexible. The tire could be designed in such a way that only the area that bulges is induced to become stiffer. So as the wheel rolls, the part of the tire that is most bulge prone becomes stiffer (while parts less bulge prone become less stiff). Note that this could work as a pressure sensor. Now we can potentially upgrade our smart wheels (version 2.0a beta).
How is this relevant to understanding the body?
In two words (describing one idea): joint capsules.
Joint capsules consist of an envelope that holds the ends of two or more bones together. Within the envelope is synovial fluid. The envelope could be thought of as a tensioned element and the fluid the pressurized element. The two together could be used to prevent the ends of bones pressing into each other. The envelope maintains the relationship of the bones while the fluid helps them to float relative to each other.
How would the joint capsule as a whole adjust to handle changes in weight?
Probably not with the equivalent of a device inside the tire that varies the pressure of the fluid. More likely is some method of adjusting the flexibility and/or tension of the joint capsule envelope. An increase in overall tension could be used to increase synovial fluid pressure, resisting the tendency of bones bumping into each other when they are subjected to greater forces. A decrease in overall tension could be used to decrease synovial fluid pressure in the cases where forces acting on the bones is less.
This would be equivalent to the whole tire of a smart wheel (version 2.0a beta) being compressed.
If, during bending of the hip joint part of the joint capsule bulged, tension would have to be added to reduce the bulge. What mechanism could be used to reduce joint capsule bulging (or more specifically, bulging of the joint capsule envelope)?
We turn to the Dutch for the answer.
Traditionally ligaments are viewed as passive structures. They tend to be thought of as activating only at extreme positions to protect the joint. But what if they are directly affected by muscle tension? This would make them active structures!
Almost 30 years ago, a Dutch doctor, Jaap van der Wal PhD, did some anatomic dissections which where aimed at keeping the connective tissue at the joints intact. He noted that ligaments, as we often see them in anatomy texts, are fabrications. The actual ligaments as we see them are created by the anatomists knife. In reality ligaments don't exist as separate structures, much the way each individual transistors aren't separate structures in an integrated circuit. While their function is present, actual ligaments as separate and easy to discern structures within the connective tissue network don't exist.
And so part of the problem with anatomic dissections as they normally tend to be done is that they remove connections between muscle and ligaments while leaving connections between muscles and tendons intact. With this in mind Jaap van der Wal suggests a basic functional building block called a dynament that includes the muscle belly and at either end of the muscle, the ligaments and tendons. The important aspect of this functional building block, particularly with respect to articulated tensegrity systems, is that when a muscle is activated it directly adds tension to both tendons and ligaments.
Based on this understanding, ligaments are not passive structures as we tend to generally think of them. They experience increases in tension as muscle tissue is activated and decreases in tension as muscle tissue is relaxed. And since ligaments form part of the joint capsule envelopes (and in some cases tendons do also), muscle activity can thus affect joint capsule envelope tension via the ligaments (and possibly the tendons).
Thus muscle activation causing a joint to bend can also stiffen a joint capsule envelope to eliminate bulging which in turn adds pressure to the fluid inside the joint capsule causing it to push outwards against bones with greater force.
Why would it be so important for the joint capsules to keep the bones from contacting? To maintain tensegrity. If the bones are prevented from contacting each other, or at the least from strongly pressing into each other, they can then adjust or float relative to each other. This in turn allows the joint capsule envelope to freely redistribute stress.
This in turn could help explain injury muscle mechanics. If a muscle is injured, the brain might reprogram the body not just to keep the muscle safe, but to help keep the joint capsule itself safe.
Looking at what is possible in movement and in stillness it can be difficult to reconcile what the body does with tensegrity, particularly if we look at just tension in the muscles and connective tissue. However if we focus on the joints instead, with the idea that tensegrity is maintained at the joints, then the idea of tensegrity makes sense.
With an articulated tensegrity system, the priority is on maintaining tensegrity at the joints so that the structure as a whole can be positioned freely. This gives the option of creating postures or movements that act like tensegrity systems or don't. In either case tensegrity is maintained at the joints.
The brain varies muscle action so that joint capsules have just enough tension to keep the bones from pressing against each other. At the same time it controls muscle tension to create or maintain the desired movement or posture.
These two jobs can be simplified to one job, assuming that the body isn't damaged in any way. A particular muscle action not only creates a desired movement, it also creates the required tension in the joint capsule envelope at the same time.
If there are problems, the brain might limit movement not just to protect a muscle, but to protect the joint capsule. And it might call other muscles into play to simulate the affect of the damaged muscle on the joint capsule, to help keep the joint capsule intact.
8 book Ebook bundle, $48.00.
Dance of shiva for coordination and mental flexibility, balance basics for understanding balance, yoga basics 1 and 2 for getting a feel for your body, hip control guide and yoga for your shoulders for learning your hips and shoulders, wheel pose for tips on learning difficult poses and know to flow to learn how you can use flow and it's opposite state for enjoyable learning.


1945: Brazil establishes the Aeronautical Technical Center for space research and rocket development.
1965: Sonda rocket development begins; first two rockets provide experience in testing thermal protections, propellants, aerodynamic configurations and electronics.
1976: First launch of the Sonda-III rocket.
1979: General Hugo de Oliveira Piva, a former CTA (Centro Tecnico Aeroespacial) (Aerospace Technical Center) head and Orbita vice president, makes his first trip to Iraq, beginning more than a decade of cooperation on aerospace and missile development.
1984: First launch of the Sonda-IV rocket.
1989: Brazil launches a VLS (Veiculo Lancador de Satelite) prototype.
1990: President Collor reveals the existence of Brazil’s secret nuclear weapon program; U.S. approves the export to Brazil of Brazilian rocket casings heat-treated in the United States, despite evidence of Brazil’s cooperation with Iraq.
1991: Brazil signs agreement with Argentina to allow mutual inspection of sensitive nuclear facilities.
1994: Brazil and Argentina sign the Treaty of Tlatelolco to create a nuclear weapon-free zone in Latin America.
1995: Brazil joins the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR).
1995: The United States determines that Russia has sold Brazil carbon fiber technology for use in rocket motor cases.
1997: The first launch of the VLS-1 rocket ends in failure when one of the four solid propellant rocket boosters fails to ignite.
1998: It is reported that the CTA is developing test benches for liquid-propelled rocket motors with the assistance of Russian scientists.
1999: The second launch of the VLS-1 ends in failure as the second stage engines fail to operate properly.
1999: Brazil and Ukraine sign an agreement to cooperate on space research.
2003: The third VLS rocket explodes when one of the engines accidentally ignites on the launch pad, days before its expected launch, killing 21 engineers and technicians.
2003: President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva vows to continue the space launch effort, and to successfully launch a rocket into orbit by the end of his term in 2006.
2003: Brazil and Ukraine sign an agreement to develop infrastructure at Brazil’s Alcantara launch pad sufficient to launch Ukraine’s Cyclone 4 rockets.
2003: President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva agrees that Brazilian firm Avibras will sell an estimated US$400 Million worth of goods, mainly missile launchers, to the United Arab Emirates.


Mountains are one of the best places to get in touch with creation, with the spiritual dimensions of nature and the mystery of God’s presence in our world. Mountains are domains where the natural world has been less damaged than in other parts of the planet—or so it seems. A closer look often reveals that the mountains too have been abused by humanity. An eco-journey into the mountains may also be a means of discerning more about the plight of our planet.
Some mountains have been stripped of their forests. Some suffer from destructive introduced species. Some are invaded by Land Rovers or mining companies. And some have been polluted with poisons. I recall a conversation in India in which I was informed that the death of most tigers in the mountains was not at the hands of hunters, but from the poisons sprayed on hillside crops that flowed into the mountain streams.
In various locations around the world, efforts are being made to restore mountain regions to their pristine state. One example is the effort to restore portions of the Cairngorm plateau of Scotland. The vision of the National Trust is to remove all signs of past human activity and return the area to ‘pristine’ wilderness. (For details contact firstname.lastname@example.org). Similar efforts to preserve the wild regions of our mountains are happening across the planet. And Earth teams from congregations are invited to consider supporting such efforts.
We also need to face the reality, that mountains have been invaded and that we need to work towards sustaining the mountain environment. Restoration to an Eden state may not be possible.
In many lands, mountains become the refuge of the Indigenous or the poor. In parts of India, for example, Tribal peoples have been displaced by coffee plantations or similar economic developments. As a result they are forced to move higher up the mountain. Mountains are often a refuge, not only for wild creatures, but displaced humans.
Our task is to preserve our mountains, especially those domains which are still wild and relatively undisturbed. As Earth teams we can explore ways of preventing such domains from being invaded by economic ventures or destructive tourism.
Sensitive eco-journeys into the Flinders Ranges, for example, are conducted by David Amery in South Australia. Contact email@example.com. The Uniting Church Earth Team in Victoria has similar activities. Contact firstname.lastname@example.org, www.christian-ecology.org.uk and www.earthministry.org.


This is why Quintessa takes a structured approach to developing models. This usually starts with building a 'conceptual' model that reflects the assessment context, system understanding and scenarios. A conceptual model may be no more detailed than a diagram with boxes to represent 'features' of interest (e.g. soil, rivers, plants) and 'processes' that act between them (e.g. water flow, absorption of nutrients by plants). The next stage is to describe these mathematically. Quintessa’s experience and knowledge mean that mathematical models can be built efficiently, whether from a basis in physical science or from accepted empirical models.
Finally, the mathematical models need to be implemented in a suitable piece of software. This could be a spreadsheet or a detailed modelling tool, but should always be appropriate to the level of detail demanded by the assessment. Quintessa has a wide range of codes available, including applications like AMBER and QPAC that we have developed ourselves and have been widely used.


Pal (2009) notes the difference between a crisis and an emergency: whereas an emergency is an abnormal and unexpected threat even that requires immediate action, a crisis is a turning point or moment of danger that threatens the integrity or survival of an entire system. (It is possible for an event to be both a crisis and emergency at the same time.) The key thing about crisis is that it be managed effectively, otherwise the response itself (if badly coordinated) could become the crisis once the initial triggering event is over. Managers should assume that crises will occur, and prepare plans for how best to respond to potential (likely) scenarios. Pal notes five steps in effective crisis management: 1) be mentally prepared to acknowledge the existence of a possible crisis, 2) ensure that measures are taken to optimize chances of responding quickly and accurately, particularly with regard to how the media is brought into the picture, 3) ensure that those dealing with the crisis know their respective roles and lines of accountability and leadership, 4) develop a good communications strategy (possibly the most important step), and 5) draw lessons from the event following the resolution of the crisis in order to improve future ability to respond.
The term "Crisis" is also used frequently by students of economic development. Gourevitch, a scholar in this field, defines an economic development crisis as a situation that : "combines a major downturn in a regular investment/business cycle, a major change in the geographical distribution of production and a significant growth of new products and productive processes. "
Gourevitch goes on to describe characteristic properties of a crisis, writing: : "a crisis combines three properties: (i) a major downturn in a regular investment/business cycle; (ii) a major change in the geographical distribution of production; and (iii) a significant growth of new products and new productive processes. These three properties operate at an international level that deeply implicates domestic economies and so link conflicts over national policy within each country to international trends.


TYPES OF VALVES
Solid Wedge Gate Valve
The solid wedge gate valve shown in Figure 5 is the most
commonly used disk because of its simplicity and strength.
A valve with this type of wedge may be installed in any
position and it is suitable for almost all fluids. It is practical
for turbulent flow.
The flexible wedge gate valve illustrated in Figure 6 is a
one-piece disk with a cut around the perimeter to improve
the ability to match error or change in the angle between the
seats. The cut varies in size, shape, and depth. A shallow,
narrow cut gives little flexibility but retains strength. A
deeper and wider cut, or cast-in recess, leaves little material
at the center, which allows more flexibility but compromises
A correct profile of the disk half in the
Flexible Wedge Gate Valve
flexible wedge design can give uniform
deflection properties at the disk edge,
so that the wedging force applied in
seating will force the disk seating
surface uniformly and tightly against the seat.
Gate valves used in steam systems have flexible wedges. The
reason for using a flexible gate is to prevent binding of the gate
within the valve when the valve is in the closed position. When
steam lines are heated, they expand and cause some distortion of
valve bodies. If a solid gate fits snugly between the seat of a valve
in a cold steam system, when the system is heated and pipes
elongate, the seats will compress against the gate and clamp the
valve shut. This problem is overcome by using a flexible gate,
whose design allows the gate to flex as the valve seat compresses it.
The major problem associated with flexible gates is that water tends
to collect in the body neck. Under certain conditions, the admission
of steam may cause the valve body neck to rupture, the bonnet to lift
off, or the seat ring to collapse.
Following correct warming
procedures prevent these problems.


Hydrogen produced from surplus wind and solar energy can become cheaper than natural gas by the 2030s, according to new analysis. Technological advancements such as the mass production of electrolysers will lead to economies of scale and enable lower capital expenditure, analysts at Berlin-based Energy Brainpool claimed. Meanwhile, the higher penetration of wind and solar power in the grid will allow for excess renewable energy to generate storable hydrogen, the analysts wrote in their report for Greenpeace Energy. How far the price of hydrogen produced by renewable energy sources will fall will also depend on “how high the share of renewables in the electricity system is and how much excess current is thus available”, the report’s authors added. Further drops in the costs of wind and solar power will also underpin cost reductions in hydrogen production from renewable energy, the analysts stated.
Wind Power Monthly 24th April 2018 read more »


Dry skin is a winter problem that affects the young and old. Once you start scratching the discomfort of the itch-scratch cycle can be maddening and painful. Scratching too much can make you valuable to bacterial infections in the skin or lead to changes in your skin texture.
There are a variety of causes for dry skin (allergies, skin disorders, or other diseases), but you should schedule an appointment with your primary care physician right away if you experience any of the following:
- Itching that lasts more than 2 weeks without improvement from self-care
- Itching so severe it presents you from sleeping or accomplishing other activities
- Itching over your whole body
- Itching accompanied by other symptoms like fatigue, weight loss, or fever
After a visit to your physician for a physical exam, your primary care physician can help you identify the source of your itching. He or she may be able to offer short-term relief in the form of topical creams, oral medications, or lotions.
Oftentimes mild itching is caused by factors like overheated air, overuse of soap, or overly hot baths.
If you’re elderly, it’s particularly important to pay attention to your body; the older you get the more susceptible you are to skin changes.


St John Capistran
St John Capistran
Saint Of the day October 23
This saint’s life is an apt illustration of the inscrutable ways of Divine providence. Born on 24 June 1386 at Capestrano in the Abruzzi Mountains of central Italy, to a Baron named Anthony, he studied both Civil and Canon Law at Perugia with brilliant success, and at the age of 27 was appointed governor of Perugia, then part of the Papal States. He was successful in combating civic corruption, but in 1416 when the city was captured by the Malatesta, and John went to entreat for peace, he was cast into a dungeon.
His imprisonment caused him to consider seriously the state of his own soul, and when he was released upon payment of a huge sum, he had made up his mind to abandon the world entirely in obedience to St Francis who had appeared to him in a dream. At 31, having had his marriage to the daughter of the Count of San Valentino annulled as not having been consummated, John entered the Franciscan Order on 4 October 1415. St Bernardine of Siena, whose great eloquence had just become manifest, was his principal teacher and guide, and one of his fellow students was St James of the Marches, who, like himself a former law student, was to support him throughout the next 40 years in his missionary labours and in the reform of the strict Observant Order. For nine years John accompanied St Bernardine on his missionary journeys, and in 1425 was ordained priest. Then began his own preaching career which took him to many of the principal cities of Italy. So outstanding was his success that before long the largest churches could not contain his hearers and he would preach to some 20,000 to 30,000 in the open squares. Laity and clergy alike would go out to meet him in solemn procession, bringing all business to a standstill. At Brescia in northern Italy he once addressed an estimated 126,000 people gathered from far and near to hear him. He would preach in Latin, and an interpreter would render the vernacular for the benefit of the unlettered. Great miracles of healing accompanied his preaching and further spread his fame abroad, so that on ٍne occasion he was asked to make the sign of the Cross over some 2,000 sick, who had been brought to the mission.
Like his mentor St Bernardine of Siena, he propagated devotion to the Holy Name of Jesus everywhere. Not one to sit around, his strong Christian optimism drove him to battle problems at all levels with the confidence emanating from a deep faith in Christ. In 1426 he was appointed Papal inquisitor and vehemently combated the errors of the Fraticelli heretics whose doctrines were spreading confusion especially in southern Italy and Sicily. In 1443 he was elected Minister General of the Observants, and from 1439 onwards was repeatedly sent abroad a Papal legate by four successive popes to Palestine, Poland, France (where he met and gave encouragement to St Colette who was reforming the Poor Clares) and to Austria and Bohemia, where he had marked success in winning Hussite heretics back to the faith.
After the fall of Constantinople in 1453 he emerged as the leading spirit in trying to rouse the Christian Princes to form a united front against the Turks and so save Hungary and all Europe. At the Pope’s command, he preached the crusade among the Hungarian people and with such amazing success that thousands flocked to the colours. The enemy was decisively defeated at Belgrade in spite of overwhelming odds. The famous Hunyadi Yanos was in charge of all relieving forces, while St John Capistran led the left wing. At the critical moment, when his men were about to yield, he leapt into the fray himself and, with the cross raised aloft, swept them to victory. Three months later, i.e. on 23 October 1456 he breathed his last and was canonized by Pope Alexander VIII on 16 October 1690.


The first is a policy and review paper on climate change written by Katherine Wells, entitled “Recent Climate Change Science, Global Targets and the Global Climate Emergency“.
Katherine, a lawyer, is a former Chair of the South Australian Premier’s main environmental advisory board, the Premier’s Round Table on Sustainability, and a former National Vice-President of the Australian Conservation Foundation. She is currently a Climate Change Consultant in Adelaide. Her 19- page overview struck me as one of the more succinct, thoughtful and readable updates of the recent science of climate change — written in a manner suitable for an intelligent lay audience — that I have read. I thoroughly recommend that you download and read it. Here is the summary:
Climate change impacts are occurring faster and with more severity than predicted only several years ago. At the same time, the world’s emissions are increasing at rates greater than predicted, and the alarming rates of emissions reductions required to avoid dangerous levels of climate change are becoming more apparent. The time-frames within which we can take effective action are shrinking rapidly, and now appear to be so tight as to require that we take world-wide emergency action, or prepare to face catastrophic levels of climate change.
This paper considers:
• some key findings of recent climate science
• some key climate indicators, and how they have been tracking recently
• whether a rise in the average global temperature of 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels is an appropriate threshold for ‘dangerous’ climate change
• what targets for atmospheric CO2e concentrations (ie, atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases) are necessary to limit the temperature rise to 2 degrees, and (alternatively) to stabilise the temperature at less than 1 degree above pre-industrial levels
• what targets for global emissions reductions, and other actions, are necessary to achieve these atmospheric CO2e concentrations targets, and
• the way in which time-lines in the climate change arena are shrinking:
– the impacts of climate change are getting worse more rapidly than predicted
– key climate indicators are providing great cause for concern
– the magnitude of the emissions reduction task is becoming more apparent


Do not stare at high brightness LEDs, because doing so may cause permanent damage to your eyes.
The optics of our eyes focus visible light onto the retina, which is the light sensitive part of our eyes, similar to the way a magnifying glass can focus an image of the sun onto a piece of paper. Just as the piece of paper might smolder and catch fire, a light that is brightly focused on your retina can cook and thus permanently damage your eye. Exposure to bright white and blue LEDs can also cause permanent damage to your eyes through photochemical action.
Here is a link to an article about the particular hazards of blue LEDs: http://www.mdsupport.org/library/hazard.html#blue
The key factors that determine whether or not a particular exposure to light from an LED causes permanent damage are the wavelength and intensity of the light, the length of the exposure occurs, and the distance from the light source to the eye.
This danger is most pronounced with the use of the newer high output blue and white LEDs. These are intended to illuminate large areas, and for those designed for direct view applications, to be viewed at a significant distance. These LEDs can be identified by packaging or mountings that are designed to carry heat away from the junction. LEDs without these special thermal management features can also pose a danger when operated beyond their specified maximum current.
Infrared and ultraviolet LEDs can also be hazardous, and when using those, please consult the manufacturer’s data sheets or IEC 60825-1:2001 for guidance with respect to safety. You may find IEC 60825-1:2001 summarized on the web. The standard can be purchased from IEC’s web store http://webstore.iec.ch/.
The IEC specification was written to apply to primarily to lasers , though it also applies to LEDs. A new standard, IEC TR 60825, is in development that promises that includes a section that is intended to address LEDs directly. You might want to check the web for drafts or summaries of this standard in the future.
The standards mentioned above rely on measurements that can only be made with very expensive specialized equipment, though some manufacturers state the safety classification of their LEDs, under specified operating conditions, in their data sheets. Take note of these comments on the data sheets for LEDs you may use. In the mean time, play it safe by not staring at any bright LEDs.
My thanks to Geoff Davies of Lucid Optical Services Ltd. (http://www.lucidos.co.uk), for raising the issue of permanent eye damage, and providing the information contained in this section.
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According to a Feature Story in Al-Jazeera: CO2 Dangerously Acidifying World’s Oceans, November 28, 2012:
Oceans are sucking up increased carbon emissions, raising fears acidification could lead to marine life extinctions… scientists say greenhouse gases are causing rapid changes that may irreversibly alter the composition of the Earth’s oceans.Not only is CO2 the source behind the big meltdown of glaciers and ice sheets, and scorching farmland and altering the climate in a haphazard manner, the menace of CO2 is also a threat to life in the oceans. Paradoxically, the genesis; i.e., the oceans, from which humankind originated, may be polluted as a result of dependency upon fossil fuels for transportation and lifestyle as human activity poisons the source of its own origin.
If the current carbon dioxide emission trends continue, computer models show that the ocean will continue to undergo acidification, to an extent and at rates that have not occurred for tens of millions of years… nearly all marine life forms that build calcium carbonate shells and skeletons studied by scientists thus far have shown deterioration due to increasing carbon dioxide levels in seawater. (Carbon Dioxide and Our Ocean Legacy, April 2006, Dr. Richard Feely and Dr. Christopher Sabine, Oceanographers, Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.)


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A Brief History of Newburyby Crista Sanderson, Feb 2019
The land where Newbury is today has been discovered to have been inhabited during the Mesolithic period in the stone age, between 9600 bc and 4000 bc.
However, in its current form, Newbury was founded during the Norman Conquest in the 11th century, as a new borough (hence the name).
Its economy was primarily dependent upon the cloth trade and one of the most famous cloth merchants of the time was Jack of Newbury. In the 16th century, he was the proprietor of what was potentially the first factory in the UK and the tale of the Newbury coat: He was challenged to create a gentlemen suit by the end of the working day from wool taken directly from a sheep at the beginning. This event was immortalised in a novel by the Elizabethan writer Thomas Deloney.
Newbury was the site of two battles during the English Civil War, appropriately named the First and Second Battle of Newbury respectively. The civil war caused a disruption to trade in the town and left Newbury and its citizens very impoverished. However, the rise of bath as a popular tourist destination for wealthy individuals from London saw the economy of Newbury boosted, as it lay about halfway between the two destinations and became an obvious stopping point. This lead to the development of coach stops and especially inns. One of the most reputable was the ‘George & Pelican’, which could stable up to 300 horses.
Unfortunately, the Great Western Railway effectively slaughtered the coaching industry and Newbury became a backwater market town, with a primarily agrarian based economy.
Newbury couldn’t catch a break in the proceeding world wars. In 1943, a German bomber followed the Great Western Railway line all the way to Newbury and dropped eight high-explosive bombs over the town. There wasn’t enough time to sound the warning alarm and 15 people lost their lives in the raid, with a further 41 people injured.
During the 1980’s, Newbury’s luck began to turn. A British electronics firm called Racal decided to locate their new telecommunications company to Newbury. This company would go onto become what we know today as Vodafone UK.
This has led to Newbury being seen as something of a regional tech centre and have since enjoyed general economic prosperity.
Newbury is something of a dark horse; its rich history and the turmoil it has previously endured have helped shape it into the prosperous and resilient town that it is today!


During New Kingdom (c. 1550-1069 BCE), the pharaohs began having their mummies buried in what they hoped would be secure underground vaults in the Valley of the Kings on the west bank of the Nile River at Thebes. Despite their hopes, most tombs were robbed during ancient times and their contents lost to history.
One of the few New Kingdom tombs discovered intact was that of King Tutankhamun (1336-1327 BCE). His tomb yielded vast treasures and artifacts, the most famous of which is his solid gold burial mask. The artifacts found in King Tutankhamun's tomb today fill rooms of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Although King Tutankhamun achieved some immortality from the good fortune of his tomb surviving intact until modern times, during his rule he was a minor king who died by the age of 18. If the tomb of this minor and forgettable king was filled with such valuable treasures, one can only imagine what the tombs of the great and powerful kings must have contained.
During the New Kingdom, one of the most remarkable women in history – Queen Hatshepsut (1473-1458 BCE; 18th Dynasty) – came to power. Her mortuary temple (Deir el-Bahri) on the west bank of the Nile at Thebes is a magnificent structure that Hatshepsut filled with carvings depicting her as chosen by the god Amun to rule Egypt and listing her many accomplishments as ruler.
The New Kingdom was also the period during which the magnificent temples at Luxor were constructed (mostly by Amenophis (Amenhotep) III (1390-1352; 18th Dynasty) with additions by Ramses II (1279-1213 BCE; 19th Dynasty). I visited Luxor at night and though it was a very impressive site, photography was impossible and so no photos here. The other great temple area of the New Kingdom was at Karnak. The site was begun during the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 BCE) and added to by various pharaohs, but most of the grand structures we see today date from reigns of Seti I (1294-1279 BCE; 19th Dynasty) and his son, Ramses II.
It was Ramses II, perhaps the greatest builder in ancient Egypt, who also commissioned the imposing temples at Abu Simbel. Built on a bend in the Nile River where ancient travelers would have first entered what was then Upper Egypt, these temples served as both a warning to would-be invaders and as a symbol of the godlike powers of the pharaoh. Who else but a divine being could build on such an imposing scale? The temples at Abu Simbel also figured in one of the most impressive construction projects of modern times. To save them from the rising waters of the Nile (caused by the newly-completed Aswan Dam), archeologists orchestrated the complete dismantling and reassembly of the temples on higher ground. The scale of this undertaking boggles the mind even given modern construction techniques. So much more impressive is that the ancient Egyptians were able to build on this scale with more primitive means.
To continue the chronological tour, go to the Ptolemaic & Roman Era page.


What do you think our American public education system can do to help develop more law abiding citizens; thereby, reducing criminal and/or terrorist oriented threats? What potential grade school classes might work to decrease criminal RISK in our young people?
In my opinion, the best way for American schools to produce solid, productive citizens is to invest in early childhood education. This means that high-quality public kindergartens should be available for 3.4 and 5-year-old children in every state in the nation. Studies have shown that low-income children who were enrolled in quality early childhood programs have grown up to have higher rates of high school graduation and lower rates of arrests as both juveniles and adults.
A high-quality early childhood program is one that integrates academic learning with social, emotional and physical learning. The arts, including music, dance, drama and visual arts are included in the curriculum along with math, science and literacy. Children who are enrolled in high-quality early childhood programs learn to respect their classmates and, more importantly, to respect themselves.
In the United States, the main organization that oversees the quality of child care centers is the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). NAEYC provides accreditation for high quality child care centers. The accreditation is based on ten standards, which include hundreds of criteria. Although public schools are not subject to these standards, looking at the ...
In this answer I discuss my opinion about how the educational system can best help to develop strong citizens. This answer focuses on young children, so it may not be appropriate for students studying to teach older grade levels. I back up my answer with information from the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) as well as several other sources.


An allegory for the Fitrah, is like a seed. The seed contains within it everything it needs to germinate, grow, and ultimately flower and bear fruit under the right conditions. But the earth contains many types of soils, some soils are too acidic, or have high salt content, others are too watery, and some soils are just right, but clouded over by tall trees that obscure sunlight. If the seeds are planted in the wrong soil, or in a dark place, the resulting plant will be weak, become diseased or even die before its time. Some soils will see the plant grow only to part of its full potential, and but other soils will allow the plant to reach everything it was intended to be from the seed. The Fitra, like the seed, is not passive, and can adapt to its limited circumstances, but only up to a point. A seed planted in a place with limited sunlight, will grow a plant which slants itself towards the sun to increase its exposure, some plant roots will actively grow towards water sources and increase its access to water, but if most seeds are planted in an completely arid desert, or in a totally dark place, they will never grow. The Aql (Intellect) is the Gardener, who can choose to replant the seed in the best place they can find, but many gardeners find it too difficult to uproot a plant, once its roots have grown, and some become dazzled with the one lone flower the plant produces, and do not know how many more would have been produced if only the plant were in a better soil. The Plant is therefore the ‘Nafs’ (the instinctual/emotional self, or ‘subconscious’) who having known only bad soil, and made its roots there, may be alarmed to be uprooted or have some of its bad roots or diseased leaves pruned to make way for healthier growth.
This is the condition of the Humans around the world, and the meaning of Fitra. We should grow ourselves like the wise gardener, and not be misled by the small growths we make which we find pleasing, at the expense of the higher potential we were meant to achieve when on the best grounding.