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Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Following is a list of dams and reservoirs in Puerto Rico. The below list is incomplete. The National Inventory of Dams, maintained by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, defines any "major dam" as being tall with a storage capacity of at least , or of any height with a storage capacity of . Dams and reservoirs in Puerto Rico Lago Caonillas, Utuado, Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA) Lago Carite, Guayama, PREPA Carraízo Dam and Lago Loíza, Trujillo Alto, Puerto Rico Aqueducts and Sewers Authority (PRASA) Lago Cerrillos, Ponce, United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) Lago de Cidra, Cidra, PRASA Coamo Dam, between Coamo and Santa Isabel, PREPA Lago Dos Bocas, between Arecibo and Utuado municipalities, PREPA Lago Guajataca, between San Sebastián, Quebradillas and Isabela municipalities, PREPA Lago Guayabal, Juana Díaz, PREPA Lago El Guineo (Río Toro Negro), Villalba, PREPA Lago Garzas, Peñuelas, PREPA Lago La Plata, Toa Alta, PRASA Patillas Dam, Patillas, PREPA Portugués Dam, Ponce, USACE Río Blanco Project, Naguabo, PREPA El Salto #1 and El Salto #2, Comerío Lago Toa Vaca, Villalba, PRASA Yauco Project, Yauco, PREPA Gallery See also List of rivers in Puerto Rico References External links USGS List of Reservoirs in Puerto Rico Document 1::: Magnetic 2D materials or magnetic van der Waals materials are two-dimensional materials that display ordered magnetic properties such as antiferromagnetism or ferromagnetism. After the discovery of graphene in 2004, the family of 2D materials has grown rapidly. There have since been reports of several related materials, all except for magnetic materials. But since 2016 there have been numerous reports of 2D magnetic materials that can be exfoliated with ease, similarly to graphene. The first few-layered van der Waals magnetism was reported in 2017 (Cr2Ge2Te6, and CrI3). One reason for this seemingly late discovery is that thermal fluctuations tend to destroy magnetic order for 2D magnets more easily compared to 3D bulk. It is also generally accepted in the community that low dimensional materials have different magnetic properties compared to bulk. This academic interest that transition from 3D to 2D magnetism can be measured has been the driving force behind much of the recent works on van der Waals magnets. Much anticipated transition of such has been since observed in both antiferromagnets and ferromagnets: FePS3, Cr2Ge2Te6, CrI3, NiPS3, MnPS3, Fe3GeTe2 Although the field has been only around since 2016, it has become one of the most active fields in condensed matter physics and materials science and engineering. There have been several review articles written up to highlight its future and promise. Overview Magnetic van der Waals materials is a new addition to the growing list of 2d materials. The special feature of these new materials is that they exhibit a magnetic ground state, either antiferromagnetic or ferromagnetic, when they are thinned down to very few sheets or even one layer of materials. Another, probably more important, feature of these materials is that they can be easily produced in few layers or monolayer form using simple means such as scotch tape, which is rather uncommon among other magnetic materials like oxide magnets. Interest in these Document 2::: Unified Video Decoder (UVD, previously called Universal Video Decoder) is the name given to AMD's dedicated video decoding ASIC. There are multiple versions implementing a multitude of video codecs, such as H.264 and VC-1. UVD was introduced with the Radeon HD 2000 Series and is integrated into some of AMD's GPUs and APUs. UVD occupies a considerable amount of the die surface at the time of its introduction and is not to be confused with AMD's Video Coding Engine (VCE). As of AMD Raven Ridge (released January 2018), UVD and VCE were succeeded by Video Core Next (VCN). Overview The UVD is based on an ATI Xilleon video processor, which is incorporated onto the same die as the GPU and is part of the ATI Avivo HD for hardware video decoding, along with the Advanced Video Processor (AVP). UVD, as stated by AMD, handles decoding of H.264/AVC, and VC-1 video codecs entirely in hardware. The UVD technology is based on the Cadence Tensilica Xtensa processor, which was originally licensed by ATI Technologies Inc. in 2004. UVD/UVD+ In early versions of UVD, video post-processing is passed to the pixel shaders and OpenCL kernels. MPEG-2 decoding is not performed within UVD, but in the shader processors. The decoder meets the performance and profile requirements of Blu-ray and HD DVD, decoding H.264 bitstreams up to a bitrate of 40 Mbit/s. It has context-adaptive binary arithmetic coding (CABAC) support for H.264/AVC. Unlike video acceleration blocks in previous generation GPUs, which demanded considerable host-CPU involvement, UVD offloads the entire video-decoder process for VC-1 and H.264 except for video post-processing, which is offloaded to the shaders. MPEG-2 decode is also supported, but the bitstream/entropy decode is not performed for MPEG-2 video in hardware. Previously, neither ATI Radeon R520 series' ATI Avivo nor NVidia Geforce 7 series' PureVideo assisted front-end bitstream/entropy decompression in VC-1 and H.264 - the host CPU performed this work. UVD han Document 3::: Sliplining is a technique for repairing leaks or restoring structural stability to an existing pipeline. It involves installing a smaller, "carrier pipe" into a larger "host pipe", grouting the annular space between the two pipes, and sealing the ends. Sliplining has been used since the 1940s. The most common material used to slipline an existing pipe is high-density polyethylene (HDPE), but fiberglass-reinforced pipe (FRP) and PVC are also common. Sliplining can be used to stop infiltration and restore structural integrity to an existing pipe. The most common size is (8"-60"), but sliplining can occur in any size given appropriate access and a new pipe small or large enough to install. Installation methods There are two methods used to install a slipline: continuous and segmental. Continuous sliplining uses a long continuous pipe, such as HDPE, Fusible PVC, or Welded Steel Pipe, that are connected into continuous pieces of any length prior to installation. The continuous carrier pipe is pulled through the existing host pipe starting at an insertion pit and continuing to a receiving pit. Either the insertion pit, the receiving pit, or both can be manholes or other existing access points if the size and material of the new carrier pipe can manoeuvre the existing facilities. Segmental sliplining is very similar to continuous sliplining. The difference is primarily based on the pipe material used as the new carrier pipe. When using any bell and spigot pipe such as FRP, PVC, HDPE or Spirally Welded Steel Pipe, the individual pieces of pipe are lowered into place, pushed together, and pushed along the existing pipe corridor. Using either method the annular space between the two pipes must be grouted. In the case of sanitary sewer lines, the service laterals must be reconnected via excavation. Advantages Sliplining is generally a very cost-effective rehabilitation method. It is also very easy to install and requires tools and equipment widely available to any pi Document 4::: In organic chemistry, a moiety ( ) is a part of a molecule that is given a name because it is identified as a part of other molecules as well. Typically, the term is used to describe the larger and characteristic parts of organic molecules, and it should not be used to describe or name smaller functional groups of atoms that chemically react in similar ways in most molecules that contain them. Occasionally, a moiety may contain smaller moieties and functional groups. A moiety that acts as a branch extending from the backbone of a hydrocarbon molecule is called a substituent or side chain, which typically can be removed from the molecule and substituted with others. The term is also used in pharmacology, where an active moiety is the part of a molecule responsible for the physiological or pharmacological action of a drug. Active moiety In pharmacology, an active moiety is the part of a molecule or ion—excluding appended inactive portions—that is responsible for the physiological or pharmacological action of a drug substance. Inactive appended portions of the drug substance may include either the alcohol or acid moiety of an ester, a salt (including a salt with hydrogen or coordination bonds), or other noncovalent derivative (such as a complex, chelate, or clathrate). The parent drug may itself be an inactive prodrug and only after the active moiety is released from the parent in free form does it become active. See also Moiety conservation Moiety, each of the two kinship groups in some Indigenous societies References The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is a sag in geological terms? A. A raised area of land B. A depressed, persistent, low area C. A type of mountain D. A large body of water Answer:	B. A depressed, persistent, low area
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Madrid Río is an urban park in the Spanish capital Madrid, built along an urban stretch of the Manzanares River following the burial of the M-30 bypass road in this area. It is the result of a project led by the architect Ginés Garrido, who won the international ideas competition organised by the Madrid City Council in 2005 to redevelop the area. The project started with the idea of recovering the banks of the Manzanares River for the use and enjoyment of the citizens. The section of the river that is now known as Madrid Río is the section that was boxed in by the M-30 bypass road, a road that isolated the river between the two directions of the highway as well as creating a barrier and fracture between the two sides of the city, the district of Arganzuela on the left bank, and the districts of Latina, Carabanchel and Usera on the right bank. The connection of the M-30 with the A-5 motorway, the road to Extremadura, separated the city in an impassable way from Casa de Campo, Madrid's largest park. The project involved the undergrounding of the M-30 in this area as well as that section of the A-5 running parallel to Casa de Campo. There are seven dams that regulate the river as it passes through the city. They receive the waters of the Manzanares River after passing through the Santillana reservoir, in Manzanares el Real, and the El Pardo reservoir, in the municipality of Madrid, which is why they are numbered from 3 to 9. Their mechanisms and locks have been repaired and the dams have been used for the new system of crossings. Initially, the project for the renaturation of the Manzanares River as it passes through Madrid Río contemplated the opening of all the dams, except the last one, to create the conditions that would make it possible for the Madrid Río rowing school to train, but finally, contrary to what was first agreed and due to pressure from the local residents, it was also decided to also open the last one so that the river could flow freely. The water level has been dropped as the natural flow of the river has been restored. Accessible wooden boards and fish ladders have been added to encourage the continuity of the underwater fauna along the river. There has been a noticeable improvement in avian biodiversity along the river with herons and kingfishers being regular visitors. The Madrid Río has received the Veronica Rudge Green Prize in Urban Design from Harvard University's Graduate School of Design in 2015. The architects were Ginés Garrido (of Burgos & Garrido), Porras La Casta, Rubio & Álvarez-Sala, and West 8. Notes External links Document 1::: 1B-LSD (N1-butyryl-lysergic acid diethylamide) is an acylated derivative of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), which has been sold as a designer drug. In tests on mice it was found to be an active psychedelic, though with only around 1/7 the potency of LSD itself. Legal status 1B-LSD is illegal in Singapore. Sweden's public health agency suggested classifying 1B-LSD as a hazardous substance, on June 24, 2019. Document 2::: Digistar is the first computer graphics-based planetarium projection and content system. It was designed by Evans & Sutherland and released in 1983. The technology originally focused on accurate and high quality display of stars, including for the first time showing stars from points of view other than Earth's surface, travelling through the stars, and accurately showing celestial bodies from different times in the past and future. Beginning with the Digistar 3 the system now projects full-dome video. Projector Unlike modern full-dome systems, which use LCD, DLP, SXRD, or laser projection technology, the Digistar projection system was designed for projecting bright pinpoints of light representing stars. This was accomplished using a calligraphic display, a form of vector graphics, rather than raster graphics. The heart of the Digistar projector is a large cathode-ray tube (CRT). A phosphor plate is mounted atop the tube, and light is then dispersed by a large lens with a 160 degree field of view to cover the planetarium dome. The original lens bore the inscription: "August 1979 mfg. by Lincoln Optical Corp., L.A., CA for Evans and Sutherland Computer Corp., SLC, UT, Digital planetarium CRT projection lens, 43mm, f2.8, 160 degree field of view". The coordinates of the stars and wire-frame models to be displayed by the projector were stored in computer RAM in a display list. The display would read each set of coordinates in turn and drive the CRT's electron beam directly to those coordinates. If the electron beam was enabled while being moved a line would be painted on the phosphor plate. Otherwise, the electron beam would be enabled once at its destination and a star would be painted. Once all coordinates in the display list had been processed, the display would repeat from the top of the display list. Thus, the shorter the display list the more frequently the electron beam would refresh the charge on a given point on the phosphor plate, making the projection of t Document 3::: Cooling load is the rate at which sensible and latent heat must be removed from the space to maintain a constant space dry-bulb air temperature and humidity. Sensible heat into the space causes its air temperature to rise while latent heat is associated with the rise of the moisture content in the space. The building design, internal equipment, occupants, and outdoor weather conditions may affect the cooling load in a building using different heat transfer mechanisms. The SI units are watts. Overview The cooling load is calculated to select HVAC equipment that has the appropriate cooling capacity to remove heat from the zone. A zone is typically defined as an area with similar heat gains, similar temperature and humidity control requirements, or an enclosed space within a building with the purpose to monitor and control the zone's temperature and humidity with a single sensor e.g. thermostat. Cooling load calculation methodologies take into account heat transfer by conduction, convection, and radiation. Methodologies include heat balance, radiant time series, cooling load temperature difference, transfer function, and sol-air temperature. Methods calculate the cooling load in either steady state or dynamic conditions and some can be more involved than others. These methodologies and others can be found in ASHRAE handbooks, ISO Standard 11855, European Standard (EN) 15243, and EN 15255. ASHRAE recommends the heat balance method and radiant time series methods. Differentiation from heat gains The cooling load of a building should not be confused with its heat gains. Heat gains refer to the rate at which heat is transferred into or generated inside a building. Just like cooling loads, heat gains can be separated into sensible and latent heat gains that can occur through conduction, convection, and radiation. Thermophysical properties of walls, floors, ceilings, and windows, lighting power density (LPD), plug load density, occupant density, and equipment efficiency Document 4::: A Hagenhufendorf (German: also Bachhufendorf, Hagenhufensiedlung or Hägerhufensiedlung) is an elongated settlement, similar to a Reihendorf, laid out along a road running parallel to a stream, whereby only one side of the road has houses, whilst on the opposite side are the hides (Hufen), the handkerchief-shaped farmer's fields of medieval origin, about 20 to 40 morgens in area. Name This German term is probably derived from Hagenrecht ("hedging right"), i.e. the owner had a right to enclose the land he used. This went even further for the Hägerhufensiedlungen, where there was a Hägerjunker in charge and special courts dealing with enclosure issues, the Hägergerichte. Description The Hagenhufensiedlung was a form of planned settlement typical of the High Middle Ages that consisted of individually owned strips of land that were strung together in a line. The hides were as wide as the farmstead, but could be several hundred metres long. The enclosed plots were used as vegetable gardens and for keeping small animals. The stream at the back of the farmhouses supplied the necessary water. From this type of settlement, long linear villages developed like Auhagen, Wiedensahl, Isernhagen, Kathrinhagen or Rodewald in Lower Saxony. Hagenhufensiedlungen may be found from the Taunus region as far as Western Pomerania. The Hägerhufensiedlung is restricted to a region in the area of the Weser Uplands, Leine Uplands and Lippe. Origin The Hagenhufendörfer arose from the planned settlement of forested areas, predominantly in the 13th century, with the aim of clearing and cultivating the land. These villages had a lokator with a double hide (Doppelhufe). The Hägerhufensiedlungen go back to the 11th-century Eschershausen Treaty. Although they had no double hide and no lokator, they did have special enclosure rights (Hägerrecht). Extent Hagenhufendörfer are especially common in the Börde regions, on the North German Plain immediately north of the German Central Uplands. The be The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What was the main goal of the Madrid Río project initiated by Ginés Garrido? A. To construct a new highway B. To recover the banks of the Manzanares River for public use C. To build luxury apartments along the river D. To create a dam system for flood prevention Answer:	B. To recover the banks of the Manzanares River for public use
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: In the Taroom district in the Dawson River valley of Queensland, Australia, a boggomoss (pl. boggomossi or boggomosses) is a mound spring. Boggomosses range in form from small muddy swamps to elevated peat bogs or swamps, up to 150 meters across scattered among dry woodland communities, which form part of the Springsure Group of Great Artesian Basin springs. They are rich in invertebrates and form a vital chain of permanently moist oases in an otherwise dry environment. The origin of the term boggomoss is not known, but is most likely a compound of the words bog and moss. "Boggomoss creek" in the Parish of Fernyside appears on very early maps. Environment The spring flow rate is usually in the range of 0.5 to 2.0 litres per second (8th magnitude spring), however some large boggomosses have a flow rate of up to 10.0 litres per second (7th magnitude spring). A report commissioned by the Queensland Department of Environment defined four boggomoss vegetation types with distinct environmental relations: Group 1 associated with sandy and relatively infertile soils. Group 2 associated with fertile and heavy surface soils and relatively large mounds. Group 3 associated with fertile and heavy surface soils, but with little or no mound development (probably young springs). Group 4 are linear in shape and flood prone at the base of a gorge Sources Adclarkia dawsonensis (Boggomoss Snail, Dawson Valley Snail) Document 1::: A col in geomorphology is the lowest point on a mountain ridge between two peaks. It may also be called a gap or pass. Particularly rugged and forbidding cols in the terrain are usually referred to as notches. They are generally unsuitable as mountain passes, but are occasionally crossed by mule tracks or climbers' routes. Derived from the French ("collar, neck") from Latin collum, "neck", the term tends to be associated more with mountain than hill ranges. The distinction with other names for breaks in mountain ridges such as saddle, wind gap or notch is not sharply defined and may vary from place to place. Many double summits are separated by prominent cols. The height of a summit above its highest col (called the key col) is effectively a measure of a mountain's topographic prominence. Cols lie on the line of the watershed between two mountains, often on a prominent ridge or arête. For example, the highest col in Austria, the ("Upper Glockner Col", ) lies between the Kleinglockner () and Grossglockner () mountains, giving the Kleinglockner a minimum prominence of 17 metres. See also Saddle (landform) Document 2::: Mammoplasia is the normal or spontaneous enlargement of human breasts. Mammoplasia occurs normally during puberty and pregnancy in women, as well as during certain periods of the menstrual cycle. When it occurs in males, it is called gynecomastia and is considered to be pathological. When it occurs in females and is extremely excessive, it is called macromastia (also known as gigantomastia or breast hypertrophy) and is similarly considered to be pathological. Mammoplasia may be due to breast engorgement, which is temporary enlargement of the breasts caused by the production and storage of breast milk in association with lactation and/or galactorrhea (excessive or inappropriate production of milk). Mastodynia (breast tenderness/pain) frequently co-occurs with mammoplasia. During the luteal phase (latter half) of the menstrual cycle, due to increased mammary blood flow and/or premenstrual fluid retention caused by high circulating concentrations of estrogen and/or progesterone, the breasts temporarily increase in size, and this is experienced by women as fullness, heaviness, swollenness, and a tingling sensation. Mammoplasia can be an effect or side effect of various drugs, including estrogens, antiandrogens such as spironolactone, cyproterone acetate, bicalutamide, and finasteride, growth hormone, and drugs that elevate prolactin levels such as D2 receptor antagonists like antipsychotics (e.g., risperidone), metoclopramide, and domperidone and certain antidepressants like selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs). The risk appears to be less with serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) like venlafaxine. The "atypical" antidepressants mirtazapine and bupropion do not increase prolactin levels (bupropion may actually decrease prolactin levels), and hence there may be no risk with these agents. Other drugs that have been associated with mammoplasia include D-penicillamine, bucillamine, neothetazone, ciclosporin, Document 3::: Glycoprotein 130 (also known as gp130, IL6ST, IL6R-beta or CD130) is a transmembrane protein which is the founding member of the class of tall cytokine receptors. It forms one subunit of the type I cytokine receptor within the IL-6 receptor family. It is often referred to as the common gp130 subunit, and is important for signal transduction following cytokine engagement. As with other type I cytokine receptors, gp130 possesses a WSXWS amino acid motif that ensures correct protein folding and ligand binding. It interacts with Janus kinases to elicit an intracellular signal following receptor interaction with its ligand. Structurally, gp130 is composed of five fibronectin type-III domains and one immunoglobulin-like C2-type (immunoglobulin-like) domain in its extracellular portion. Characteristics The members of the IL-6 receptor family are all complex with gp130 for signal transduction. For example, IL-6 binds to the IL-6 Receptor. The complex of these two proteins then associates with gp130. This complex of 3 proteins then homodimerizes to form a hexameric complex which can produce downstream signals. There are many other proteins which associate with gp130, such as cardiotrophin 1 (CT-1), leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), oncostatin M (OSM), and IL-11. There are also several other proteins which have structural similarity to gp130 and contain the WSXWS motif and preserved cysteine residues. Members of this group include LIF-R, OSM-R, and G-CSF-R. Loss of gp130 gp130 is an important part of many different types of signaling complexes. Inactivation of gp130 is lethal to mice. Homozygous mice who are born show a number of defects including impaired development of the ventricular myocardium. Haematopoietic effects included reduced numbers of stem cells in the spleen and liver. Signal transduction gp130 has no intrinsic tyrosine kinase activity. Instead, it is phosphorylated on tyrosine residues after complexing with other Document 4::: Peter Cameron (1847 – 1 December 1912 in New Mills, Derbyshire) was an English amateur entomologist who specialised in Hymenoptera. An artist, Cameron worked in the dye industry and in calico printing. He described many new species; his collection, including type material, is now in the Natural History Museum. He suffered from poor health and lack of employment. Latterly, he lived in New Mills and was supported by scholarships from the Royal Society. He loaned specimens to Jean-Jacques Kieffer, a teacher and Catholic priest in Bitche, Lorraine, who also named species after Cameron. Some of Cameron's taxonomic work is not very well regarded. Upon his death Claude Morley wrote, "Peter Cameron is dead, as was announced by most of the halfpenny papers on December 4th. What can we say of his life? Nothing; for it concerns us in no way. What shall we say of his work? Much, for it is entirely ours, and will go down to posterity as probably the most prolific and chaotic output of any individual for many years past." Similarly, American entomologist Richard M. Bohart "wound up with the thankless task of sorting through Cameron's North American contributions to a small group of wasps known as the Odynerini. Of the hundred or so names Cameron proposed within the group, almost all, Bohart found, were invalid." The Panamanian oak gall wasp Callirhytis cameroni described 2014 is named in his honor. Works A Monograph of the British Phytophagous Hymenoptera Ray Society (1882–1893) Hymenoptera volumes of the Biologia Centrali-Americana, volumes 1–2 (1883–1900) and (1888–1900) A complete list is given in external links below. External links Publications of Peter Cameron Manuscript collection BHL Hymenoptera Orientalis: or contributions to a knowledge of the Hymenoptera of the Oriental zoological region. Manchester :Literary and Philosophical Society,1889–1903. Digital Version of Biologia Centrali-Americana The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the main argument presented by critics of the GAARlandia hypothesis regarding the colonization of the Greater Antilles? A. They support the hypothesis based on geological evidence. B. They believe oceanic dispersal is the best explanation for colonization. C. They argue that multiple lineages colonized simultaneously. D. They find ample support from studies of individual lineages. Answer:	B. They believe oceanic dispersal is the best explanation for colonization.
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Sonata was a 3D building design software application developed in the early 1980s and now regarded as the forerunner of today's building information modeling applications. Sonata was commercially released in 1986, having been developed by Jonathan Ingram independently and was sold to T2 Solutions (renamed from GMW Computers in 1987 - which was eventually bought by Alias\|Wavefront), and was sold as a successor to GMW's RUCAPS. It ran on workstation computer hardware (by contrast, other 2D computer-aided design (CAD) systems could run on personal computers). The system was not expensive, according to Michael Phiri. Reiach Hall purchased "three Sonata workstations on Silicon Graphics machines, at a total cost of approximately £2000 each" [1990 prices]. Approximately 1,000 seats were sold between 1985 and 1992. However, as a BIM application, in addition to geometric modelling, it could model complete buildings, including complex parametrics, costs and staging of the construction process. Archicad founder Gábor Bojár has acknowledged that Sonata "was more advanced in 1986 than Archicad at that time", adding that it "surpassed already the matured definition of 'BIM' specified only about one and a half decade later". Many projects were designed and built using Sonata, including Peddle Thorp Architect's Rod Laver Arena in 1987, and Gatwick Airport North Terminal Domestic Facility by Taylor Woodrow. The US-based architect HKS used the software in 1992 to design a horse racing facility (Lone Star Park in Grand Prairie, Texas) and subsequently purchased the successor product, Reflex. Target Australia Pty. Ltd. the Australian discount department store retailer bought two Sonata licences in 1992 to replace two RUCAPS workstations originally from Coles Supermarkets. The software was run on two Silicon Graphics IRIS Indigo workstations. Staff were trained to use the software including the parametric language. The simple but powerful parametrics enable productivity gains in doc Document 1::: EL Aquilae, also known as Nova Aquilae 1927 was a nova that appeared in 1927. It was discovered by Max Wolf on photographic plates taken at Heidelberg Observatory on 30 and 31 July 1927 when it had a photographic magnitude of 9. Subsequent searches of plates taken at the Harvard College Observatory showed the nova was fainter than magnitude 11.1 on 8 June 1927 and had flared to magnitude 6.4 on 15 June 1927. It declined from peak brightness at an average rate of 0.105 magnitudes per day, making it a fast nova, and ultimately dimmed to about magnitude 21. The 14.5 magnitude change from peak brightness to quiescence was unusually large for a nova. All novae are binary stars, with a "donor" star orbiting a white dwarf so closely that matter is transferred from the donor to the white dwarf. Pagnotta & Schaefer argued that the donor star for the EL Aquilae system is a red giant, based on its position in an infrared color–color diagram. Tappert et al. suggest that Pagnotta & Schaefer misidentified EL Aquilae, and claim that EL Aquilae is probably an intermediate polar, a nova with a main sequence donor star, based on its eruption amplitude and color. Notes References Document 2::: The Barton decarboxylation is a radical reaction in which a carboxylic acid is converted to a thiohydroxamate ester (commonly referred to as a Barton ester). The product is then heated in the presence of a radical initiator and a suitable hydrogen donor to afford the decarboxylated product. This is an example of a reductive decarboxylation. Using this reaction it is possible to remove carboxylic acid moieties from alkyl groups and replace them with other functional groups. (See Scheme 1) This reaction is named after its developer, the British chemist and Nobel laureate Sir Derek Barton (1918–1998). Mechanism The reaction is initiated by homolytic cleavage of a radical initiator, in this case 2,2'-azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN), upon heating. A hydrogen is then abstracted from the hydrogen source (tributylstannane in this case) to leave a tributylstannyl radical that attacks the sulfur atom of the thiohydroxamate ester. The N-O bond of the thiohydroxamate ester undergoes homolysis to form a carboxyl radical which then undergoes decarboxylation and carbon dioxide (CO2) is lost. The remaining alkyl radical (R·) then abstracts a hydrogen atom from remaining tributylstannane to form the reduced alkane (RH). (See Scheme 2) The tributyltin radical enters into another cycle of the reaction until all thiohydroxamate ester is consumed. N-O bond cleavage of the Barton ester can also occur spontaneously upon heating or by irradiation with light to initiate the reaction. In this case a radical initiator is not required but a hydrogen-atom (H-atom) donor is still necessary to form the reduced alkane (RH). Alternative H-atom donors to tributylstannane include tertiary thiols and organosilanes. The relative expense, smell, and toxicity associated with tin, thiol or silane reagents can be avoided by carrying the reaction out using chloroform as both solvent and H-atom donor. It is also possible to functionalize the alkyl radical by use of other radical trapping species (X-Y + R· Document 3::: Inspur Group is an information technology conglomerate in the People's Republic of China focusing on cloud computing, big data, key application hosts, servers, storage, artificial intelligence and ERP. On April 18, 2006, Inspur changed its English name from Langchao to Inspur. It is listed on the SSE, SZSE, and SEHK. History In 2005, Microsoft invested US$20 million in the company. Inspur announced several agreements with virtualization software developer VMware on research and development of cloud computing technologies and related products. In 2009, Inspur acquired the Xi'an-based research and development facilities of Qimonda AG for 30 million Chinese yuan (around US$4 million). The centre had been responsible for design and development of Qimonda's DRAM products. In 2011, Shandong Inspur Software Co., Ltd., Inspur Electronic Information Co., Ltd. and Inspur (Shandong) Electronic Information Company, established a cloud computing joint venture, with each holding a third. U.S. sanctions In June 2020, the United States Department of Defense published a list of Chinese companies operating in the U.S. that have ties to the People's Liberation Army, which included Inspur. In November 2020, Donald Trump issued an executive order prohibiting any American company or individual from owning shares in companies that the U.S. Department of Defense has listed as having links to the People's Liberation Army. In March 2023, the United States Department of Commerce added Inspur to the Bureau of Industry and Security's Entity List. In March 2025, several Inspur subsidiaries were also added to the Entity List, including its Aivres Systems subsidiary. See also Inspur Server Series References Document 4::: NIST Special Publication 800-92, "Guide to Computer Security Log Management", establishes guidelines and recommendations for securing and managing sensitive log data. The publication was prepared by Karen Kent and Murugiah Souppaya of the National Institute of Science and Technology and published under the SP 800-Series; a repository of best practices for the InfoSec community. Log management is essential to ensuring that computer security records are stored in sufficient detail for an appropriate period of time. Background Effective security event logging and log analysis is a critical component of any comprehensive security program within an organization. It is used to monitor system, network and application activity. It serves as a deterrent for unauthorized activity, as well as provides a means to detect and analyze an attack in order to allow the organization to mitigate or prevent similar attacks in the future. However, security professionals have a significant challenge to determine what events must be logged, where and how long to retain those logs, and how to analyze the enormous amount of information that can be generated. A deficiency in any of these areas can cause an organization to miss signs of unauthorized activity, intrusion, and loss of data, which creates additional risk. Scope NIST SP 800-92 provides a high-level overview and guidance for the planning, development and implementation of an effective security log management strategy. The intended audience for this publication include the general information security (InfoSec) community involved in incident response, system/application/network administration and managers. NIST SP 800-92 defines a log management infrastructure as having 4 major functions: General - log parsing, event filtering and event aggregation; Log Storage - rotation, archival, compression, reduction, normalization, integrity checking; Log Analysis - event correlation, viewing and reporting; Disposal - clearing; The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What significant event occurred in 2006 regarding Inspur's branding? A. Inspur changed its name from Langchao. B. Inspur was acquired by Microsoft. C. Inspur launched its first cloud computing product. D. Inspur established a joint venture with VMware. Answer:	A. Inspur changed its name from Langchao.
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Controlled vocabularies provide a way to organize knowledge for subsequent retrieval. They are used in subject indexing schemes, subject headings, thesauri, taxonomies and other knowledge organization systems. Controlled vocabulary schemes mandate the use of predefined, preferred terms that have been preselected by the designers of the schemes, in contrast to natural language vocabularies, which have no such restriction. In library and information science In library and information science, controlled vocabulary is a carefully selected list of words and phrases, which are used to tag units of information (document or work) so that they may be more easily retrieved by a search. Controlled vocabularies solve the problems of homographs, synonyms and polysemes by a bijection between concepts and preferred terms. In short, controlled vocabularies reduce unwanted ambiguity inherent in normal human languages where the same concept can be given different names and ensure consistency. For example, in the Library of Congress Subject Headings (a subject heading system that uses a controlled vocabulary), preferred terms—subject headings in this case—have to be chosen to handle choices between variant spellings of the same word (American versus British), choice among scientific and popular terms (cockroach versus Periplaneta americana), and choices between synonyms (automobile versus car), among other difficult issues. Choices of preferred terms are based on the principles of user warrant (what terms users are likely to use), literary warrant (what terms are generally used in the literature and documents), and structural warrant (terms chosen by considering the structure, scope of the controlled vocabulary). Controlled vocabularies also typically handle the problem of homographs with qualifiers. For example, the term pool has to be qualified to refer to either swimming pool or the game pool to ensure that each preferred term or heading refers to only one concept. Types u Document 1::: The HP Precision bus (also called HP-PB and HP-NIO) is the data transfer bus of the proprietary Hewlett Packard architecture HP 3000 and later many variants of the HP 9000 series of UNIX systems. This bus has a 32-bit data path with an 8 MHz clock. It supports a maximum transfer rate of 23 MB/s in burst mode. That bus was also used to directly support the Programmable Serial Interface (PSI) cards, which offered multi-protocol support for networking, notably IBM Bisync and similar systems.The 920, 922 and 932 series supported up to three PSI cards, and up to five cards in the 948 and 958 series. Two form factors/sizes of HP-PB expansion cards were sold: single and double. 32-bit data path width 32 MB/s maximum data rate 8 MHz maximum frequency 5 V signalling voltage 96-pin (32×3) female pin+socket card connector (Is this a DIN 41612 connector?) External links HP 3000 manuals HP/PA buses on Openpa.net Notes Document 2::: In the hyperbolic plane, as in the Euclidean plane, each point can be uniquely identified by two real numbers. Several qualitatively different ways of coordinatizing the plane in hyperbolic geometry are used. This article tries to give an overview of several coordinate systems in use for the two-dimensional hyperbolic plane. In the descriptions below the constant Gaussian curvature of the plane is −1. Sinh, cosh and tanh are hyperbolic functions. Polar coordinate system The polar coordinate system is a two-dimensional coordinate system in which each point on a plane is determined by a distance from a reference point and an angle from a reference direction. The reference point (analogous to the origin of a Cartesian system) is called the pole, and the ray from the pole in the reference direction is the polar axis. The distance from the pole is called the radial coordinate or radius, and the angle is called the angular coordinate, or polar angle. From the hyperbolic law of cosines, we get that the distance between two points given in polar coordinates is Let , differentiating at : we get the corresponding metric tensor: The straight lines are described by equations of the form where r0 and θ0 are the coordinates of the nearest point on the line to the pole. Quadrant model system The Poincaré half-plane model is closely related to a model of the hyperbolic plane in the quadrant Q = {(x,y): x > 0, y > 0}. For such a point the geometric mean and the hyperbolic angle produce a point (u,v) in the upper half-plane. The hyperbolic metric in the quadrant depends on the Poincaré half-plane metric. The motions of the Poincaré model carry over to the quadrant; in particular the left or right shifts of the real axis correspond to hyperbolic rotations of the quadrant. Due to the study of ratios in physics and economics where the quadrant is the universe of discourse, its points are said to be located by hyperbolic coordinates. Cartesian-style coordinate systems I Document 3::: A deadband or dead-band (also known as a dead zone or a neutral zone) is a band of input values in the domain of a transfer function in a control system or signal processing system where the output is zero (the output is 'dead' - no action occurs). Deadband regions can be used in control systems such as servoamplifiers to prevent oscillation or repeated activation-deactivation cycles (called 'hunting' in proportional control systems). A form of deadband that occurs in mechanical systems, compound machines such as gear trains is backlash. Voltage regulators In some power substations there are regulators that keep the voltage within certain predetermined limits, but there is a range of voltage in-between during which no changes are made, such as between 112 and 118 volts (the deadband is 6 volts), or between 215 and 225 volts (deadband is 10 volts). Backlash Gear teeth with slop (backlash) exhibit deadband. There is no drive from the input to the output shaft in either direction while the teeth are not meshed. Leadscrews generally also have backlash and hence a deadband, which must be taken into account when making position adjustments, especially with CNC systems. If mechanical backlash eliminators are not available, the control can compensate for backlash by adding the deadband value to the position vector whenever direction is reversed. Hysteresis versus Deadband Deadband is different from hysteresis. With hysteresis, there is no deadband and so the output is always in one direction or another. Devices with hysteresis have memory, in that previous system states dictate future states. Examples of devices with hysteresis are single-mode thermostats and smoke alarms. Deadband is the range in a process where no changes to output are made. Hysteresis is the difference in a variable depending on the direction of travel. Thermostats Simple (single mode) thermostats exhibit hysteresis. For example, the furnace in the basement of a house is adjusted automatically by Document 4::: A micronucleus is a small nucleus that forms whenever a chromosome or a fragment of a chromosome is not incorporated into one of the daughter nuclei during cell division. It usually is a sign of genotoxic events and chromosomal instability. Micronuclei are commonly seen in cancerous cells and may indicate genomic damage events that can increase the risk of developmental or degenerative diseases. Micronuclei form during anaphase from lagging acentric chromosomes or chromatid fragments caused by incorrectly repaired or unrepaired DNA breaks or by nondisjunction of chromosomes. This improper segregation of chromosomes may result from hypomethylation of repeat sequences present in pericentromeric DNA, irregularities in kinetochore proteins or their assembly, a dysfunctional spindle apparatus, or flawed anaphase checkpoint genes. Micronuclei can contribute to genome instability by promoting a catastrophic mutational event called chromothripsis. Many micronucleus assays have been developed to test for the presence of these structures and determine their frequency in cells exposed to certain chemicals or subjected to stressful conditions. The term micronucleus may also refer to the smaller nucleus in ciliate protozoans, such as the Paramecium. In mitosis it divides by fission, and in conjugation a pair of gamete micronuclei undergo reciprocal fusion to form a zygote nucleus, which gives rise to the macronuclei and micronuclei of the individuals of the next cycle of fission. Discovery Micronuclei in newly formed red blood cells in humans are known as Howell-Jolly bodies because these structures were first identified and described in erythrocytes by hematologists William Howell and Justin Jolly. These structures were later found to be associated with deficiencies in vitamins such as folate and B12. The relationship between formation of micronuclei and exposure to environmental factors was first reported in root tip cells exposed to ionizing radiation. Micronucleus inducti The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the maximum transfer rate of the HP Precision bus in burst mode? A. 23 MB/s B. 32 MB/s C. 5 MB/s D. 8 MB/s Answer:	A. 23 MB/s
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: The National Board for Respiratory Care (NBRC Inc. is a non-profit organization formed in 1960 with the purpose of awarding and maintaining credentialing for Respiratory Therapists in the United States. The NBRC is the only organization in the United States which develops certification examinations for Registered Respiratory Therapists (RRTs) and Certified Respiratory Therapists (CRTs). The NBRC also offers additional specialization credentialing for respiratory practitioners that hold its certifications. The CRT and RRT designations are the standard credential in respiratory care for licensure requirements in the portions of the United States that have enacted a Respiratory Care Act. States that license respiratory therapists sometimes require the practitioner to maintain their NBRC credentialing to maintain their license to practice. The NBRC is headquartered in Overland Park, Kansas. It has been in the Kansas City metropolitan area since 1974. The NBRC is located at 10801 Mastin St, Suite 300, Overland Park, KS 66210. Certification levels Entry level certification Certification is the entry level and is separated as such by the NBRC. Certified Respiratory Therapists and Certified Pulmonary Function Technologists may require oversight and supervision by their advanced-practice counterparts. Specialties The NBRC has sub-specialties for the Respiratory Therapist designations. Both the CRT and the RRT are eligible to sit for additional credentialing but the CRT still requires the same supervision by the RRT in clinical applications. Sleep Disorders Specialist — The sleep disorder specialist (RRT-SDS or CRT-SDS) is a credential recognized by the American Academy of Sleep Medicine for the role of Scoring in sleep studies. Neonatal & Pediatric Specialist — The neonatal and pediatric specialist (RRT-NPS or CRT-NPS) is a respiratory therapist that may work in advanced care in pediatrics and neonatology centers and units. Adult Critical Care Specialist — Th Document 1::: In architecture, the term xystum refers to a wall, promenade, alley, or open path. It can also refer to an atrium, ambulacrum, or parvis in front of a basilica. The term should not be confused with the ancient Greek architectural term xystus, meaning the covered portico of a gymnasium. Sources Document 2::: An electronic control unit (ECU), also known as an electronic control module (ECM), is an embedded system in automotive electronics that controls one or more of the electrical systems or subsystems in a car or other motor vehicle. Modern vehicles have many ECUs, and these can include some or all of the following: engine control module (ECM), powertrain control module (PCM), transmission control module (TCM), brake control module (BCM or EBCM), central control module (CCM), central timing module (CTM), general electronic module (GEM), body control module (BCM), and suspension control module (SCM). These ECUs together are sometimes referred to collectively as the car's computer though technically they are all separate computers, not a single one. Sometimes an assembly incorporates several individual control modules (a PCM often controls both the engine and the transmission). Some modern motor vehicles have up to 150 ECUs. Embedded software in ECUs continues to increase in line count, complexity, and sophistication. Managing the increasing complexity and number of ECUs in a vehicle has become a key challenge for original equipment manufacturers (OEMs). Types Generic industry controller namingIs the naming of controllers where the logical thought of the controller's name implies the system the controller is responsible for controlling Generic powertrainThe generic powertrain pertains to a vehicle's emission system and is the only regulated controller name. Other controllersAll other controller names are decided upon by the individual OEM. The engine controller may have several different names, such as "DME", "Enhanced Powertrain", "PGM-FI" and many others. Door control unit (DCU) Engine control unit (ECU)not to be confused with electronic control unit, the generic term for all these devices Electric power steering control unit (PSCU)Generally this will be integrated into the EPS power pack. Human–machine interface (HMI) Powertrain control module (PCM)Somet Document 3::: An aridity index (AI) is a numerical indicator of the degree of dryness of the climate at a given location. The American Meteorological Society defined it in meteorology and climatology, as "the degree to which a climate lacks effective, life-promoting moisture". Aridity is different from drought because aridity is permanent whereas drought is temporary. A number of aridity indices have been proposed (see below); these indicators serve to identify, locate or delimit regions that suffer from a deficit of available water, a condition that can severely affect the effective use of the land for such activities as agriculture or stock-farming. Historical background and indices Köppen At the turn of the 20th century, Wladimir Köppen and Rudolf Geiger developed the concept of a climate classification where arid regions were defined as those places where the annual rainfall accumulation (in centimetres) is less than , where: if rainfall occurs mainly in the cold season, if rainfall is evenly distributed throughout the year, and if rainfall occurs mainly in the hot season. where is the mean annual temperature in Celsius. This was one of the first attempts at defining an aridity index, one that reflects the effects of the thermal regime and the amount and distribution of precipitation in determining the native vegetation possible in an area. It recognizes the significance of temperature in allowing colder places such as northern Canada to be seen as humid with the same level of precipitation as some tropical deserts because of lower levels of potential evapotranspiration in colder places. In the subtropics, the allowance for the distribution of rainfall between warm and cold seasons recognizes that winter rainfall is more effective for plant growth that can flourish in the winter and go dormant in the summer than the same amount of summer rainfall during a warm-to-hot season. Thus a place like Athens, Greece that gets most of its rainfall in winter can be conside Document 4::: The Sepsis Six is the name given to a bundle of medical therapies designed to reduce mortality in patients with sepsis. Drawn from international guidelines that emerged from the Surviving Sepsis Campaign the Sepsis Six was developed by The UK Sepsis Trust. (Daniels, Nutbeam, Laver) in 2006 as a practical tool to help healthcare professionals deliver the basics of care rapidly and reliably. In 2011, The UK Sepsis Trust published evidence that use of the Sepsis Six was associated with a 50% reduction in mortality, a decreased length of stay in hospital, and fewer intensive care days. Though the authors urge caution in a causal interpretation of these findings. The Sepsis Six consists of three diagnostic and three therapeutic steps – all to be delivered within one hour of the initial diagnosis of sepsis: Titrate oxygen to a saturation target of 94% Take blood cultures and consider source control Administer empiric intravenous antibiotics Measure serial serum lactates Start intravenous fluid resuscitation Commence accurate urine output measurement. References The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What does the term "xystum" refer to in architecture? A. A covered portico of a gymnasium B. An open path or promenade C. A type of decorative wall D. A specific style of basilica Answer:	B. An open path or promenade
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Vachellia rigidula, commonly known as blackbrush acacia or chaparro prieto, and also known as Acacia rigidula, is a species of shrub or small tree in the legume family, Fabaceae. Its native range stretches from Texas in the United States south to central Mexico. This perennial is not listed as being threatened. It reaches a height of . Blackbrush acacia grows on limestone hillsides and canyons. Phytochemistry A phytochemical study of V. rigidula by workers at the Texas A & M University Agricultural Research and Extension Center at Uvalde, TX, reported the presence of over forty alkaloids, including low amounts (up to around 15 ppm) of several phenolic amines that had previously been found by the same research group in the related species Senegalia berlandieri, but which otherwise are known only as products of laboratory synthesis. Compounds found in the highest concentrations (ranging from a few hundred to a few thousand ppm) were phenethylamine, tryptamine, tyramine, and β-Methylphenethylamine (that it can be misidentified as amphetamine). Other notable compounds reported were N,N-dimethyltryptamine, mescaline, and nicotine, although these were found in low concentrations (e.g. mescaline at 3-28 ppm). The presence of such an unprecedented chemical range of psychoactive compounds, including ones not previously found in nature, in a single plant species has led to the suggestion that some of these findings may have resulted from cross-contamination or were possibly artifacts of the analytical technique. Uses Vachellia rigidula is used in weight loss dietary supplements because of the presence of chemical compounds claimed to stimulate beta-receptors to increase lipolysis and metabolic rate and decrease appetite. Vachellia rigidula is also known as a large honey producer and early blooming plant for its native region. Safety In 2015, 52% of supplements labeled as containing Acacia rigidula were found to be adulterated with synthetic BMPEA, an amphetamine iso Document 1::: Foraminoplasty is a type of endoscopic surgery used to operate on the spine. It is considered a minimally invasive surgery technique and its endoscopic laser is legally regulated. Although most patients have benefited from foraminoplasty, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence does not fully support it due to it not completing its randomised controlled clinical trial. External links http://ijssurgery.com/10.14444/1026 https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ipg31/informationforpublic Document 2::: A voltage doubler is an electronic circuit which charges capacitors from the input voltage and switches these charges in such a way that, in the ideal case, exactly twice the voltage is produced at the output as at its input. The simplest of these circuits is a form of rectifier which take an AC voltage as input and outputs a doubled DC voltage. The switching elements are simple diodes and they are driven to switch state merely by the alternating voltage of the input. DC-to-DC voltage doublers cannot switch in this way and require a driving circuit to control the switching. They frequently also require a switching element that can be controlled directly, such as a transistor, rather than relying on the voltage across the switch as in the simple AC-to-DC case. Voltage doublers are a variety of voltage multiplier circuits. Many, but not all, voltage doubler circuits can be viewed as a single stage of a higher order multiplier: cascading identical stages together achieves a greater voltage multiplication. Voltage doubling rectifiers Villard circuit The Villard circuit, conceived by Paul Ulrich Villard, consists simply of a capacitor and a diode. While it has the great benefit of simplicity, its output has very poor ripple characteristics. Essentially, the circuit is a diode clamp circuit. The capacitor is charged on the negative half cycles to the peak AC voltage (Vpk). The output is the superposition of the input AC waveform and the steady DC of the capacitor. The effect of the circuit is to shift the DC value of the waveform. The negative peaks of the AC waveform are "clamped" to 0 V (actually −VF, the small forward bias voltage of the diode) by the diode, therefore the positive peaks of the output waveform are 2Vpk. The peak-to-peak ripple is an enormous 2Vpk and cannot be smoothed unless the circuit is effectively turned into one of the more sophisticated forms. This is the circuit (with diode reversed) used to supply the negative high voltage for the Document 3::: Majorana 1 is a hardware device developed by Microsoft, with potential applications to quantum computing. It is the first device produced by Microsoft intended for use in quantum computing. It is an indium arsenide-aluminium hybrid device that admits superconductivity at low temperatures. Microsoft claims that it shows some signals of hosting boundary Majorana zero modes. The device can fit eight qubits. Majorana zero modes, if confirmed, could have potential application to making topological qubits, and eventually a large-scale topological quantum computers. In its February 2025 announcement, Microsoft claimed that the Majorana 1 represents progress in its long-running project to create a quantum computer based on topological qubits. The announcement has generated both excitement and skepticism within the scientific community, in the absence of definitive public evidence that the Majorana 1 device exhibits Majorana zero modes. Background Quantum computing research has historically faced challenges in achieving qubit stability and scalability. Traditional qubits, such as those based on superconducting circuits or trapped ions, are highly susceptible to noise and decoherence, which can introduce errors in computations. To overcome these limitations, researchers have been exploring various approaches to building more robust and fault-tolerant quantum computers. Topological qubits, first theorized in 1997 by Alexei Kitaev and Michael Freedman, offer a promising solution by encoding quantum information in a way that is inherently protected from environmental disturbances. This protection stems from the topological properties of the system, which are resistant to local perturbations. Microsoft's approach, based on Majorana fermions in semiconductor-superconductor heterostructures, is one of several efforts to realize topological quantum computing. Controversy Microsoft's quantum hardware has been the subject of controversy since its high-profile retracted articl Document 4::: In algebra and number theory, a distribution is a function on a system of finite sets into an abelian group which is analogous to an integral: it is thus the algebraic analogue of a distribution in the sense of generalised function. The original examples of distributions occur, unnamed, as functions φ on Q/Z satisfying Such distributions are called ordinary distributions. They also occur in p-adic integration theory in Iwasawa theory. Let ... → Xn+1 → Xn → ... be a projective system of finite sets with surjections, indexed by the natural numbers, and let X be their projective limit. We give each Xn the discrete topology, so that X is compact. Let φ = (φn) be a family of functions on Xn taking values in an abelian group V and compatible with the projective system: for some weight function w. The family φ is then a distribution on the projective system X. A function f on X is "locally constant", or a "step function" if it factors through some Xn. We can define an integral of a step function against φ as The definition extends to more general projective systems, such as those indexed by the positive integers ordered by divisibility. As an important special case consider the projective system Z/nZ indexed by positive integers ordered by divisibility. We identify this with the system (1/n)Z/Z with limit Q/Z. For x in R we let ⟨x⟩ denote the fractional part of x normalised to 0 ≤ ⟨x⟩ < 1, and let {x} denote the fractional part normalised to 0 < {x} ≤ 1. Examples Hurwitz zeta function The multiplication theorem for the Hurwitz zeta function gives a distribution relation Hence for given s, the map is a distribution on Q/Z. Bernoulli distribution Recall that the Bernoulli polynomials Bn are defined by for n ≥ 0, where bk are the Bernoulli numbers, with generating function They satisfy the distribution relation Thus the map defined by is a distribution. Cyclotomic units The cyclotomic units satisfy distribution relations. Let a be an element of Q The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What was the primary cause of the Gerrards Cross Tunnel collapse as confirmed by a later investigation in 2022? A. Heavy rainfall B. Insufficient safety checks C. Backfilling operation D. Design flaws Answer:	C. Backfilling operation
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: The free surface effect is a mechanism which can cause a watercraft to become unstable and capsize. It refers to the tendency of liquids — and of unbound aggregates of small solid objects, like seeds, gravel, or crushed ore, whose behavior approximates that of liquids — to move in response to changes in the attitude of a craft's cargo holds, decks, or liquid tanks in reaction to operator-induced motions (or sea states caused by waves and wind acting upon the craft). When referring to the free surface effect, the condition of a tank that is not full is described as a "slack tank", while a full tank is "pressed up". Stability and equilibrium In a normally loaded vessel any rolling from perpendicular is countered by a righting moment generated from the increased volume of water displaced by the hull on the lowered side. This assumes the center of gravity of the vessel is relatively constant. If a moving mass inside the vessel moves in the direction of the roll, this counters the righting effect by moving the center of gravity towards the lowered side. The free surface effect can become a problem in a craft with large partially full bulk cargo compartments, fuel tanks, or water tanks (especially if they span the full breadth of the ship), or from accidental flooding, such as has occurred in several accidents involving roll-on/roll-off ferries. If a compartment or tank is either empty or full, there is no change in the craft's center of mass as it rolls from side to side (in strong winds, heavy seas, or on sharp motions or turns). However, if the compartment is only partially full, the liquid in the compartment will respond to the vessel's heave, pitch, roll, surge, sway or yaw. For example, as a vessel rolls to port, liquid will displace to the port side of a compartment, and this will move the vessel's center of mass to port. This has the effect of slowing the vessel's return to vertical. The momentum of large volumes of moving liquids cause significant dynamic for Document 1::: The Truth About Crime is a British television documentary series inspired and presented by Nick Ross in association with the film-maker Roger Graef, executive producer Sam Collyns and series producer Alice Perman. It was first broadcast on BBC One in July and August 2009. Region The show focused on a single city, Oxford, which has demographics and crime rates broadly representative of urban Britain, and used a multitude of techniques to measure the real extent of crime and victimisation. In a two-week crime audit, camera teams followed police, fire services and paramedics and an on-line questionnaire, based closely on the national British Crime Survey, invited residents and businesspeople to describe their personal experiences of victimisation. A survey of 14- and 15-year-olds in Oxford schools was one of the biggest of its kind ever undertaken to discover how under-16s are affected by, and involved in, crime. Random children from some of the schools were then chosen to take part in the series being quizzed on crime by Ross on such topics as theft, drugs, alcohol and many other things. Programme 1 The first programme (BBC One 9pm Tuesday 21 July 2009) looked at violent crime and revealed that almost all woundings involved victims who had been drinking or who had been assaulted by someone who was drunk, and took place close to a licensed premise. Lack of commensuration with official statistics Most of the seriously injured, as measured by those treated in hospital, did not report what had happened to the police. One senior physician told Nick Ross that police figures on crime are virtually "meaningless". The physician interviewed was Jonathan Shepherd, a professor of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery at the Cardiff University Dental School. Domestic violence was shown to be a major problem, though mostly resulting only in minor injuries, and with women as perpetrators as well as men. Women were interviewed in a Women's shelter. Crime mapping Helmet cameras were show Document 2::: {{DISPLAYTITLE:Lp space}} In mathematics, the spaces are function spaces defined using a natural generalization of the -norm for finite-dimensional vector spaces. They are sometimes called Lebesgue spaces, named after Henri Lebesgue , although according to the Bourbaki group they were first introduced by Frigyes Riesz . spaces form an important class of Banach spaces in functional analysis, and of topological vector spaces. Because of their key role in the mathematical analysis of measure and probability spaces, Lebesgue spaces are used also in the theoretical discussion of problems in physics, statistics, economics, finance, engineering, and other disciplines. Preliminaries The -norm in finite dimensions The Euclidean length of a vector in the -dimensional real vector space is given by the Euclidean norm: The Euclidean distance between two points and is the length of the straight line between the two points. In many situations, the Euclidean distance is appropriate for capturing the actual distances in a given space. In contrast, consider taxi drivers in a grid street plan who should measure distance not in terms of the length of the straight line to their destination, but in terms of the rectilinear distance, which takes into account that streets are either orthogonal or parallel to each other. The class of -norms generalizes these two examples and has an abundance of applications in many parts of mathematics, physics, and computer science. For a real number the -norm or -norm of is defined by The absolute value bars can be dropped when is a rational number with an even numerator in its reduced form, and is drawn from the set of real numbers, or one of its subsets. The Euclidean norm from above falls into this class and is the -norm, and the -norm is the norm that corresponds to the rectilinear distance. The -norm or maximum norm (or uniform norm) is the limit of the -norms for , given by: For all the -norms and maximum norm satisfy the properties of a "length function" (or norm), that is: only the zero vector has zero length, the length of the vector is positive homogeneous with respect to multiplication by a scalar (positive homogeneity), and the length of the sum of two vectors is no larger than the sum of lengths of the vectors (triangle inequality). Abstractly speaking, this means that together with the -norm is a normed vector space. Moreover, it turns out that this space is complete, thus making it a Banach space. Relations between -norms The grid distance or rectilinear distance (sometimes called the "Manhattan distance") between two points is never shorter than the length of the line segment between them (the Euclidean or "as the crow flies" distance). Formally, this means that the Euclidean norm of any vector is bounded by its 1-norm: This fact generalizes to -norms in that the -norm of any given vector does not grow with : For the opposite direction, the following relation between the -norm and the -norm is known: This inequality depends on the dimension of the underlying vector space and follows directly from the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality. In general, for vectors in where This is a consequence of Hölder's inequality. When In for the formula defines an absolutely homogeneous function for however, the resulting function does not define a norm, because it is not subadditive. On the other hand, the formula defines a subadditive function at the cost of losing absolute homogeneity. It does define an F-norm, though, which is homogeneous of degree Hence, the function defines a metric. The metric space is denoted by Although the -unit ball around the origin in this metric is "concave", the topology defined on by the metric is the usual vector space topology of hence is a locally convex topological vector space. Beyond this qualitative statement, a quantitative way to measure the lack of convexity of is to denote by the smallest constant such that the scalar multiple of the -unit ball contains the convex hull of which is equal to The fact that for fixed we have shows that the infinite-dimensional sequence space defined below, is no longer locally convex. When There is one norm and another function called the "norm" (with quotation marks). The mathematical definition of the norm was established by Banach's Theory of Linear Operations. The space of sequences has a complete metric topology provided by the F-norm on the product metric: The -normed space is studied in functional analysis, probability theory, and harmonic analysis. Another function was called the "norm" by David Donoho—whose quotation marks warn that this function is not a proper norm—is the number of non-zero entries of the vector Many authors abuse terminology by omitting the quotation marks. Defining the zero "norm" of is equal to This is not a norm because it is not homogeneous. For example, scaling the vector by a positive constant does not change the "norm". Despite these defects as a mathematical norm, the non-zero counting "norm" has uses in scientific computing, information theory, and statistics–notably in compressed sensing in signal processing and computational harmonic analysis. Despite not being a norm, the associated metric, known as Hamming distance, is a valid distance, since homogeneity is not required for distances. spaces and sequence spaces The -norm can be extended to vectors that have an infinite number of components (sequences), which yields the space This contains as special cases: the space of sequences whose series are absolutely convergent, the space of square-summable sequences, which is a Hilbert space, and the space of bounded sequences. The space of sequences has a natural vector space structure by applying scalar addition and multiplication. Explicitly, the vector sum and the scalar action for infinite sequences of real (or complex) numbers are given by: Define the -norm: Here, a complication arises, namely that the series on the right is not always convergent, so for example, the sequence made up of only ones, will have an infinite -norm for The space is then defined as the set of all infinite sequences of real (or complex) numbers such that the -norm is finite. One can check that as increases, the set grows larger. For example, the sequence is not in but it is in for as the series diverges for (the harmonic series), but is convergent for One also defines the -norm using the supremum: and the corresponding space of all bounded sequences. It turns out that if the right-hand side is finite, or the left-hand side is infinite. Thus, we will consider spaces for The -norm thus defined on is indeed a norm, and together with this norm is a Banach space. General ℓp-space In complete analogy to the preceding definition one can define the space over a general index set (and ) as where convergence on the right means that only countably many summands are nonzero (see also Unconditional convergence). With the norm the space becomes a Banach space. In the case where is finite with elements, this construction yields with the -norm defined above. If is countably infinite, this is exactly the sequence space defined above. For uncountable sets this is a non-separable Banach space which can be seen as the locally convex direct limit of -sequence spaces. For the -norm is even induced by a canonical inner product called the , which means that holds for all vectors This inner product can expressed in terms of the norm by using the polarization identity. On it can be defined by Now consider the case Define where for all The index set can be turned into a measure space by giving it the discrete σ-algebra and the counting measure. Then the space is just a special case of the more general -space (defined below). Lp spaces and Lebesgue integrals An space may be defined as a space of measurable functions for which the -th power of the absolute value is Lebesgue integrable, where functions which agree almost everywhere are identified. More generally, let be a measure space and When , consider the set of all measurable functions from to or whose absolute value raised to the -th power has a finite integral, or in symbols: To define the set for recall that two functions and defined on are said to be , written , if the set is measurable and has measure zero. Similarly, a measurable function (and its absolute value) is (or ) by a real number written , if the (necessarily) measurable set has measure zero. The space is the set of all measurable functions that are bounded almost everywhere (by some real ) and is defined as the infimum of these bounds: When then this is the same as the essential supremum of the absolute value of : For example, if is a measurable function that is equal to almost everywhere then for every and thus for all For every positive the value under of a measurable function and its absolute value are always the same (that is, for all ) and so a measurable function belongs to if and only if its absolute value does. Because of this, many formulas involving -norms are stated only for non-negative real-valued functions. Consider for example the identity which holds whenever is measurable, is real, and (here when ). The non-negativity requirement can be removed by substituting in for which gives Note in particular that when is finite then the formula relates the -norm to the -norm. Seminormed space of -th power integrable functions Each set of functions forms a vector space when addition and scalar multiplication are defined pointwise. That the sum of two -th power integrable functions and is again -th power integrable follows from although it is also a consequence of Minkowski's inequality which establishes that satisfies the triangle inequality for (the triangle inequality does not hold for ). That is closed under scalar multiplication is due to being absolutely homogeneous, which means that for every scalar and every function Absolute homogeneity, the triangle inequality, and non-negativity are the defining properties of a seminorm. Thus is a seminorm and the set of -th power integrable functions together with the function defines a seminormed vector space. In general, the seminorm is not a norm because there might exist measurable functions that satisfy but are not equal to ( is a norm if and only if no such exists). Zero sets of -seminorms If is measurable and equals a.e. then for all positive On the other hand, if is a measurable function for which there exists some such that then almost everywhere. When is finite then this follows from the case and the formula mentioned above. Thus if is positive and is any measurable function, then if and only if almost everywhere. Since the right hand side ( a.e.) does not mention it follows that all have the same zero set (it does not depend on ). So denote this common set by This set is a vector subspace of for every positive Quotient vector space Like every seminorm, the seminorm induces a norm (defined shortly) on the canonical quotient vector space of by its vector subspace This normed quotient space is called and it is the subject of this article. We begin by defining the quotient vector space. Given any the coset consists of all measurable functions that are equal to almost everywhere. The set of all cosets, typically denoted by forms a vector space with origin when vector addition and scalar multiplication are defined by and This particular quotient vector space will be denoted by Two cosets are equal if and only if (or equivalently, ), which happens if and only if almost everywhere; if this is the case then and are identified in the quotient space. Hence, strictly speaking consists of equivalence classes of functions. The -norm on the quotient vector space Given any the value of the seminorm on the coset is constant and equal to denote this unique value by so that: This assignment defines a map, which will also be denoted by on the quotient vector space This map is a norm on called the . The value of a coset is independent of the particular function that was chosen to represent the coset, meaning that if is any coset then for every (since for every ). The Lebesgue space The normed vector space is called or the of -th power integrable functions and it is a Banach space for every (meaning that it is a complete metric space, a result that is sometimes called the [[Riesz–Fischer theorem#Completeness of Lp, 0 < p ≤ ∞\|Riesz–Fischer theorem]]). When the underlying measure space is understood then is often abbreviated or even just Depending on the author, the subscript notation might denote either or If the seminorm on happens to be a norm (which happens if and only if ) then the normed space will be linearly isometrically isomorphic to the normed quotient space via the canonical map (since ); in other words, they will be, up to a linear isometry, the same normed space and so they may both be called " space". The above definitions generalize to Bochner spaces. In general, this process cannot be reversed: there is no consistent way to define a "canonical" representative of each coset of in For however, there is a theory of lifts enabling such recovery. Special cases For the spaces are a special case of spaces; when are the natural numbers and is the counting measure. More generally, if one considers any set with the counting measure, the resulting space is denoted For example, is the space of all sequences indexed by the integers, and when defining the -norm on such a space, one sums over all the integers. The space where is the set with elements, is with its -norm as defined above. Similar to spaces, is the only Hilbert space among spaces. In the complex case, the inner product on is defined by Functions in are sometimes called square-integrable functions, quadratically integrable functions or square-summable functions, but sometimes these terms are reserved for functions that are square-integrable in some other sense, such as in the sense of a Riemann integral . As any Hilbert space, every space is linearly isometric to a suitable where the cardinality of the set is the cardinality of an arbitrary basis for this particular If we use complex-valued functions, the space is a commutative C*-algebra with pointwise multiplication and conjugation. For many measure spaces, including all sigma-finite ones, it is in fact a commutative von Neumann algebra. An element of defines a bounded operator on any space by multiplication. When If then can be defined as above, that is: In this case, however, the -norm does not satisfy the triangle inequality and defines only a quasi-norm. The inequality valid for implies that and so the function is a metric on The resulting metric space is complete. In this setting satisfies a reverse Minkowski inequality, that is for This result may be used to prove Clarkson's inequalities, which are in turn used to establish the uniform convexity of the spaces for . The space for is an F-space: it admits a complete translation-invariant metric with respect to which the vector space operations are continuous. It is the prototypical example of an F-space that, for most reasonable measure spaces, is not locally convex: in or every open convex set containing the function is unbounded for the -quasi-norm; therefore, the vector does not possess a fundamental system of convex neighborhoods. Specifically, this is true if the measure space contains an infinite family of disjoint measurable sets of finite positive measure. The only nonempty convex open set in is the entire space. Consequently, there are no nonzero continuous linear functionals on the continuous dual space is the zero space. In the case of the counting measure on the natural numbers (i.e. ), the bounded linear functionals on are exactly those that are bounded on , i.e., those given by sequences in Although does contain non-trivial convex open sets, it fails to have enough of them to give a base for the topology. Having no linear functionals is highly undesirable for the purposes of doing analysis. In case of the Lebesgue measure on rather than work with for it is common to work with the Hardy space whenever possible, as this has quite a few linear functionals: enough to distinguish points from one another. However, the Hahn–Banach theorem still fails in for . Properties Hölder's inequality Suppose satisfy . If and then and This inequality, called Hölder's inequality, is in some sense optimal since if and is a measurable function such that where the supremum is taken over the closed unit ball of then and Generalized Minkowski inequality Minkowski inequality, which states that satisfies the triangle inequality, can be generalized: If the measurable function is non-negative (where and are measure spaces) then for all Atomic decomposition If then every non-negative has an , meaning that there exist a sequence of non-negative real numbers and a sequence of non-negative functions called , whose supports are pairwise disjoint sets of measure such that and for every integer and and where moreover, the sequence of functions depends only on (it is independent of ). These inequalities guarantee that for all integers while the supports of being pairwise disjoint implies An atomic decomposition can be explicitly given by first defining for every integer and then letting where denotes the measure of the set and denotes the indicator function of the set The sequence is decreasing and converges to as Consequently, if then and so that is identically equal to (in particular, the division by causes no issues). The complementary cumulative distribution function of that was used to define the also appears in the definition of the weak -norm (given below) and can be used to express the -norm (for ) of as the integral where the integration is with respect to the usual Lebesgue measure on Dual spaces The dual space of for has a natural isomorphism with where is such that . This isomorphism associates with the functional defined by for every is a well defined continuous linear mapping which is an isometry by the extremal case of Hölder's inequality. If is a -finite measure space one can use the Radon–Nikodym theorem to show that any can be expressed this way, i.e., is an isometric isomorphism of Banach spaces. Hence, it is usual to say simply that is the continuous dual space of For the space is reflexive. Let be as above and let be the corresponding linear isometry. Consider the map from to obtained by composing with the transpose (or adjoint) of the inverse of This map coincides with the canonical embedding of into its bidual. Moreover, the map is onto, as composition of two onto isometries, and this proves reflexivity. If the measure on is sigma-finite, then the dual of is isometrically isomorphic to (more precisely, the map corresponding to is an isometry from onto The dual of is subtler. Elements of can be identified with bounded signed finitely additive measures on that are absolutely continuous with respect to See ba space for more details. If we assume the axiom of choice, this space is much bigger than except in some trivial cases. However, Saharon Shelah proved that there are relatively consistent extensions of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (ZF + DC + "Every subset of the real numbers has the Baire property") in which the dual of is Embeddings Colloquially, if then contains functions that are more locally singular, while elements of can be more spread out. Consider the Lebesgue measure on the half line A continuous function in might blow up near but must decay sufficiently fast toward infinity. On the other hand, continuous functions in need not decay at all but no blow-up is allowed. More formally: If : if and only if does not contain sets of finite but arbitrarily large measure (e.g. any finite measure). If : if and only if does not contain sets of non-zero but arbitrarily small measure (e.g. the counting measure). Neither condition holds for the Lebesgue measure on the real line while both conditions holds for the counting measure on any finite set. As a consequence of the closed graph theorem, the embedding is continuous, i.e., the identity operator is a bounded linear map from to in the first case and to in the second. Indeed, if the domain has finite measure, one can make the following explicit calculation using Hölder's inequality leading to The constant appearing in the above inequality is optimal, in the sense that the operator norm of the identity is precisely the case of equality being achieved exactly when -almost-everywhere. Dense subspaces Let and be a measure space and consider an integrable simple function on given by where are scalars, has finite measure and is the indicator function of the set for By construction of the integral, the vector space of integrable simple functions is dense in More can be said when is a normal topological space and its Borel –algebra. Suppose is an open set with Then for every Borel set contained in there exist a closed set and an open set such that for every . Subsequently, there exists a Urysohn function on that is on and on with If can be covered by an increasing sequence of open sets that have finite measure, then the space of –integrable continuous functions is dense in More precisely, one can use bounded continuous functions that vanish outside one of the open sets This applies in particular when and when is the Lebesgue measure. For example, the space of continuous and compactly supported functions as well as the space of integrable step functions are dense in . Closed subspaces If is any positive real number, is a probability measure on a measurable space (so that ), and is a vector subspace, then is a closed subspace of if and only if is finite-dimensional ( was chosen independent of ). In this theorem, which is due to Alexander Grothendieck, it is crucial that the vector space be a subset of since it is possible to construct an infinite-dimensional closed vector subspace of (which is even a subset of ), where is Lebesgue measure on the unit circle and is the probability measure that results from dividing it by its mass Applications Statistics In statistics, measures of central tendency and statistical dispersion, such as the mean, median, and standard deviation, can be defined in terms of metrics, and measures of central tendency can be characterized as solutions to variational problems. In penalized regression, "L1 penalty" and "L2 penalty" refer to penalizing either the norm of a solution's vector of parameter values (i.e. the sum of its absolute values), or its squared norm (its Euclidean length). Techniques which use an L1 penalty, like LASSO, encourage sparse solutions (where the many parameters are zero). Elastic net regularization uses a penalty term that is a combination of the norm and the squared norm of the parameter vector. Hausdorff–Young inequality The Fourier transform for the real line (or, for periodic functions, see Fourier series), maps to (or to ) respectively, where and This is a consequence of the Riesz–Thorin interpolation theorem, and is made precise with the Hausdorff–Young inequality. By contrast, if the Fourier transform does not map into Hilbert spaces Hilbert spaces are central to many applications, from quantum mechanics to stochastic calculus. The spaces and are both Hilbert spaces. In fact, by choosing a Hilbert basis i.e., a maximal orthonormal subset of or any Hilbert space, one sees that every Hilbert space is isometrically isomorphic to (same as above), i.e., a Hilbert space of type Generalizations and extensions Weak Let be a measure space, and a measurable function with real or complex values on The distribution function of is defined for by If is in for some with then by Markov's inequality, A function is said to be in the space weak , or if there is a constant such that, for all The best constant for this inequality is the -norm of and is denoted by The weak coincide with the Lorentz spaces so this notation is also used to denote them. The -norm is not a true norm, since the triangle inequality fails to hold. Nevertheless, for in and in particular In fact, one has and raising to power and taking the supremum in one has Under the convention that two functions are equal if they are equal almost everywhere, then the spaces are complete . For any the expression is comparable to the -norm. Further in the case this expression defines a norm if Hence for the weak spaces are Banach spaces . A major result that uses the -spaces is the Marcinkiewicz interpolation theorem, which has broad applications to harmonic analysis and the study of singular integrals. Weighted spaces As before, consider a measure space Let be a measurable function. The -weighted space is defined as where means the measure defined by or, in terms of the Radon–Nikodym derivative, the norm for is explicitly As -spaces, the weighted spaces have nothing special, since is equal to But they are the natural framework for several results in harmonic analysis ; they appear for example in the Muckenhoupt theorem: for the classical Hilbert transform is defined on where denotes the unit circle and the Lebesgue measure; the (nonlinear) Hardy–Littlewood maximal operator is bounded on Muckenhoupt's theorem describes weights such that the Hilbert transform remains bounded on and the maximal operator on spaces on manifolds One may also define spaces on a manifold, called the intrinsic spaces of the manifold, using densities. Vector-valued spaces Given a measure space and a locally convex space (here assumed to be complete), it is possible to define spaces of -integrable -valued functions on in a number of ways. One way is to define the spaces of Bochner integrable and Pettis integrable functions, and then endow them with locally convex TVS-topologies that are (each in their own way) a natural generalization of the usual topology. Another way involves topological tensor products of with Element of the vector space are finite sums of simple tensors where each simple tensor may be identified with the function that sends This tensor product is then endowed with a locally convex topology that turns it into a topological tensor product, the most common of which are the projective tensor product, denoted by and the injective tensor product, denoted by In general, neither of these space are complete so their completions are constructed, which are respectively denoted by and (this is analogous to how the space of scalar-valued simple functions on when seminormed by any is not complete so a completion is constructed which, after being quotiented by is isometrically isomorphic to the Banach space ). Alexander Grothendieck showed that when is a nuclear space (a concept he introduced), then these two constructions are, respectively, canonically TVS-isomorphic with the spaces of Bochner and Pettis integral functions mentioned earlier; in short, they are indistinguishable. space of measurable functions The vector space of (equivalence classes of) measurable functions on is denoted . By definition, it contains all the and is equipped with the topology of convergence in measure. When is a probability measure (i.e., ), this mode of convergence is named convergence in probability. The space is always a topological abelian group but is only a topological vector space if This is because scalar multiplication is continuous if and only if If is -finite then the weaker topology of local convergence in measure is an F-space, i.e. a completely metrizable topological vector space. Moreover, this topology is isometric to global convergence in measure for a suitable choice of probability measure The description is easier when is finite. If is a finite measure on the function admits for the convergence in measure the following fundamental system of neighborhoods The topology can be defined by any metric of the form where is bounded continuous concave and non-decreasing on with and when (for example, Such a metric is called Lévy-metric for Under this metric the space is complete. However, as mentioned above, scalar multiplication is continuous with respect to this metric only if . To see this, consider the Lebesgue measurable function defined by . Then clearly . The space is in general not locally bounded, and not locally convex. For the infinite Lebesgue measure on the definition of the fundamental system of neighborhoods could be modified as follows The resulting space , with the topology of local convergence in measure, is isomorphic to the space for any positive –integrable density See also Notes References . . . . . . External links Proof that Lp spaces are complete Document 3::: Street reclaiming is the process of converting, or otherwise returning streets to a stronger focus on non-car use — such as walking, cycling and active street life. It is advocated by many urban planners and urban economists, of widely varying political points of view. Its primary benefits are thought to be: Decreased automobile traffic with less noise pollution, fewer automobile accidents, reduced smog and air pollution Greater safety and access for pedestrians and cyclists Less frequent surface maintenance than car-driven roads Reduced summer temperatures due to less asphalt and more green spaces Increased pedestrian traffic which also increases social and commercial opportunities Increased gardening space for urban residents Better support for co-housing and infirm residents, e.g. suburban eco-villages built around former streets Campaigns An early example of street reclamation was the Stockholm carfree day in 1969. Some consider the best advantages to be gained by redesigning streets, for example as shared space, while others, such as campaigns like "Reclaim the Streets", a widespread "dis-organization", run a variety of events to physically reclaim the streets for political and artistic actions, often called street parties. David Engwicht is also a strong proponent of the concept that street life, rather than physical redesign, is the primary tool of street reclamation. See also References External links RTS — Reclaim the Streets Park(ing) – 22 September What if everyone had a car? by the BBC World News Document 4::: In organometallic chemistry, agostic interaction refers to the intramolecular interaction of a coordinatively-unsaturated transition metal with an appropriately situated C−H bond on one of its ligands. The interaction is the result of two electrons involved in the C−H bond interaction with an empty d-orbital of the transition metal, resulting in a three-center two-electron bond. It is a special case of a C–H sigma complex. Historically, agostic complexes were the first examples of C–H sigma complexes to be observed spectroscopically and crystallographically, due to intramolecular interactions being particularly favorable and more often leading to robust complexes. Many catalytic transformations involving oxidative addition and reductive elimination are proposed to proceed via intermediates featuring agostic interactions. Agostic interactions are observed throughout organometallic chemistry in alkyl, alkylidene, and polyenyl ligands. History The term agostic, derived from the Ancient Greek word for "to hold close to oneself", was coined by Maurice Brookhart and Malcolm Green, on the suggestion of the classicist Jasper Griffin, to describe this and many other interactions between a transition metal and a C−H bond. Often such agostic interactions involve alkyl or aryl groups that are held close to the metal center through an additional σ-bond. Short interactions between hydrocarbon substituents and coordinatively unsaturated metal complexes have been noted since the 1960s. For example, in tris(triphenylphosphine) ruthenium dichloride, a short interaction is observed between the ruthenium(II) center and a hydrogen atom on the ortho position of one of the nine phenyl rings. Complexes of borohydride are described as using the three-center two-electron bonding model. The nature of the interaction was foreshadowed in main group chemistry in the structural chemistry of trimethylaluminium. Characteristics of agostic bonds Agostic interactions are best demonstrated The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the significance of Lp spaces in mathematics and other disciplines according to the text? A. They are only useful in abstract mathematics. B. They are crucial for mathematical analysis and have applications in physics, statistics, and finance. C. They are primarily concerned with the geometric properties of shapes. D. They are only relevant in the study of finite-dimensional vector spaces. Answer:	B. They are crucial for mathematical analysis and have applications in physics, statistics, and finance.
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: In electrochemistry, CO stripping is a special process of voltammetry where a monolayer of carbon monoxide already adsorbed on the surface of an electrocatalyst is electrochemically oxidized and thus removed from the surface. A well-known process of this type is CO stripping on Pt/C electrocatalysts in which the electrooxidation peak occurs somewhere between 0.5 and 0.9 V depending on the characteristics and structural properties of the specimen. Principle Some metals, such as platinum, readily adsorb carbon monoxide, which is usually undesirable as it results in catalyst poisoning. However, the strong affinity of CO to such catalysts also presents an opportunity: since carbon monoxide is a small molecule with a strong affinity to the catalyst, a large enough amount of CO will adsorb to the entire available surface area of the catalyst. That, in turn, means that by evaluating the amount of CO adsorbed, the catalyst's available surface area can be indirectly measured. That surface area - also known as "real surface area" or "electrochemically active surface area" - can be measured by electrochemically oxidizing the adsorbed carbon monoxide, as the charge expended in oxidizing CO is directly proportional to the amount of CO adsorbed on the surface and therefore, the surface area of the catalyst. Usage CO stripping is one of the methods used to determine the electrochemically active surface area of electrodes and catalysts that irreversibly adsorb carbon monoxide, most notably ones containing platinum and other transition metals. Document 1::: In quantum mechanics, the Schrödinger equation describes how a system changes with time. It does this by relating changes in the state of the system to the energy in the system (given by an operator called the Hamiltonian). Therefore, once the Hamiltonian is known, the time dynamics are in principle known. All that remains is to plug the Hamiltonian into the Schrödinger equation and solve for the system state as a function of time. Often, however, the Schrödinger equation is difficult to solve (even with a computer). Therefore, physicists have developed mathematical techniques to simplify these problems and clarify what is happening physically. One such technique is to apply a unitary transformation to the Hamiltonian. Doing so can result in a simplified version of the Schrödinger equation which nonetheless has the same solution as the original. Transformation A unitary transformation (or frame change) can be expressed in terms of a time-dependent Hamiltonian and unitary operator . Under this change, the Hamiltonian transforms as: . The Schrödinger equation applies to the new Hamiltonian. Solutions to the untransformed and transformed equations are also related by . Specifically, if the wave function satisfies the original equation, then will satisfy the new equation. Derivation Recall that by the definition of a unitary matrix, . Beginning with the Schrödinger equation, , we can therefore insert the identity at will. In particular, inserting it after and also premultiplying both sides by , we get . Next, note that by the product rule, . Inserting another and rearranging, we get . Finally, combining (1) and (2) above results in the desired transformation: . If we adopt the notation to describe the transformed wave function, the equations can be written in a clearer form. For instance, can be rewritten as , which can be rewritten in the form of the original Schrödinger equation, The original wave function can be recovered as . Relation to Document 2::: Ogataea is a genus of ascomycetous yeasts in the family Saccharomycetaceae. It was separated from the former genus Hansenula via an examination of their 18S and 26S rRNA partial base sequencings by Yamada et al. 1994. The genus name of Ogataea is in honour of Koichi Ogata (x - 1977), who was a Japanese microbiologist from the Department of Agricultural Chemistry, Faculty of Agriculture, at Kyoto University. It was stated in the journal; "The genus is named in honor of the late Professor Dr. Koichi Ogata, Department of Agricultural Chemistry, Faculty of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan, in recognition of his studies on the oxidation and assimilation of methanol (C1 compound) in methanol-utilizing yeasts." The genus was circumscribed by Yuzo Yamada, Kojiro Maeda and Kozaburo Mikata in Biosc., Biotechn. Biochem. vol.58 (Issue 7) on page 1253 in 1994. Diagnosis Like other yeasts, also the species within the genus Ogataea are single-celled or build pseudohyphae of only a few elongated cells; true hyphae are not formed. They are able to reproduce sexually or asexually. The latter case happens with a cell division by multilateral budding on a narrow base with spherical to ellipsoidal budded cells. In the sexual reproduction the asci are deliquescent and may be unconjugated or show conjugation between a cell and its bud or between independent cells. Asci produce one to four, sometimes more, ascospores which are hat-shaped, allantoid or spherical with a ledge. The species are homothallic or infrequently heterothallic. Ogataea cells are able to ferment glucose or other sugars and some species assimilate nitrate. All known species are able to utilize methanol as carbon source. The predominant ubiquinone is coenzyme Q-7 and the diazonium blue B test is negative. Some species are used and cultured for microbiological and genetic research e.g. Ogataea polymorpha, Ogataea minuta or Ogataea methanolica. Ogataea minuta (Wickerham) Y. Yamada, K. Maeda & Mikata is th Document 3::: An explosimeter is a gas detector which is used to measure the amount of combustible gases present in a sample. When a percentage of the lower explosive limit (LEL) of an atmosphere is exceeded, an alarm signal on the instrument is activated. The device, also called a combustible gas detector, operates on the principle of resistance proportional to heat—a wire is heated, and a sample of the gas is introduced to the hot wire. Combustible gases burn in the presence of the hot wire, thus increasing the resistance and disturbing a Wheatstone bridge, which gives the reading. A flashback arrestor is installed in the device to avoid the explosimeter igniting the sample external to the device. Note, that the detection readings of an explosimeter are only accurate if the gas being sampled has the same characteristics and response as the calibration gas. Most explosimeters are calibrated to methane, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide. Explosimeters are important because workspaces may contain a flammable or explosive atmosphere due to the accumulation of flammable gases or vapors. Sparks from ordinary battery-powered portable equipment, including cameras, cell phones, laptop computers, or anything else located on the job site may serve as an ignition source. The explosimeter warns the user of dangerous atmospheric conditions before a possible explosion can occur. Explosimetry Explosimetry simply means the measurement of flammable or explosive conditions, normally in the atmosphere around us. In modern times, jobsites both above ground and below ground can have a wide range of dangerous flammable materials present. The danger of these flammable materials are mitigated by detection systems. Explosimetry sensors are integrated into stationary and portable devices to detect the concentration of the calibrated gas in air. The explosimeter is an example of a detection system with an explosimetry sensor in it. For explosimeters to work properly they must be calibrated for a parti Document 4::: The Chicago Lake Tunnel was the first of several tunnels built from the city of Chicago's shore on Lake Michigan two miles out into the lake to access unpolluted fresh water far from the city's sewage. Waterborne disease in early Chicago In the early decades of its existence, the growing city was only about three feet above the surface of Lake Michigan, and the areas of early European settlement were flat and sandy with a high water table. European settlers in Chicago only needed to dig 6 to 12 feet to create a private well. The same settlers, however, would also dig privy vaults for human waste nearby. Because the sandy soil topped a layer of hard clay, human waste would sink from the outhouse, meet the impervious clay, and travel laterally into the freshwater supply. As a result, Chicago suffered numerous widespread outbreaks of waterborne diseases. The Chicago Board of Health was organized in 1835, in response to the threat of a cholera epidemic, and later outbreaks of cholera in 1852 and 1854 killed thousands. Chesbrough's Water Plan In 1855 the city’s newly formed Board of Sewerage Commissioners hired the 42-year-old Ellis S. Chesbrough (1813–1886), the first city engineer of Boston to study the problem. In 1863, Chesbrough completed a design for a water and sewer system for the city that included a tunnel five feet wide and lined with brick that would extend through the clay bed of Lake Michigan to a distance of 10,567 feet. Work started in 1864 and the tunnel was opened in 1867. Construction Gravity forces water into the tunnel through a structure called a crib. The crib for the Lake Tunnel was forty feet high and had five sides. Each side was fifty-eight feet long. The crib had outer, middle, inner walls bolted together, and each was sealed with caulk and tar in the same way ships of the day were made. The crib comprised fifteen separate water-tight compartments with an opening at the bottom twenty-five feet in diameter referred to as "the well," which d The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What was the primary goal of the Brotherhood in "The Invisible Empire"? A. To create a new world religion B. To gain control over the entire world C. To protect the innocent from evil D. To develop advanced technology for peace Answer:	B. To gain control over the entire world
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Plants may reproduce sexually or asexually. Sexual reproduction produces offspring by the fusion of gametes, resulting in offspring genetically different from either parent. Vegetative reproduction produces new individuals without the fusion of gametes, resulting in clonal plants that are genetically identical to the parent plant and each other, unless mutations occur. In asexual reproduction, only one parent is involved. Asexual reproduction Asexual reproduction does not involve the production and fusion of male and female gametes. Asexual reproduction may occur through budding, fragmentation, spore formation, regeneration and vegetative propagation. Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction where the offspring comes from one parent only, thus inheriting the characteristics of the parent. Asexual reproduction in plants occurs in two fundamental forms, vegetative reproduction and agamospermy. Vegetative reproduction involves a vegetative piece of the original plant producing new individuals by budding, tillering, etc. and is distinguished from apomixis, which is a replacement of sexual reproduction, and in some cases involves seeds. Apomixis occurs in many plant species such as dandelions (Taraxacum species) and also in some non-plant organisms. For apomixis and similar processes in non-plant organisms, see parthenogenesis. Natural vegetative reproduction is a process mostly found in perennial plants, and typically involves structural modifications of the stem or roots and in a few species leaves. Most plant species that employ vegetative reproduction do so as a means to perennialize the plants, allowing them to survive from one season to the next and often facilitating their expansion in size. A plant that persists in a location through vegetative reproduction of individuals gives rise to a clonal colony. A single ramet, or apparent individual, of a clonal colony is genetically identical to all others in the same colony. The distance that a plant can move during vegetative reproduction is limited, though some plants can produce ramets from branching rhizomes or stolons that cover a wide area, often in only a few growing seasons. In a sense, this process is not one of reproduction but one of survival and expansion of biomass of the individual. When an individual organism increases in size via cell multiplication and remains intact, the process is called vegetative growth. However, in vegetative reproduction, the new plants that result are new individuals in almost every respect except genetic. A major disadvantage of vegetative reproduction is the transmission of pathogens from parent to offspring. It is uncommon for pathogens to be transmitted from the plant to its seeds (in sexual reproduction or in apomixis), though there are occasions when it occurs. Seeds generated by apomixis are a means of asexual reproduction, involving the formation and dispersal of seeds that do not originate from the fertilization of the embryos. Hawkweeds (Hieracium), dandelions (Taraxacum), some species of Citrus and Kentucky blue grass (Poa pratensis) all use this form of asexual reproduction. Pseudogamy occurs in some plants that have apomictic seeds, where pollination is often needed to initiate embryo growth, though the pollen contributes no genetic material to the developing offspring. Other forms of apomixis occur in plants also, including the generation of a plantlet in replacement of a seed or the generation of bulbils instead of flowers, where new cloned individuals are produced. Structures A rhizome is a modified underground stem serving as an organ of vegetative reproduction; the growing tips of the rhizome can separate as new plants, e.g., polypody, iris, couch grass and nettles. Prostrate aerial stems, called runners or stolons, are important vegetative reproduction organs in some species, such as the strawberry, numerous grasses, and some ferns. Adventitious buds form on roots near the ground surface, on damaged stems (as on the stumps of cut trees), or on old roots. These develop into above-ground stems and leaves. A form of budding called suckering is the reproduction or regeneration of a plant by shoots that arise from an existing root system. Species that characteristically produce suckers include elm (Ulmus) and many members of the rose family such as Rosa, Kerria and Rubus. Bulbous plants such as onion (Allium cepa), hyacinths, narcissi and tulips reproduce vegetatively by dividing their underground bulbs into more bulbs. Other plants like potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) and dahlias reproduce vegetatively from underground tubers. Gladioli and crocuses reproduce vegetatively in a similar way with corms. Gemmae are single cells or masses of cells that detach from plants to form new clonal individuals. These are common in Liverworts and mosses and in the gametophyte generation of some filmy fern. They are also present in some Club mosses such as Huperzia lucidula . They are also found in some higher plants such as species of Drosera. Usage The most common form of plant reproduction used by people is seeds, but a number of asexual methods are used which are usually enhancements of natural processes, including: cutting, grafting, budding, layering, division, sectioning of rhizomes, roots, tubers, bulbs, stolons, tillers, etc., and artificial propagation by laboratory tissue cloning. Asexual methods are most often used to propagate cultivars with individual desirable characteristics that do not come true from seed. Fruit tree propagation is frequently performed by budding or grafting desirable cultivars (clones), onto rootstocks that are also clones, propagated by stooling. In horticulture, a cutting is a branch that has been cut off from a mother plant below an internode and then rooted, often with the help of a rooting liquid or powder containing hormones. When a full root has formed and leaves begin to sprout anew, the clone is a self-sufficient plant, genetically identical. Examples include cuttings from the stems of blackberries (Rubus occidentalis), African violets (Saintpaulia), verbenas (Verbena) to produce new plants. A related use of cuttings is grafting, where a stem or bud is joined onto a different stem. Nurseries offer for sale trees with grafted stems that can produce four or more varieties of related fruits, including apples. The most common usage of grafting is the propagation of cultivars onto already rooted plants, sometimes the rootstock is used to dwarf the plants or protect them from root damaging pathogens. Since vegetatively propagated plants are clones, they are important tools in plant research. When a clone is grown in various conditions, differences in growth can be ascribed to environmental effects instead of genetic differences. Sexual reproduction Sexual reproduction involves two fundamental processes: meiosis, which rearranges the genes and reduces the number of chromosomes, and fertilization, which restores the chromosome to a complete diploid number. In between these two processes, different types of plants and algae vary, but many of them, including all land plants, undergo alternation of generations, with two different multicellular structures (phases), a gametophyte and a sporophyte. The evolutionary origin and adaptive significance of sexual reproduction are discussed in the pages Evolution of sexual reproduction and Origin and function of meiosis. The gametophyte is the multicellular structure (plant) that is haploid, containing a single set of chromosomes in each cell. The gametophyte produces male or female gametes (or both), by a process of cell division, called mitosis. In vascular plants with separate gametophytes, female gametophytes are known as mega gametophytes (mega=large, they produce the large egg cells) and the male gametophytes are called micro gametophytes (micro=small, they produce the small sperm cells). The fusion of male and female gametes (fertilization) produces a diploid zygote, which develops by mitotic cell divisions into a multicellular sporophyte. The mature sporophyte produces spores by meiosis, sometimes referred to as reduction division because the chromosome pairs are separated once again to form single sets. In mosses and liverworts, the gametophyte is relatively large, and the sporophyte is a much smaller structure that is never separated from the gametophyte. In ferns, gymnosperms, and flowering plants (angiosperms), the gametophytes are relatively small and the sporophyte is much larger. In gymnosperms and flowering plants the megagametophyte is contained within the ovule (that may develop into a seed) and the microgametophyte is contained within a pollen grain. History of sexual reproduction of plants Unlike animals, plants are immobile, and cannot seek out sexual partners for reproduction. In the evolution of early plants, abiotic means, including water and much later, wind, transported sperm for reproduction. The first plants were aquatic, as described in the page Evolutionary history of plants, and released sperm freely into the water to be carried with the currents. Primitive land plants such as liverworts and mosses had motile sperm that swam in a thin film of water or were splashed in water droplets from the male reproduction organs onto the female organs. As taller and more complex plants evolved, modifications in the alternation of generations evolved. In the Paleozoic era progymnosperms reproduced by using spores dispersed on the wind. The seed plants including seed ferns, conifers and cordaites, which were all gymnosperms, evolved about 350 million years ago. They had pollen grains that contained the male gametes for protection of the sperm during the process of transfer from the male to female parts. It is believed that insects fed on the pollen, and plants thus evolved to use insects to actively carry pollen from one plant to the next. Seed producing plants, which include the angiosperms and the gymnosperms, have a heteromorphic alternation of generations with large sporophytes containing much-reduced gametophytes. Angiosperms have distinctive reproductive organs called flowers, with carpels, and the female gametophyte is greatly reduced to a female embryo sac, with as few as eight cells. Each pollen grains contains a greatly reduced male gametophyte consisting of three or four cells. The sperm of seed plants are non-motile, except for two older groups of plants, the Cycadophyta and the Ginkgophyta, which have flagella. Flowering plants Flowering plants, the dominant plant group, reproduce both by sexual and asexual means. Their distinguishing feature is that their reproductive organs are contained in flowers. Sexual reproduction in flowering plants involves the production of separate male and female gametophytes that produce gametes. The anther produces pollen grains that contain male gametophytes. The pollen grains attach to the stigma on top of a carpel, in which the female gametophytes (inside ovules) are located. Plants may either self-pollinate or cross-pollinate. The transfer of pollen (the male gametophytes) to the female stigmas occurs is called pollination. After pollination occurs, the pollen grain germinates to form a pollen tube that grows through the carpel's style and transports male nuclei to the ovule to fertilize the egg cell and central cell within the female gametophyte in a process termed double fertilization. The resulting zygote develops into an embryo, while the triploid endosperm (one sperm cell plus a binucleate female cell) and female tissues of the ovule give rise to the surrounding tissues in the developing seed. The fertilized ovules develop into seeds within a fruit formed from the ovary. When the seeds are ripe they may be dispersed together with the fruit or freed from it by various means to germinate and grow into the next generation. Pollination Plants that use insects or other animals to move pollen from one flower to the next have developed greatly modified flower parts to attract pollinators and to facilitate the movement of pollen from one flower to the insect and from the insect to the next flower. Flowers of wind-pollinated plants tend to lack petals and or sepals; typically large amounts of pollen are produced and pollination often occurs early in the growing season before leaves can interfere with the dispersal of the pollen. Many trees and all grasses and sedges are wind-pollinated. Plants have a number of different means to attract pollinators including color, scent, heat, nectar glands, edible pollen and flower shape. Along with modifications involving the above structures two other conditions play a very important role in the sexual reproduction of flowering plants, the first is the timing of flowering and the other is the size or number of flowers produced. Often plant species have a few large, very showy flowers while others produce many small flowers, often flowers are collected together into large inflorescences to maximize their visual effect, becoming more noticeable to passing pollinators. Flowers are attraction strategies and sexual expressions are functional strategies used to produce the next generation of plants, with pollinators and plants having co-evolved, often to some extraordinary degrees, very often rendering mutual benefit. The largest family of flowering plants is the orchids (Orchidaceae), estimated by some specialists to include up to 35,000 species, which often have highly specialized flowers that attract particular insects for pollination. The stamens are modified to produce pollen in clusters called pollinia, which become attached to insects that crawl into the flower. The flower shapes may force insects to pass by the pollen, which is "glued" to the insect. Some orchids are even more highly specialized, with flower shapes that mimic the shape of insects to attract them to attempt to 'mate' with the flowers, a few even have scents that mimic insect pheromones. Another large group of flowering plants is the Asteraceae or sunflower family with close to 22,000 species, which also have highly modified inflorescences composed of many individual flowers called florets. Heads with florets of one sex, when the flowers are pistillate or functionally staminate or made up of all bisexual florets, are called homogamous and can include discoid and liguliflorous type heads. Some radiate heads may be homogamous too. Plants with heads that have florets of two or more sexual forms are called heterogamous and include radiate and disciform head forms. Ferns Ferns typically produce large diploids with stem, roots, and leaves. On fertile leaves sporangia are produced, grouped together in sori and often protected by an indusium. If the spores are deposited onto a suitable moist substrate they germinate to produce short, thin, free-living gametophytes called prothalli that are typically heart-shaped, small and green in color. The gametophytes produce both motile sperm in the antheridia and egg cells in separate archegonia. After rains or when dew deposits a film of water, the motile sperm are splashed away from the antheridia, which are normally produced on the top side of the thallus, and swim in the film of water to the antheridia where they fertilize the egg. To promote out crossing or cross-fertilization the sperm is released before the eggs are receptive of the sperm, making it more likely that the sperm will fertilize the eggs of the different thallus. A zygote is formed after fertilization, which grows into a new sporophytic plant. The condition of having separate sporophyte and gametophyte plants is called alternation of generations. Other plants with similar reproductive strategies include Psilotum, Lycopodium, Selaginella and Equisetum. Bryophytes The bryophytes, which include liverworts, hornworts and mosses, can reproduce both sexually and vegetatively. The life cycles of these plants start with haploid spores that grow into the dominant form, which is a multicellular haploid gametophyte, with thalloid or leaf-like structures that photosynthesize. The gametophyte is the most commonly known phase of the plant. Bryophytes are typically small plants that grow in moist locations and like ferns, have motile sperm which swim to the ovule using flagella and therefore need water to facilitate sexual reproduction. Bryophytes show considerable variation in their reproductive structures, and a basic outline is as follows: Haploid gametes are produced in antheridia and archegonia by mitosis. The sperm released from the antheridia respond to chemicals released by ripe archegonia and swim to them in a film of water and fertilize the egg cells, thus producing zygotes that are diploid. The zygote divides repeatedly by mitotic division and grows into a diploid sporophyte. The resulting multicellular diploid sporophyte produces spore capsules called sporangia. The spores are produced by meiosis, and when ripe, the capsules burst open to release the spores. In some species each gametophyte is one sex while other species may be monoicous, producing both antheridia and archegonia on the same gametophyte which is thus hermaphrodite. Algae Sexual reproduction in the multicellular facultatively sexual green alga Volvox carteri is induced by oxidative stress. A two-fold increase in cellular reactive oxygen species (associated with oxidative stress) activates the V. carteri genes needed for sexual reproduction. Exposure to antioxidants inhibits the induction of sex in V. carteri. It was proposed on the basis of these observations that sexual reproduction emerged in V. carteri evolution as an adaptive response to oxidative stress and the DNA damage induced by reactive oxygen species. Oxidative stress induced DNA damage may be repaired during the meiotic event associated with germination of the zygospore and the start of a new generation. Dispersal and offspring care One of the outcomes of plant reproduction is the generation of seeds, spores, and fruits that allow plants to move to new locations or new habitats. Plants do not have nervous systems or any will for their actions. Even so, scientists are able to observe mechanisms that help their offspring thrive as they grow. All organisms have mechanisms to increase survival in offspring. Offspring care is observed in the Mammillaria hernandezii, a small cactus found in Mexico. A cactus is a type of succulent, meaning it retains water when it is available for future droughts. M. hernandezii also stores a portion of its seeds in its stem, and releases the rest to grow. This can be advantageous for many reasons. By delaying the release of some of its seeds, the cactus can protect these from potential threats from insects, herbivores, or mold caused by micro-organisms. A study found that the presence of adequate water in the environment causes M. Hernandezii to release more seeds to allow for germination. The plant was able to perceive a water potential gradient in the surroundings, and act by giving its seeds a better chance in this preferable environment. This evolutionary strategy gives a better potential outcome for seed germination. External links Simple Video Tutorial on Reproduction in Plant Document 1::: This is a list of simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) methods. The KITTI Vision Benchmark Suite website has a more comprehensive list of Visual SLAM methods. List of methods EKF SLAM FastSLAM 1.0 FastSLAM 2.0 L-SLAM (Matlab code) QSLAM GraphSLAM Occupancy Grid SLAM DP-SLAM Parallel Tracking and Mapping (PTAM) LSD-SLAM (available as open-source) S-PTAM (available as open-source) ORB-SLAM (available as open-source) ORB-SLAM2 (available as open-source) ORB-SLAM3 (available as open-source) OrthoSLAM MonoSLAM GroundSLAM CoSLAM SeqSlam iSAM (Incremental Smoothing and Mapping) CT-SLAM (Continuous Time) - referred to as Zebedee (SLAM) RGB-D SLAM BranoSLAM Kimera (open-source) Wildcat-SLAM References Document 2::: Repeated implantation failure (RIF) is the repeated failure of the embryo to implant onto the side of the uterus wall following IVF treatment. Implantation happens at 6–7 days after conception and involves the embedding of the growing embryo into the mothers uterus and a connection being formed. A successful implantation can be determined by using an ultrasound to view the sac which the baby grows in, inside the uterus. However, the exact definition of RIF is debated. Recently the most commonly accepted definition is when a woman under 40 has gone through three unsuccessful cycles of IVF, when in each cycle four good quality eggs have been transferred. Repeated implantation failure should not be confused with recurrent IVF failure. Recurrent IVF failure is a much more broad term and includes all repeated failures to get pregnant from IVF. Repeated implantation failure specifically refers to those failures due to unsuccessful implanting to the uterus wall. An unsuccessful implantation can result from problems with the mother or with the embryo. It is essential that the mother and embryo are able to communicate with each other during all stages of pregnancy, and an absence of this communication can lead to an unsuccessful implantation and a further unsuccessful pregnancy. Contributing maternal factors During implantation, the embryo must cross the epithelial layer of the maternal endometrium before invading and implanting in the stroma layer. Maternal factors, including congenital uterine abnormalities, fibroids, endometrial polyps, intrauterine adhesions, adenomyosis, thrombophilia and endometriosis, can reduce the chances of implantation and result in RIF. Congenital uterine abnormalities Congenital uterine abnormalities are irregularities in the uterus which occur during the mothers foetal development. Hox genes Two Hox genes have been identified to assist in the development and receptivity of the uterus and endometrium, Hoxa10 and Hoxa11. Hoxa10 has been s Document 3::: The Debus–Radziszewski imidazole synthesis is a multi-component reaction used for the synthesis of imidazoles from a 1,2-dicarbonyl, an aldehyde, and ammonia or a primary amine. The method is used commercially to produce several imidazoles. The process is an example of a multicomponent reaction. The reaction can be viewed as occurring in two stages. In the first stage, the dicarbonyl and two ammonia molecules condense with the two carbonyl groups to give a diimine: In the second stage, this diimine condenses with the aldehyde: However, the actual reaction mechanism is not certain. This reaction is named after Heinrich Debus and . A modification of this general method, where one equivalent of ammonia is replaced by an amine, affords N-substituted imidazoles in good yields. This reaction has been applied to the synthesis of a range of 1,3-dialkylimidazolium ionic liquids by using various readily available alkylamines. References Document 4::: Heteroduplex analysis (HDA) is a method in biochemistry used to detect point mutations in DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) since 1992. Heteroduplexes are dsDNA molecules that have one or more mismatched pairs, on the other hand homoduplexes are dsDNA which are perfectly paired. This method of analysis depend up on the fact that heteroduplexes shows reduced mobility relative to the homoduplex DNA. heteroduplexes are formed between different DNA alleles. In a mixture of wild-type and mutant amplified DNA, heteroduplexes are formed in mutant alleles and homoduplexes are formed in wild-type alleles. There are two types of heteroduplexes based on type and extent of mutation in the DNA. Small deletions or insertion create bulge-type heteroduplexes which is stable and is verified by electron microscope. Single base substitutions creates more unstable heteroduplexes called bubble-type heteroduplexes, because of low stability it is difficult to visualize in electron microscopy. HDA is widely used for rapid screening of mutation of the 3 bp p.F508del deletion in the CFTR gene. The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the main disadvantage of vegetative reproduction in plants? A. It requires two parents for offspring. B. It limits genetic diversity among offspring. C. It is not effective for perennial plants. D. It does not allow for the use of seeds. Answer:	B. It limits genetic diversity among offspring.
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Erich Otto Engel (29 September 1866, in Alt-Malisch Frankfurt – 11 February 1944, in Dachau) was a German entomologist, who specialised in Diptera. He was a graphic artist and administrator of the Diptera collection in Zoologische Staatssammlung München. Selected works Engel, E. O. (1925) Neue paläarktische Asiliden (Dipt.). Konowia. 4, 189-194. Engel, E. O., & Cuthbertson A. (1934) Systematic and biological notes on some Asilidae of Southern Rhodesia with a description of a species new to science. Proceedings of the Rhodesia Scientific Association. 34, Engel, E.O. 1930. Asilidae (Part 24), in E. Lindner (ed.) Die Fliegen der Paläarktischen Region, vol. 4. Schweizerbart'sche, Stuttgart. 491 pp. Engel, E.O. 1938-1954 Empididae. in Lindner, E. (Ed.). Die Fliegen der Paläarktischen Region, vol.4, 28, 1-400. Engel, E. O., & Cuthbertson A. (1939). Systematic and biological notes on some brachycerous Diptera of southern Rhodesia. Journal of the Entomological Society of Southern Africa. 2, 181–185. References Anonym 1936: [Engel, E. O.] Insektenbörse, Stuttgart 53 (37) Horn, W. 1936: [Engel, E. O.] Arb. morph. taxon. Ent. Berlin-Dahlem, Berlin 3 (4) 301* Reiss, F. 1992: Die Sektion Diptera der Zoologischen Staatssammlung München. Spixiana Suppl., München 17 : 72-82, 9 Abb. 72-75, Portrait External links DEI Portrait Document 1::: In mathematics, the Browder–Minty theorem (sometimes called the Minty–Browder theorem) states that a bounded, continuous, coercive and monotone function T from a real, separable reflexive Banach space X into its continuous dual space X∗ is automatically surjective. That is, for each continuous linear functional g ∈ X∗, there exists a solution u ∈ X of the equation T(u) = g. (Note that T itself is not required to be a linear map.) The theorem is named in honor of Felix Browder and George J. Minty, who independently proved it. See also Pseudo-monotone operator; pseudo-monotone operators obey a near-exact analogue of the Browder–Minty theorem. References (Theorem 10.49) Document 2::: Alcohol is generally disallowed in spaceflight, but space agencies have previously allowed its consumption. NASA has been stricter about alcohol consumption than the Roscosmos, both according to regulations and in practice. Astronauts and cosmonauts are restricted from being intoxicated at launch. Despite restrictions on consumption, there have been experiments in making and keeping alcoholic drinks in space. The effects of alcohol on human physiology in microgravity have not been researched, though because medications can differ in their effects NASA expects that the effects of alcohol will also differ. Beer and other carbonated drinks are not suitable for spaceflight as the bubbles cause "wet burps"; also, a foamy head cannot form as the bubbles do not rise. United States On July 20, 1969, Apollo 11 astronaut Buzz Aldrin drank some wine when he took communion while on the Moon in the Lunar Module Eagle. The ceremony was not broadcast following earlier protests against religious activity that opponents believed to breach the separation between church and state. In the 1970s, NASA's Charles Bourland planned to send sherry with the astronauts visiting Skylab, but the idea was scrapped because the smell was found to induce a gag reflex in zero-gravity flight tests, there was ambivalence among the astronauts, and angry letters were received after plans were discussed in public by Gerry Carr. Alcohol is prohibited aboard the International Space Station due to the impact it can have on the Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS). A 1985 NASA report on extended spaceflight predicted that alcohol would be missed, but would only become common in stable settlements. Russia The Russian state media Russia Beyond says drinking has been officially banned, but the first alcoholic drink sent into space by cosmonauts was a bottle of cognac, to the Salyut 7 in 1984. Cosmonaut Igor Volk said they would lose weight and hide alcohol in their spacesuits or hide bott Document 3::: Introduced by Martin Hellman and Susan K. Langford in 1994, the differential-linear attack is a mix of both linear cryptanalysis and differential cryptanalysis. The attack utilises a differential characteristic over part of the cipher with a probability of 1 (for a few rounds—this probability would be much lower for the whole cipher). The rounds immediately following the differential characteristic have a linear approximation defined, and we expect that for each chosen plaintext pair, the probability of the linear approximation holding for one chosen plaintext but not the other will be lower for the correct key. Hellman and Langford have shown that this attack can recover 10 key bits of an 8-round DES with only 512 chosen plaintexts and an 80% chance of success. The attack was generalised by Eli Biham et al. to use differential characteristics with probability less than 1. Besides DES, it has been applied to FEAL, IDEA, Serpent, Camellia, and even the stream cipher Phelix. References Document 4::: Sir Richard Spencer (1593 − 1 November 1661) was an English nobleman, gentleman, knight, and politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1621 to 1629 and in 1661. He supported the Royalist cause in the English Civil War. Early life Spencer was the son of Robert Spencer, 1st Baron Spencer of Wormleighton and his wife Margaret, daughter of Sir Francis Willoughby and Elizabeth Lyttelton. He was baptised on 21 October 1593. He was educated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford in 1609 and was awarded BA in 1612. His brothers were Sir Edward Spencer, Sir John Spencer, and William Spencer, 2nd Baron Spencer of Wormleighton. Parliamentary career In 1621, Spencer was selected Member of Parliament for Northampton. He was a student of Gray's Inn in 1624. In 1624 and 1625 he was re-elected MP for Northampton. He became a gentleman of the bedchamber in 1626. He was re-elected MP for Northampton in 1626 and 1628 and sat until 1629 when King Charles decided to rule without parliament for eleven years. Post-parliament actions He was a J.P. for Kent by 1636. Spencer stood for parliament for Kent for the Long Parliament in November 1640, but withdrew before the election took place. He was imprisoned twice by the Long Parliament for promoting the moderate Kentish petition of 1642. He was a commissioner of array for the King in 1642, stood security for loans amounting to £60,000 and helped to raise two regiments of horse, which he commanded at the Battle of Edgehill. He gave up his command in 1643 and was claimed the benefit of the Oxford Articles. He settled £40 a year on the minister of Orpington and was allowed to compound for a mere £300. However he became involved in the canal schemes of William Sandys and his financial condition became precarious. In 1651 he obtained a pass to France for himself and his family and settled in Brussels. He returned to England in about 1653 and was imprisoned and forced to pay off his debts. At the Restoration, Spencer petitioned unsucce The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is one of the primary advantages of using the Schmidt–Kalman filter over increasing the dimensionality of the state space? A. Improved accuracy in bias estimation B. Reduction in computational complexity C. Enhanced ability to observe residual biases D. Simplicity in linear state transition models Answer:	B. Reduction in computational complexity
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: James Wood (14 December 1760 – 23 April 1839) was a mathematician, and Master of St John's College, Cambridge. In his later years he was Dean of Ely. Life Wood was born in Holcombe, Bury where his father ran an evening school and taught his son the elements of arithmetic and algebra. From Bury Grammar School he proceeded to St John's College, Cambridge in 1778, graduating as senior wrangler in 1782. On graduating he became a fellow of the college and in his long tenure there produced several successful academic textbooks for students of mathematics. Between 1795 and 1799 his The principles of mathematics and natural philosophy, was printed, in four volumes, by J. Burges. Vol.I: 'The elements of algebra', by Wood; Vol.II: 'The principles of fluxions' by Samuel Vince; Vol.III Part I: 'The principles of mechanics" by Wood; and Vol.III Part II: "The principles of hydrostatics" by Samuel Vince; Vol.IV "The principles of astronomy" by Samuel Vince. Three other volumes -"A treatise on plane and spherical trigonometry" and "The elements of the conic sections" by Samuel Vince (1800) and "The elements of optics" by Wood (1801" may have been issued as part of the series. Wood remained for sixty years at St. John's, serving as both President (1802–1815) and Master (1815–1839); on his death in 1839 he was interred in the college chapel and bequeathed his extensive library to the college, comprising almost 4,500 printed books on classics, history, mathematics, theology and travel, dating from the 17th to the 19th centuries. Wood was also ordained as a priest in 1787 and served as Dean of Ely from 1820 until his death. Publications The Elements of Algebra (1795) The Principles of Mechanics (1796) The Elements of Optics (1798) References Notes Other sources W. W. Rouse Ball, A History of the Study of Mathematics at Cambridge University, 1889, repr. Cambridge University Press, 2009, , p. 110 Document 1::: A hawk is a tool used to hold a plaster, mortar, or a similar material, so that the user can repeatedly, quickly and easily get some of that material on the tool which then applies it to a surface. A hawk consists of a board about 13 inches square with a perpendicular handle fixed centrally on the reverse. The user holds the hawk horizontally with the non-dominant hand and applies the material on the hawk with a tool held in the dominant hand. Hawks are most often used by plasterers, along with finishing trowels, to apply a smooth finish of plaster to a wall. Brick pointers use hawks to hold mortar while they work. Hawks are also used to hold joint compound for taping and jointing. The name "hawk" probably derives from the way the object rides on the user's arm, like a bird of prey. References de:Glättkelle Document 2::: The Dublin Institute of Technology (DIT) School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering (SEEE) was the largest and one of the longest established Schools of Electrical and Electronic Engineering in Ireland. It was located at the DIT Kevin Street Campus in Dublin City, as part of the College of Engineering & Built Environment (CEBE). In 2019, DIT along with the Institute of Technology Blanchardstown (ITB) and the Institute of Technology Tallaght (ITT) became the founding institutes of the new Technological University Dublin (TU Dublin). Overview The DIT School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering was the largest education provider of Electrical and Electronic Engineering in Ireland in terms of programme diversity, staff and student numbers, covering a wide range of engineering disciplines including; Communications Engineering, Computer Engineering, Power Engineering, Electrical Services Engineering, Control Engineering, Energy Management and Electronic Engineering. The school included well established research centres in areas such as photonics, energy, antennas, communications and electrical power, with research outputs in; biomedical engineering, audio engineering, sustainable design, assistive technology and health informatics. Educational courses in technical engineering commenced at Kevin St. Dublin 8 in 1887. The school sought accreditation for its programmes from the appropriate Irish and international professional body organisations, such as the Institution of Engineers of Ireland, offering education across the full range of third level National Framework of Qualifications (NFQ) Levels, from Level 6 to Level 10 (apprenticeships to post-doctoral degrees). During the 2010s, the school delivered 23 individual programmes to over 1,200 students and had an output of approximately 350 graduates per year. In 2015, the head of the school was Professor Michael Conlon. In 2015, Electrical & Electronic Engineering was expected to be the first School from the C Document 3::: Sister chromatid cohesion refers to the process by which sister chromatids are paired and held together during certain phases of the cell cycle. Establishment of sister chromatid cohesion is the process by which chromatin-associated cohesin protein becomes competent to physically bind together the sister chromatids. In general, cohesion is established during S phase as DNA is replicated, and is lost when chromosomes segregate during mitosis and meiosis. Some studies have suggested that cohesion aids in aligning the kinetochores during mitosis by forcing the kinetochores to face opposite cell poles. Cohesin loading Cohesin first associates with the chromosomes during G1 phase. The cohesin ring is composed of two SMC (structural maintenance of chromosomes) proteins and two additional Scc proteins. Cohesin may originally interact with chromosomes via the ATPase domains of the SMC proteins. In yeast, the loading of cohesin on the chromosomes depends on proteins Scc2 and Scc4. Cohesin interacts with the chromatin at specific loci. High levels of cohesin binding are observed at the centromere. Cohesin is also loaded at cohesin attachment regions (CARs) along the length of the chromosomes. CARs are approximately 500-800 base pair regions spaced at approximately 9 kilobase intervals along the chromosomes. In yeast, CARs tend to be rich in adenine-thymine base pairs. CARs are independent of origins of replication. Establishment of cohesion Establishment of cohesion refers to the process by which chromatin-associated cohesin becomes cohesion-competent. Chromatin association of cohesin is not sufficient for cohesion. Cohesin must undergo subsequent modification ("establishment") to be capable of physically holding the sister chromosomes together. Though cohesin can associate with chromatin earlier in the cell cycle, cohesion is established during S phase. Early data suggesting that S phase is crucial to cohesion was based on the fact that after S phase, sister chromatids are always found in the bound state. Tying establishment to DNA replication allows the cell to institute cohesion as soon as the sister chromatids are formed. This solves the problem of how the cell might properly identify and pair sister chromatids by ensuring that the sister chromatids are never separate once replication has occurred. The Eco1/Ctf7 gene (yeast) was one of the first genes to be identified as specifically required for the establishment of cohesion. Eco1 must be present in S phase to establish cohesion, but its continued presence is not required to maintain cohesion. Eco1 interacts with many proteins directly involved in DNA replication, including the processivity clamp PCNA, clamp loader subunits, and a DNA helicase. Though Eco1 contains several functional domains, it is the acetyltransferase activity of the protein which is crucial for establishment of cohesion. During S phase, Eco1 acetylates lysine residues in the Smc3 subunit of cohesin. Smc3 remains acetylated until at least anaphase. Once cohesin has been removed from the chromatin, Smc3 is deacetylated by Hos1. The Pds5 gene was also identified in yeast as necessary for the establishment of cohesion. In humans, the gene has two homologs, Pds5A and Pds5B. Pds5 interacts with chromatin-associated cohesin. Pds5 is not strictly establishment-specific, as Pds5 is necessary for maintenance of cohesion during G2 and M phase. The loss of Pds5 negates the requirement for Eco1. As such, Pds5 is often termed an "anti-establishment" factor. In addition to interacting with cohesin, Pds5 also interacts with Wapl (wings apart-like), another protein that has been implicated in the regulation of sister chromatid cohesion. Human Wapl binds cohesin through the Scc cohesin subunits (in humans, Scc1 and SA1). Wapl has been tied to the loss of cohesin from the chromatids during M phase. Wapl interacts with Pds5 through phenylalanine-glycine-phenylalanine (FGF) sequence motifs. One model of establishment of cohesion suggests that establishment is mediated by the replacement of Wapl in the Wapl-Pds5-cohesin complex with the Sororin protein. Like Wapl, Sororin contains an FGF domain and is capable of interacting with Pds5. In this model, put forward by Nishiyama et al., Wapl interacts with Pds5 and cohesin during G1, before establishment. During S phase, Eco1 (Esco1/Esco2 in humans) acetylates Smc3. This results in recruitment of Sororin. Sororin then replaces Wapl in the Pds5-cohesin complex. This new complex is the established, cohesion-competent cohesin state. At entry to mitosis, Sororin is phosphorylated and replaced again by Wapl, leading to loss of cohesion. Sororin also has chromatin binding activity independent of its ability to mediate cohesion. Meiosis Cohesion proteins SMC1ß, SMC3, REC8 and STAG3 appear to participate in the cohesion of sister chromatids throughout the meiotic process in human oocytes. SMC1ß, REC8 and STAG3 are meiosis specific cohesin proteins. The STAG3 protein is essential for female meiosis and fertility. Cohesins are involved in meiotic recombination. Ties to DNA replication A growing body of evidence ties establishment of cohesion to DNA replication. As mentioned above, functional coupling of these two processes prevents the cell from having to later distinguish which chromosomes are sisters by ensuring that the sister chromatids are never separate after replication. Another significant tie between DNA replication and cohesion pathways is through Replication Factor C (RFC). This complex, the "clamp loader," is responsible for loading PCNA onto DNA. An alternative form of RFC is required for sister chromatin cohesion. This alternative form is composed of core RFC proteins RFC2, RFC3, RFC4, and RFC5, but replaces the RFC1 protein with cohesion specific proteins Ctf8, Ctf18, and Dcc1. A similar function-specific alternative RFC (replacing RFC1 with Rad24) plays a role in the DNA damage checkpoint. The presence of an alternative RFC in the cohesion pathway can be interpreted as evidence in support of the polymerase switch model for cohesion establishment. Like the non-cohesion RFC, the cohesion RFC loads PCNA onto DNA. Some of the evidence tying cohesion and DNA replication comes from the multiple interactions of Eco1. Eco1 interacts with PCNA, RFC subunits, and a DNA helicase, Chl1, either physically or genetically. Studies have also found replication-linked proteins which influence cohesion independent of Eco1. The Ctf18 subunit of the cohesion-specific RFC can interact with cohesin subunits Smc1 and Scc1. Polymerase switch model Though the protein was originally identified as a Topoisomerase I redundant factor, the TRF4 gene product was later shown to be required for sister chromatid cohesion. Wang et al. showed that Trf4 is actually a DNA polymerase, which they called Polymerase κ. This polymerase is also referred to as Polymerase σ. In the same paper in which they identified Pol σ, Wang et al. suggested a polymerase switch model for establishment of cohesion. In this model, upon reaching a CAR, the cell switches DNA polymerases in a mechanism similar to that used in Okazaki fragment synthesis. The cell off-loads the processive replication polymerase and instead uses Pol σ for synthesis of the CAR region. It has been suggested that the cohesion-specific RFC could function in off-loading or on-loading PNCA and polymerases in such a switch. Ties to DNA damage pathways Changes in patterns of sister chromatid cohesion have been observed in cases of DNA damage. Cohesin is required for repair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs). One mechanism of DSB repair, homologous recombination (HR), requires the presence of the sister chromatid for repair at the break site. Thus, it is possible that cohesion is required for this process because it ensures that the sister chromatids are physically close enough to undergo HR. DNA damage can lead to cohesin loading at non-CAR sites and establishment of cohesion at these sites even during G2 phase. In the presence of ionizing radiation (IR), the Smc1 subunit of cohesin is phosphorylated by the ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) kinase. ATM is a key kinase in the DNA damage checkpoint. Defects in cohesion can increase genome instability, a result consistent with the ties between cohesion and DNA damage pathways. In the bacterium Escherichia coli, repair of mitomycin C-induced DNA damages occurs by a sister chromatid cohesion process involving the RecN protein. Sister chromatid interaction followed by homologous recombination appears to significantly contribute to the repair of DNA double-strand damages. Medical relevance Defects in the establishment of sister chromatid cohesion have serious consequences for the cell and are therefore tied to many human diseases. Failure to establish cohesion correctly or inappropriate loss of cohesion can lead to missegregation of chromosomes during mitosis, which results in aneuploidy. The loss of the human homologs of core cohesin proteins or of Eco1, Pds5, Wapl, Sororin, or Scc2 has been tied to cancer. Mutations affecting cohesion and establishment of cohesion are also responsible for Cornelia de Lange Syndrome and Roberts Syndrome. Diseases arising from defects in cohesin or other proteins involved in sister chromatid cohesion are referred to as cohesinopathies. Cornelia de Lange Syndrome Genetic alterations in genes NIPBL, SMC1A, SMC3, RAD21 and HDAC8 are associated with Cornelia de Lange Syndrome. The proteins encoded by these genes all function in the chromosome cohesion pathway that is employed in the cohesion of sister chromatids during mitosis, DNA repair, chromosome segregation and the regulation of developmental gene expression. Defects in these functions likely underlie many of the features of Cornelia de Lang Syndrome. Document 4::: David Negrete Fernández () was a Mexican colonel who participated in the Mexican Revolution. He was also a musician. Biography David fought alongside military officer Felipe Ángeles as a part of División del Norte. He married Emilia Moreno Anaya, who bore him: Consuelo Negrete Moreno Jorge Alberto Negrete Moreno Emilia Negrete Moreno Teresa Negrete Moreno David Negrete Moreno Rubén Negrete Moreno David was a math teacher in Mexico City. He was also a father-in-law of Elisa Christy and María Félix. References The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the role of the Eco1/Ctf7 gene in the establishment of sister chromatid cohesion during the cell cycle? A. It is required for maintaining cohesion after S phase. B. It is necessary for the initial loading of cohesin on chromosomes. C. It acetylates lysine residues in the Smc3 subunit of cohesin during S phase. D. It interacts with chromatin-associated cohesin only in G1 phase. Answer:	C. It acetylates lysine residues in the Smc3 subunit of cohesin during S phase.
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Homothallic refers to the possession, within a single organism, of the resources to reproduce sexually; i.e., having male and female reproductive structures on the same thallus. The opposite sexual functions are performed by different cells of a single mycelium. It can be contrasted to heterothallic. It is often used to categorize fungi. In yeast, heterothallic cells have mating types a and α. An experienced mother cell (one that has divided at least once) will switch mating type every cell division cycle because of the HO allele. Sexual reproduction commonly occurs in two fundamentally different ways in fungi. These are outcrossing (in heterothallic fungi) in which two different individuals contribute nuclei to form a zygote, and self-fertilization or selfing (in homothallic fungi) in which both nuclei are derived from the same individual. Homothallism in fungi can be defined as the capability of an individual spore to produce a sexually reproducing colony when propagated in isolation. Homothallism occurs in fungi by a wide variety of genetically distinct mechanisms that all result in sexually reproducing cultures from a single cell. Among the 250 known species of aspergilli, about 36% have an identified sexual state. Among those Aspergillus species for which a sexual cycle has been observed, the majority in nature are homothallic (self-fertilizing). Selfing in the homothallic fungus Aspergillus nidulans involves activation of the same mating pathways characteristic of sex in outcrossing species, i.e. self-fertilization does not bypass required pathways for outcrossing sex but instead requires activation of these pathways within a single individual. Fusion of haploid nuclei occurs within reproductive structures termed cleistothecia, in which the diploid zygote undergoes meiotic divisions to yield haploid ascospores. Several ascomycete fungal species of the genus Cochliobolus (C. luttrellii, C. cymbopogonis, C. kusanoi and C. homomorphus) are homothalli Document 1::: In cosmology, a static universe (also referred to as stationary, infinite, static infinite or static eternal) is a cosmological model in which the universe is both spatially and temporally infinite, and space is neither expanding nor contracting. Such a universe does not have so-called spatial curvature; that is to say that it is 'flat' or Euclidean. A static infinite universe was first proposed by English astronomer Thomas Digges (1546–1595). In contrast to this model, Albert Einstein proposed a temporally infinite but spatially finite model - static eternal universe - as his preferred cosmology during 1917, in his paper Cosmological Considerations in the General Theory of Relativity. After the discovery of the redshift-distance relationship (deduced by the inverse correlation of galactic brightness to redshift) by American astronomers Vesto Slipher and Edwin Hubble, the Belgian astrophysicist and priest Georges Lemaître interpreted the redshift as evidence of universal expansion and thus a Big Bang, whereas Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky proposed that the redshift was caused by the photons losing energy as they passed through the matter and/or forces in intergalactic space. Zwicky's proposal would come to be termed 'tired light'—a term invented by the major Big Bang proponent Richard Tolman. The Einstein universe During 1917, Albert Einstein added a positive cosmological constant to his equations of general relativity to counteract the attractive effects of gravity on ordinary matter, which would otherwise cause a static, spatially finite universe to either collapse or expand forever. This model of the universe became known as the Einstein World or Einstein's static universe. This motivation ended after the proposal by the astrophysicist and Roman Catholic priest Georges Lemaître that the universe seems to be not static, but expanding. Edwin Hubble had researched data from the observations made by astronomer Vesto Slipher to confirm a relationship between reds Document 2::: gaaa The Britten–Davidson model, also known as the gene-battery model, is a hypothesis for the regulation of protein synthesis in eukaryotes. Proposed by Roy John Britten and Eric H. Davidson in 1969, the model postulates four classes of DNA sequence: an integrator gene, a producer gene, a receptor site, and a sensor site. The sensor site regulates the integrator gene, responsible for synthesis of activator RNA. The integrator gene cannot synthesize activator RNA unless the sensor site is activated. Activation and deactivation of the sensor site is done by external stimuli, such as hormones. The activator RNA then binds with a nearby receptor site, which stimulates the synthesis of mRNA at the structural gene. This theory would explain how several different integrators could be concurrently synthesized, and would explain the pattern of repetitive DNA sequences followed by a unique DNA sequence that exists in genes. See also Transcriptional regulation Operon References Document 3::: The Internetowy System Aktów Prawnych ( in Polish), shortly ISAP, is a database with information about the legislation in force in Poland, which is part of the oldest and one of the most famous Polish legal information systems, and is publicly available on the website of the Sejm of the Republic of Poland. References Document 4::: Antifragility is a property of systems in which they increase in capability to thrive as a result of stressors, shocks, volatility, noise, mistakes, faults, attacks, or failures. The concept was developed by Nassim Nicholas Taleb in his book, Antifragile, and in technical papers. As Taleb explains in his book, antifragility is fundamentally different from the concepts of resiliency (i.e. the ability to recover from failure) and robustness (that is, the ability to resist failure). The concept has been applied in risk analysis, physics, molecular biology, transportation planning, engineering, aerospace (NASA), and computer science. Taleb defines it as follows in a letter to Nature responding to an earlier review of his book in that journal: Antifragile versus robust/resilient In his book, Taleb stresses the differences between antifragile and robust/resilient. "Antifragility is beyond resilience or robustness. The resilient resists shocks and stays the same; the antifragile gets better." The concept has now been applied to ecosystems in a rigorous way. In their work, the authors review the concept of ecosystem resilience in its relation to ecosystem integrity from an information theory approach. This work reformulates and builds upon the concept of resilience in a way that is mathematically conveyed and can be heuristically evaluated in real-world applications: for example, ecosystem antifragility. The authors also propose that for socio-ecosystem governance, planning or in general, any decision making perspective, antifragility might be a valuable and more desirable goal to achieve than a resilience aspiration. In the same way, Pineda and co-workers have proposed a simply calculable measure of antifragility, based on the change of “satisfaction” (i.e., network complexity) before and after adding perturbations, and apply it to random Boolean networks (RBNs). They also show that several well known biological networks such as Arabidopsis thaliana cell-cycle are as ex The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What role does the Foundation for Biomedical Research (FBR) play in relation to animal research? A. It advocates against the use of animals in research. B. It informs various groups about the necessity of animal research in medicine. C. It solely focuses on legislative activism related to animal rights. D. It provides funding exclusively for research on nonhuman primates. Answer:	B. It informs various groups about the necessity of animal research in medicine.
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: The 12-bit ND812, produced by Nuclear Data, Inc., was a commercial minicomputer developed for the scientific computing market. Nuclear Data introduced it in 1970 at a price under $10,000 (). Description The architecture has a simple programmed I/O bus, plus a DMA channel. The programmed I/O bus typically runs low to medium-speed peripherals, such as printers, teletypes, paper tape punches and readers, while DMA is used for cathode ray tube screens with a light pen, analog-to-digital converters, digital-to-analog converters, tape drives, disk drives. The word size, 12 bits, is large enough to handle unsigned integers from 0 to 4095 – wide enough for controlling simple machinery. This is also enough to handle signed numbers from -2048 to +2047. This is higher precision than a slide rule or most analog computers. Twelve bits could also store two six-bit characters (note, six-bit isn't enough for two cases, unlike "fuller" ASCII character set). "ND Code" was one such 6-bit character encoding that included upper-case alphabetic, digit, a subset of punctuation and a few control characters. The ND812's basic configuration has a main memory of 4,096 twelve-bit words with a 2 microsecond cycle time. Memory is expandable to 16K words in 4K word increments. Bits within the word are numbered from most significant bit (bit 11) to least significant bit (bit 0). The programming model consists of four accumulator registers: two main accumulators, J and K, and two sub accumulators, R and S. A rich set of arithmetic and logical operations are provided for the main accumulators and instructions are provided to exchange data between the main and sub accumulators. Conditional execution is provided through "skip" instructions. A condition is tested and the subsequent instruction is either executed or skipped depending on the result of the test. The subsequent instruction is usually a jump instruction when more than one instruction is needed for the case where the test fails. Document 1::: The Fischer oxazole synthesis is a chemical synthesis of an oxazole from a cyanohydrin and an aldehyde in the presence of anhydrous hydrochloric acid. This method was discovered by Emil Fischer in 1896. The cyanohydrin itself is derived from a separate aldehyde. The reactants of the oxazole synthesis itself, the cyanohydrin of an aldehyde and the other aldehyde itself, are usually present in equimolar amounts. Both reactants usually have an aromatic group, which appear at specific positions on the resulting heterocycle. A more specific example of Fischer oxazole synthesis involves reacting mandelic acid nitrile with benzaldehyde to give 2,5-diphenyl-oxazole. History Fischer developed the Fischer oxazole synthesis during his time at Berlin University. The Fischer oxazole synthesis was one of the first syntheses developed to produce 2,5-disubstituted oxazoles. Mechanism The Fischer oxazole synthesis is a type of dehydration reaction which can occur under mild conditions in a rearrangement of the groups that would not seem possible. The reaction occurs by dissolving the reactants in dry ether and passing through the solution dry, gaseous hydrogen chloride. The product, which is the 2,5-disubstituted oxazole, precipitates as the hydrochloride and can be converted to the free base by the addition of water or by boiling with alcohol. The cyanohydrins and aldehydes used for the synthesis are usually aromatic, however there have been instances where aliphatic compounds have been used. The first step of the mechanism is the addition of gaseous HCl to the cyanohydrin 1. The cyanohydrin abstracts the hydrogen from HCl while the chloride ion attacks the carbon in the cyano group. This first step results in the formation of an iminochloride intermediate 2, probably as the hydrochloride salt. This intermediate then reacts with the aldehyde; the lone pair of the nitrogen attacks the electrophilic carbonyl carbon on the aldehyde. The following step results in an SN2 attack fo Document 2::: Base Number (BN) is a measurement of basicity that is expressed in terms of the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide per gram of oil sample (mg KOH/g). BN is an important measurement in petroleum products, and the value varies depending on its application. BN generally ranges from 6–8 mg KOH/g in modern lubricants, 7–10 mg KOH/g for general internal combustion engine use and 10–15 mg KOH/g for diesel engine operations. BN is typically higher for marine grade lubricants, approximately 15-80 mg KOH/g, as the higher BN values are designed to increase the operating period under harsh operating conditions, before the lubricant requires replacement. Oil Additives An oil formulation consists of the base or stock oil and oil additives. Most oil formulations contain basic additives and detergents, designed to react with and neutralise acids, preventing damage to engine parts, including corrosion of metal surfaces. Potentiometric determination Although IP Standard test methods exist, the more common methods for BN are ASTM standardised, such as the potentiometric titration for fresh oils (Test method BN ASTM D2896). A sample is typically dissolved in a pre-mixed solvent of chlorobenzene and acetic acid and titrated with standardised perchloric acid in glacial acetic acid for fresh oil samples. The end point is detected using a glass electrode which is immersed in an aqueous solution containing the sample, and connected to a voltmeter/potentiometer. This causes an ion exchange in the outer solvated layer at the glass membrane, so a change in potential is generated which can be measured by the electrode. When the end point of the chemical reaction is reached, which is shown by an inflection point on the titration curve using a specified detection system, the amount of titrant required is used to generate a result which is reported in milligrams of potassium hydroxide equivalent per gram of sample (mg of KOH/g). Potentiometric titration for used oils (Test method BN A Document 3::: The Health Products and Food Branch (HPFB) of Health Canada manages the health-related risks and benefits of health products and food by minimizing risk factors while maximizing the safety provided by the regulatory system and providing information to Canadians so they can make healthy, informed decisions about their health. HPFB has ten operational Directorates with direct regulatory responsibilities: Biologics and Genetic Therapies Directorate Food Directorate Marketed Health Products Directorate (with responsibility for post-market surveillance) Medical Devices Directorate Natural Health Products Directorate Office of Nutrition Policy and Promotion Pharmaceutical Drugs Directorate Policy, Planning and International Affairs Directorate Resource Management and Operations Directorate Veterinary Drugs Directorate Extraordinary Use New Drugs Extraordinary Use New Drugs (EUNDs) is a regulatory programme under which, in times of emergency, drugs can be granted regulatory approval under the Food and Drug Act and its regulations. An EUND approved through this pathway can only be sold to federal, provincial, territorial and municipal governments. The text of the EUNDs regulations is available. On 25 March 2011 and after the pH1N1 pandemic, amendments were made to the Food and Drug Regulations (FDR) to include a specific regulatory pathway for EUNDs. Typically, clinical trials in human subjects are conducted and the results are provided as part of the clinical information package of a New Drug Submission (NDS) to Health Canada, the federal authority that reviews the safety and efficacy of human drugs. Health Canada recognizes that there are circumstances in which sponsors cannot reasonably provide substantial evidence demonstrating the safety and efficacy of a therapeutic product for NDS as there are logistical or ethical challenges in conducting the appropriate human clinical trials. The EUND pathway was developed to allow a mechanism for authorization of th Document 4::: The Rogue River–Siskiyou National Forest is a United States National Forest in the U.S. states of Oregon and California. The formerly separate Rogue River and Siskiyou National Forests were administratively combined in 2004. Now, the Rogue River–Siskiyou National Forest ranges from the crest of the Cascade Range west into the Siskiyou Mountains, covering almost . Forest headquarters are located in Medford, Oregon. Geography The former Rogue River portion of the Rogue River–Siskiyou National Forest is located in parts of five counties in southern Oregon and northern California. In descending order of land area they are Jackson, Klamath, Douglas, Siskiyou, and Josephine counties, with Siskiyou County being the only one in California. It has a land area of . There are local ranger district offices located in Ashland, Butte Falls, Grants Pass, Jacksonville, and Prospect. The former Siskiyou portion of the Rogue River–Siskiyou National Forest is located in parts of four counties in southwestern Oregon and northwestern California. In descending order of land area they are Curry, Josephine, and Coos counties in Oregon and Del Norte County in California. It has a land area of . There are local ranger district offices located in Cave Junction, Gold Beach, and Powers. Nearly all of the national forest is mountainous and includes parts of the Southern Oregon Coast Range, the Klamath Mountains, and the Cascade Range. The largest river in the national forest is the Rogue River, which originates in the Cascade Range and flows through the Klamath Mountains and Coast Range. The Illinois River is a major tributary of the Rogue in the Klamath Mountains, while the Sixes, Elk, Pistol, Chetco, and Winchuck rivers drain the Coast Range directly to the Pacific Ocean. Climate History The Siskiyou National Forest was established on October 5, 1906. On July 1, 1908, it absorbed Coquille National Forest and other lands. Rogue River National Forest traces its establishment back to the creation of the Ashland Forest Reserve on September 28, 1893, by the United States General Land Office. The lands were transferred to the Forest Service in 1906, and it became a National Forest on March 4, 1907. On July 1, 1908, Ashland was combined with other lands from Cascade, Klamath and Siskiyou National Forests to establish Crater National Forest. On July 18, 1915, part of Paulina National Forest was added, and on July 9, 1932, the name was changed to Rogue River. World War II bombing On September 9, 1942, an airplane dropped bombs on Mount Emily in the Siskiyou National Forest, turned around, and flew back over the Pacific Ocean. The bombs exploded and started a fire, which was put out by several forest service employees. Bomb fragments were said to have Japanese markings. Stewart Holbrook vividly described this event in his essay "First Bomb". It was later confirmed that the plane was indeed Japanese, and the incident became known as the Lookout Air Raids. It was the second bombing of the continental United States by an enemy aircraft, three months after the air attack by Japan on Dutch Harbor three months earlier on June 3–4. Natural features The national forest is home to some stands of old growth, including Port Orford cedar and Douglas fir in the Copper Salmon area. A 1993 Forest Service study estimated that the extent of old growth in the forest was some of which occurs in the Red Buttes Wilderness. Blue oak, Quercus douglasii, and Canyon live oak, Quercus chrysolepis occur in the Siskiyou National Forest. For the California endemic Blue Oak, the disjunctive stands are occurring near the northern limit of its range, which occur no farther north than Del Norte County. The world's tallest pine tree is a ponderosa and is located in the national forest. In 2002, the massive Biscuit Fire burned nearly , including much of the Kalmiopsis Wilderness. Protected areas The Rogue River–Siskiyou National Forest contains all or part of eight separate wilderness areas, which together add up to : Copper Salmon Wilderness - Grassy Knob Wilderness - Kalmiopsis Wilderness - Red Buttes Wilderness - Rogue–Umpqua Divide Wilderness - Siskiyou Wilderness - Sky Lakes Wilderness - Wild Rogue Wilderness - The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What significant event occurred on September 9, 1942, in the Siskiyou National Forest? A. The establishment of the forest B. A bombing incident by a Japanese airplane C. The first recorded fire in the forest D. The combination of Rogue River and Siskiyou National Forests Answer:	B. A bombing incident by a Japanese airplane
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: A spring house, or springhouse, is a small building, usually of a single room, constructed over a spring. While the original purpose of a springhouse was to keep the spring water clean by excluding fallen leaves, animals, etc., the enclosing structure was also used for refrigeration before the advent of ice delivery and, later, electric refrigeration. The water of the spring maintains a constant cool temperature inside the spring house throughout the year. Food that would otherwise spoil, such as meat, fruit, or dairy products, could be kept there, safe from animal depredations as well. Springhouses thus often also served as pumphouses, milkhouses and root cellars. The Tomahawk Spring spring house at Tomahawk, West Virginia, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1994. Gallery See also Ice house (building) Smokehouse Windcatcher External links Document 1::: Biodermogenesi is a procedure adopted in dermatology to promote skin regeneration. The system makes it possible to reorganize the skin layers and stimulate the regeneration of collagen, elastic fibers and basal cells through the reactivation of intra- and extracellular exchange. The therapy is based on the combined delivery of electromagnetic fields, vacuum and electrostimulation (V-EMF therapy). The literature shows that it is generally pleasant and relaxing for patients and has been found to be effective in the anti-aging therapy, of stretch marks and scars, always in the absence of side effects. See Also V-EMF therapy Document 2::: Mycroft was a free and open-source software virtual assistant that uses a natural language user interface. Its code was formerly copyleft, but is now under a permissive license. It was named after a fictional computer from the 1966 science fiction novel The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress. Unusually for a voice-controlled assistant, Mycroft did all of its processing locally, not on a cloud server belonging to the vendor. It could access online resources, but it could also function without an internet connection. In early 2023, Mycroft AI ceased development. A community-driven platform continues with OpenVoiceOS. History Inspiration for Mycroft came when Ryan Sipes and Joshua Montgomery were visiting a makerspace in Kansas City, MO, where they came across a simple and basic intelligent virtual assistant project. They were interested in the technology, but did not like its inflexibility. Montgomery believes that the burgeoning industry of intelligent personal assistance poses privacy concerns for users, and has promised that Mycroft will protect privacy through its open source machine learning platform. Mycroft AI, Inc., has won several awards, including the prestigious Techweek's KC Launch competition in 2016. They were part of the Sprint Accelerator 2016 class in Kansas City and joined 500 Startups Batch 20 in February 2017. The company accepted a strategic investment from Jaguar Land Rover during this same time period. The company had raised more than $2.5 million from institutional investors before they opted to offer shares of the company to the public through StartEngine, an equity crowdfunding platform. In early 2023, Mycroft AI ceased development. Software Mycroft voice stack Mycroft provides free software for most parts of the voice stack. Wake Word Mycroft does Wake Word spotting, also called keyword spotting, through its Precise Wake Word engine. Prior to Precise becoming the default Wake Word engine, Mycroft employed PocketSphinx. Instead of being ba Document 3::: A memory protection unit (MPU) is a computer hardware unit that provides memory protection. It is usually implemented as part of the central processing unit (CPU). MPU is a trimmed down version of memory management unit (MMU) providing only memory protection support. It is usually implemented in low power processors that require only memory protection and do not need the full-fledged feature of a MMU like virtual memory management. Overview The MPU allows the privileged software to define memory regions and assign memory access permission and memory attributes to each of them. Depending on the implementation of the processor, the number of supported memory regions will vary. The MPU on ARMv8-M processors supports up to 16 regions. The memory attributes define the ordering and merging behaviors of these regions, as well as caching and buffering attributes. Cache attributes can be used by internal caches, if available, and can be exported for use by system caches. MPU monitors transactions, including instruction fetches and data accesses from the processor, which can trigger a fault exception when an access violation is detected. The main purpose of memory protection is to prevent a process from accessing memory that has not been allocated to it. This prevents a bug or malware within a process from affecting other processes, or the operating system itself. References Document 4::: The Minkowski content (named after Hermann Minkowski), or the boundary measure, of a set is a basic concept that uses concepts from geometry and measure theory to generalize the notions of length of a smooth curve in the plane, and area of a smooth surface in space, to arbitrary measurable sets. It is typically applied to fractal boundaries of domains in the Euclidean space, but it can also be used in the context of general metric measure spaces. It is related to, although different from, the Hausdorff measure. Definition For , and each integer m with , the m-dimensional upper Minkowski content is and the m-dimensional lower Minkowski content is defined as where is the volume of the (n−m)-ball of radius r and is an -dimensional Lebesgue measure. If the upper and lower m-dimensional Minkowski content of A are equal, then their common value is called the Minkowski content Mm(A). Properties The Minkowski content is (generally) not a measure. In particular, the m-dimensional Minkowski content in Rn is not a measure unless m = 0, in which case it is the counting measure. Indeed, clearly the Minkowski content assigns the same value to the set A as well as its closure. If A is a closed m-rectifiable set in Rn, given as the image of a bounded set from Rm under a Lipschitz function, then the m-dimensional Minkowski content of A exists, and is equal to the m-dimensional Hausdorff measure of A. Footnotes The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the primary purpose of a memory protection unit (MPU) in computer systems? A. To manage virtual memory for applications B. To provide memory protection and prevent unauthorized access C. To enhance the speed of data processing D. To control power consumption in processors Answer:	B. To provide memory protection and prevent unauthorized access
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Difelikefalin, sold under the brand name Korsuva, is an opioid peptide used for the treatment of moderate to severe itch. It acts as a peripherally-restricted, highly selective agonist of the κ-opioid receptor (KOR). Difelikefalin acts as an analgesic by activating KORs on peripheral nerve terminals and KORs expressed by certain immune system cells. Activation of KORs on peripheral nerve terminals results in the inhibition of ion channels responsible for afferent nerve activity, causing reduced transmission of pain signals, while activation of KORs expressed by immune system cells results in reduced release of proinflammatory, nerve-sensitizing mediators (e.g., prostaglandins). Difelikefalin was approved for medical use in the United States in August 2021. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration considers it to be a first-in-class medication. Society and culture Legal status On 24 February 2022, the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) of the European Medicines Agency adopted a positive opinion, recommending the granting of a marketing authorization for the medicinal product Kapruvia, intended for treatment of moderate-to-severe pruritus associated with chronic kidney disease. The applicant for this medicinal product is Vifor Fresenius Medical Care Renal Pharma France. Difelikefalin was approved for medical use in the European Union in April 2022. Research It is under development by Cara Therapeutics as an intravenous agent for the treatment of postoperative pain. An oral formulation has also been developed. Due to its peripheral selectivity, difelikefalin lacks the central side effects like sedation, dysphoria, and hallucinations of previous KOR-acting analgesics such as pentazocine and phenazocine. In addition to use as an analgesic, difelikefalin is also being investigated for the treatment of pruritus (itching). Difelikefalin has completed phase II clinical trials for postoperative pain and has demonstrated significant and "robust" clinical Document 1::: The World Vegetable Center (WorldVeg) (), previously known as the Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center (AVRDC), is an international, nonprofit institute for vegetable research and development. It was founded in 1971 in Shanhua, southern Taiwan, by the Asian Development Bank, Taiwan, South Korea, Japan, the Philippines, Thailand, the United States and South Vietnam. WorldVeg aims to reduce malnutrition and alleviate poverty in developing nations through improving production and consumption of vegetables. History The World Vegetable Center was founded as the Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center (AVRDC) in 1971 by the Asian Development Bank, Taiwan, South Korea, Japan, the Philippines, Thailand, the United States and South Vietnam. The main campus was opened in 1973. In 2008 the center was rebranded as the World Vegetable Center. For the first 20 years of its existence the World Vegetable Center was a major global sweet potato research center with over 1,600 accessions in their first two years of operation. In 1991 the World Vegetable Center chose to end its sweet potato research due to high costs and other institutions with a tighter focus coming into existence. The WVC duplicated and transferred its research and germplasm to the International Potato Center and Taiwan Agricultural Research institute. Research and development The use of vegetables as crops that are of high worth is important in the Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations Development Program and the World Vegetable Center. The vegetables bred by the Center can be used in poorer areas, where they can serve as an important source of income and can help fight micronutrient deficiencies. The Center's current crop portfolio focuses on several groups of globally important vegetables, according to the WorldVeg: solanaceous crops: (tomato, sweet pepper, chili pepper, eggplant) bulb alliums (onion, shallot, garlic) cucurbits (Cucurbitaceae): (cucumbers, pumpkins) Indigeno Document 2::: In memory addressing for Intel x86 computer architectures, segment descriptors are a part of the segmentation unit, used for translating a logical address to a linear address. Segment descriptors describe the memory segment referred to in the logical address. The segment descriptor (8 bytes long in 80286 and later) contains the following fields: A segment base address The segment limit which specifies the segment size Access rights byte containing the protection mechanism information Control bits Structure The x86 and x86-64 segment descriptor has the following form: What the fields stand for: Base Address Starting memory address of the segment. Its length is 32 bits and it is created from the lower part bits 16 to 31, and the upper part bits 0 to 7, followed by bits 24 to 31. Segment Limit Its length is 20 bits and is created from the lower part bits 0 to 15 and the upper part bits 16 to 19. It defines the address of the last accessible data. The length is one more than the value stored here. How exactly this should be interpreted depends on the Granularity bit of the segment descriptor. G=Granularity If clear, the limit is in units of bytes, with a maximum of 220 bytes. If set, the limit is in units of 4096-byte pages, for a maximum of 232 bytes. D/B D = Default operand size : If clear, this is a 16-bit code segment; if set, this is a 32-bit segment. B = Big: If set, the maximum offset size for a data segment is increased to 32-bit 0xffffffff. Otherwise it's the 16-bit max 0x0000ffff. Essentially the same meaning as "D". L=Long If set, this is a 64-bit segment (and D must be zero), and code in this segment uses the 64-bit instruction encoding. "L" cannot be set at the same time as "D" aka "B". (Bit 21 in the image) AVL=Available For software use, not used by hardware (Bit 20 in the image with the label A) P=Present If clear, a "segment not present" exception is generated on any reference to this segment DPL=Descriptor privilege lev Document 3::: Botanical gardens in Bulgaria sometimes have collections consisting entirely of native and endemic species; most have a collection that include plants from around the world. There are botanical gardens and arboreta in all states and territories of Bulgaria, most are administered by local governments, some are privately owned. – Balchik – Varna Sofia University Botanical garden, Sofia – Sofia – Sofia University of Forestry Botanical garden – Sofia Document 4::: Bridgwater tidal barrier will be a flood control gate located on the River Parrett in Bridgwater, Somerset, England. The River Parrett is tidal for some upstream of Bridgwater, and the combination of flooding on the Somerset Levels and high tides reaching up the Bristol Channel, have a detrimental effect on the whole area. In 2022, a tidal flood gate was approved to be installed at a cost of £249 million, which is expected to be operational by 2027. History Historically, flooding on the River Parrett has occurred when both excess rainwater and high tides in the Bristol Channel, backflow upstream on the river. In December 1929, serious flooding upstream at Lyng and Athelney was in danger of overwhelming those villages, and to prevent this, the locals suggested cutting the dykes, but this would release a "tidal wave" high, and combined with near incoming tide, it was feared mass flooding would occur in the Bridgwater area. However, by early 1930, the locals had abandoned this idea and they seem "resigned to their fate." Several times, locals on the Somerset Levels have complained that their settlements have been sacrificed to save Bridgwater, but one Environment Agency official noted that that is what the Somerset Levels are supposed to do; retain the floodwater and release it slowly. Serious floods occurred in 1960, and as a result, defences against flooding were built along the Parrett catchment. One of the suggestions put forward after the 2014 floods was to build a giant lagoon in Bridgwater Bay which could generate electricity through the flowing of the tides, but could be allowed to store fresh floodwater and release it into the sea at low tide. Future flooding is based on modelling and estimates from the Environment Agency, which detail an increase of 20% of peak flow in all watercourses, coupled with a sea level rise of by the year 2100. In December 2019, proposals for the barrier were submitted in response to severe flooding in Somerset in 2014. The The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the primary purpose of botanical gardens in Bulgaria? A. To showcase only native species B. To preserve global plant diversity C. To serve as private recreational spaces D. To exclusively collect endemic species Answer:	B. To preserve global plant diversity
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: A modillion is an ornate bracket, more horizontal in shape and less imposing than a corbel. They are often seen underneath a cornice which helps to support them. Modillions are more elaborate than dentils (literally translated as small teeth). All three are selectively used as adjectival historic past participles (corbelled, modillioned, dentillated) as to what co-supports or simply adorns any high structure of a building, such as a terrace of a roof (a flat area of a roof), parapet, pediment/entablature, balcony, cornice band or roof cornice. Modillions occur classically under a Corinthian or a Composite cornice but may support any type of eaves cornice. They may be carved or plain. See also Glossary of architecture Gallery References Document 1::: Heterotopia is a concept elaborated by philosopher Michel Foucault to describe certain cultural, institutional and discursive spaces that are somehow "other": disturbing, intense, incompatible, contradictory or transforming. Heterotopias are "worlds within worlds": both similar to their surroundings, and contrasting with or upsetting them. Foucault provides examples: ships, cemeteries, bars, brothels, prisons, gardens of antiquity, fairs, Muslim baths and many more. Foucault outlines the notion of heterotopia on three occasions between 1966 and 1967. A lecture given by Foucault to a group of architects in 1967 is the most well-known explanation of the term. His first mention of the concept is in his preface to The Order of Things, and refers to texts rather than socio-cultural spaces. Etymology Heterotopia follows the template established by the notions of utopia and dystopia. The prefix hetero- is from Ancient Greek ἕτερος (héteros, "other, another, different") and is combined with the Greek morpheme τόπος (topos) and means "place". A utopia is an idea or an image that is not real but represents a perfected version of society, such as Thomas More's book or Le Corbusier's drawings. As Walter Russell Mead has written, "Utopia is a place where everything is good; dystopia is a place where everything is bad; heterotopia is where things are different — that is, a collection whose members have few or no intelligible connections with one another." In Foucault Foucault uses the term heterotopia () to describe spaces that have more layers of meaning or relationships to other places than immediately meet the eye. In general, a heterotopia is a physical representation or approximation of a utopia, or a parallel space (such as a prison) that contains undesirable bodies to make a real utopian space possible. Foucault explains the link between utopias and heterotopias using the example of a mirror. A mirror is a utopia because the image reflected is a "placeless place", an Document 2::: The Planetary Science Decadal Survey is a serial publication of the United States National Research Council produced for NASA and other United States Government Agencies such as the National Science Foundation. The documents identify key questions facing planetary science and outlines recommendations for space and ground-based exploration ten years into the future. Missions to gather data to answer these big questions are described and prioritized, where appropriate. Similar decadal surveys cover astronomy and astrophysics, earth science, and heliophysics. As of 2022 there have been three "Decadals", one published in April 2002 for the decade from 2003 to 2013, one published on March 7, 2011 for the decade from 2013 to 2022, and one published on April 19, 2022 for the decade from 2023 to 2032. Before the decadal surveys Planetary Exploration, 1968-1975, published in 1968, recommended missions to Jupiter, Mars, Venus, and Mercury in that order of priority. Report of Space Science, 1975 recommended exploration of the outer planets. Strategy for Exploration of the Inner Planets, 1977–1987 was published in 1977. Strategy for the Exploration of Primitive Solar-System Bodies--Asteroids, Comets, and Meteoroids, 1980–1990 was published in 1980. A Strategy for Exploration of the Outer Planets, 1986-1996 was published in 1986. Space Science in the Twenty-First Century – Imperatives for the Decades 1995 to 2015, published in 1988, recommended a focus on "Galileo-like missions to study Saturn, Uranus and Neptune" including a mission to rendezvous with Saturn's rings and study Titan. It also recommended study of the moon with a "Lunar Geoscience Orbiter", a network of lunar rovers and sample return from the lunar surface. The report recommended a Mercury Orbiter to study not only that planet but provide some solar study as well. A "Program of Extensive Study of Mars" beginning with the Mars Pathfinder mission was planned for 1995 to be followed up by one in 1998 to ret Document 3::: Bataan Rice Enrichment Project or the Bataan Experiment, was a collaborative research venture between American chemist Robert R. Williams and Juan Salcedo Jr. It was a series of feeding experiments conducted in municipalities in Bataan between 1947 and 1949. By the end of the experiments, it is shown that thiamine-enriched rice can reduce the cases of beriberi in the Philippines, which was the leading cause of deaths during those times. Overview The enrichment project came first as a plan in 1943. During this time, Salcedo, who had his studies at Columbia University, met American chemist Robert R. Williams, a well renowned scientist for his synthesis on vitamin B1 in 1935. The Philippine Bureau of Health reported a relatively stable beriberi rate from the mid-1920s to 1940. However, after World War II, beriberi cases surged, becoming the second leading cause of death in 1946 and 1947. Infants accounted for a significant portion of these deaths. At this time, Williams was disappointed by the agencies at the United Nations to further eradicate the rise of beriberi cases around the globe. Due to his previous failures in rice enrichment programs, Williams became desperate. Together with Salcedo, they began feeding experiments in the province of Bataan. The specific objectives of the feeding experiment were: Determine if enriched rice could effectively treat beriberi. Test the practicality of using enriched rice in the rice trade. Establish a system to ensure only enriched rice is sold. Promote the use of enriched rice among the people and explore its potential for widespread use throughout the Philippines. The experiments were conducted in Bataan where it was divided into two areas: the experimental zone and control zone. After the introduction of thiamine-enriched rice, the experimental area received significant results. Mortality rate in beriberi significantly decreased after the introduction of the nutrient-enriched white rice from July 1, 1948, to June 30, 1 Document 4::: Jason X: Planet of the Beast is a 2005 British science fiction horror novel written by Nancy Kilpatrick and published by Black Flame. A tie-in to the Friday the 13th series of American horror films, it is the third in a series of five Jason X novels published by Black Flame and involves undead cyborg Jason Voorhees running amok on G7, a space station orbiting Planet #666. Plot G7, a research station orbiting Planet #666, receives distress signals from an approaching derelict vessel, Black Star 13. The crew of The Revival, a spaceship docked with G7, boards and investigates Black Star 13, the crew of which had found a waste disposal rocket adrift in space before being slaughtered by the vessel's only passenger, undead cyborg Jason Voorhees. Jason attacks The Revival, causing it and Black Star 13 to crash on Planet #666. Professor Claude Bardox, the lead scientist on G7, discovers Jason was aboard Black Star 13. Bardox, believing Jason's nanotechnology-enhanced physiology is the key to genetic breakthroughs, especially in the field of cloning, sets out to retrieve samples of Jason's DNA. Jason rips Bardox's prosthetic arm off and murders Bardox's assistant, Emery Peterson, and pilot, Felicity Lawrence. Despite this, Bardox is successful in bringing samples of Jason's genetic material back to G7, unaware Jason climbed aboard his shuttle to escape Planet #666. After Jason slays two of the station's personnel, Andre Desjardines and Doctor Brandi Essex Williams, Bardox, oblivious to Jason's presence on G7, knocks the rest of the station's crew out by tampering with the air and sets to work modifying the genetic samples he took from Jason. Bardox wants to create a new, perfect breed of human with Jason's DNA, which he uses to artificially inseminate one of his subordinates, a fellow geneticist named London Jefferson. Bardox believes humanity is being held back by oppressive morality and physical frailty and also wants to show up and impress his abusive father back on Ea The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What are the three main stages of the human action cycle as proposed by Donald A. Norman? A. Goal formation, Execution, Evaluation B. Planning, Execution, Review C. Formation, Execution, Assessment D. Goal setting, Action, Outcome Answer:	A. Goal formation, Execution, Evaluation
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: To help compare different orders of magnitude, the following list describes various speed levels between approximately 2.2 m/s and 3.0 m/s (the speed of light). Values in bold are exact. List of orders of magnitude for speed See also Typical projectile speeds - also showing the corresponding kinetic energy per unit mass Neutron temperature References Document 1::: In computing, a segmentation fault (often shortened to segfault) or access violation is a failure condition raised by hardware with memory protection, notifying an operating system (OS) the software has attempted to access a restricted area of memory (a memory access violation). On standard x86 computers, this is a form of general protection fault. The operating system kernel will, in response, usually perform some corrective action, generally passing the fault on to the offending process by sending the process a signal. Processes can in some cases install a custom signal handler, allowing them to recover on their own, but otherwise the OS default signal handler is used, generally causing abnormal termination of the process (a program crash), and sometimes a core dump. Segmentation faults are a common class of error in programs written in languages like C that provide low-level memory access and few to no safety checks. They arise primarily due to errors in use of pointers for virtual memory addressing, particularly illegal access. Another type of memory access error is a bus error, which also has various causes, but is today much rarer; these occur primarily due to incorrect physical memory addressing, or due to misaligned memory access – these are memory references that the hardware cannot address, rather than references that a process is not allowed to address. Many programming languages have mechanisms designed to avoid segmentation faults and improve memory safety. For example, Rust employs an ownership-based model to ensure memory safety. Other languages, such as Lisp and Java, employ garbage collection, which avoids certain classes of memory errors that could lead to segmentation faults. Overview A segmentation fault occurs when a program attempts to access a memory location that it is not allowed to access, or attempts to access a memory location in a way that is not allowed (for example, attempting to write to a read-only location, or to overwrite part Document 2::: Circoviridae is a family of DNA viruses. Birds and mammals serve as natural hosts. The family has two genera. Diseases associated with this family include: PCV-2: postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome; CAV: chicken infectious anemia. Structure Viruses in the family Circoviridae are non-enveloped, with icosahedral and round geometries, and T=1 symmetry. The diameter is around 20 nm. Genomes are circular and non-segmented, around 3.8kb in length. The capsid consists of 12 pentagonal trumpet-shaped pentamers. There are two main open reading frames arranged in opposite directions that encode the replication and capsid proteins. Life cycle Viral replication is nuclear. Entry into the host cell is achieved by penetration into the host cell. Replication follows the ssDNA rolling circle model. DNA templated transcription, with some alternative splicing mechanism is the method of transcription. The virus exits the host cell by nuclear egress, and nuclear pore export. A stem loop structure with a conserved nonanucleotide motif is located at the 5' intergenic region of circovirus genomes and is thought to initiate rolling-cycle replication. Birds and mammals serve as the natural host. Transmission routes are fecal-oral. Taxonomy The family Circoviridae contains two genera—Circovirus and Cyclovirus. Clinical A cyclovirus—cyclovirus-Vietnam—has been isolated from the cerebrospinal fluid of 25 Vietnamese patients with CNS infections of unknown aetiology. The same virus has been isolated from the faeces of healthy children and also from pigs and chickens. This suggests an orofaecal route of transmission with a possible animal reservoir. See also Animal viruses References External links ICTV Online Report; Circoviridae ICTVdB Entry for Circoviridae Viralzone: Circoviridae Document 3::: Distributed.net is a volunteer computing effort that is attempting to solve large scale problems using otherwise idle CPU or GPU time. It is governed by Distributed Computing Technologies, Incorporated (DCTI), a non-profit organization under U.S. tax code 501(c)(3). Distributed.net is working on RC5-72 (breaking RC5 with a 72-bit key). The RC5-72 project is on pace to exhaust the keyspace in just under 37 years as of January 2025, although the project will end whenever the required key is found. RC5 has eight unsolved challenges from RSA Security, although in May 2007, RSA Security announced that they would no longer be providing prize money for a correct key to any of their secret key challenges. distributed.net has decided to sponsor the original prize offer for finding the key as a result. In 2001, distributed.net was estimated to have a throughput of over 30 TFLOPS. , the throughput was estimated to be the same as a Cray XC40, as used in the Lonestar 5 supercomputer, or around 1.25 petaFLOPs. History A coordinated effort was started in February 1997 by Earle Ady and Christopher G. Stach II of Hotjobs.com and New Media Labs, as an effort to break the RC5-56 portion of the RSA Secret-Key Challenge, a 56-bit encryption algorithm that had a $10,000 USD prize available to anyone who could find the key. Unfortunately, this initial effort had to be suspended as the result of SYN flood attacks by participants upon the server. A new independent effort, named distributed.net, was coordinated by Jeffrey A. Lawson, Adam L. Beberg, and David C. McNett along with several others who would serve on the board and operate infrastructure. By late March 1997 new proxies were released to resume RC5-56 and work began on enhanced clients. A cow head was selected as the icon of the application and the project's mascot. The RC5-56 challenge was solved on October 19, 1997, after 250 days. The correct key was "0x532B744CC20999" and the plaintext message read "The unknown message is Document 4::: ETUT (European Training network in collaboration with Ukraine for electrical Transport) is a research project funded by the European Commission's Horizon 2020 program under the Marie Sktodowska-Curie Actions Innovative Training Networks (MSCA- ITN) scheme. The project, undertaken by a collaborative effort of the University of Twente, the University of Nottingham, and Dnipro National University of Railway Transport, aims to develop efficient interfacing technology for more-electric transport amidst the ever-increasing demand in transportation systems which contribute to increased carbon dioxide emissions. The project has employed 12 Early Stage Researches (doctoral candidates) who will work closely with six industrial partners to improve upon the existing electrical and energy storage systems that will help in alleviating the reliance on non-renewable energy sources for large-scale transportation systems such as railways and maritime transport. The project is segregated into two main groups with one focusing on power electronics for efficient use of energy resources in power delivery, and the other on electromagnetic compatibility of such systems. History With the increasing use of solid-state devices in transportation systems, a number of electromagnetic interference and interoperability problems are occurring which could hinder the electrification of transport on a global scale. This requires a closer inspection of the interaction of power electronic converters with equipment of the information and communications technology. With this in mind, MSCA ETUT brought together researchers from different academic backgrounds spanning all over the globe to contrive innovative ways of countering these problems. Jan Abraham Ferreira (IEEE Fellow, former President of IEEE Power Electronics Society ), Frank Leferink (IEEE Fellow and Director EMC at Thales Nederland), Patrick Wheeler (IEEE Fellow and Global Director of the University of Nottingham's Institute of Aerospace Tech The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What significant achievement did White Widow accomplish in 1995? A. It became a medical cannabis strain. B. It won the Cannabis Cup. C. It was developed by Mr. Nice Seedbank. D. It was renamed Black Widow. Answer:	B. It won the Cannabis Cup.
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: GI Monocerotis, also known as Nova Monocerotis 1918, was a nova that erupted in the constellation Monoceros during 1918. It was discovered by Max Wolf on a photographic plate taken at the Heidelberg Observatory on 4 February 1918. At the time of its discovery, it had a photographic magnitude of 8.5, and had already passed its peak brightness. A search of plates taken at the Harvard College Observatory showed that it had a photographic magnitude of 5.4 on 1 January 1918, so it would have been visible to the naked eye around that time. By March 1918 it had dropped to ninth or tenth magnitude. By November 1920 it was a little fainter than 15th magnitude. A single pre-eruption photographic detection of GI Monocerotis exists, showing its magnitude was 15.1 before the nova event. GI Monoceros dropped by 3 magnitudes from its peak in about 23 days, making it a "fast nova". Long after the nova eruption, six small outbursts with a mean amplitude of 0.9 magnitudes were detected when the star was monitored from the year 1991 through 2000. Radio emission from the nova has been detected at the JVLA in the C (5 GHz), X (8 GHz) and K (23 GHz) bands. All novae are binary stars, with a "donor" star orbiting a white dwarf. The two stars are so close together that matter is transferred from the donor star to the white dwarf. Worpel et al. report that the orbital period for the binary is probably 4.33 hours, and there is a 48.6 minute period which may represent the rotation period for the white dwarf. Their X-ray observations indicate that GI Mon is a non-magnetic cataclysmic variable star, meaning that the material lost from the donor star forms an accretion disk around the white dwarf, rather than flowing directly to the surface of the white dwarf. It is estimated that the donor star is transferring of material to the accretion disk each year. A 1995 search for an optically resolved nova remnant using the Anglo-Australian Telescope was unsuccessful. References Document 1::: In the healthcare industry, information continuity is the process by which information relevant to a patient's care is made available to both the patient and the provider at the right place and the right time, to facilitate ongoing health care management and continuity of care. This is an extension of the concept of "Continuity of Care," which is defined by the American Academy of Family Physicians in their Continuity of Care definition as "the process by which the patient and the physician are cooperatively involved in ongoing health care management toward the goal of high quality, cost-effective medical care." There is a non-Information Technology reference to "Informational continuity" — the use of information on past events and personal circumstances to make current care appropriate for each individual. This exists with "Management continuity" and "Relational continuity." Information continuity in the information technology sense may exist alongside physical care continuity, such as when a medical chart arrives with a patient to the hospital. Information continuity may also be separate, such as when a patient's electronic records are sent to a treating physician before the patient arrives at a care site. Creating information continuity in health care typically involves the use of health information technology to link systems using standards. Information continuity will become more and more important as patients in health care systems expect that their treating physicians have all of their medical information across the health care spectrum. This use of this term in health information technology initiated at Seattle, Washington, at the Group Health Cooperative non-profit care system to describe activities including data sharing, allergy and medication reconciliation, and interfacing of data between health care institutions. See also Health care continuity References Document 2::: Sayre's paradox is a dilemma encountered in the design of automated handwriting recognition systems. A standard statement of the paradox is that a cursively written word cannot be recognized without being segmented and cannot be segmented without being recognized. The paradox was first articulated in a 1973 publication by Kenneth M. Sayre, after whom it was named. Nature of the problem It is relatively easy to design automated systems capable of recognizing words inscribed in a printed format. Such words are segmented into letters by the very act of writing them on the page. Given templates matching typical letter shapes in a given language, individual letters can be identified with a high degree of probability. In cases of ambiguity, probable letter sequences can be compared with a selection of properly spelled words in that language (called a lexicon). If necessary, syntactic features of the language can be applied to render a generally accurate identification of the words in question. Printed-character recognition systems of this sort are commonly used in processing standardized government forms, in sorting mail by zip code, and so forth. In cursive writing, however, letters comprising a given word typically flow sequentially without gaps between them. Unlike a sequence of printed letters, cursively connected letters are not segmented in advance. Here is where Sayre's Paradox comes into play. Unless the word is already segmented into letters, template-matching techniques like those described above cannot be applied. That is, segmentation is a prerequisite for word recognition. But there are no reliable techniques for segmenting a word into letters unless the word itself has been identified. Word recognition requires letter segmentation, and letter segmentation requires word recognition. There is no way a cursive writing recognition system employing standard template-matching techniques can do both simultaneously. Advantages to be gained by use of automa Document 3::: Indian hedgehog homolog (Drosophila), also known as IHH, is a protein which in humans is encoded by the IHH gene. This cell signaling protein is in the hedgehog signaling pathway. The several mammalian variants of the Drosophila hedgehog gene (which was the first named) have been named after the various species of hedgehog; the Indian hedgehog is honored by this one. The gene is not specific to Indian hedgehogs. Function The Indian hedgehog protein is one of three proteins in the mammalian hedgehog family, the others being desert hedgehog (DHH) and sonic hedgehog (SHH). It is involved in chondrocyte differentiation, proliferation and maturation especially during endochondral ossification. It regulates its effects by feedback control of parathyroid hormone-related peptide (PTHrP). Indian Hedge Hog, (Ihh) is one of three signaling molecules from the Hedgehog (Hh) gene family. Genes of the Hh family, Sonic Hedgehog (Shh), Desert Hedgehog (Dhh) and Ihh regulate several fetal developmental processes. The Ihh homolog is involved in the formation of chondrocytes during the development of limbs. The protein is released by small, non-proliferating, mature chondrocytes during endochondral ossification. Recently, Ihh mutations are shown to cause brachydactyly type A1 (BDA1), the first Mendelian autosomal dominant disorder in humans to be recorded. There are seven known mutations to Ihh that cause BDA1. Of particular interest, are mutations involving the E95 residue, which is thought to be involved with proper signaling mechanisms between Ihh and its receptors. In a mouse model, mice with mutations to the E95 residue were found to have abnormalities to their digits. Ihh may also be involved in endometrial cell differentiation and implantation. Studies have shown progesterone to upregulate Ihh expression in the murine endometrium, suggesting a role in implantation. Ihh is suspected to be involved in the downstream regulation of other signaling molecules that are known to pla Document 4::: The Warkworth Radio Astronomical Observatory is a radio telescope observatory, located just south of Warkworth, New Zealand, about 50 km north of the Auckland CBD. It was established by the Institute for Radio Astronomy and Space Research, Auckland University of Technology. The WARK12M 12m Radio Telescope was constructed in 2008. In 2010, a licence to operate the Telecom New Zealand 30m dish was granted, which led to the commissioning of the WARK30M 30m Radio Telescope. The first observations made in conjunction with the Australian Long Baseline Array took place in 2011. The observatory was purchased by Space Operations New Zealand Limited (SpaceOps NZ) in July 2023 after the university decided to close the facility. Because of its wider ambit, the facility is now called the Warkworth Space Centre. History The Warkworth Space Centre is on land that was first developed for long-range telecommunications, operated by the New Zealand Post Office and opening on 17 July 1971. The station, primarily connecting to fourth generation Intelsat satellites, was used for satellite telephone circuits and television, including the broadcast of the 1974 British Commonwealth Games, held in Christchurch. The shallow valley site was chosen as it was sheltered from winds and radio noise, and the horizon elevation of only 5° allowed the station to be useful for transmissions to low orbit satellites. The original 30-metre antenna was decommissioned on 18 June 2008 and demolished. A second antenna and station building were opened on 24 July 1984. This was removed from commercial service in November 2010, after which the Auckland University of Technology upgraded the motor drives and began using it for radio astronomy. Technical information A hydrogen maser is installed on-site to provide the very accurate timing required by VLBI observations. The observatory has a 10 Gbit/s connection to the REANNZ network, providing high speed data transfers for files and e-VLBI as well as linking The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the primary goal of information continuity in healthcare as defined in the text? A. To ensure that patients have access to all healthcare facilities B. To facilitate ongoing health care management and continuity of care C. To maintain a patient's personal information securely D. To reduce the cost of medical services Answer:	B. To facilitate ongoing health care management and continuity of care
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Computed tomography of the chest or chest CT is a group of computed tomography scan protocols used in medical imaging to evaluate the lungs and search for lung disorders. Contrast agents are sometimes used in CT scans of the chest to accentuate or enhance the differences in radiopacity between vascularized and less vascularized structures, but a standard chest CT scan is usually non-contrasted (i.e. "plain") and relies on different algorithms to produce various series of digitalized images known as view or "window". Modern detail-oriented scans such as high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) is the gold standard in respiratory medicine and thoracic surgery for investigating disorders of the lung parenchyma (alveoli). Contrasted CT scans of the chest are usually used to confirm diagnosis of for lung cancer and abscesses, as well as to assess lymph node status at the hila and the mediastinum. CT pulmonary angiogram, which uses time-matched ("phased") protocols to assess the lung perfusion and the patency of great arteries and veins, particularly to look for pulmonary embolism. References Document 1::: Rachel E. Scherr is an American physics educator, currently an associate professor of physics at the University of Washington Bothell. Her research includes studies of responsive teaching and active learning, video and gestural analysis of classroom behavior, and student understanding of energy and special relativity. Education and career In high school, Scherr worked as an "explainer" at the Exploratorium in San Francisco. She majored in physics at Reed College, where she used the support of a Watson Fellowship for a year abroad studying physics education in Europe, Asia, and Africa. After graduating in 1993 she went to the University of Washington for graduate study in physics and physics education, earning a master's degree in 1996 and completing her Ph.D. in 2001. Her dissertation, An investigation of student understanding of basic concepts in special relativity, was jointly supervised by Lillian C. McDermott and Stamatis Vokos. After a short-term stint at Evergreen State College, she became a postdoctoral researcher and research assistant professor at the University of Maryland from 2001 to 2010. She moved to Seattle Pacific University as a research scientist in 2008, and to her present position at the University of Washington Bothell in 2018. She was chair of the Topical Group on Physics Education Research of the American Physical Society (APS) for the 2016 term. Recognition Scherr was elected as a Fellow of the American Physical Society in 2017, after a nomination from the APS Topical Group on Physics Education Research, "for foundational research into energy learning and representations, application of video analysis methods to study physics classrooms, and physics education research community leadership". References External links Home page Document 2::: Vaccine-naive is a lack of immunity, or immunologic memory, to a disease because the person has not been vaccinated. There are a variety of reasons why a person may not have received a vaccination, including contraindications due to preexisting medical conditions, lack of resources, previous vaccination failure, religious beliefs, personal beliefs, fear of side-effects, phobias to needles, lack of information, vaccine shortages, physician knowledge and beliefs, social pressure, and natural resistance. Effect on herd immunity Communicable diseases, such as measles and influenza, are more readily spread in vaccine-naive populations, causing frequent outbreaks. Vaccine-naive persons threaten what epidemiologists call herd immunity. This is because vaccinations provide not just protection to those who receive them, but also provide indirect protection to those who remain susceptible because of the reduced prevalence of infectious diseases. Fewer individuals available to transmit the disease reduce the incidence of it, creating herd immunity. See also Immune system Outbreak Pulse vaccination strategy Vaccine References External links Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) immunization schedules CDC Vaccine contraindications Document 3::: Bistel, acronym for Belgian Information System by Telephone, was a Belgian service using the Videotex protocol, established in 1986 at the initiative of the then Prime Minister Wilfried Martens. It was a federal government service that gave access through videotex to Belga telex news releases, to a press review, judicial databases JUSTEL and CREDOC, economical databases ECOTEL and BUDGETEX. In 1988, Bart Halewijck, a former PM cabinet adviser and municipal councillor for the same CVP party in Gistel, used the passwords he had kept to view sensitive government informations and showed it to a friend, then to a journalist from De Standaard to prove the security failures. This led to a judiciary "Bistel Case". In spite of recommendations, all passwords had not been changed every six months and many were still the same after two years. Halewijck and his friend, as there was then no specific penal provisions for such crimes, were charged for forgery and use of forgery, theft of energy with burglary, forgery by an official of a telegraphic despatch (an article of the Belgian Penal Code never used since 1911) and destruction of State property. The two first ever "Belgian hackers" got only light penalties but the case showed the urgent need for a specific legislation. Sources Document 4::: In theoretical computer science, Arden's rule, also known as Arden's lemma, is a mathematical statement about a certain form of language equations. Background A (formal) language is simply a set of strings. Such sets can be specified by means of some language equation, which in turn is based on operations on languages. Language equations are mathematical statements that resemble numerical equations, but the variables assume values of formal languages rather than numbers. Among the most common operations on two languages A and B are the set union A ∪ B, and their concatenation A⋅B. Finally, as an operation taking a single operand, the set A* denotes the Kleene star of the language A. Statement of Arden's rule Arden's rule states that the set A⋅B is the smallest language that is a solution for X in the linear equation X = A⋅X ∪ B where X, A, B are sets of strings. Moreover, if the set A does not contain the empty word, then this solution is unique. Equivalently, the set B⋅A is the smallest language that is a solution for X in X = X⋅A ∪ B. Application Arden's rule can be used to help convert some finite automatons to regular expressions, as in Kleene's algorithm. See also Regular expression Nondeterministic finite automaton Notes References Arden, D. N. (1960). Delayed logic and finite state machines, Theory of Computing Machine Design, pp. 1-35, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA. (open-access abstract) John E. Hopcroft and Jeffrey D. Ullman, Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation, Addison-Wesley Publishing, Reading Massachusetts, 1979. . Chapter 2: Finite Automata and Regular Expressions, p.54. Arden, D.N. An Introduction to the Theory of Finite State Machines, Monograph No. 12, Discrete System Concepts Project, 28 June 1965. The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is one common benchmark used to define a small state in terms of population? A. Less than 500,000 people B. Less than 1 million people C. Less than 1.5 million people D. Less than 2 million people Answer:	B. Less than 1 million people
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: City Brain (sometimes treated as an improper noun by sources and rendered as city brain; ) is a software system that utilizes artificial intelligence and data collection for urban management. Developed by Chinese tech company Alibaba Group, the City Brain systems have been adopted by local governments throughout the country as well as in Kuala Lumpur, the capital of Malaysia. Currently, these systems are mostly used for traffic management, but they have been used and expanded to cover other needs as well. City Brain systems have been promoted as making cities "smarter" and improving their residents' quality of life. However, the systems have also faced criticism for issues relating to privacy, cost, and their use of surveillance. History and overview The first City Brain system was announced and developed in 2016 by Alibaba Cloud for its home city of Hangzhou. First aiming to curb the city's high level of traffic congestion, it was initially "given control" of traffic lights in Xiaoshan District, where it increased traffic speed by 15%. This led to its adoption by the rest of the city in 2017, where it has seen praise for continuing to reduce congestion and aiding first responders to travel faster. In addition to traffic light management, the system also analyzes camera feeds to detect accidents and alert authorities. In the following years, many other local governments in China sought their own such systems. In addition, Kuala Lumpur, the capital of Malaysia, announced its adoption of a City Brain system in 2018 to deal with traffic. City Brain's use in Kuala Lumpur was Alibaba's first overseas implementation of the platform. By September 2019, Alibaba stated that 22 Chinese cities, including Macau, as well as Kuala Lumpur, had City Brain systems. The scope of these systems has expanded, with some being used to track pollution, alert authorities to illegal gatherings and possible conflicts of interest/corruption in government outsourcing, and aid in contact tr Document 1::: Sir Francis Rolle (1630–1686) was an English lawyer and politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1656 and 1685. Early life Rolle was the only son of Henry Rolle of Shapwick in Somerset, who was Chief Justice of the King's Bench and his wife Margaret Bennett. He entered Inner Temple in 1646 and was admitted at Emmanuel College, Cambridge on 25 January 1647. He was called to the bar in 1653. Career In 1656, Rolle was elected Member of Parliament for Somerset in the Second Protectorate Parliament. He succeeded his father to the estate at Shapwick in 1656 and became JP for Somerset until July 1660, In 1657 he was commissioner for assessment for Somerset and Hampshire. He was commissioner for militia in 1659 and JP for Hampshire from 1659 to July 1660. He was commissioner for assessment for Somerset and Hampshire from January 1660 to 1680 and commissioner for militia in March 1660. In April 1660 he was elected MP for Bridgwater in the Convention Parliament. He was commissioner for sewers for Somerset in August 1660 and was JP for Somerset from September 1660 to 1680. He was High Sheriff of Hampshire from 1664 to 1665 and was knighted on 1 March 1665. He also became a freeman of Portsmouth in 1665. In 1669 he was briefly MP for Bridgwater again but was removed on petition. He was High Sheriff of Somerset from 1672 to 1673 and was commissioner for inquiry for Finkley forest and for New Forest in 1672. He was commissioner for inquiry for the New Forest again in 1673. In 1675 he was elected MP for Hampshire for the Cavalier Parliament and was made freeman of Winchester 1675. He was commissioner for recusants for Somerset and Hampshire in 1675 and commissioner for inquiry for the New Forest in 1676 and in 1679. In May 1679 he was elected MP for Bridgwater, and in October 1679 he was elected MP for Hampshire. He was elected MP for Hampshire again in 1681. In 1685 he was committed to the Tower of London on 26 June before he could join Monmouth who Document 2::: Cadherin EGF LAG seven-pass G-type receptor 3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CELSR3 gene. The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the flamingo subfamily, part of the cadherin superfamily. The flamingo subfamily consists of nonclassic-type cadherins; a subpopulation that does not interact with catenins. The flamingo cadherins are located at the plasma membrane and have nine cadherin domains, seven epidermal growth factor-like repeats and two laminin A G-type repeats in their ectodomain. They also have seven transmembrane domains, a characteristic unique to this subfamily. It is postulated that these proteins are receptors involved in contact-mediated communication, with cadherin domains acting as homophilic binding regions and the EGF-like domains involved in cell adhesion and receptor-ligand interactions. The specific function of this particular member has not been determined. External links Document 3::: A contract manufacturer (CM) is a manufacturer that contracts with a firm for components or products (in which case it is a turnkey supplier). It is a form of outsourcing. A contract manufacturer performing packaging operations is called copacker or a contract packager. Brand name companies focus on product innovation, design and sales, while the manufacturing takes place in independent factories (the turnkey suppliers). Most turnkey suppliers specialize in simply manufacturing physical products, but some are also able to handle a significant part of the design and customization process if needed. Some turnkey suppliers specialize in one base component (e.g. memory chips) or a base process (e.g. plastic molding). Business model In a contract manufacturing business model, the hiring firm approaches the contract manufacturer with a design or formula. The contract manufacturer will quote the parts based on processes, labor, tooling, and material costs. Typically a hiring firm will request quotes from multiple CMs. After the bidding process is complete, the hiring firm will select a source, and then, for the agreed-upon price, the CM acts as the hiring firm's factory, producing and shipping units of the design on behalf of the hiring firm. Job production is, in essence, manufacturing on a contract basis, and thus it forms a subset of the larger field of contract manufacturing. But the latter field also includes, in addition to jobbing, a higher level of outsourcing in which a product-line-owning company entrusts its entire production to a contractor, rather than just outsourcing parts of it. Industries that use the practice Many industries use this process, especially the aerospace, defense, computer, semiconductor, energy, medical, food manufacturing, personal care, packaging, and automotive fields. Some types of contract manufacturing include CNC machining, complex assembly, aluminum die casting, grinding, broaching, gears, and forging. The pharmaceutical ind Document 4::: The 2N7000 is an N-channel, enhancement-mode MOSFET used for low-power switching applications. The 2N7000 is a widely available and popular part, often recommended as useful and common components to have around for hobbyist use. Packaged in a TO-92 enclosure, the 2N7000 is rated to withstand 60 volts and can switch 200 millamps. Applications The 2N7000 has been referred to as a "FETlington" and as an "absolutely ideal hacker part." The word "FETlington" is a reference to the Darlington-transistor-like saturation characteristic. A typical use of these transistors is as a switch for moderate voltages and currents, including as drivers for small lamps, motors, and relays. In switching circuits, these FETs can be used much like bipolar junction transistors, but have some advantages: high input impedance of the insulated gate means almost no gate current is required consequently no current-limiting resistor is required in the gate input MOSFETs, unlike PN junction devices (such as LEDs) can be paralleled because resistance increases with temperature, although the quality of this load balance is largely dependent on the internal chemistry of each individual MOSFET in the circuit The main disadvantages of these FETs over bipolar transistors in switching are the following: susceptibility to cumulative damage from static discharge prior to installation circuits with external gate exposure require a protection gate resistor or other static discharge protection Non-zero ohmic response when driven to saturation, as compared to a constant junction voltage drop in a bipolar junction transistor Other devices Many other n-channel MOSFETs exist. Some part number are 2N7002, BS170, VQ1000J, and VQ1000P. They may have different pin outs, packages, and electrical properties. The BS250P is "a good p-channel analog of the 2N7000." References The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the genus of the Bean leafroll virus (BLRV)? A. Luteovirus B. Retrovirus C. Adenovirus D. Picornavirus Answer:	A. Luteovirus
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Domination analysis of an approximation algorithm is a way to estimate its performance, introduced by Glover and Punnen in 1997. Unlike the classical approximation ratio analysis, which compares the numerical quality of a calculated solution with that of an optimal solution, domination analysis involves examining the rank of the calculated solution in the sorted order of all possible solutions. In this style of analysis, an algorithm is said to have dominance number or domination number K, if there exists a subset of K different solutions to the problem among which the algorithm's output is the best. Domination analysis can also be expressed using a domination ratio, which is the fraction of the solution space that is no better than the given solution; this number always lies within the interval [0,1], with larger numbers indicating better solutions. Domination analysis is most commonly applied to problems for which the total number of possible solutions is known and for which exact solution is difficult. For instance, in the Traveling salesman problem, there are (n-1)! possible solutions for a problem instance with n cities. If an algorithm can be shown to have dominance number close to (n-1)!, or equivalently to have domination ratio close to 1, then it can be taken as preferable to an algorithm with lower dominance number. If it is possible to efficiently find random samples of a problem's solution space, as it is in the Traveling salesman problem, then it is straightforward for a randomized algorithm to find a solution that with high probability has high domination ratio: simply construct a set of samples and select the best solution from among them. (See, e.g., Orlin and Sharma.) The dominance number described here should not be confused with the domination number of a graph, which refers to the number of vertices in the smallest dominating set of the graph. Recently, a growing number of articles in which domination analysis has been applied to assess the Document 1::: Predispositioning theory, in the field of decision theory and systems theory, is a theory focusing on the stages between a complete order and a complete disorder. Predispositioning theory was founded by Aron Katsenelinboigen (1927–2005), a professor in the Wharton School who dealt with indeterministic systems such as chess, business, economics, and other fields of knowledge and also made an essential step forward in elaboration of styles and methods of decision-making. Predispositioning theory Predispositioning theory is focused on the intermediate stage between a complete order and a complete disorder. According to Katsenelinboigen, the system develops gradually, going through several stages, starting with incomplete and inconsistent linkages between its elements and ending with complete and consistent ones. "Mess. The zero phase can be called a mess because it contains no linkages between the system's elements. Such a definition of mess as ‘a disorderly, un-tidy, or dirty state of things’ we find in Webster's New World Dictionary. (...) Chaos. Mess should not be confused with the next phase, chaos, as this term is understood today. Arguably, chaos is the first phase of indeterminism that displays sufficient order to talk of the general problem of system development. The chaos phase is characterized by some ordering of accumulated statistical data and the emergence of the basic rules of interactions of inputs and outputs (not counting boundary conditions). Even such a seemingly limited ordering makes it possible to fix systemic regularities of the sort shown by Feigenbaum numbers and strange attractors. (...) Different types of orderings in the chaos phase may be brought together under the notion of directing, for they point to a possible general direction of system development and even its extreme states. But even if a general path is known, enormous difficulties remain in linking algorithmically the present state with the final one and in operationalizing t Document 2::: Torque ripple is an effect seen in many electric motor designs, referring to a periodic increase or decrease in output torque as the motor shaft rotates. It is measured as the difference in maximum and minimum torque over one complete revolution, generally expressed as a percentage. Examples A common example is "cogging torque" due to slight asymmetries in the magnetic field generated by the motor windings, which causes variations in the reluctance depending on the rotor position. This effect can be reduced by careful selection of the winding layout of the motor, or through the use of realtime controls to the power delivery. References "Torque ripple", Emetor. External links Document 3::: Nuisance wildlife management is the selective removal of problem individuals or populations of specific species of wildlife. Other terms for the field include wildlife damage management, wildlife control, and animal damage control. Some wild animal species may get used to human presence, causing property damage or risking the transfer of diseases (zoonoses) to humans or pets. Many wildlife species coexist with humans very successfully, such as commensal rodents which have become more or less dependent on humans. Common nuisance species Wild animals that can cause problems in homes, gardens or yards include armadillos, skunks, boars, foxes, squirrels, snakes, rats, groundhogs, beavers, opossums, raccoons, bats, moles, deer, mice, coyotes, bears, ravens, seagulls, woodpeckers and pigeons. In the United States, some of these species are protected, such as bears, ravens, bats, deer, woodpeckers, and coyotes, and a permit may be required to control some species. Conflicts between people and wildlife arise in certain situations, such as when an animal's population becomes too large for a particular area to support. Human-induced changes in the environment will often result in increased numbers of a species. For example, piles of scrap building material make excellent sites where rodents can nest. Food left out for household pets is often equally attractive to some wildlife species. In these situations, the wildlife have suitable food and habitat and may become a nuisance. The Humane Society of the United States (HSUS) provides strategies for the control of species such as bats, bears, chipmunks, coyotes, deer, mice, racoons and snakes. Control methods The most commonly used methods for controlling nuisance wildlife around homes and gardens include exclusion, habitat modification, repellents, toxic baits, glue boards, traps and frightening. Exclusion Exclusion techniques refer to the act of sealing a home to prevent wildlife; such as, rodents (squirrels, rats, mice Document 4::: Sea balls (also known as Aegagropila or Pillae marinae) are tightly packed balls of fibrous marine material, recorded from the seashore. They vary in size but are generally up to in size. In Edgartown, Massachusetts a longish sea ball around in diameter has been found. Others have been reported at Dingle Bay in Ireland and at Valencia, Spain. They may occur in hundreds and are composed of plant material, in majority seagrass rhizome (especially from the genus Posidonia) netting torn out by water movement. In recent years they have been shown to contain more and more plastic marine debris and even microplastics. Gallery References The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is torque ripple in electric motors primarily characterized by? A. A constant output torque B. A periodic increase or decrease in output torque C. A fixed maximum torque value D. A reduction in motor efficiency Answer:	B. A periodic increase or decrease in output torque
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: A suitport or suitlock is an alternative technology to an airlock, designed for use in hazardous environments including in human spaceflight, especially planetary surface exploration. Suitports present advantages over traditional airlocks in terms of mass, volume, and ability to mitigate contamination by—and of—the local environment. Operation In a suitport system, a rear-entry space suit is attached and sealed against the outside of a spacecraft, space habitat, or pressurized rover, facing outward. To begin an extra-vehicular activity (EVA), an astronaut in shirt-sleeves first enters the suit feet-first from inside the pressurized environment, and closes and seals the space suit backpack and the vehicle's hatch (which seals to the backpack for dust containment). The astronaut then unseals and separates the suit from the vehicle, and is ready to perform an EVA. To re-enter the vehicle, the astronaut backs up to the suitport and seals the suit to the vehicle, before opening the hatch and backpack and transferring back into the vehicle. If the vehicle and suit do not operate at the same pressure, it will be necessary to equalize the two pressures before the hatch can be opened. Advantages and disadvantages Advantages Suitports carry three major advantages over traditional airlocks. First, the mass and volume required for a suitport is significantly less than that required for an airlock. Launch mass is at a premium in modern chemical rocket-powered launch vehicles, at an estimated cost of US$60,000 per kilogram delivered to the lunar surface. Secondly, suitports can eliminate or minimize the problem of dust migration. During the Apollo program, it was discovered that the lunar soil is electrically charged, and adheres readily to any surface with which it comes into contact, a problem magnified by the sharp, barb-like shapes of the dust particles. Lunar dust may be harmful in several ways: The abrasive nature of the dust particles may rub and wear down surface Document 1::: The persistent random walk is a modification of the random walk model. A population of particles are distributed on a line, with constant speed , and each particle's velocity may be reversed at any moment. The reversal time is exponentially distributed as , then the population density evolves according towhich is the telegrapher's equation. Document 2::: VFDB also known as Virulence Factor Database is a database that provides scientist quick access to virulence factors in bacterial pathogens. It can be navigated and browsed using genus or words. A BLAST tool is provided for search against known virulence factors. VFDB contains a collection of 16 important bacterial pathogens. Perl scripts were used to extract positions and sequences of VF from GenBank. Clusters of Orthologous Groups (COG) was used to update incomplete annotations. More information was obtained by NCBI. VFDB was built on Windows operation systems on DELL PowerEdge 1600SC servers. Document 3::: ISO 31-11:1992 was the part of international standard ISO 31 that defines mathematical signs and symbols for use in physical sciences and technology. It was superseded in 2009 by ISO 80000-2:2009 and subsequently revised in 2019 as ISO-80000-2:2019. It included definitions for symbols for mathematical logic, set theory, arithmetic and complex numbers, functions and special functions and values, matrices, vectors, and tensors, coordinate systems, and miscellaneous mathematical relations. References and notes Document 4::: XSIL (Extensible Scientific Interchange Language) is an XML-based transport language for scientific data, supporting the inclusion of both in-file data and metadata. The language comes with an extensible Java object model. The language's elementary objects include Param (arbitrary association between a keyword and a value), Array, Table (a set of column headings followed by a set of records), and Stream, which enables one to either encapsulate data inside the XSIL file or point to an external data source. BFD is an XML dialect based on XSIL. External links XSIL: Extensible Scientific Interchange Language The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the main function of GPR126 in the development of Schwann cells, as described in the text? A. It inhibits axon sorting. B. It promotes myelin gene activity through cAMP induction. C. It decreases cAMP levels in Schwann cells. D. It blocks VEGF signaling in endothelial cells. Answer:	B. It promotes myelin gene activity through cAMP induction.
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Palsy is a medical term which refers to various types of paralysis or paresis, often accompanied by weakness and the loss of feeling and uncontrolled body movements such as shaking. The word originates from the Anglo-Norman paralisie, parleisie et al., from the accusative form of Latin paralysis, from Ancient Greek παράλυσις (parálusis), from παραλύειν (paralúein, "to disable on one side"), from παρά (pará, "beside") + λύειν (lúein, "loosen"). The word is longstanding in the English language, having appeared in the play Grim the Collier of Croydon, reported to have been written as early as 1599: In some editions, the Bible passage of Luke 5:18 is translated to refer to "a man which was taken with a palsy". More modern editions simply refer to a man who is paralysed. Although the term has historically been associated with paralysis generally, it "is now almost always used in connection to the word cerebral—meaning the brain". Specific kinds of palsy include: Bell's palsy, partial facial paralysis Bulbar palsy, impairment of cranial nerves Cerebral palsy, a neural disorder caused by intracranial lesions Conjugate gaze palsy, a disorder affecting the ability to move the eyes Erb's palsy, also known as brachial palsy, involving paralysis of an arm Spinal muscular atrophy, also known as wasting palsy Progressive supranuclear palsy, a degenerative disease Squatter's palsy, a common name for bilateral peroneal nerve palsy that may be triggered by sustained squatting Third nerve palsy, involving cranial nerve III References External links Document 1::: Micromodels are a type of card model or paper model that was popular during the 1940s and 1950s in the United Kingdom. In 1941, Geoffrey Heighway invented and marketed a new concept in card models. He took the available concept of card models and miniaturized them so that an entire train or building could be wrapped in a packet of post cards. These packets usually sold for about a shilling, or pocket change. When he released his product in the 1940s it caught on and Micro-modeling became a national pastime. The slogan "Your Workshop in a Cigar Box" is still widely quoted today among paper modelers. Their other slogan was: Three-Dimensional, Volumetric. During the war years, the models were especially popular as they were extremely portable and builders were able to work on them anywhere. Anecdotes say people liked them because they were small enough to take with you, so if you got stuck in a bomb shelter during an air raid, you had something interesting to do. Several of the railway Micromodels were distributed in Australia in the form of small stapled books, rather than individual postcards. The subjects of original Micromodels included among other things, Trains, Planes, Ships, Boats, Buildings, Cars and a Dragon. There were 82 original Micromodel Packets. From these packets one could make up 121 separate models. Micromodels also released some items including how-to booklets and powdered glue. Heighway continued to release models from 1941 until he became seriously ill in 1956. He died in 1959. There were several models that Heighway had mentioned in his catalogs and advertising, that for one reason or another were never released. These were known as the "Might have beens." Micromodels are considered collectable, and some rare originals can only be had for thousands of dollars. Others are more easily obtainable. There have been other products similar to or based on Micromodels, including Modelcraft Ltd. and a set of books based on enlargements of some of He Document 2::: PcrA, standing for plasmid copy reduced is a helicase that was originally discovered in a screen for chromosomally encoded genes that are affected in plasmid rolling circle replication in the Gram-positive pathogen Staphylococcus aureus. Biological functions Genetic and biochemical studies have shown that the helicase is essential for plasmid rolling-circle replication and repair of DNA damage caused by exposure to ultraviolet radiation. It catalyzes the unwinding of double-stranded plasmid DNA that has been nicked at the replication origin by the replication initiation protein. Genetic and biochemical studies have also shown that the helicase plays an important role in cell-survival by regulating the levels of RecA-mediated recombination in Gram-positive bacteria. Biochemical properties The helicase is a monomeric translocase and utilizes ATP to unwind DNA. The preferred substrates are single-stranded DNA containing 3' overhangs. The processivity of PcrA is increased in the presence of plasmid replication initiation protein. Crystal Structure The structure of the helicase has been solved at high resolution and indicates "inchworming" as the mechanism of translocation on single-stranded DNA. A Mexican-wave model has been proposed based on the changes in conformation of the helicase observed in the product versus substrate complex. Classification PcrA belongs to the SF1 superfamily of helicases, which also include the E. coli helicases UvrD and Rep and the eukaryotic helicase Srs2. Literature External links Document 3::: An heirloom plant, heirloom variety, heritage fruit (Australia and New Zealand), or heirloom vegetable (especially in Ireland and the UK) is an old cultivar of a plant used for food that is grown and maintained by gardeners and farmers, particularly in isolated communities of the Western world. These were commonly grown during earlier periods in human history, but are not used in modern large-scale agriculture. In some parts of the world, it is illegal to sell seeds of cultivars that are not listed as approved for sale. The Henry Doubleday Research Association, now known as Garden Organic, responded to this legislation by setting up the Heritage Seed Library to preserve seeds of as many of the older cultivars as possible. However, seed banks alone have not been able to provide sufficient insurance against catastrophic loss. In some jurisdictions, like Colombia, laws have been proposed that would make seed saving itself illegal. Many heirloom vegetables have kept their traits through open pollination, while fruit varieties such as apples have been propagated over the centuries through grafts and cuttings. The trend of growing heirloom plants in gardens has been returning in popularity in North America and Europe. Origin Before the industrialization of agriculture, a much wider variety of plant foods were grown for human consumption, largely due to farmers and gardeners saving seeds and cuttings for future planting. From the 16th century through the early 20th century, the diversity was huge. Old nursery catalogues were filled with plums, peaches, pears and apples of numerous varieties, and seed catalogs offered legions of vegetable varieties. Valuable and carefully selected seeds were sold and traded using these catalogs along with useful advice on cultivation. Since World War II, agriculture in the industrialized world has mostly consisted of food crops which are grown in large, monocultural plots. In order to maximize consistency, few varieties of each type of crop are grown. These varieties are often selected for their productivity and their ability to ripen at the same time while withstanding mechanical picking and cross-country shipping, as well as their tolerance to drought, frost, or pesticides. This form of agriculture has led to a 75% drop in crop genetic diversity. While heirloom gardening has maintained a niche community, in recent years it has seen a resurgence in response to the industrial agriculture trend. In the Global South, heirloom plants are still widely grown, for example, in the home gardens of South and Southeast Asia. Before World War II, the majority of produce grown in the United States was heirlooms. In the 21st century, numerous community groups all over the world are working to preserve historic varieties to make a wide variety of fruits, vegetables, herbs, and flowers available again to the home gardener, by renovating old orchards, sourcing historic fruit varieties, engaging in seed swaps, and encouraging community participation. Heirloom varieties are an increasingly popular way for gardeners and small farmers to connect with traditional forms of agriculture and the crops grown in these systems. Growers also cite lower costs associated with purchasing seeds, improved taste, and perceived improved nutritional quality as reasons for growing heirlooms. In many countries, hundreds or even thousands of heirloom varieties are commercially available for purchase or can be obtained through seed libraries and banks, seed swaps, or community events. Heirloom varieties may also be well suited for market gardening, farmer's market sales, and CSA programs. A primary drawback to growing heirloom varieties is lower disease resistance compared to many commercially available hybrid varieties. Common disease problems, such as verticillium and fusarium wilt, may affect heirlooms more significantly than non-heirloom crops. Heirloom varieties may also be more delicate and perishable. In recent years, research has been conducted into improving the disease resistance of heirlooms, particularly tomatoes, by crossing them with resistant hybrid varieties. Requirements The term heirloom to describe a seed variety was first used in the 1930s by horticulturist and vegetable grower J.R. Hepler to describe bean varieties handed down through families. However, the current definition and use of the word heirloom to describe plants is fiercely debated. One school of thought places an age or date point on the cultivars. For instance, one school says the cultivar must be over 100 years old, others 50 years old, and others prefer the date of 1945, which marks the end of World War II and roughly the beginning of widespread hybrid use by growers and seed companies. Many gardeners consider 1951 to be the latest year a plant could have originated and still be called an heirloom, since that year marked the widespread introduction of the first hybrid varieties. It was in the 1970s that hybrid seeds began to proliferate in the commercial seed trade. Some heirloom varieties are much older; some are apparently pre-historic. Another way of defining heirloom cultivars is to use the definition of the word heirloom in its truest sense. Under this interpretation, a true heirloom is a cultivar that has been nurtured, selected, and handed down from one family member to another for many generations. Additionally, there is another category of cultivars that could be classified as "commercial heirlooms": cultivars that were introduced many generations ago and were of such merit that they have been saved, maintained and handed down—even if the seed company has gone out of business or otherwise dropped the line. Additionally, many old commercial releases have actually been family heirlooms that a seed company obtained and introduced. Regardless of a person's specific interpretation, most authorities agree that heirlooms, by definition, must be open-pollinated. They may also require open-pollinated varieties to have been bred and stabilized using classic breeding practices. While there is currently one genetically modified tomato available to home growers, it is generally agreed that no genetically modified organisms can be considered heirloom cultivars. Another important point of discussion is that without the ongoing growing and storage of heirloom plants, the seed companies and the government will control all seed distribution. Most, if not all, hybrid plants, if they do not have sterile seeds and can be regrown, will not be the same as the original hybrid plant, thus ensuring the dependency on seed distributors for future crops. Writer and author Jennifer A. Jordan describes the term "heirloom" as a culturally constructed concept that is only relevant due to the relatively recent loss of many crop varieties: "It is only with the rise of industrial agriculture that [the] practice of treating food as a literal heirloom has disappeared in many parts of the world—and that is precisely when the heirloom label emerges. ...[T]he concept of an heirloom becomes possible only in the context of the loss of actual heirloom varieties, of increased urbanization and industrialization as fewer people grow their own food, or at least know the people who grow their food." Collection sites The heritage fruit trees that exist today are clonally descended from trees of antiquity. Heirloom roses are sometimes collected (nondestructively as small cuttings) from vintage homes and from cemeteries, where they were once planted at gravesites by mourners and left undisturbed in the decades since. Modern production methods and the rise in population have largely supplanted this practice. UK and EU law and national lists In the UK and Europe, it is thought that many heritage vegetable varieties (perhaps over 2,000) have been lost since the 1970s, when EEC (now EU) laws were passed making it illegal to sell any vegetable cultivar not on the national list of any EEC country. This was set up to help in eliminating seed suppliers selling one seed as another, guarantee the seeds were true to type, and that they germinated consistently. Thus, there were stringent tests to assess varieties, with a view to ensuring they remain the same from one generation to the next. However, unique varieties were lost for posterity. These tests (called DUS) assess "distinctness", "uniformity", and "stability". But since some heritage cultivars are not necessarily uniform from plant to plant, or indeed within a single plant—a single cultivar—this has been a sticking point. "Distinctness" has been a problem, moreover, because many cultivars have several names, perhaps coming from different areas or countries (e.g., carrot cultivar Long Surrey Red is also known as "Red Intermediate", "St. Valery", and "Chertsey"). However, it has been ascertained that some of these varieties that look similar are in fact different cultivars. On the other hand, two that were known to be different cultivars were almost identical to each other, thus one would be dropped from the national list in order to clean it up. Another problem has been the fact that it is somewhat expensive to register and then maintain a cultivar on a national list. Therefore, if no seed breeder or supplier thinks it will sell well, no one will maintain it on a list, and so the seed will not be re-bred by commercial seed breeders. In recent years, progress has been made in the UK to set up allowances and less stringent tests for heritage varieties on a B national list, but this is still under consideration. When heirloom plants are not being sold, however, laws are often more lenient. Because most heirloom plants are at least 50 years old and grown and swapped in a family or community they fall under the public domain. Another worldwide alternative is to submit heirloom seeds to a seedbank. These public repositories in turn maintain and disperse these genetics to anyone who will use them appropriately. Typically, approved uses are breeding, study, and sometimes, further distribution. US state law There are a variety of intellectual property protections and laws that are applied to heirloom seeds, which can often differ greatly between states. Plant patents are based on the Plant Patent Act of 1930, which protects plants grown from cuttings and division, while under intellectual property rights, the Plant Variety Protection Act of 1970 (PVPA) shields non-hybrid, seed-propagated plants. However, seed breeders can only shelter their variety for 20 years under PVPA. There are also a couple of exceptions under the PVPA which allow growers to cultivate, save seeds, and sell the resultant crops, and give breeders allowances to use PVPA protected varieties as starter material as long as it constitutes less than half of the breeding material. There are also seed licenses which may place restrictions on the use of seeds or trademarks that guard against the use of certain plant variety names. In 2014, the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture caused a seed-lending library to shut down and promised to curtail any similar efforts in the state. The lending library, hosted by a town library, allowed gardeners to "check out" a package of open-pollinated seed, and "return" seeds kept from the crop grown from those seeds. The Department of Agriculture said that this activity raises the possibility of "agro-terrorism", and that a Seed Act of 2004 requires the library staff to test each seed packet for germination rate and whether the seed was true to type. In 2016 the department reversed this decision, and clarified that seed libraries and non-commercial seed exchanges are not subject to the requirements of the Seed Act. Food justice In disputed Palestine, some heirloom growers and seed savers see themselves as contributing a form of resistance against the privatization of agriculture, while also telling stories of their ancestors, defying violence, and encouraging rebellion. The Palestinian Heirloom Seed Library (PHSL), founded by writer and activist Vivien Sansour, breeds and maintains a selection of traditional crops from the region, seeking to "preserve and promote heritage and threatened seed varieties, traditional Palestinian farming practices, and the cultural stories and identities associated with them." Some scholars have additionally framed the increasing control of Israeli agribusiness corporations over Palestinian seed supplies as an attempt to suppress food sovereignty and as a form of subtle ecocide. In January 2012, a conflict over seed access erupted in Latvia when two undercover investigators from the Latvian State Plant Protection Agency charged an independent farm with the illegal sale of unregistered heirloom tomato seeds. The agency suggested that the farm choose a small number of varieties to officially register and to abandon the other approximately 800 varieties grown on the farm. This infuriated customers as well as members of the general public, many of whom spoke out against what was seen as an overly strict interpretation of the law. The scandal further escalated with a series of hearings held by agency officials, during which residents called for a reexamination of seed registration laws and demanded greater citizen participation in legal and political matters relating to agriculture. In Peru and Ecuador, genes from heirloom tomato varieties and wild tomato relatives have been the subject of patent claims by the University of Florida. These genes have been investigated for their usefulness in increasing drought and salt tolerance and disease resistance, as well as improving flavor, in commercial tomatoes. The American genomics development company Evolutionary Genomics identified genes found in Galapagos tomatoes that may increase sweetness by up to 25% and as of 2023 has filed an international patent application on the usage of these genes. Native heirloom and landrace crop varieties and their stewards are sometimes subject to theft and biopiracy. Biopiracy may negatively impact communities that grow these heirloom varieties through loss of profits and livelihoods, as well as litigation. One infamous example is the case of Enola bean patent, in which a Texas corporation collected heirloom Mexican varieties of the scarlet runner bean and patented them, and then sued the farmers who had supplied the seeds in the first place to prevent them from exporting their crops to the US. The 'Enola' bean was granted 20-year patent protection in 1999, but subsequently underwent numerous legal challenges on the grounds that the bean was not a novel variety. In 2004, DNA fingerprinting techniques were used to demonstrate that 'Enola' was functionally identical to a yellow bean grown in Mexico known as Azufrado Peruano 87. The case has been widely cited as a prime example of biopiracy and misapplication of patent rights. Native communities in the United States and Mexico have drawn particular attention to the importance of traditional and culturally appropriate seed supplies. The Traditional Native American Farmers Association (TNAFA) is an Indigenous organization aiming to "revitalize traditional agriculture for spiritual and human need" and advocating for traditional methods of growing, preparing, and consuming plants. In concert with other organizations, TNAFA has also drafted a formal Declaration of Seed Sovereignty and worked with legislators to protect Indigenous heritage seeds. Indigenous peoples are also at the forefront of the seed rematriation movement to bring lost seed varieties back to their traditional stewards. Rematriation efforts are frequently directed at institutions such as universities, museums, and seed banks, which may hold Indigenous seeds in their collection that are inaccessible to the communities from which they originate. In 2018, the Seed Savers Exchange, the largest publicly accessible seed bank in the United States, rematriated several heirloom seed varieties back to Indigenous communities. Activism Activism surrounding food justice, farmers' rights, and seed sovereignty frequently overlap with the promotion and usage of heirloom crop varieties. International peasant farmers' organization La Via Campesina is credited with the first usage of the term "food sovereignty" and campaigns for agrarian reform, seed freedom, and farmers' rights. It currently represents more than 150 social movement organizations in 56 countries. Numerous other organizations and collectives worldwide participate in food sovereignty activism, including the US Food Sovereignty Alliance, Food Secure Canada, and the Latin American Seeds Collective in North and South America; the African Center for Biodiversity (ACB), the Coalition for the Protection of African Genetic Heritage (COPAGEN), and the West African Peasant Seed Committee (COASP) in Africa; and the Alliance for Sustainable and Holistic Agriculture (ASHA), Navdanya, and the Southeast Asia Regional Initiatives for Community Empowerment (SEARICE) in Asia. In a 2022 BBC interview, Indian environmental activist and scholar Vandana Shiva stated that "Seed is the source of life. Seed is the source of food. To protect food freedom, we must protect seed freedom." Other writers have pushed back against the promotion and proliferation of heirloom crop varieties, connecting their usage to the impacts of colonialism. Quoting American author and educator Martín Prechtel in his article in The Guardian, Chris Smith writes that To keep seeds alive, clear, strong and open-pollinated, purity as the idea of a single pure race must be understood as the ironic insistence of imperial minds. Writer and journalist Brendan Borrell calls heirloom tomatoes "the tomato equivalent of the pug—that 'purebred' dog with the convoluted nose that snorts and hacks when it tries to catch a breath" and claims that selection for unique size, shape, color, and flavor has hampered disease resistance and hardiness in heirlooms. Future More attention is being put on heirloom plants as a way to restore genetic diversity and feed a growing population while safeguarding the food supply of diverse regions. Specific heirloom plants are often selected, saved, and planted again because of their superior performance in a particular locality. Over many crop cycles these plants develop unique adaptive qualities to their environment, which empowers local communities and can be vital to maintaining the genetic resources of the world. Some debate has occurred regarding the perceived improved nutritional qualities of heirloom varieties compared to modern cultivars. Anecdotal reports claim that heirloom vegetables are more nutritious or contain more vitamins and minerals than more recently developed vegetables. Current research does not support the claim that heirloom varieties generally contain a greater concentration of nutrients; however, nutrient concentration and composition does appear to vary between different cultivars. Nevertheless, heirloom varieties may still contain the genetic basis for useful traits that can be employed to improve modern crops, including for human nutritional qualities. Heirloom varieties are also critical to promoting global crop diversity, which has generally declined since the middle of the 20th century. Heirloom crops may contain genetic material that is distinct from varieties typically grown in monocrop systems, many of which are hybrid varieties. Monocrop systems tend to be vulnerable to disease and pest outbreaks, which can decimate whole industries due to the genetic similarity between plants. Some organizations have employed seed banks and vaults to preserve and protect crop genetics against catastrophic loss. One of the most notable of these seed banks is the Svalbard Global Seed Vault located in Svalbard, Norway, which safeguards approximately 1.2 million seed samples with capacity for up to 4.5 million. Some writers and farmers have criticized the apparent reliance on seed vaults, however, and argue that heirloom and rare varieties are better protected against extinction when actively planted and grown than stored away with no immediate influence on crop genetic diversity. Examples Bhutanese red rice Black rice Heirloom tomato See also Ark of Taste Biodiversity Community gardening History of gardening Association Kokopelli Landrace List of organic gardening and farming topics Local food Orthodox seed Rare breed Recalcitrant seed Seed saving Seedbank Slow Food Kyoyasai, a specific class of Japanese heirloom vegetables originating around Kyoto, Japan. References Further reading External links What is an heirloom vegetable? Heirloom Vegetables from the Home and Garden Information Center at Clemson University FAO/IAEA Programme Mutant Variety Database FDA Statement of Policy - Foods Derived from New Plant Varieties DEFRA - Plant varieties and seeds Document 4::: Icones Plantarum is an extensive series of published volumes of botanical illustration, initiated by Sir William Jackson Hooker. The Latin name of the work means "Illustrations of Plants". The illustrations are drawn from herbarium specimens of Hooker's herbarium, and subsequently the herbarium of Kew Gardens. Hooker was the author of the first ten volumes, produced 1837–1854. His son, Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, was responsible for Volumes XI-XIX (most of Series III). Daniel Oliver was the editor of Volumes XX-XXIV. His successor was William Turner Thiselton-Dyer. The series now comprises forty volumes. References External links Hooker’s Icones Plantarum Kew: Bentham-Moxon Trust, 1851- (incomplete) Icones Plantarum: Or Figures, with Brief Descriptive Characters and Remarks, of New Or Rare Plants, Selected from the Author's Herbarium By William Jackson Hooker, Joseph Dalton Hooker Hooker's Icones Plantarum At: Biodiversity Heritage Library The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is a primary drawback of growing heirloom varieties compared to commercially available hybrid varieties? A. Higher disease resistance B. Greater productivity C. Lower disease resistance D. Increased shelf life Answer:	C. Lower disease resistance
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Heated humidified high-flow therapy, often simply called high flow therapy , is a medical treatment providing respiratory support by delivering a flow of oxygen of up to 60 liters per minute to a patient through a large-bore or high-flow nasal cannula. Primarily studied in neonates, it has also been found effective in some adults to treat hypoxemia and work of breathing issues. The key components of it are a gas blender, heated humidifier, heated circuit, and cannula. History The development of heated humidified high flow started in 1999 with Vapotherm introducing the concept of high flow use with race horses. High flow was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in the early 2000s and used as an alternative to positive airway pressure for treatment of apnea of prematurity in neonates. The term high flow is relative to the size of the patient which is why the flow rate used in children is done by weight as just a few liters can meet the inspiratory demands of a neonate unlike in adults It has since become popular for use in adults for respiratory failure Mechanism The traditional low flow system used for medical gas delivery is the Nasal cannula which is limited to the delivery of 1–6 L/min of oxygen or up to 15 L/min in certain types. This is because even with quiet breathing, the inspiratory flow rate at the nares of an adult usually exceeds 30 L/min. Therefore, the oxygen provided is diluted with room air during inspiration. Being a high flow system means that it meets or exceeds the flow demands of the patient. Oxygenation Since it is a high flow system, it is able to maintain the wearers fraction of inhaled oxygen (FiO2) at the set rate because they shouldn't be entraining ambient air. However, this may not be the case in patients who are poorly compliant with the therapy and are actively breathing through their mouth. Ventilation The flow can wash out some of the dead space in the upper airway. This can reduce slightly the amount of carbon d Document 1::: DreamLab was a volunteer computing Android and iOS app launched in 2015 by Imperial College London and the Vodafone Foundation. It was discontinued on 2nd April 2025. Description The app currently helps to research cancer, COVID-19, new drugs and tropical cyclones. To do this, DreamLab accesses part of the device's processing power, with the user's consent, while the owner is charging their smartphone, to speed up the calculations of the algorithms from Imperial College London. The aim of the tropical cyclone project is to prepare for climate change risks. Other projects aim to find existing drugs and food molecules that could help people with COVID-19 and other diseases. The performance of 100,000 smartphones would reach the annual output of all research computers at Imperial College in just three months, with a nightly runtime of six hours. The app was developed in 2015 by the Garvan Institute of Medical Research in Sydney and the Vodafone Foundation. As of May 2020, the project had over 490,000 registered users. See also Volunteer computing Folding@home BOINC Document 2::: Wind engineering is a subset of mechanical engineering, structural engineering, meteorology, and applied physics that analyzes the effects of wind in the natural and the built environment and studies the possible damage, inconvenience or benefits which may result from wind. In the field of engineering it includes strong winds, which may cause discomfort, as well as extreme winds, such as in a tornado, hurricane or heavy storm, which may cause widespread destruction. In the fields of wind energy and air pollution it also includes low and moderate winds as these are relevant to electricity production and dispersion of contaminants. Wind engineering draws upon meteorology, fluid dynamics, mechanics, geographic information systems, and a number of specialist engineering disciplines, including aerodynamics and structural dynamics. The tools used include atmospheric models, atmospheric boundary layer wind tunnels, and computational fluid dynamics models. Wind engineering involves, among other topics: Wind impact on structures (buildings, bridges, towers) Wind comfort near buildings Effects of wind on the ventilation system in a building Wind climate for wind energy Air pollution near buildings Wind engineering may be considered by structural engineers to be closely related to earthquake engineering and explosion protection. Some sports stadiums such as Candlestick Park and Arthur Ashe Stadium are known for their strong, sometimes swirly winds, which affect the playing conditions. History Wind engineering as a separate discipline can be traced to the UK in the 1960s, when informal meetings were held at the National Physical Laboratory, the Building Research Establishment, and elsewhere. The term "wind engineering" was first coined in 1970. Alan Garnett Davenport was one of the most prominent contributors to the development of wind engineering. He is well known for developing the Alan Davenport wind-loading chain or in short "wind-loading chain" that describes how Document 3::: Moffat Stove Company was a Canadian stove manufacturer that was established in 1892 in Weston, Toronto, Ontario. It manufactured stoves and ranges that have been widely distributed across the continents and even used extensively in Europe and Asia. Moffat Stoves are credited with inventing the first electric ranges for the domestic market. And although the Moffat family sold the business in 1953, stoves and refrigerators continued to be built at the Weston plant until the early 1970s. History Early years and growth The company was started by Thomas Lang Moffat (born in Crossfire, Fife, Scotland in 1836) who emigrated to Canada with his family when he was 5 years old. He started an iron and brass castings company in Dundas, Ontario with a Mr. McCallum. Eventually, he moved to Owen Sound where he got a job as a moulder at the firm of William Kennedy & Sons. In 1882, he moved to Markdale, Ontario where he founded a general engineering and machine shop, T.L. Moffat and Sons. They produced mill machinery, steam engines, pulleys, plows, mangles, and various ornamental castings in iron and brass. Business was slow until the company was persuaded by a local hardware merchant that the future lay in stoves, so they turned their energies to this end, producing their first stove, the "Ploughboy" (which a picture of a man with a plough cast into the door). Soon afterward they set up a long-standing factory in Weston, Ontario, from where their manufactured stoves and ranges became widely distributed across the continents and even used extensively in Europe and Asia. In 1907, T.L. Moffat died, and his eldest son, John King Moffat, took the company reins for the next 23 years. His sister Agnes, who was born in 1905, studied medicine and subsequently became Peterborough's newest female doctor. Her family was apparently not happy with her choice of vocation. Frederick W. Moffat, son of the founder and brother of John King, was credited with at least 3 patents for stove co Document 4::: Wheal Maid (also Wheal Maiden) is a former mine in the Camborne-Redruth-St Day Mining District, 1.5 km east of St Day. Between 1800 and 1840, profits are said to have been up to £200,000. In 1852, the mine was amalgamated with Poldice Mine and Carharrack Mine and worked as St Day United mine. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the mine site was turned into large lagoons and used as a tip for two other nearby mines: Mount Wellington and Wheal Jane. There were suggestions that the mine could be used as a landfill site for rubbish imported from New York and a power plant that would produce up to 40 megawatts of electricity; the concept was opposed by local residents and by Cornwall County Council, with Doris Ansari, the chair of the council's planning committee, saying that the idea "[did] not seem right for Cornwall". The site was bought from Carnon Enterprises by Gwennap District Council for a price of £1 in 2002. An investigation by the Environment Agency that concluded in 2007 found that soil near the mine had high levels of arsenic, copper and zinc contamination and by 2012, it was deemed too hazardous for human activity. The mine gains attention during dry spells when the lagoons dry up and leaving brightly coloured stains on the pit banks and bed. 2014 murder In 2014, a 72-year-old man from Falmouth died at the site after what was initially thought to be a cycling accident. It was later found that the man had been murdered. A 34-year-old was found guilty and sentenced to life and to serve at least 28 years. References The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What was the primary purpose of the DreamLab app developed by Imperial College London and the Vodafone Foundation? A. To entertain users with games B. To research various health issues and climate change C. To improve smartphone battery life D. To provide social networking features Answer:	B. To research various health issues and climate change
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: A solar sibling is a star that formed in the same star cluster as the Sun. Stars that have been proposed as candidate solar siblings include HD 162826, HD 175740, and HD 186302. There is as yet no confirmed solar sibling and studies disagree on the most likely candidates; for example, a 2016 study suggested that previous candidates, including HD 162826 and HD 175740, are unlikely to be solar siblings. A study using Gaia DR2 data published in 2020 found that HD 186302 is unlikely to be a solar sibling, while identifying a new candidate, "Solar Sibling 1", designated 2MASS J19354742+4803549. This star is also known as Kepler-1974 or KOI-7368, and was found in 2022 to be a member of a stellar association that is 40 million years old, much younger than the Sun, so it cannot be a solar sibling. A 2019 study of the comet C/2018 V1 (Machholz–Fujikawa–Iwamoto) found that it may be an interstellar object, and identified two stars it may have originated from (Gaia DR2 1927143514955658880 and 1966383465746413568), which could be candidate solar siblings. This comet is not confirmed to have an interstellar origin and could be a more typical Oort cloud object. References Further reading Document 1::: Medical technology assessment (MTA) is the objective evaluation of a medical technology regarding its safety and performance, its (future) impact on clinical and non-clinical patient outcomes as well as its interactive effects on economical, organizational, social, juridical and ethical aspects of healthcare. Medical technologies are assessed both in absolute terms and in comparison to other (combinations of) medical technologies, procedures, treatments or ‘doing-nothing’. The aim of MTA is to provide objective, high-quality information that relevant stakeholders use for decision-making about for example development, pricing, market access and reimbursement of new medical technologies. As such, MTA is similar to health technology assessment (HTA), except that HTA has a wider scope and may include assessments of for example organizational or financial interventions. The classical approach of MTA is to evaluate technologies after they enter the marketplace. Yet, a growing number of researchers and policy-makers argue that new technologies should be evaluated before they diffuse into routine clinical practice. MTA of biomedical innovations in a very early stage of development could improve health outcomes, minimise wrong investment and prevent social and ethical conflicts. One particular method within the area of early MTA is constructive technology assessment (CTA). CTA is particularly appropriate for the early assessment of dynamic technologies that are implemented under uncertain circumstances. CTA is based on the idea that during the course of technology development, choices are constantly being made about the form, the function, and the use of that technology. Especially in early stages, technologies are not always stable, nor are its specifications and neither is its use, as both technology and environment will mutually influence each other. In recent years, CTA has developed from assessing the (clinical) impact of a new technology to a much broader approach, Document 2::: In mathematics, specifically in control theory, subspace identification (SID) aims at identifying linear time invariant (LTI) state space models from input-output data. SID does not require that the user parametrizes the system matrices before solving a parametric optimization problem and, as a consequence, SID methods do not suffer from problems related to local minima that often lead to unsatisfactory identification results. History SID methods are rooted in the work by the German mathematician Leopold Kronecker (1823–1891). Kronecker showed that a power series can be written as a rational function when the rank of the Hankel operator that has the power series as its symbol is finite. The rank determines the order of the polynomials of the rational function. In the 1960s the work of Kronecker inspired a number of researchers in the area of Systems and Control, like Ho and Kalman, Silverman and Youla and Tissi, to store the Markov parameters of an LTI system into a finite dimensional Hankel matrix and derive from this matrix an (A,B,C) realization of the LTI system. The key observation was that when the Hankel matrix is properly dimensioned versus the order of the LTI system, the rank of the Hankel matrix is the order of the LTI system and the SVD of the Hankel matrix provides a basis of the column space observability matrix and row space of the controllability matrix of the LTI system. Knowledge of this key spaces allows to estimate the system matrices via linear least squares. An extension to the stochastic realization problem where we have knowledge only of the Auto-correlation (covariance) function of the output of an LTI system driven by white noise, was derived by researchers like Akaike. A second generation of SID methods attempted to make SID methods directly operate on input-output measurements of the LTI system in the decade 1985–1995. One such generalization was presented under the name of the Eigensystem Realization Algorithm (ERA) made use of spe Document 3::: In computer architecture, cache coherence is the uniformity of shared resource data that is stored in multiple local caches. In a cache coherent system, if multiple clients have a cached copy of the same region of a shared memory resource, all copies are the same. Without cache coherence, a change made to the region by one client may not be seen by others, and errors can result when the data used by different clients is mismatched. A cache coherence protocol is used to maintain cache coherency. The two main types are snooping and directory-based protocols. Cache coherence is of particular relevance in multiprocessing systems, where each CPU may have its own local cache of a shared memory resource. Overview In a shared memory multiprocessor system with a separate cache memory for each processor, it is possible to have many copies of shared data: one copy in the main memory and one in the local cache of each processor that requested it. When one of the copies of data is changed, the other copies must reflect that change. Cache coherence is the discipline which ensures that the changes in the values of shared operands (data) are propagated throughout the system in a timely fashion. The following are the requirements for cache coherence: Write Propagation Changes to the data in any cache must be propagated to other copies (of that cache line) in the peer caches. Transaction Serialization Reads/Writes to a single memory location must be seen by all processors in the same order. Theoretically, coherence can be performed at the load/store granularity. However, in practice it is generally performed at the granularity of cache blocks. Definition Coherence defines the behavior of reads and writes to a single address location. In a multiprocessor system, consider that more than one processor has cached a copy of the memory location X. The following conditions are necessary to achieve cache coherence: In a read made by a processor P to a location X that follows a write b Document 4::: Pimascovirales is an order of viruses. The term is a portmanteau of a portmanteau of pitho-, irido-, marseille-, and ascoviruses. Families Pimascovirales contains six families, three of which are assigned to a suborder. This taxonomy is shown hereafter: Suborder: Ocovirineae Hydriviridae Orpheoviridae Pithoviridae Families not assigned to a suborder: Ascoviridae Iridoviridae Marseilleviridae References The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What does the 10G-EPON standard primarily support in terms of data transmission rates for upstream and downstream directions? A. 1 Gbit/s upstream and 10 Gbit/s downstream B. 10 Gbit/s upstream and 1 Gbit/s downstream C. 10 Gbit/s in both upstream and downstream directions D. 25 Gbit/s upstream and 10 Gbit/s downstream Answer:	C. 10 Gbit/s in both upstream and downstream directions
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Nestin is a protein that in humans is encoded by the NES gene. Nestin (acronym for neuroepithelial stem cell protein) is a type VI intermediate filament (IF) protein. These intermediate filament proteins are expressed mostly in nerve cells where they are implicated in the radial growth of the axon. Seven genes encode for the heavy (NF-H), medium (NF-M) and light neurofilament (NF-L) proteins, nestin and α-internexin in nerve cells, synemin α and desmuslin/synemin β (two alternative transcripts of the DMN gene) in muscle cells, and syncoilin (also in muscle cells). Members of this group mostly preferentially coassemble as heteropolymers in tissues. Steinert et al. has shown that nestin forms homodimers and homotetramers but does not form IF by itself in vitro. In mixtures, nestin preferentially co-assembles with purified vimentin or the type IV IF protein internexin to form heterodimer coiled-coil molecules. Gene Structurally, nestin has the shortest head domain (N-terminus) and the longest tail domain (C-terminus) of all the IF proteins. Nestin is of high molecular weight (240kDa) with a terminus greater than 500 residues (compared to cytokeratins and lamins with termini less than 50 residues). After subcloning the human nestin gene into plasmid vectors, Dahlstrand et al. determined the nucleotide sequence of all coding regions and parts of the introns. In order to establish the boundaries of the introns, they used the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify a fragment made from human fetal brain cDNA using two primers located in the first and fourth exon, respectively. The resulting 270 base pair (bp) long fragment was then sequenced directly in its entirety, and intron positions precisely located by comparison with the genomic sequence. Putative initiation and stop codons for the human nestin gene were found at the same positions as in the rat gene, in regions where overall similarity was very high. Based on this assumption, the human nestin gene encod Document 1::: The dynamic aperture is the stability region of phase space in a circular accelerator. For hadrons In the case of protons or heavy ion accelerators, (or synchrotrons, or storage rings), there is minimal radiation, and hence the dynamics is symplectic. For long term stability, tiny dynamical diffusion (or Arnold diffusion) can lead an initially stable orbit slowly into an unstable region. This makes the dynamic aperture problem particularly challenging. One may be considering stability over billions of turns. A scaling law for Dynamic aperture vs. number of turns has been proposed by Giovannozzi. For electrons For the case of electrons, the electrons will radiate which causes a damping effect. This means that one typically only cares about stability over thousands of turns. Methods to compute or optimize dynamic aperture The basic method for computing dynamic aperture involves the use of a tracking code. A model of the ring is built within the code that includes an integration routine for each magnetic element. The particle is tracked many turns and stability is determined. In addition, there are other quantities that may be computed to characterize the dynamics, and can be related to the dynamic aperture. One example is the tune shift with amplitude. There have also been other proposals for approaches to enlarge dynamic aperture, such as: References Document 2::: NGC 855 is a star-forming dwarf elliptical galaxy located in the Triangulum constellation. The discovery and a first description (as H 26 613) was realized by William Herschel on 26 October 1786 and the findings made public through his Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars, published the same year. NGC 855's relative velocity to the cosmic microwave background is 343 ± 18 km/s (343 ± 18) km/s, corresponding to a Hubble distance of 5.06 ± 0.44 Mpc (~16.5 million ly). There is some uncertainty about its precise distance since two surface brightness fluctuation measurements give a distance of 9.280 ± 0.636 Mpc (~30.3 million ly), a range outside the Hubble distance determined by the galaxy's redshift survey. Star formation Using infrared data collected from two regions in the center of the galaxy by the Spitzer Space Telescope, astronomers were able to suggest NGC 855 to be a star-forming galaxy. Its HI distribution (Neutral atomic hydrogen emission lines) suggests the star-forming activity might have been triggered by a minor merger. Document 3::: The Palm Foleo (stylised as Folēo) was a planned subnotebook computer that was announced by mobile device manufacturer Palm Inc. on May 30, 2007, and canceled three months later. It was meant to serve as a companion for smartphones including Palm's own Treo line. The device ran on the Linux operating system and featured 256 MB of flash memory and an immediate boot-up feature. The Foleo featured wireless access via Bluetooth and Wi-Fi. Integrated software included an e-mail client which was to be capable of syncing with the Treo E-Mail client, the Opera web browser and the Documents To Go office suite. The client did not send and retrieve mail over the Wi-Fi connection, instead transmitting via synchronization with the companion smartphone. The device was slated to launch in the U.S. in the third quarter of 2007 for a price expected by Palm to be $499 after an introductory $100 rebate. Palm canceled Foleo development on September 4, 2007, with Palm CEO Ed Colligan announcing that the company would return its focus to its core product of smartphones and handheld computers. Soon after the device was canceled, a branch of subnotebooks called netbooks, similar to the Foleo in size and functionality, reached the market. Had it been released, the Foleo would have been the founding device in the category. At the time, Palm was performing poorly in face of heavy competition in the smartphone market. The company's sales did not recover, and it was purchased by information technology giant Hewlett-Packard in April 2010. Software The Foleo was initially reported to run a modified Linux kernel. The kernel was reported as being version 2.6.14-rmk1-pxa1-intc2 ("rmk1" indicates this is the ARM architectural version, "pxa1" indicates it is of the PXA family of Intel/Marvell Technology Group XScale processors, "intc2" is possibly an IRQ handler). On August 7, 2007, Palm announced that it had chosen Wind River Systems to help it customize the standard Linux kernel to make it more s Document 4::: Energy subsidies are government payments that keep the price of energy lower than market rate for consumers or higher than market rate for producers. These subsidies are part of the energy policy of the United States. According to Congressional Budget Office testimony in 2016, an estimated $10.9 billion in tax preferences was directed toward renewable energy, $4.6 billion went to fossil fuels, and $2.7 billion went to energy efficiency or electricity transmission. According to a 2015 estimate by the Obama administration, the US oil industry benefited from subsidies of about $4.6 billion per year. A 2017 study by researchers at Stockholm Environment Institute published in the journal Nature Energy estimated that "tax preferences and other subsidies push nearly half of new, yet-to-be-developed oil investments into profitability, potentially increasing US oil production by 17 billion barrels over the next few decades." Overview of energy subsidies Biofuel subsidies In the United States, biofuel subsidies have been justified on the following grounds: energy independence, reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, improvements in rural development related to biofuel plants and farm income support. Several economists from Iowa State University found "there is no evidence to disprove that the primary objective of biofuel policy is to support farm income." Consumer subsidies Consumers who purchase hybrid vehicles are eligible for a tax credit that depends upon the type of vehicle and the difference in fuel economy in comparison to vehicles of similar weights. These credits range from several hundred dollars to a few thousand dollars. Homeowners can receive a tax credit up to $500 for energy-efficient products like insulation, windows, doors, as well as heating and cooling equipment. Homeowners who install solar electric systems can receive a 30% tax credit and homeowners who install small wind systems can receive a tax credit up to $4000. Geothermal heat pumps also qualif The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the main characteristic that distinguishes Sarcoscypha dudleyi from Sarcoscypha coccinea? A. The color of the fruit body B. The size of the spores C. The presence and number of oil droplets in the spores D. The habitat preferences Answer:	C. The presence and number of oil droplets in the spores
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: In Unified Modeling Language (UML) 2.5.1, an Element is "a constituent of a model. As such, it has the capability of owning other Elements." In UML 2.4.1, an element is an abstract class with no superclass. It is used as the superclass or base class, as known by object-oriented programmers, for all the metaclasses in the UML infrastructure library. All other elements in the UML inherit, directly or indirectly from Element. An Element has a derived composition association to itself to support the general capability for elements to own other elements. As such, it has no additional attributes as part of its specification. Associations An association describes a set of tuples of typed instances. ownedComment: Comment[]: An Element may own, or have associated to it, an arbitrary quantity of comments. A comment is sometimes referred to as a note. The asterisk in brackets is the Comment's multiplicity which means that there can be an arbitrary number of comments owned by an Element. / ownedElement: Element[]: An Element may own an arbitrary quantity of elements. This is called a derived union, symbolized by the forward slash notation. The asterisk in brackets is the Element's multiplicity which means that there can be an arbitrary number of elements owned by an Element. / owner: Element[0..1]: The Element that owns this element. This is called a derived union, symbolized by the forward slash notation. The [0..1] is the owning Element's multiplicity which means that there can only be zero to one owner element. The Element class belongs to the base package in the UML called the Kernel. This is the package that contains the superclasses that make up the superstructure of the UML. Subclasses of Element provide semantics appropriate to the concept they represent. The comments for an Element add no semantics but may represent information useful to the reader of the model. Document 1::: Byssomerulius corium is a common species of crust fungus in the family Irpicaceae. The fungus was first described as Thelephora corium by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon in 1801. Erast Parmasto made it the type species of his newly circumscribed genus Byssomerulius in 1967. Distribution Byssomerulius corium is a highly distributed fungus, and has been recorded in Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, and in South, Central, and North America. References Document 2::: A pattern is a regularity in the world, in human-made design, or in abstract ideas. As such, the elements of a pattern repeat in a predictable manner. A geometric pattern is a kind of pattern formed of geometric shapes and typically repeated like a wallpaper design. Any of the senses may directly observe patterns. Conversely, abstract patterns in science, mathematics, or language may be observable only by analysis. Direct observation in practice means seeing visual patterns, which are widespread in nature and in art. Visual patterns in nature are often chaotic, rarely exactly repeating, and often involve fractals. Natural patterns include spirals, meanders, waves, foams, tilings, cracks, and those created by symmetries of rotation and reflection. Patterns have an underlying mathematical structure; indeed, mathematics can be seen as the search for regularities, and the output of any function is a mathematical pattern. Similarly in the sciences, theories explain and predict regularities in the world. In many areas of the decorative arts, from ceramics and textiles to wallpaper, "pattern" is used for an ornamental design that is manufactured, perhaps for many different shapes of object. In art and architecture, decorations or visual motifs may be combined and repeated to form patterns designed to have a chosen effect on the viewer. Nature Nature provides examples of many kinds of pattern, including symmetries, trees and other structures with a fractal dimension, spirals, meanders, waves, foams, tilings, cracks and stripes. Symmetry Symmetry is widespread in living things. Animals that move usually have bilateral or mirror symmetry as this favours movement. Plants often have radial or rotational symmetry, as do many flowers, as well as animals which are largely static as adults, such as sea anemones. Fivefold symmetry is found in the echinoderms, including starfish, sea urchins, and sea lilies. Among non-living things, snowflakes have striking sixfold symmetry: Document 3::: WISEPA J101905.63+652954.2 (also called WISE 1019+6529) is a binary made up of two cold brown dwarfs. Both brown dwarfs have a late spectral type T. The pair was detected in radio emission, which is pulsed and periodic. The radio emission could, in principle, be powered by the interaction of the binary. WISE 1019+6529 was discovered in 2011 with the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer and spectroscopy from the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility, Palomar and Keck Observatory confirmed it as a T6 or T7-dwarf. A preliminary parallax is published, placing it 24 parsec distant from the Solar System, and it has a proper motion of 150.6 ±1.1 mas/yr. In 2023 a study was published, describing the 144 MHz highly circularly polarised radio emission detected with the Low Frequency Array. The same paper describes observations with Keck adaptive optics, which showed that the brown dwarf is a binary. The researchers find a polar dipole magnetic field strength of 660 ± 300 Gauss for the T5.5 dwarf and 460 ± 210 Gauss for the T5.5 dwarf. The surface magnetic field strength is constrained between 51.4–103 Gauss, which was constrained with cyclotron maser emission and the upper limit of H-alpha luminosity. The radio emission could, in principle, be powered by a binary interaction, if the mass loss rate is ≥25 tonnes per second. The researchers also find that the radio emission is consistent with a Jupiter-like aurora. Document 4::: The Connaissance des temps (English: Knowledge of the Times) is an official yearly publication of astronomical ephemerides in France. Until just after the French Revolution, the title appeared as Connoissance des temps, and for several years afterwards also as Connaissance des tems. Since 1984 it has appeared under the title Ephémérides astronomiques: Annuaire du Bureau des longitudes. History Connaissance des temps is the oldest such publication in the world, published without interruption since 1679 (originally named La Connoissance des Temps ou calendrier et éphémérides du lever & coucher du Soleil, de la Lune & des autres planètes), when the astronomer Jean Picard (1620–1682) obtained from the King the right to create the annual publication. The first eight editors were: 1679–1684: Jean Picard (1620–1682) 1685–1701: Jean Le Fèvre (1650–1706) 1702–1729: (1660–1733) 1730–1734: Louis Godin (1704–1760) 1735–1759: Giovanni Domenico Maraldi (1709–1788) 1760–1775: Joseph Jérôme Lefrançois de Lalande (1732–1807) 1776–1787: Edme-Sébastien Jeaurat (1725–1803) 1788–1794: Pierre Méchain (1744–1804) Other notable astronomers who edited the Connaissance des temps were: Alexis Bouvard (1767–1843) Bureau des Longitudes Rodolphe Radau (1835–1911) Marie Henri Andoyer (1862–1929) Among the other prestigious national astronomical ephemerides, The Nautical Almanac was established in Great Britain in 1767, and the Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch in 1776. Contents The volumes of the Connaissance des temps had two parts: a section of ephemerides, containing various tables articles giving a deeper coverage of various topics, often written by famous astronomers The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the original name given to Byssomerulius corium when it was first described? A. Thelephora corium B. Byssomerulius corium C. Irpicaceae corium D. Christiaan corium Answer:	A. Thelephora corium
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: HD 102117 or Uklun is a star in the southern constellation of Centaurus. With an apparent visual magnitude of 7.47, it is too dim to be seen without binoculars or a small telescope. It is located at a distance of approximately 129 light-years from the Sun based on parallax. HD 102117 is drifting further away with a radial velocity of +50 km/s, having come to within some 692,000 years ago. It has one known planet. The stellar classification of HD 102117 is G6V, which matches the spectrum of an ordinary G-type main-sequence star. It is roughly five billion years old and is spinning with a projected rotational velocity of 0.9 km/s. The star shows only a low level of chromospheric activity and is photometrically stable, meaning it doesn't vary significantly in brightness. It appears metal-enriched, showing a higher abundance of heavy elements compared to the Sun. Planetary system In 2004, the Anglo-Australian Planet Search announced a planet orbiting the star. A short time later the HARPS team also announced the presence of a planet around this star. Both groups detected this planet with the radial velocity method. HD 102117, and its planet HD 102117b, were chosen as part of the 2019 NameExoWorlds campaign organised by the International Astronomical Union, which assigned each country a star and planet to be named. HD 102117 was assigned to Pitcairn Islands. The winning proposal named the star Uklun, from the word aklan 'we/us' in the Pitcairn language, and the planet Leklsullun , from the phrase lekl salan 'child/children' (lit. 'little person'). References Document 1::: The Alegría watermill is located in Córdoba, Spain, on the right bank of the Guadalquivir River, downstream of San Rafael bridge on the weir called Azuda de la Alhadra. The watermill houses the Roberto Wagner Museum of Paleobotany, which is part of the Botanical Garden of Córdoba. The mill is one of the eleven so-called Mills of the Guadalquivir, which were declared a Bien de Interés Cultural in 2009. The watermill building The Alegría watermill is on the right bank of the Guadalquivir. The water mill proper is between two spillways in the weir. The spillway on the southwest separates it from the rest of the weir. The spillway on the northwest side can be crossed over a small bridge and leads to a renaissance fulling mill which was part of the Alegría complex. In the early twentieth century, two floors were added to the building. This masks the original Moorish building. The warehouses and structure are what remains of the previous mill. The façade shows three levels. The lower level is made of stone, the two above it are brick and date from the 19th century. The mill building consists of a large rectangular central room. It is roughly aligned from west to east, and has an apsidal ceiling on the east side. The room is divided into three rectangular spaces, roughly aligned north to south, i.e. in line with the course of the river. Each of these three spaces was over two channels that could move a separate wheel. Each wheel could turn two grinding stones. Four of these have been preserved in this area. The third space has lost its stones and now shows the shaft that remains from a water turbine. The fulling mill is separated from the main mill by a spillway channel. The entrance door of the fulling mill can be dated to the sixteenth century. From 1910 to 1913, the spilling way that separated the two mills was vaulted, and so the original mill and the fulling mill were joined by two upper floors of brick. History Background The weir on which the Alegría mill Document 2::: Cell unroofing encompasses various methods used to isolate and expose the cell membrane of cells. Unlike the more common membrane extraction protocols performed with multiple steps of centrifugation (which aims to separate the membrane fraction from a cell lysate), cell unroofing aims to tear and preserve patches of the plasma membrane to perform in situ experiments using microscopy and biomedical spectroscopy. History The first observation of the bi-layer cell membrane was made in 1959 on a cell section using the electron microscope. However, the first micrograph of the internal side of a cell dates back to 1977 by M.V. Nermut. Professor John Heuser made substantial contributions in the field, imaging the detailed internal structure of the membrane and the cytoskeleton bound to it with extensive use of the electron microscope. It was only after the development of atomic force microscope operated in liquid that it became possible to image cell membranes in almost-physiological conditions and to test their mechanical properties. Methods Freeze-fracturing of monolayers Quick-freeze deep-etch electron microscopy and cryofixation Sonication for atomic force microscopy Single-cell unroofing See also Sonoporation Lysis Document 3::: In botanical geography, the Saharo-Arabian region is a floristic region in the Holarctic kingdom, covered by hot deserts, semideserts and savanna. The region occupies the temperate parts of the Sahara desert, Sinai Peninsula, Arabian Peninsula (geographically defined), Southern Palestine and Lower Mesopotamia. The region was proposed by Armen Takhtajan. Flora Plant life usually consists of only a handful of species, which are mostly found in natural depressions in the ground or and rocky pavements. Much of its flora is shared with the neighboring Mediterranean and Irano-Turanian regions of the Holarctic kingdom and Sudano-Zambezian region of the Paleotropical kingdom. However, about a quarter of the species, especially in the families Asteraceae, Brassicaceae and Chenopodiaceae, are endemic. Some of the endemic genera are Nucularia, Fredolia, Agathophora, Muricaria, Nasturtiopsis, Zilla, Oudneya, Foleyola, Lonchophora, Gymnarrhena, Lifago. References Document 4::: The following is a list of ecoregions in Rwanda, according to the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF). Terrestrial ecoregions By major habitat type: Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Albertine Rift montane forests Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands Victoria Basin forest–savanna mosaic Montane grasslands and shrublands Ruwenzori-Virunga montane moorlands Freshwater ecoregions By bioregion: Great Lakes Lake Victoria Basin The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the primary distinguishing feature of Lepiota babruzalka that can be observed microscopically? A. The length of the stem B. The color of the gills C. The variably shaped cystidia on the edges of the gills D. The size of the cap Answer:	C. The variably shaped cystidia on the edges of the gills
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: The Çocuktepe Dam is a gravity dam under construction on the Güzeldere River (a tributary of the Great Zab) in Çukurca district of Hakkâri Province, southeast Turkey. Under contract from Turkey's State Hydraulic Works, İnelsan İnşaat began construction on the dam in 2008 and a completion date has not been announced. Construction on the Gölgeliyamaç Dam immediately upstream began in 2008 as well but was cancelled due to poor geology. The reported purpose of the dam is water storage and it can also support a hydroelectric power station in the future. Another purpose of the dam which has been widely reported in the Turkish press is to reduce the freedom of movement of militants of the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK). Blocking and flooding valleys in close proximity to the Iraq–Turkey border is expected to help curb cross-border PKK smuggling and deny caves in which ammunition can be stored. A total of 11 dams along the border; seven in Şırnak Province and four in Hakkâri Province were implemented for this purpose. In Hakkâri are the Gölgeliyamaç (since cancelled) and Çocuktepe Dams on the Güzeldere River and the Aslandağ and Beyyurdu Dams on the Bembo River. In Şırnak there is the Silopi Dam on the Hezil River and the Şırnak, Uludere, Balli, Kavşaktepe, Musatepe and Çetintepe Dams on the Ortasu River. Construction was still ongoing as of March 2019. See also List of dams and reservoirs in Turkey References Document 1::: Simple file verification (SFV) is a file format for storing CRC32 checksums of files to verify the integrity of files. SFV is used to verify that a file has not been corrupted, but it does not otherwise verify the file's authenticity. The .sfv file extension is usually used for SFV files. Checksum Files can become corrupted for a variety of reasons, including faulty storage media, errors in transmission, write errors during copying or moving, and software bugs. SFV verification ensures that a file has not been corrupted by comparing the file's CRC hash value to a previously calculated value. Due to the nature of hash functions, hash collisions may result in false positives, but the likelihood of collisions is usually negligible with random corruption. (The number of possible checksums is limited though large, so that with any checksum scheme many files will have the same checksum. However, the probability of a corrupted file having the same checksum as its original is exceedingly small, unless deliberately constructed to maintain the checksum.) SFV cannot be used to verify the authenticity of files, as CRC32 is not a collision resistant hash function; even if the hash sum file is not tampered with, it is computationally trivial for an attacker to cause deliberate hash collisions, meaning that a malicious change in the file is not detected by a hash comparison. In cryptography, this attack is called a collision attack. For this reason, the md5sum and sha1sum utilities are often preferred in Unix operating systems, which use the MD5 and SHA-1 cryptographic hash functions respectively. Even a single-bit error causes both SFV's CRC and md5sum's cryptographic hash to fail, requiring the entire file to be re-fetched. The Parchive and rsync utilities are often preferred for verifying that a file has not been accidentally corrupted in transmission, since they can correct common small errors with a much shorter download. Despite the weaknesses of the SFV format, it is Document 2::: Indirect DNA damage occurs when a UV-photon is absorbed in the human skin by a chromophore that does not have the ability to convert the energy into harmless heat very quickly. Molecules that do not have this ability have a long-lived excited state. This long lifetime leads to a high probability for reactions with other molecules—so-called bimolecular reactions. Melanin and DNA have extremely short excited state lifetimes in the range of a few femtoseconds (10−15s). The excited state lifetime of compounds used in sunscreens such as menthyl anthranilate, avobenzone or padimate O is 1,000 to 1,000,000 times longer than that of melanin, and therefore they may cause damage to living cells that come in contact with them. The molecule that originally absorbs the UV-photon is called a "chromophore". Bimolecular reactions can occur either between the excited chromophore and DNA or between the excited chromophore and another species, to produce free radicals and reactive oxygen species. These reactive chemical species can reach DNA by diffusion and the bimolecular reaction damages the DNA (oxidative stress). Unlike direct DNA damage which causes sunburn, indirect DNA damage does not result in any warning signal or pain in the human body. The bimolecular reactions that cause the indirect DNA damage are illustrated in the figure: 1O2 is reactive harmful singlet oxygen: Location of the damage Unlike direct DNA damage, which occurs in areas directly exposed to UV-B light, reactive chemical species can travel through the body and affect other areas—possibly even inner organs. The traveling nature of the indirect DNA damage can be seen in the fact that the malignant melanoma can occur in places that are not directly illuminated by the sun—in contrast to basal-cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma, which appear only on directly illuminated locations on the body. References Document 3::: International Ideographs Core (IICore) is a subset of up to ten thousand CJK Unified Ideographs characters, which can be implemented on devices with limited memories and capability that make it not feasible to implement the full ISO 10646/Unicode standard. History The IICore subset was initially raised in the 21st meeting of the Ideographic Rapporteur Group (IRG) in Guilin during 17th-20 November in 2003, and is subsequently passed in the group's 22nd meeting in Chengdu in May 2004. See also Chinese character encoding Han unification References Document 4::: In computational complexity theory and quantum computing, Simon's problem is a computational problem that is proven to be solved exponentially faster on a quantum computer than on a classical (that is, traditional) computer. The quantum algorithm solving Simon's problem, usually called Simon's algorithm, served as the inspiration for Shor's algorithm. Both problems are special cases of the abelian hidden subgroup problem, which is now known to have efficient quantum algorithms. The problem is set in the model of decision tree complexity or query complexity and was conceived by Daniel R. Simon in 1994. Simon exhibited a quantum algorithm that solves Simon's problem exponentially faster with exponentially fewer queries than the best probabilistic (or deterministic) classical algorithm. In particular, Simon's algorithm uses a linear number of queries and any classical probabilistic algorithm must use an exponential number of queries. This problem yields an oracle separation between the complexity classes BPP (bounded-error classical query complexity) and BQP (bounded-error quantum query complexity). This is the same separation that the Bernstein–Vazirani algorithm achieves, and different from the separation provided by the Deutsch–Jozsa algorithm, which separates P and EQP. Unlike the Bernstein–Vazirani algorithm, Simon's algorithm's separation is exponential. Because this problem assumes the existence of a highly-structured "black box" oracle to achieve its speedup, this problem has little practical value. However, without such an oracle, exponential speedups cannot easily be proven, since this would prove that P is different from PSPACE. Problem description Simon's problem considers access to a function as implemented by a black box or an oracle. This function is promised to be either a one-to-one function, or a two-to-one function; if is two-to-one, it is furthermore promised that two inputs and evaluate to the same value if and only if and differ in a The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the primary purpose of the International Ideographs Core (IICore)? A. To provide a complete set of CJK Unified Ideographs characters B. To create a subset of characters for devices with limited capabilities C. To replace the ISO 10646/Unicode standard entirely D. To standardize all Chinese character encodings Answer:	B. To create a subset of characters for devices with limited capabilities
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Electrical/Electronics engineering technology (EET) is an engineering technology field that implements and applies the principles of electrical engineering. Like electrical engineering, EET deals with the "design, application, installation, manufacturing, operation or maintenance of electrical/electronic(s) systems." However, EET is a specialized discipline that has more focus on application, theory, and applied design, and implementation, while electrical engineering may focus more of a generalized emphasis on theory and conceptual design. Electrical/Electronic engineering technology is the largest branch of engineering technology and includes a diverse range of sub-disciplines, such as applied design, electronics, embedded systems, control systems, instrumentation, telecommunications, and power systems. Education Accreditation The Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) is the recognized organization for accrediting both undergraduate engineering and engineering technology programs in the United States. Coursework EET curricula can vary widely by institution type, degree type, program objective, and expected student outcome. Each year after, however, ABET publishes a set of minimum criteria that a given EET program (either associate degree or bachelor's degree) must meet in order to maintain its ABET accreditation. These criteria may be classified as either general criteria, which apply to all ABET accredited programs, or as program criteria, which apply to discipline-specific criteria. Associate degree Associate degree programs emphasize the practical field knowledge that is needed to maintain or troubleshoot existing electrical/electronic systems or to build and test new design prototypes. Discipline-specific program outcomes include the application of circuit analysis and design, analog and digital electronics, computer programming, associated software, and relevant engineering standards Coursework must be at a minimum algebra and trigo Document 1::: In particle physics, the crypton is a hypothetical superheavy particle, thought to exist in a hidden sector of string theory. It has been proposed as a candidate particle to explain the dark matter content of the universe. Cryptons arising in the hidden sector of a superstring-derived flipped SU(5) GUT model have been shown to be metastable with a lifetime exceeding the age of the universe. Their slow decays may provide a source for the ultra-high-energy cosmic rays (UHECR). References Document 2::: The Hong Kong International Medical Devices and Supplies Fair is a trade fair organised by the Hong Kong Trade Development Council, held annually at the Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre. The 2009 fair attracted over 150 exhibitors from 12 countries and regions. Several themed zones which include Medical Device, Medical Supplies and Disposables, and Tech Exchange help buyers connect with the right suppliers. Major exhibit categories Accident and Emergency Equipment Building Technology and Hospital Furniture Chinese Medical Devices Communication, Systems and Information Technology Dental Equipment and Supplies Diagnostics Electromedical Equipment / Medical Technology Laboratory Equipment Medical Components and Materials Medical Supplies and Disposables Physiotherapy / Orthopaedic / Rehabilitation Technology Textiles Document 3::: An upper tropospheric cyclonic vortex is a vortex, or a circulation with a definable center, that usually moves slowly from east-northeast to west-southwest and is prevalent across Northern Hemisphere's warm season. Its circulations generally do not extend below in altitude, as it is an example of a cold-core low. A weak inverted wave in the easterlies is generally found beneath it, and it may also be associated with broad areas of high-level clouds. Downward development results in an increase of cumulus cloudy and the appearance of circulation at ground level. In rare cases, a warm-core cyclone can develop in its associated convective activity, resulting in a tropical cyclone and a weakening and southwest movement of the nearby upper tropospheric cyclonic vortex. Symbiotic relationships can exist between tropical cyclones and the upper level lows in their wake, with the two systems occasionally leading to their mutual strengthening. When they move over land during the warm season, an increase in monsoon rains occurs History of research Using charts of mean 200-hectopascal circulation for July through August (located above sea level) to locate the circumpolar troughs and ridges, trough lines extend over the eastern and central North Pacific and over the North Atlantic. Case studies of upper tropospheric cyclones in the Atlantic and Pacific have been performed by using airplane reports (winds, temperatures and heights), radiosonde data, geostationary satellite cloud imagery, and cloud-tracked winds throughout the troposphere. It was determined they were the origin of an upper tropospheric cold-core lows, or cut-off lows. Characteristics The tropical upper tropospheric cyclone has a cold core, meaning it is stronger aloft than at the Earth's surface, or stronger in areas of the troposphere with lower pressures. This is explained by the thermal wind relationship. It also means that a pool of cold air aloft is associated with the feature. If both an upper Document 4::: A cascade refrigeration cycle is a multi-stage thermodynamic cycle. An example two-stage process is shown at right. (Bottom on mobile) The cascade cycle is often employed for devices such as ULT freezers. In a cascade refrigeration system, two or more vapor-compression cycles with different refrigerants are used. The evaporation-condensation temperatures of each cycle are sequentially lower with some overlap to cover the total temperature drop desired, with refrigerants selected to work efficiently in the temperature range they cover. The low temperature system removes heat from the space to be cooled using an evaporator, and transfers it to a heat exchanger that is cooled by the evaporation of the refrigerant of the high temperature system. Alternatively, a liquid-to-liquid or similar heat exchanger may be used instead. The high-temperature system transfers heat to a conventional condenser that carries the entire heat output of the system and may be passive, fan, or water-cooled. Cascade cycles may be separated by either being sealed in separated loops or in what is referred to as an "auto-cascade", where the gases are compressed as a mixture but separated as one refrigerant condenses into a liquid while the other continues as a gas through the rest of the cycle. Although an auto-cascade introduces several constraints on the design and operating conditions of the system that may reduce the efficiency, it is often used in small systems due to only requiring a single compressor or in cryogenic systems as it reduces the need for high-efficiency heat exchangers to prevent the compressors leaking heat into the cryogenic cycles. Both types can be used in the same system, generally with the separate cycles being the first stage(s) and the auto-cascade being the last stage. Peltier coolers may also be cascaded into a multi-stage system to achieve lower temperatures. Here, the hot side of the first Peltier cooler is cooled by the cold side of the second Peltier cooler, w The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is a "farm dam" as described in the text? A. A type of plant B. A water reservoir with a barrier C. A folk song D. An excavation site Answer:	B. A water reservoir with a barrier
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: A lipoprotein is a biochemical assembly whose primary function is to transport hydrophobic lipid (also known as fat) molecules in water, as in blood plasma or other extracellular fluids. They consist of a triglyceride and cholesterol center, surrounded by a phospholipid outer shell, with the hydrophilic portions oriented outward toward the surrounding water and lipophilic portions oriented inward toward the lipid center. A special kind of protein, called apolipoprotein, is embedded in the outer shell, both stabilising the complex and giving it a functional identity that determines its role. Plasma lipoprotein particles are commonly divided into five main classes, based on size, lipid composition, and apolipoprotein content. They are, in increasing size order: HDL, LDL, IDL, VLDL and chylomicrons. Subgroups of these plasma particles are primary drivers or modulators of atherosclerosis. Many enzymes, transporters, structural proteins, antigens, adhesins, and toxins are sometimes also classified as lipoproteins, since they are formed by lipids and proteins. Scope Transmembrane lipoproteins Some transmembrane proteolipids, especially those found in bacteria, are referred to as lipoproteins; they are not related to the lipoprotein particles that this article is about. Such transmembrane proteins are difficult to isolate, as they bind tightly to the lipid membrane, often require lipids to display the proper structure, and can be water-insoluble. Detergents are usually required to isolate transmembrane lipoproteins from their associated biological membranes. Plasma lipoprotein particles Because fats are insoluble in water, they cannot be transported on their own in extracellular water, including blood plasma. Instead, they are surrounded by a hydrophilic external shell that functions as a transport vehicle. The role of lipoprotein particles is to transport fat molecules, such as triglycerides, phospholipids, and cholesterol within the extracellular water of the body to all the cells and tissues of the body. The proteins included in the external shell of these particles, called apolipoproteins, are synthesized and secreted into the extracellular water by both the small intestine and liver cells. The external shell also contains phospholipids and cholesterol. All cells use and rely on fats and cholesterol as building blocks to create the multiple membranes that cells use both to control internal water content and internal water-soluble elements and to organize their internal structure and protein enzymatic systems. The outer shell of lipoprotein particles have the hydrophilic groups of phospholipids, cholesterol, and apolipoproteins directed outward. Such characteristics make them soluble in the salt-water-based blood pool. Triglycerides and cholesteryl esters are carried internally, shielded from the water by the outer shell. The kind of apolipoproteins contained in the outer shell determines the functional identity of the lipoprotein particles. The interaction of these apolipoproteins with enzymes in the blood, with each other, or with specific proteins on the surfaces of cells, determines whether triglycerides and cholesterol will be added to or removed from the lipoprotein transport particles. Characterization in human plasma Structure Lipoproteins are complex particles that have a central hydrophobic core of non-polar lipids, primarily cholesteryl esters and triglycerides. This hydrophobic core is surrounded by a hydrophilic membrane consisting of phospholipids, free cholesterol, and apolipoproteins. Plasma lipoproteins, found in blood plasma, are typically divided into five main classes based on size, lipid composition, and apolipoprotein content: HDL, LDL, IDL, VLDL and chylomicrons. Functions Metabolism The handling of lipoprotein particles in the body is referred to as lipoprotein particle metabolism. It is divided into two pathways, exogenous and endogenous, depending in large part on whether the lipoprotein particles in question are composed chiefly of dietary (exogenous) lipids or whether they originated in the liver (endogenous), through de novo synthesis of triglycerides. The hepatocytes are the main platform for the handling of triglycerides and cholesterol; the liver can also store certain amounts of glycogen and triglycerides. While adipocytes are the main storage cells for triglycerides, they do not produce any lipoproteins. Exogenous pathway Bile emulsifies fats contained in the chyme, then pancreatic lipase cleaves triglyceride molecules into two fatty acids and one 2-monoacylglycerol. Enterocytes readily absorb the small molecules from the chymus. Inside of the enterocytes, fatty acids and monoacylglycerides are transformed again into triglycerides. Then these lipids are assembled with apolipoprotein B-48 into nascent chylomicrons. These particles are then secreted into the lacteals in a process that depends heavily on apolipoprotein B-48. As they circulate through the lymphatic vessels, nascent chylomicrons bypass the liver circulation and are drained via the thoracic duct into the bloodstream. In the blood stream, nascent chylomicron particles interact with HDL particles, resulting in HDL donation of apolipoprotein C-II and apolipoprotein E to the nascent chylomicron. The chylomicron at this stage is then considered mature. Via apolipoprotein C-II, mature chylomicrons activate lipoprotein lipase (LPL), an enzyme on endothelial cells lining the blood vessels. LPL catalyzes the hydrolysis of triglycerides that ultimately releases glycerol and fatty acids from the chylomicrons. Glycerol and fatty acids can then be absorbed in peripheral tissues, especially adipose and muscle, for energy and storage. The hydrolyzed chylomicrons are now called chylomicron remnants. The chylomicron remnants continue circulating the bloodstream until they interact via apolipoprotein E with chylomicron remnant receptors, found chiefly in the liver. This interaction causes the endocytosis of the chylomicron remnants, which are subsequently hydrolyzed within lysosomes. Lysosomal hydrolysis releases glycerol and fatty acids into the cell, which can be used for energy or stored for later use. Endogenous pathway The liver is the central platform for the handling of lipids: it is able to store glycerols and fats in its cells, the hepatocytes. Hepatocytes are also able to create triglycerides via de novo synthesis. They also produce the bile from cholesterol. The intestines are responsible for absorbing cholesterol. They transfer it over into the blood stream. In the hepatocytes, triglycerides and cholesteryl esters are assembled with apolipoprotein B-100 to form nascent VLDL particles. Nascent VLDL particles are released into the bloodstream via a process that depends upon apolipoprotein B-100. In the blood stream, nascent VLDL particles bump with HDL particles; as a result, HDL particles donate apolipoprotein C-II and apolipoprotein E to the nascent VLDL particle. Once loaded with apolipoproteins C-II and E, the nascent VLDL particle is considered mature. VLDL particles circulate and encounter LPL expressed on endothelial cells. Apolipoprotein C-II activates LPL, causing hydrolysis of the VLDL particle and the release of glycerol and fatty acids. These products can be absorbed from the blood by peripheral tissues, principally adipose and muscle. The hydrolyzed VLDL particles are now called VLDL remnants or intermediate-density lipoproteins (IDLs). VLDL remnants can circulate and, via an interaction between apolipoprotein E and the remnant receptor, be absorbed by the liver, or they can be further hydrolyzed by hepatic lipase. Hydrolysis by hepatic lipase releases glycerol and fatty acids, leaving behind IDL remnants, called low-density lipoproteins (LDL), which contain a relatively high cholesterol content (). LDL circulates and is absorbed by the liver and peripheral cells. Binding of LDL to its target tissue occurs through an interaction between the LDL receptor and apolipoprotein B-100 on the LDL particle. Absorption occurs through endocytosis, and the internalized LDL particles are hydrolyzed within lysosomes, releasing lipids, chiefly cholesterol. Possible role in oxygen transport Plasma lipoproteins may carry oxygen gas. This property is due to the crystalline hydrophobic structure of lipids, providing a suitable environment for O2 solubility compared to an aqueous medium. Role in inflammation Inflammation, a biological system response to stimuli such as the introduction of a pathogen, has an underlying role in numerous systemic biological functions and pathologies. This is a useful response by the immune system when the body is exposed to pathogens, such as bacteria in locations that will prove harmful, but can also have detrimental effects if left unregulated. It has been demonstrated that lipoproteins, specifically HDL, have important roles in the inflammatory process. When the body is functioning under normal, stable physiological conditions, HDL has been shown to be beneficial in several ways. LDL contains apolipoprotein B (apoB), which allows LDL to bind to different tissues, such as the artery wall if the glycocalyx has been damaged by high blood sugar levels. If oxidised, the LDL can become trapped in the proteoglycans, preventing its removal by HDL cholesterol efflux. Normal functioning HDL is able to prevent the process of oxidation of LDL and the subsequent inflammatory processes seen after oxidation. Lipopolysaccharide, or LPS, is the major pathogenic factor on the cell wall of Gram-negative bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria has a similar component named Lipoteichoic acid, or LTA. HDL has the ability to bind LPS and LTA, creating HDL-LPS complexes to neutralize the harmful effects in the body and clear the LPS from the body. HDL also has significant roles interacting with cells of the immune system to modulate the availability of cholesterol and modulate the immune response. Under certain abnormal physiological conditions such as system infection or sepsis, the major components of HDL become altered, The composition and quantity of lipids and apolipoproteins are altered as compared to normal physiological conditions, such as a decrease in HDL cholesterol (HDL-C), phospholipids, apoA-I (a major lipoprotein in HDL that has been shown to have beneficial anti-inflammatory properties), and an increase in Serum amyloid A. This altered composition of HDL is commonly referred to as acute-phase HDL in an acute-phase inflammatory response, during which time HDL can lose its ability to inhibit the oxidation of LDL. In fact, this altered composition of HDL is associated with increased mortality and worse clinical outcomes in patients with sepsis. Classification By density Lipoproteins may be classified as five major groups, listed from larger and lower density to smaller and higher density. Lipoproteins are larger and less dense when the fat to protein ratio is increased. They are classified on the basis of electrophoresis, ultracentrifugation and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy via the Vantera Analyzer. Chylomicrons carry triglycerides (fat) from the intestines to the liver, to skeletal muscle, and to adipose tissue. Very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) carry (newly synthesised) triglycerides from the liver to adipose tissue. Intermediate-density lipoproteins (IDL) are intermediate between VLDL and LDL. They are not usually detectable in the blood when fasting. Low-density lipoproteins (LDL) carry 3,000 to 6,000 fat molecules (phospholipids, cholesterol, triglycerides, etc.) around the body. LDL particles are sometimes referred to as "bad" lipoprotein because concentrations of two kinds of LDL (sd-LDL and LPA), correlate with atherosclerosis progression. In healthy individuals, most LDL is large and buoyant (lb LDL). large buoyant LDL (lb LDL) particles small dense LDL (sd LDL) particles Lipoprotein(a) (LPA) is a lipoprotein particle of a certain phenotype High-density lipoproteins (HDL) collect fat molecules from the body's cells/tissues and take them back to the liver. HDLs are sometimes referred to as "good" lipoprotein because higher concentrations correlate with low rates of atherosclerosis progression and/or regression. For young healthy research subjects, ~70 kg (154 lb), these data represent averages across individuals studied, percentages represent % dry weight: However, these data are not necessarily reliable for any one individual or for the general clinical population. Alpha and beta It is also possible to classify lipoproteins as "alpha" and "beta", according to the classification of proteins in serum protein electrophoresis. This terminology is sometimes used in describing lipid disorders such as abetalipoproteinemia. Subdivisions Lipoproteins, such as LDL and HDL, can be further subdivided into subspecies isolated through a variety of methods. These are subdivided by density or by the protein contents/ proteins they carry. While the research is currently ongoing, researchers are learning that different subspecies contain different apolipoproteins, proteins, and lipid contents between species which have different physiological roles. For example, within the HDL lipoprotein subspecies, a large number of proteins are involved in general lipid metabolism. However, it is being elucidated that HDL subspecies also contain proteins involved in the following functions: homeostasis, fibrinogen, clotting cascade, inflammatory and immune responses, including the complement system, proteolysis inhibitors, acute-phase response proteins, and the LPS-binding protein, heme and iron metabolism, platelet regulation, vitamin binding and general transport. Research High levels of lipoprotein(a) are a significant risk factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases via mechanisms associated with inflammation and thrombosis. The links of mechanisms between different lipoprotein isoforms and risk for cardiovascular diseases, lipoprotein synthesis, regulation, and metabolism, and related risks for genetic diseases are under active research, as of 2022. Document 1::: Londina Illustrata. Graphic and Historic Memorials of Monasteries, Churches, Chapels, Schools, Charitable Foundations, Palaces, Halls, Courts, Processions, Places of Early Amusement and Modern & Present Theatres, In the Cities and Suburbs of London & Westminster was a book published in two volumes by Robert Wilkinson in 1819 & 1825, that had initially been released with William Herbert as groups of engravings between 1808 and 1819 which featured topographical illustrations by some of the foremost engravers and illustrators of the day, of the cities of London and Westminster, the county of Middlesex and some areas south of the River Thames, then in Surrey, such as Southwark. Most of the plates carry names of the draughtsman and engraver. A few early artists are included such as Wenceslaus Hollar. More recent draughtsmen included Robert Blemmell Schnebbelie, Frederick Nash, William Capon, George Jones, H. Gardner, George Shepherd, William Goodman, C.J.M. Whichelo, John Carter, Fellows, C. Westmacott, E. Burney, Bartholomew Howlett, Thomas H. Shepherd, Banks, Ravenhill, William Oram. Engravers include James Stow, T. Dale, Bartholomew Howlett, John Whichelo, W. Wise, Samuel Rawle, T. Bourne, H. Cook, M. Springsguth, Wenceslaus Hollar, Joseph Skelton, Israel Silvestre, Richard Sawyer, S. Springsguth junr., Taylor. Document 2::: Albert Bijaoui (born in Monastir in 1943) is a French astronomer, former student of the Ecole Polytechnique (X 1962), renowned in image processing in astrophysics and its application in cosmology, he then prepared his PhD thesis at the Paris Observatory, under the supervision of André Lallemand. He defended his thesis at the Université Denis Diderot (Paris VII) in March 1971. He has been a corresponding member of the French Academy of sciences since 1997. Biography Trainee then Research Associate at the CNRS at the Paris Observatory, then at the Nice Observatory, he became an Astronomer at the Nice Observatory in 1972. He is Honorary Astronomer at the Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur since 2015. He was Director of the Centre de Dépouillement des Clichés Astronomiques at the Institut National d'Astronomie et de Géophysique between 1973 and 1981. He was also director of the Cassiopeia laboratory (UMR CNRS/OCA) between 2004 and 2007. He experimented with André Lallemand's electronic camera in 1970 at the 1.93 m telescope at the Haute-Provence Observatory. The asteroid Bijaoui was named in his honour. Scientific work His research work has focused on various themes related to astronomical imaging. During the preparation of his thesis, he contributed to the development of electronography with the study and interpretation of the properties of André Lallemand's electronic camera. In parallel, he was involved in its exploitation for astrophysical purposes. With the creation in 1973 of the Centre de Dépouillement des Clichés Astronomiques at Nice Observatory, he was involved in the development of new methods for the analysis of astrophysical data and in the creation of software to exploit them for the French astronomical community. A system for the analysis of astronomical images has resulted. It will be widely disseminated in the astronomical community. With the commissioning of INAG's Schmidt telescope on the Calern plateau near Caussols in the Alpes-Maritimes, INAG ha Document 3::: The Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer (SMMR) [pronounced simmer] was a five-frequency microwave radiometer flown on the Seasat and Nimbus 7 satellites. Both were launched in 1978, with the Seasat mission lasting less than six months until failure of the primary bus. The Nimbus 7 SMMR lasted from 25 October 1978 until 20 August 1987. It measured dual-polarized microwave radiances, at 6.63, 10.69, 18.0, 21.0, and 37.0 GHz, from the Earth's atmosphere and surface. Its primary legacy has been the creation of areal sea-ice climatologies for the Arctic and Antarctic. The final few months of operation were considerably fortuitous as they allowed the calibration of the radiometers and their products with the first results from the SSMI. References Jezek, K.C., C. Merry, D. Cavalieri, S.Grace, J. Bedner, D. Wilson and D. Lampkin 1991: Comparison between SMMR and SSM/I passive microwave data collected over the Antarctic Ice Sheet. Byrd Polar Research Center, The Ohio State university, Columbus, OH., BPRC Technical Report Number 91-03, . External links http://nsidc.org/data/nsidc-0071.html https://web.archive.org/web/20060930044535/http://podaac.jpl.nasa.gov:2031/SENSOR_DOCS/smmr.html IEEE Document 4::: In mathematics, the Tonelli–Hobson test gives sufficient criteria for a function ƒ on R2 to be an integrable function. It is often used to establish that Fubini's theorem may be applied to ƒ. It is named for Leonida Tonelli and E. W. Hobson. More precisely, the Tonelli–Hobson test states that if ƒ is a real-valued measurable function on R2, and either of the two iterated integrals or is finite, then ƒ is Lebesgue-integrable on R2. References The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the primary function of lipoproteins in the body? A. To transport oxygen in the blood B. To transport hydrophobic lipid molecules in water C. To provide structural support to cells D. To store energy in muscle tissues Answer:	B. To transport hydrophobic lipid molecules in water
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: The Mandarin paradox is an ethical parable used to illustrate the difficulty of fulfilling moral obligations when moral punishment is unlikely or impossible, leading to moral disengagement. It has been used to underscore the fragility of ethical standards when moral agents are separated by physical, cultural, or other distance, especially as facilitated by globalization. It was first posed by French writer Chateaubriand in "The Genius of Christianity" (1802): I ask my own heart, I put to myself this question: "If thou couldst by a mere wish kill a fellow-creature in China, and inherit his fortune in Europe, with the supernatural conviction that the fact would never be known, wouldst thou consent to form such a wish?" The paradox is famously used to foreshadow the character development of the arriviste Eugène de Rastignac in Balzac's novel Père Goriot. Rastignac asks Bianchon if he recalls the paradox, to which Bianchon first replies that he is "at [his] thirty-third mandarin," but then states that he would refuse to take an unknown man's life regardless of circumstance. Rastignac wrongly attributes the quote to Jean-Jacques Rousseau, which propagated to later writings. In fiction The Mandarin (novel) by José Maria de Eça de Queirós Button, Button by Richard Matheson (plus movie The Box (2009 film)) The Count of Monte Cristo by Alexandre Dumas See also Ring of Gyges References Bibliography Champsaur F., Le Mandarin, Paris, P. Ollendorff, 1895‐1896 (réimprimé sous le nom L’Arriviste, Paris, Albin Michel, 1902) Schneider L. Tuer le Mandarin // Le Gaulois, 18 juillet 1926, no 17818 Paul Ronal. Tuer le mandarin // Revue de littirature comparee 10, no. 3 (1930): 520–23. E. Latham // Une cita􀁒on de Rousseau // Mercure de France, 1er juin 1947, no 1006, p. 393. Barbey B. «Tuer le Mandarin» // Mercure de France, 1er septembre 1947, no 1009 Laurence W. Keates. Mysterious Miraculous Mandarin: Origins, Literary Paternity, Implications in Ethics // Revue de Document 1::: TCL NXTPAPER is a display technology developed by TCL Corporation that attempts to replicate the experience of reading on paper to improve eye comfort. TCL claims that the NXTPAPER technology reduces blue light emissions, which are often linked to digital eye strain and sleep disturbances. It also includes anti-glare properties, designed to make screen reading more akin to reading paper, further reducing strain on the eyes. TCL has implemented NXTPAPER technology in various products, including tablets and smartphones. Devices featuring NXTPAPER displays include the TCL NXTPAPER 10s and TCL's 40 NXTPAPER series smartphones. Document 2::: An osculating circle is a circle that best approximates the curvature of a curve at a specific point. It is tangent to the curve at that point and has the same curvature as the curve at that point. The osculating circle provides a way to understand the local behavior of a curve and is commonly used in differential geometry and calculus. More formally, in differential geometry of curves, the osculating circle of a sufficiently smooth plane curve at a given point p on the curve has been traditionally defined as the circle passing through p and a pair of additional points on the curve infinitesimally close to p. Its center lies on the inner normal line, and its curvature defines the curvature of the given curve at that point. This circle, which is the one among all tangent circles at the given point that approaches the curve most tightly, was named circulus osculans (Latin for "kissing circle") by Leibniz. The center and radius of the osculating circle at a given point are called center of curvature and radius of curvature of the curve at that point. A geometric construction was described by Isaac Newton in his Principia: Nontechnical description Imagine a car moving along a curved road on a vast flat plane. Suddenly, at one point along the road, the steering wheel locks in its present position. Thereafter, the car moves in a circle that "kisses" the road at the point of locking. The curvature of the circle is equal to that of the road at that point. That circle is the osculating circle of the road curve at that point. Mathematical description Let be a regular parametric plane curve, where is the arc length (the natural parameter). This determines the unit tangent vector , the unit normal vector , the signed curvature and the radius of curvature at each point for which is composed: Suppose that P is a point on γ where . The corresponding center of curvature is the point Q at distance R along N, in the same direction if k is positive and in the opposite Document 3::: In a low-IF receiver, the radio frequency (RF) signal is mixed down to a non-zero low or moderate intermediate frequency (IF). Typical frequency values are a few megahertz (instead of 33–40 MHz) for TV, and even lower frequencies, typically 120–130 kHz (instead of 10.7–10.8 MHz or 13.45 MHz) in the case of FM radio receivers or 455–470 kHz for AM radio (MW/LW/SW) receivers. Low-IF receiver topologies have many of the desirable properties of zero-IF architectures, but avoid the DC offset and 1/f noise problems. The use of a non-zero IF re-introduces the image issue. However, when there are relatively relaxed image and neighbouring channel rejection requirements they can be satisfied by carefully designed low-IF receivers. Image signal and unwanted blockers can be rejected by quadrature down-conversion (complex mixing) and subsequent filtering. This technique is now widely used in the tiny FM receivers incorporated into MP3 players and mobile phones and is becoming commonplace in both analog and digital TV receiver designs. Using advanced analog- and digital signal processing techniques, cheap, high quality receivers using no resonant circuits at all are now possible. Document 4::: High winds can blow railway trains off tracks and cause accidents. Dangers of high winds High winds can cause problems in a number of ways: blow trains off the tracks blow trains or wagons along the tracks and cause collisions cause cargo to blow off trains which can damage objects outside the railway or which other trains can collide with cause pantographs and overhead wiring to tangle cause trees and other objects to fall onto the railway. Preventative measures Risks from high winds can be reduced by: wind fences akin to snow sheds lower profile of carriages lowered centre of gravity of vehicles reduction in train speed or cancellation, at high winds a wider rail gauge improve overhead wiring with: regulated tension rather than fixed terminations shorter catenary spans solid conductors By country Australia 1928 – 47 wagons blown along line at Tocumwal 1931 – Kandos – wind blows level crossing gates closed in front of motor-cyclist 1943 – Hobart, Tasmania; Concern that wind will blow over doubledeck trams on gauge if top deck enclosed. 2010 – Marla, South Australia; Small tornado blows over train. Austria 1910 – Trieste (now in Italy) – train blown down embankment. China Lanxin High-Speed Railway#Wind shed risk February 28, 2007 – Wind blows 10 passenger rail cars off the track near Turpan, China. Denmark Great Belt Bridge rail accident. On 2 January 2019 a DSB express passenger train is hit by a semi-trailer from a passing cargo train on the western bridge of the Great Belt Fixed Link during Storm Alfrida, killing eight people and injuring 16. Germany Rügen narrow-gauge railway, 20 October 1936: derailment of a train, five injured India One reason for choosing broad gauge in India for greater stability in high winds. Ireland On the night of 30 January 1925, strong winds derailed carriages of a train crossing the Owencarrow Viaduct of the gauge Londonderry and Lough Swilly Railway. Japan Inaho Amarube Viaduct 1895 The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What are the six parameters used to classify a rock mass in the Rock Mass Rating (RMR) system? A. Uniaxial compressive strength, RQD, spacing of discontinuities, condition of discontinuities, groundwater conditions, orientation of discontinuities B. Density, porosity, uniaxial compressive strength, spacing of discontinuities, moisture content, orientation of discontinuities C. Rock quality designation, ground stability, water saturation, temperature, orientation of discontinuities, cohesion D. Uniaxial compressive strength, permeability, spacing of discontinuities, weathering, groundwater conditions, cohesion Answer:	A. Uniaxial compressive strength, RQD, spacing of discontinuities, condition of discontinuities, groundwater conditions, orientation of discontinuities
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Green building certification systems are a set of rating systems and tools that are used to assess a building or a construction project's performance from a sustainability and environmental perspective. Such ratings aim to improve the overall quality of buildings and infrastructures, integrate a life cycle approach in its design and construction, and promote the fulfillment of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals by the construction industry. Buildings that have been assessed and are deemed to meet a certain level of performance and quality, receive a certificate proving this achievement. According to the Global Status Report 2017 published by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in coordination with the International Energy Agency (IEA), buildings and construction activities together contribute to 36% of the global energy use and 39% of carbon dioxide () emissions. Through certification, the associated environmental impacts during the lifecycle of buildings and other infrastructures (typically design, construction, operation and maintenance) could be better understood and mitigated. Currently, more than 100 building certifications systems exist around the world. The most popular building certification models today are BREEAM (UK), LEED (US), and DGNB (Germany). History In the mid-1980s, environmental issues were in the news and public attention due to different international disasters such as the Bhopal disaster (1984), Chernobyl nuclear explosion (1986) and the Exxon Valdez tanker spill (1989). Lifecycle assessments (LCAs) were starting to gain traction from its initial stages in the 1970s to the 1980s and it was in 1991 that the term was first coined. With increasing cognizance of environmental impacts due to human activities, a more comprehensive assessment of buildings utilizing the principles of LCA was much sought after. In 1990, the first Sustainability Assessment Method for buildings, BREEAM was released. In 1993, Rick Fedrizzi, Davi Document 1::: Kappa Ophiuchi, Latinized from κ Ophiuchi, is a star in the equatorial constellation Ophiuchus. It is a suspected variable star with an average apparent visual magnitude of 3.20, making it visible to the naked eye and one of the brighter members of this constellation. Based upon parallax measurements made during the Hipparcos mission, it is situated at a distance of around from Earth. The overall brightness of the star is diminished by 0.11 magnitudes due to extinction from intervening matter along the line of sight. The spectrum of this star matches a stellar classification of K2 III, with the luminosity class of 'III' indicating this is a giant star that has exhausted the hydrogen at its core and evolved away from the main sequence of stars like the Sun. Since 1943, the spectrum of this star has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified. It is 19% more massive than the Sun, but the outer envelope has expanded to around 11 times the Sun's radius. With its enlarged size, it is radiating 51 times the luminosity of the Sun from its outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 4,449 K. This is cooler than the Sun's surface and gives Kappa Ophiuchi the orange-hued glow of a K-type star. Although designated as a variable star, observations with the Hipparcos satellite showed a variation of no more than 0.02 in magnitude. In designating this as a suspected variable star, it is possible that Kappa Ophiuchi was mistaken for Chi Ophiuchi, which is a variable star. Kappa Ophiuchi belongs to an evolutionary branch known as the red clump, making it a clump giant. The surface abundance of elements other than hydrogen and helium, what astronomers term the star's metallicity, is similar to the abundances of those elements in the Sun. Document 2::: Immersion chillers work by circulating a cooling fluid (usually tap water from a garden hose or faucet) through a copper/stainless steel coil that is placed directly in the hot wort. As the cooling fluid runs through the coil it absorbs and carries away heat until the wort has cooled to the desired temperature. The advantage of using a copper or stainless steel immersion chiller is the lower risk of contamination versus other methods when used in an amateur or homebrewing environment. The clean chiller is placed directly in the still boiling wort and thus sanitized before the cooling process begins. See also Brewing#Wort cooling coolship, alternate equipment for cooling References Document 3::: Salonga National Park (French: Parc National de la Salonga) is a national park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo located in the Congo River basin. It is Africa's largest tropical rainforest reserve covering about 36,000 km2 or . It extends into the provinces of Mai Ndombe, Equateur, Kasaï and Sankuru. In 1984, the national park was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List for its protection of a large swath of relatively intact rainforest and its important habitat for many rare species. In 1999, the site has been listed as endangered due to poaching and housing construction. Following the improvement in its state of conservation, the site was removed from the endangered list in 2021. Geography The park is in an area of rainforest about halfway between Kinshasa, the capital, and Kisangani. There are no roads and most of the park is accessible only by river. Sections of the national park are almost completely inaccessible and have never been systematically explored. The southern region inhabited by the Iyaelima people is accessible via the Lokoro River, which flows through the center and northern parts of the park, and the Lula River in the south. The Salonga River meanders in a generally northwest direction through the Salonga National Park to its confluence with the Busira River. History The Salonga National Park was established as the Tshuapa National Park in 1956, and gained its present boundaries with a 1970 presidential decree by President Mobutu Sese Seko. It was registered as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984. Due to the civil war in the eastern half of the country, it was added to the List of World Heritage in Danger in 1999. The park is co-managed by the Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature and the World Wide Fund for Nature since 2015. Extensive consultation is ongoing, with the two main populations living within the park; the Iyaelima, the last remaining residents of the park and the Kitawalistes, a religious sect who insta Document 4::: EXAPT (a portmanteau of "Extended Subset of APT") is a production-oriented programming language that allows users to generate NC programs with control information for machining tools and facilitates decision-making for production-related issues that may arise during various machining processes. EXAPT was first developed to address industrial requirements. Through the years, the company created additional software for the manufacturing industry. Today, EXAPT offers a suite of SAAS products and services for the manufacturing industry. The trade name, EXAPT, is most commonly associated with the CAD/CAM-System, production data, and tool management software of the German company EXAPT Systemtechnik GmbH based in Aachen, DE. General EXAPT is a modularly built programming system for all NC machining operations as Drilling Turning Milling Turn-Milling Nibbling Flame-, laser-, plasma- and water jet cutting Wire eroding Operations with industrial robots Due to the modular structure, the main product groups, EXAPTcam and EXAPTpdo, are gradually expandable and permit individual software for the manufacturing industry used individually and also in a compound with an existing IT environment. Functionality EXAPTcam meets the requirements for NC planning, especially for the cutting operations such as turning, drilling, and milling up to 5-axis simultaneous machining. Thereby new process technologies, tool, and machine concepts are constantly involved. In the NC programming data from different sources such as 3D CAD models, drawings or tables can flow in. The possibilities of NC programming reaches from language-oriented to feature-oriented NC programming. The integrated EXAPT knowledge database and intelligent and scalable automatisms support the user. The EXAPT NC planning also covers the generation of production information as clamping and tool plans, presetting data or time calculations. The realistic simulation possibilities of NC planning and NC control data provi The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the primary function of the enzyme transposase in conservative transposition? A. To replicate the transposon B. To cut and paste the transposon into the genome C. To repair DNA gaps after transposon insertion D. To encode additional proteins for transposon movement Answer:	B. To cut and paste the transposon into the genome
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: The Cloaca Maxima ( , ) or, less often, Maxima Cloaca, is one of the world's earliest sewage systems. Its name is related to that of Cloacina, a Roman goddess. Built during either the Roman Kingdom or early Roman Republic, it was constructed in Ancient Rome in order to drain local marshes and remove waste from the city. It carried effluent to the River Tiber, which ran beside the city. The sewer started at the Forum Augustum and ended at the Ponte Rotto and Ponte Palatino. It began as an open air canal, but it developed into a much larger sewer over the course of time. Agrippa renovated and reconstructed much of the sewer. This would not be the only development in the sewers, by the first century AD all eleven Roman aqueducts were connected to the sewer. After the Roman Empire fell the sewer still was used. By the 19th century, it had become a tourist attraction. Some parts of the sewer are still used today. During its heyday, it was highly valued as a sacred symbol of Roman culture and Roman engineering. Construction and history According to tradition, it may have initially been constructed around 600 BC under the orders of the king of Rome, Tarquinius Priscus. He ordered Etruscan workers and the plebeians to construct the sewers. Before constructing the Cloaca Maxima, Priscus, and his son Tarquinius Superbus, worked to transform the land by the Roman forum from a swamp into a solid building ground, thus reclaiming the Velabrum. In order to achieve this, they filled it up with 10-20,000 cubic meters of soil, gravel, and debris. At the beginning of the sewer's life it consisted of open-air channels lined up with bricks centered around a main pipe. At this stage it might have had no roof. However, wooden holes spread throughout the sewer indicate that wooden bridges may have been built over it, which possibly functioned as a roof. Alternatively, the holes could have functioned as a support for the scaffolding needed to construct the sewer. The Cloaca Maxima may al Document 1::: Optimal virulence is a concept relating to the ecology of hosts and parasites. One definition of virulence is the host's parasite-induced loss of fitness. The parasite's fitness is determined by its success in transmitting offspring to other hosts. For about 100 years, the consensus was that virulence decreased and parasitic relationships evolved toward symbiosis. This was even called the law of declining virulence despite being a hypothesis, not even a theory. It has been challenged since the 1980s and has been disproved. A pathogen that is too restrained will lose out in competition to a more aggressive strain that diverts more host resources to its own reproduction. However, the host, being the parasite's resource and habitat in a way, suffers from this higher virulence. This might induce faster host death, and act against the parasite's fitness by reducing probability to encounter another host (killing the host too fast to allow for transmission). Thus, there is a natural force providing pressure on the parasite to "self-limit" virulence. The idea is, then, that there exists an equilibrium point of virulence, where parasite's fitness is highest. Any movement on the virulence axis, towards higher or lower virulence, will result in lower fitness for the parasite, and thus will be selected against. Mode of transmission Paul W. Ewald has explored the relationship between virulence and mode of transmission. He came to the conclusion that virulence tends to remain especially high in waterborne and vector-borne infections, such as cholera and dengue. Cholera is spread through sewage and dengue through mosquitos. In the case of respiratory infections, the pathogen depends on an ambulatory host to survive. It must spare the host long enough to find a new host. Water- or vector-borne transmission circumvents the need for a mobile host. Ewald is convinced that the crowding of field hospitals and trench warfare provided an easy route to transmission that evolved the Document 2::: Obstacle avoidance, in robotics, is a critical aspect of autonomous navigation and control systems. It is the capability of a robot or an autonomous system/machine to detect and circumvent obstacles in its path to reach a predefined destination. This technology plays a pivotal role in various fields, including industrial automation, self-driving cars, drones, and even space exploration. Obstacle avoidance enables robots to operate safely and efficiently in dynamic and complex environments, reducing the risk of collisions and damage. For a robot or autonomous system to successfully navigate through obstacles, it must be able to detect such obstacles. This is most commonly done through the use of sensors, which allow the robot to process its environment, make a decision on what it must do to avoid an obstacle, and carry out that decision with the use of its effectors, or tools that allow a robot to interact with its environment. Approaches There are several methods for robots or autonomous machines to carry out their decisions in real-time. Some of these methods include sensor-based approaches, path planning algorithms, and machine learning techniques. Sensor-based One of the most common approaches to obstacle avoidance is the use of various sensors, such as ultrasonic, LiDAR, radar, sonar, and cameras. These sensors allow an autonomous machine to do a simple 3 step process: sense, think, and act. They take in inputs of distances in objects and provide the robot with data about its surroundings enabling it to detect obstacles and calculate their distances. The robot can then adjust its trajectory to navigate around these obstacles while maintaining its intended path. All of this is done and carried out in real-time and can be practically and effectively used in most applications of obstacle avoidance While this method works well under most circumstances, there are such where more advanced techniques could be useful and appropriate for efficiently reaching an en Document 3::: The Jesus Incident (1979) is the second science fiction novel set in the Destination: Void universe by the American author Frank Herbert and poet Bill Ransom. It is a sequel to Destination: Void (1965), and has two sequels: The Lazarus Effect (1983) and The Ascension Factor (1988). Plot introduction The book takes place at an indeterminate time following the events in Destination: Void. At the end of Destination: Void the crew of the ship had succeeded in creating an artificial consciousness. The new conscious being, now known as 'Ship', gains a level of awareness that allows it to manipulate space and time. Ship instantly transports itself to a planet which it has decided the crew will colonize, christening it "Pandora". The first book ends with a demand from Ship for the crew to learn how to WorShip or how to establish a relationship with Ship, a godlike being. The action of the book is divided between two settings, the internal spaces of Ship which is orbiting Pandora and the settlements on the planet. While the original crew of Ship, as described in Destination: Void, were cloned human beings from the planet Earth, by the time of The Jesus Incident, the crew has become a mixed bag of peoples from various cultures that have been accepted as crew members by Ship when it visited their planet as well as people who have been conceived and born on the ship. Evidently Ship has shown up at a number of planets as the suns of those planets were going nova, the implication being that these planets were other, failed experiments by Ship to establish a relationship with human beings. Ship refers to these as replays of human history, suggesting Ship itself has manipulated human history time and time again. Ship's charge for humans to decide how to WorShip still remains unsatisfied. In the opening chapters, Ship reveals that Pandora will be a final test for the human race. Ship awakens the Chaplain/Psychiatrist Raja Flattery (part of the original Destination: Void crew) Document 4::: A rod end bearing, also known as a heim joint (North America) or rose joint (UK and elsewhere), is a mechanical articulating joint. Such joints are used on the ends of control rods, steering links, tie rods, or anywhere a precision articulating joint is required, and where a clevis end (which requires perfect alignment between the components) is unsuitable. A ball swivel with an opening through which a bolt or other attaching hardware may pass is pressed into a circular casing with a threaded shaft attached. The threaded portion may be either male or female. The heim joint's advantage is that the ball insert permits the rod or bolt passing through it to be misaligned to a limited degree. A link terminated in two heim joints permits misalignment of their attached shafts. A linkage with heim joints on both of its ends transmits force in one direction only: directly along its long axis. It cannot transmit forces in any other direction, or any moments. This makes these types of joints useful for statically determinate structures. History The spherical rod end bearing was developed by Nazi Germany during World War II. When one of the first German planes to be shot down by the British in early 1940 was examined, they found this joint in use in the aircraft's control systems. Following this discovery, the Allied governments gave the H.G. Heim Company an exclusive patent to manufacture these joints in North America, while in the UK the patent passed to Rose Bearings Ltd. The ubiquity of these manufacturers in their respective markets led to the terms heim joint and rose joint becoming synonymous with their product. After the patents ran out the common names stuck, although , rosejoint remains a registered trademark of Minebea Mitsumi Inc., successor to Rose Bearings Ltd. Originally used in aircraft, the rod end bearing may be found in cars, trucks, race cars, motorcycles, lawn tractors, boats, industrial machines, go-karts, radio-control helicopters, formula cars, and man The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What type of non-covalent interaction is primarily responsible for the aggregation of non-polar molecules in aqueous solutions to minimize their exposure to water? A. Hydrogen bonding B. Electrostatic interactions C. Hydrophobic effect D. Van der Waals forces Answer:	C. Hydrophobic effect
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: A log-structured filesystem is a file system in which data and metadata are written sequentially to a circular buffer, called a log. The design was first proposed in 1988 by John K. Ousterhout and Fred Douglis and first implemented in 1992 by Ousterhout and Mendel Rosenblum for the Unix-like Sprite distributed operating system. Rationale Conventional file systems lay out files with great care for spatial locality and make in-place changes to their data structures in order to perform well on optical and magnetic disks, which tend to seek relatively slowly. The design of log-structured file systems is based on the hypothesis that this will no longer be effective because ever-increasing memory sizes on modern computers would lead to I/O becoming write-heavy since reads would be almost always satisfied from memory cache. A log-structured file system thus treats its storage as a circular log and writes sequentially to the head of the log. This has several important side effects: Write throughput on optical and magnetic disks is improved because they can be batched into large sequential runs and costly seeks are kept to a minimum. The structure is naturally suited to media with append-only zones or pages such as flash storages and shingled magnetic recording HDDs Writes create multiple, chronologically-advancing versions of both file data and meta-data. Some implementations make these old file versions nameable and accessible, a feature sometimes called time-travel or snapshotting. This is very similar to a versioning file system. Recovery from crashes is simpler. Upon its next mount, the file system does not need to walk all its data structures to fix any inconsistencies, but can reconstruct its state from the last consistent point in the log. Log-structured file systems, however, must reclaim free space from the tail of the log to prevent the file system from becoming full when the head of the log wraps around to meet it. The tail can release space and move fo Document 1::: Collective motion is defined as the spontaneous emergence of ordered movement in a system consisting of many self-propelled agents. It can be observed in everyday life, for example in flocks of birds, schools of fish, herds of animals and also in crowds and car traffic. It also appears at the microscopic level: in colonies of bacteria, motility assays and artificial self-propelled particles. The scientific community is trying to understand the universality of this phenomenon. In particular it is intensively investigated in statistical physics and in the field of active matter. Experiments on animals, biological and synthesized self-propelled particles, simulations and theories are conducted in parallel to study these phenomena. One of the most famous models that describes such behavior is the Vicsek model introduced by Tamás Vicsek et al. in 1995. Collective behavior of Self-propelled particles Source: Just like biological systems in nature, self-propelled particles also respond to external gradients and show collective behavior. Micromotors or nanomotors can interact with self-generated gradients and exhibit schooling and exclusion behavior. For example, Ibele, et al. demonstrated that silver chloride micromotors, in the presence of UV light, interact with each other at high concentrations and form schools. Similar behavior can also be observed with titanium dioxide microparticles. Silver orthophosphate microparticles exhibit transitions between schooling and exclusion behaviors in response to ammonia, hydrogen peroxide, and UV light. This behavior can be used to design a NOR gate since different combinations of the two different stimuli (ammonia and UV light) generate different outputs. Oscillations between schooling and exclusion behaviors are also tunable via changes in hydrogen peroxide concentration. The fluid flows generated by these oscillations are strong enough to transport microscale cargo and can even direct the assembly of close-packed colloidal cryst Document 2::: Taylor–Maccoll flow refers to the steady flow behind a conical shock wave that is attached to a solid cone. The flow is named after G. I. Taylor and J. W. Maccoll, whom described the flow in 1933, guided by an earlier work of Theodore von Kármán. Mathematical description Consider a steady supersonic flow past a solid cone that has a semi-vertical angle . A conical shock wave can form in this situation, with the vertex of the shock wave lying at the vertex of the solid cone. If it were a two-dimensional problem, i.e., for a supersonic flow past a wedge, then the incoming stream would have deflected through an angle upon crossing the shock wave so that streamlines behind the shock wave would be parallel to the wedge sides. Such a simple turnover of streamlines is not possible for three-dimensional case. After passing through the shock wave, the streamlines are curved and only asymptotically they approach the generators of the cone. The curving of streamlines is accompanied by a gradual increase in density and decrease in velocity, in addition to those increments/decrements effected at the shock wave. The direction and magnitude of the velocity immediately behind the oblique shock wave is given by weak branch of the shock polar. This particularly suggests that for each value of incoming Mach number , there exists a maximum value of beyond which shock polar do not provide solution under in which case the conical shock wave will have detached from the solid surface (see Mach reflection). These detached cases are not considered here. The flow immediately behind the oblique conical shock wave is typically supersonic, although however when is close to , it can be subsonic. The supersonic flow behind the shock wave will become subsonic as it evolves downstream. Since all incident streamlines intersect the conical shock wave at the same angle, the intensity of the shock wave is constant. This particularly means that entropy jump across the shock wave is also constant t Document 3::: Processing is a free graphics library and integrated development environment (IDE) built for the electronic arts, new media art, and visual design communities with the purpose of teaching non-programmers the fundamentals of computer programming in a visual context. Processing uses the Java programming language, with additional simplifications such as additional classes and aliased mathematical functions and operations. It also provides a graphical user interface for simplifying the compilation and execution stage. The Processing language and IDE have been the precursor to other projects including Arduino and Wiring. History The project was initiated in 2001 by Casey Reas and Ben Fry, both formerly of the Aesthetics and Computation Group at the MIT Media Lab. In 2012, they started the Processing Foundation along with Daniel Shiffman, who joined as a third project lead. Johanna Hedva joined the Foundation in 2014 as Director of Advocacy. Originally, Processing had used the domain proce55ing.net, because the processing domain was taken; Reas and Fry eventually acquired the domain processing.org and moved the project to it in 2004. While the original name had a combination of letters and numbers, it was always officially referred to as processing, but the abbreviated term p5 is still occasionally used (e.g. in "p5.js") in reference to the old domain name. In 2012 the Processing Foundation was established and received 501(c)(3) nonprofit status, supporting the community around the tools and ideas that started with the Processing Project. The foundation encourages people around the world to meet annually in local events called Processing Community Day. Features Processing includes a sketchbook, a minimal alternative to an integrated development environment (IDE) for organizing projects. Every Processing sketch is actually a subclass of the PApplet Java class (formerly a subclass of Java's built-in Applet) which implements most of the Processing language's features Document 4::: A spica splint is a type of orthopedic splint used to immobilize the thumb and/or wrist while allowing the other digits freedom to move. It is used to provide support for thumb injuries (ligament instability, sprain or muscle strain), gamekeeper's thumb, osteoarthritis, de Quervain's syndrome or fractures of the scaphoid, lunate, or first metacarpal. It is also suitable for post-operative use or after removal of a hand/thumb cast. References The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the primary function of a spica splint? A. To immobilize the entire hand B. To provide support for thumb injuries and allow movement of other digits C. To enhance flexibility in the wrist D. To assist in strengthening the hand muscles Answer:	B. To provide support for thumb injuries and allow movement of other digits
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: The NSLU2 (Network Storage Link for USB 2.0 Disk Drives) is a network-attached storage (NAS) device made by Linksys introduced in 2004 and discontinued in 2008. It makes USB flash memory and hard disks accessible over a network using the SMB protocol (also known as Windows file sharing or CIFS). It was superseded mainly by the NAS200 (enclosure type storage link) and in another sense by the WRT600N and WRT300N/350N which both combine a Wi-Fi router with a storage link. The device runs a modified version of Linux and by default, formats hard disks with the ext3 filesystem, but a firmware upgrade from Linksys adds the ability to use NTFS and FAT32 formatted drives with the device for better Windows compatibility. The device has a web interface from which the various advanced features can be configured, including user and group permissions and networking options. Hardware The device has two USB 2.0 ports for connecting hard disks and uses an ARM-compatible Intel XScale IXP420 CPU. In models manufactured prior to around April 2006, Linksys had underclocked the processor to 133 MHz, though a simple hardware modification to remove this restriction is possible. Later models (circa. May 2006) are clocked at the rated speed of 266 MHz. The device includes 32 MB of SDRAM, and 8 MB of flash memory. It also has a 100 Mbit/s Ethernet network connection. The NSLU2 is fanless, making it completely silent. User community Stock, the device runs a customised version of Linux. Linksys was required to release their source code as per the terms of the GNU General Public License. Due to the availability of source code, the NSLU2's use of well-documented commodity components and its relatively low price, there are several community projects centered around it, including hardware modifications, alternative firmware images, and alternative operating systems with varying degrees of reconfiguration. Hardware modifications Unofficial hardware modifications include: Doubling the clock freq Document 1::: The Porto Alegre Botanical Garden is a Foundation of Rio Grande do Sul located on the street Salvador França, in Porto Alegre, Brazil. History The project for a botanical garden in Porto Alegre dates back to the beginning of the 19th century, when Dom Joao VI, after creating the Rio de Janeiro Botanical Garden, sent seedlings to Porto Alegre to establish another similar park in the city. Unfortunately these seedlings did not come to the capital, remaining trapped in Rio Grande, where they were planted. The agriculturist Paul Schoenwald subsequently donated a plot of land to the state government to establish a green area, but the project was unsuccessful. A third attempt would be made in 1882, when councilman Francisco Pinto de Souza presented a proposal for scientific exploitation of the area then known as the Várzea de Petrópolis, providing a garden and a promenade. Considered utopian, the plan was terminated and lay dormant for decades, only returning to consideration in the mid-20th century. In 1953 the 2136 law authorized the selling of an area of 81.57 hectares, of which 50 hectares would be to create a park or botanical garden. A committee, which included prominent teacher and religious figure Teodoro Luís, was formed to develop the project, which began in 1957 with the first planting of selected species: a collection of palm trees, conifers and succulent. When opened to the public on September 10, 1958, it already featured nearly 600 species. Soon after, in 1962, was inaugurated the oven for cacti, in the 1970s and the botanical garden was integrated into Fundação Zoobotânica Foundation, along with the Park Zoo and the Museum of Natural Sciences. This season began the collection of trees, with emphasis on families of ecological importance (Myrtaceae, Rutaceae, Myrsinaceae, Bignoniaceae, Fabales, Zingiberales, among others), thematic groups (condiments and scented) and forest formations typical of the state, and is launched a program for expeditions to c Document 2::: The Agricultural Technology Research Program (ATRP) is part of the Aerospace, Transportation and Advanced Systems Laboratory of the Georgia Tech Research Institute. It was founded in 1973 to work with Georgia agribusiness, especially the poultry industry, to develop new technologies and adapt existing ones for specialized industrial needs. The program's goal is to improve productivity, reduce costs, and enhance safety and health through technological innovations. ATRP conducts state-sponsored and contract research for industry and government agencies. Researchers focus efforts on both immediate and long-term industrial needs, including advanced robotic systems for materials handling, machine-vision developments for grading and control, improved wastewater treatment technologies, and biosensors for rapid microbial detection. With guidance from the Georgia Poultry Federation, ATRP also conducts a variety of outreach activities to provide the industry with timely information and technical assistance. Researchers have complementary backgrounds in mechanical, electrical, computer, environmental, and safety engineering; physics; and microbiology. ATRP is one of the oldest and largest agricultural technology research and development programs in the nation, and is conducted in cooperation with the Georgia Poultry Federation with funding from the Georgia General Assembly. Research and development areas Robotics and automation systems Robotics/automation research studies focus heavily on integrated, "intelligent" automation systems. These systems offer major opportunities to further enhance productivity in the poultry and food processing industries. They incorporate advanced sensors, robotics, and computer simulation and control technologies in an integrated package and tackle a number of unique challenges in trying to address specific industrial needs. Advanced imaging and sensor concepts Advanced imaging and sensor concepts research studies focus on the design of syste Document 3::: A loader is a heavy equipment machine used in construction to move or load materials such as soil, rock, sand, demolition debris, etc. into or onto another type of machinery (such as a dump truck, conveyor belt, feed-hopper, or railroad car). There are many types of loader, which, depending on design and application, are variously called a bucket loader, end loader, front loader, front-end loader, payloader, high lift, scoop, shovel dozer, skid-steer, skip loader, tractor loader or wheel loader. Description A loader is a type of tractor, usually wheeled, sometimes on tracks, that has a front-mounted wide bucket connected to the end of two booms (arms) to scoop up loose material from the ground, such as dirt, sand or gravel, and move it from one place to another without pushing the material across the ground. A loader is commonly used to move a stockpiled material from ground level and deposit it into an awaiting dump truck or into an open trench excavation. The loader assembly may be a removable attachment or permanently mounted. Often the bucket can be replaced with other devices or tools—for example, many can mount forks to lift heavy pallets or shipping containers, and a hydraulically opening "clamshell" bucket allows a loader to act as a light dozer or scraper. The bucket can also be augmented with devices like a bale grappler for handling large bales of hay or straw. Large loaders, such as the Kawasaki 95ZV-2, John Deere 844K, ACR 700K Compact Wheel Loader, Caterpillar 950H, Volvo L120E, Case 921E, or Hitachi ZW310 usually have only a front bucket and are called front loaders, whereas small loader tractors are often also equipped with a small backhoe and are called backhoe loaders or loader backhoes or JCBs, after the company that first claimed to have invented them. Other companies like CASE in America and Whitlock in the UK had been manufacturing excavator loaders well before JCB. The largest loader in the world is LeTourneau L-2350. Currently these la Document 4::: Intel Shell was an unfinished Intel building located in Austin, Texas. It was imploded on February 25, 2007, and the Austin United States Courthouse now stands in its place. Halting the building It was halted in March 2001, abandoned from March 2001 to 2004 by pain, because Intel abruptly stopped its construction. Aftermath A few days after the implosion, David Weaver, tried to sell many bottles that comes with the label "Intel Shell Inside" with the leftovers for $20. In 2009, a courthouse started its construction process and was completed in 2012, and the Austin U.S. courthouse stands today. References External links Intel shell implosion, picture gallery Intel Shell Demolition - 02/25/07, 2007 video The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What phenomenon describes the behavior of wavepackets launched through disordered media that eventually return to their starting points? A. Quantum tunneling effect B. Quantum boomerang effect C. Quantum entanglement effect D. Quantum displacement effect Answer:	B. Quantum boomerang effect
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Lift-induced drag, induced drag, vortex drag, or sometimes drag due to lift, in aerodynamics, is an aerodynamic drag force that occurs whenever a moving object redirects the airflow coming at it. This drag force occurs in airplanes due to wings or a lifting body redirecting air to cause lift and also in cars with airfoil wings that redirect air to cause a downforce. It is symbolized as , and the lift-induced drag coefficient as . For a constant amount of lift, induced drag can be reduced by increasing airspeed. A counter-intuitive effect of this is that, up to the speed-for-minimum-drag, aircraft need less power to fly faster. Induced drag is also reduced when the wingspan is higher, or for wings with wingtip devices. Explanation The total aerodynamic force acting on a body is usually thought of as having two components, lift and drag. By definition, the component of force parallel to the oncoming flow is called drag; and the component perpendicular to the oncoming flow is called lift. At practical angles of attack the lift greatly exceeds the drag. Lift is produced by the changing direction of the flow around a wing. The change of direction results in a change of velocity (even if there is no speed change), which is an acceleration. To change the direction of the flow therefore requires that a force be applied to the fluid; the total aerodynamic force is simply the reaction force of the fluid acting on the wing. An aircraft in slow flight at a high angle of attack will generate an aerodynamic reaction force with a high drag component. By increasing the speed and reducing the angle of attack, the lift generated can be held constant while the drag component is reduced. At the optimum angle of attack, total drag is minimised. If speed is increased beyond this, total drag will increase again due to increased profile drag. Vortices When producing lift, air below the wing is at a higher pressure than the air pressure above the wing. On a wing of finite span, this p Document 1::: Confusion of the inverse, also called the conditional probability fallacy or the inverse fallacy, is a logical fallacy whereupon a conditional probability is equated with its inverse; that is, given two events A and B, the probability of A happening given that B has happened is assumed to be about the same as the probability of B given A, when there is actually no evidence for this assumption. More formally, P(A\|B) is assumed to be approximately equal to P(B\|A). Examples Example 1 In one study, physicians were asked to give the chances of malignancy with a 1% prior probability of occurring. A test can detect 80% of malignancies and has a 10% false positive rate. What is the probability of malignancy given a positive test result? Approximately 95 out of 100 physicians responded the probability of malignancy would be about 75%, apparently because the physicians believed that the chances of malignancy given a positive test result were approximately the same as the chances of a positive test result given malignancy. The correct probability of malignancy given a positive test result as stated above is 7.5%, derived via Bayes' theorem: Other examples of confusion include: Hard drug users tend to use marijuana; therefore, marijuana users tend to use hard drugs (the first probability is marijuana use given hard drug use, the second is hard drug use given marijuana use). Most accidents occur within 25 miles from home; therefore, you are safest when you are far from home. Terrorists tend to have an engineering background; so, engineers have a tendency towards terrorism. For other errors in conditional probability, see the Monty Hall problem and the base rate fallacy. Compare to illicit conversion. Example 2 In order to identify individuals having a serious disease in an early curable form, one may consider screening a large group of people. While the benefits are obvious, an argument against such screenings is the disturbance caused by false positive screening r Document 2::: A guard byte is a part of a computer program's memory that helps software developers find buffer overflows while developing the program. Principle When a program is compiled for debugging, all memory allocations are prefixed and postfixed by guard bytes. Special memory allocation routines may then perform additional tasks to determine unwanted read and write attempts outside the allocated memory. These extra bytes help to detect that the program is writing into (or even reading from) inappropriate memory areas, potentially causing buffer overflows. In case of accessing these bytes by the program's algorithm, the programmer is warned with information assisting them to locate the problem. Checking for the inappropriate access to the guard bytes may be done in two ways: by setting a memory breakpoint on a condition of write and/or read to those bytes, or by pre-initializing the guard bytes with specific values and checking the values upon deallocation. The first way is possible only with a debugger that handles such breakpoints, but significantly increases the chance of locating the problem. The second way does not require any debuggers or special environments and can be done even on other computers, but the programmer is alerted about the overflow only upon the deallocation, which is sometimes quite late. Because guard bytes require additional code to be executed and additional memory to be allocated, they are used only when the program is compiled for debugging. When compiled as a release, guard bytes are not used at all, neither the routines working with them. Example A programmer wants to allocate a buffer of 100 bytes of memory while debugging. The system memory allocating routine will allocate 108 bytes instead, adding 4 leading and 4 trailing guard bytes, and return a pointer shifted by the 4 leading guard bytes to the right, hiding them from the programmer. The programmer should then work with the received pointer without the knowledge of the presence of Document 3::: A basal cell is a general cell type that is present in many forms of epithelial tissue throughout the body. Basal cells are located between the basement membrane and the remainder of the epithelium, effectively functioning as an anchor for the epithelial layer and an important mechanism in the maintenance of intraorgan homeostasis. Basal cells can interact with surrounding cells including neurons, the basement membrane, columnar epithelium, and underlying mesenchymal cells. They also engage in interactions with dendritic, lymphocytic, and inflammatory cells, with the majority of these interactions occurring in the lateral intercellular gap between basal cells. Basal cells have important health implications since the most common types of skin cancer are basal cell and squamous cell carcinomas. More than 1 million instances of these cancers, referred to as non-melanoma skin cancers (NMSC) are expected to be diagnosed in the United States each year, and the incidence is rapidly increasing. Basal and squamous cell malignancies, while seldom metastatic, can cause significant local damage and disfigurement, affecting large sections of soft tissue, cartilage, and bone. Location Basal cells are located in various tissues throughout the body. They are located at the bottom of epithelial tissues, generally situated directly on top of the basal lamina, above the basement membrane and below the remainder of the epithelium. Examples include: Epidermal cells in the stratum basale Airway basal cells, which are respiratory cells located in the respiratory epithelium (found in decreasing concentrations as airway diameter decreases) Basal cells of prostate glands Basal cells of the Gastrointestinal tract mucosal layer Structure Regardless of their specific location, basal cells generally share a similar basic structure. They are all usually either cuboidal, polyhedral or pyramidal shaped cells with enlarged nuclei and minimal cytoplasm. Basal cells are bound to each Document 4::: An adaptive algorithm is an algorithm that changes its behavior at the time it is run, based on information available and on a priori defined reward mechanism (or criterion). Such information could be the story of recently received data, information on the available computational resources, or other run-time acquired (or a priori known) information related to the environment in which it operates. Among the most used adaptive algorithms is the Widrow-Hoff’s least mean squares (LMS), which represents a class of stochastic gradient-descent algorithms used in adaptive filtering and machine learning. In adaptive filtering the LMS is used to mimic a desired filter by finding the filter coefficients that relate to producing the least mean square of the error signal (difference between the desired and the actual signal). For example, stable partition, using no additional memory is O(n lg n) but given O(n) memory, it can be O(n) in time. As implemented by the C++ Standard Library, stable_partition is adaptive and so it acquires as much memory as it can get (up to what it would need at most) and applies the algorithm using that available memory. Another example is adaptive sort, whose behavior changes upon the presortedness of its input. An example of an adaptive algorithm in radar systems is the constant false alarm rate (CFAR) detector. In machine learning and optimization, many algorithms are adaptive or have adaptive variants, which usually means that the algorithm parameters such as learning rate are automatically adjusted according to statistics about the optimisation thus far (e.g. the rate of convergence). Examples include adaptive simulated annealing, adaptive coordinate descent, adaptive quadrature, AdaBoost, Adagrad, Adadelta, RMSprop, and Adam. In data compression, adaptive coding algorithms such as Adaptive Huffman coding or Prediction by partial matching can take a stream of data as input, and adapt their compression technique based on the symbols that th The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the temporary equilibrium method primarily used for in economic analysis? A. To analyze interdependent variables of different speeds B. To forecast long-term market trends C. To determine fixed prices in the market D. To calculate the total supply of goods Answer:	A. To analyze interdependent variables of different speeds
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: In chemical biology, bioorthogonal chemical reporter is a non-native chemical functionality that is introduced into the naturally occurring biomolecules of a living system, generally through metabolic or protein engineering. These functional groups are subsequently utilized for tagging and visualizing biomolecules. Jennifer Prescher and Carolyn R. Bertozzi, the developers of bioorthogonal chemistry, defined bioorthogonal chemical reporters as "non-native, non-perturbing chemical handles that can be modified in living systems through highly selective reactions with exogenously delivered probes." It has been used to enrich proteins and to conduct proteomic analysis. In the early development of the technique, chemical motifs have to fulfill criteria of biocompatibility and selective reactivity in order to qualify as bioorthogonal chemical reporters. Some combinations of proteinogenic amino acid side chains meet the criteria, as do ketone and aldehyde tags. Azides and alkynes are other examples of chemical reporters. A bioorthogonal chemical reporter must be incorporated into a biomolecule. This occurs via metabolism. The chemical reporter is linked to a substrate, which a cell can metabolize. Document 1::: Sperry Corporation was a major American equipment and electronics company whose existence spanned more than seven decades of the 20th century. Sperry ceased to exist in 1986 following a prolonged hostile takeover bid engineered by Burroughs Corporation, which merged the combined operation under the new name Unisys. Some of Sperry's former divisions became part of Honeywell, Lockheed Martin, Raytheon Technologies, and Northrop Grumman. The company is best known as the developer of the artificial horizon and a wide variety of other gyroscope-based aviation instruments like autopilots, bombsights, analog ballistics computers and gyro gunsights. In the post-WWII era the company branched out into electronics, both aviation-related, and later, computers. The company was founded by Elmer Ambrose Sperry. History Early history The company was incorporated on April 14 1910 by Elmer Ambrose Sperry as the Sperry Gyroscope Company, to manufacture navigation equipment—chiefly his own inventions: the marine gyrostabilizer and the gyrocompass—at 40 Flatbush Avenue Extension in Downtown Brooklyn. During World War I the company diversified into aircraft components including bomb sights and fire control systems. In their early decades, Sperry Gyroscope and related companies were concentrated on Long Island, New York, especially in Nassau County. Over the years, it diversified to other locations. In 1918, Lawrence Sperry split from his father to compete over aero-instruments with the Lawrence Sperry Aircraft Company, including the new automatic pilot. After the death of Lawrence on December 13, 1923, the two firms were brought together in 1924. Then in January 1929 it was acquired by North American Aviation, who reincorporated it in New York as the Sperry Gyroscope Company, Inc. The company once again became independent in 1933 when it was spun-off as a subsidiary of the newly formed Sperry Corporation. The new corporation was a holding company for a number of smaller entities su Document 2::: A deformity, dysmorphism, or dysmorphic feature is a major abnormality of an organism that makes a part of the body appear or function differently than how it is supposed to. Causes Deformity can be caused by a variety of factors: Arthritis and other rheumatoid disorders Chronic application of external forces, e.g. artificial cranial deformation Chronic paresis, paralysis or muscle imbalance, especially in children, e.g. due to poliomyelitis or cerebral palsy Complications at birth Damage to the fetus or uterus Fractured bones left to heal without being properly set (malunion) Genetic mutation Growth or hormone disorders Skin disorders Reconstructive surgery following a severe injury, e.g. burn injury Deformity can occur in all organisms: Frogs can be mutated due to Ribeiroia (Trematoda) infection. Plants can undergo irreversible cell deformation Insects, such as honeybees, can be affected by deformed wing virus Fish can be found with scoliosis due to environmental factors Mortality In many cases where a major deformity is present at birth, it is the result of an underlying condition severe enough that the baby does not survive very long. The mortality of severely deformed births may be due to a range of complications including missing or non-functioning vital organs, structural defects that prevent necessary function, high susceptibility to injuries, abnormal facial appearance, or infections that eventually lead to death. In some cases, such as that of twins, one fetus is brought to term healthy, while the other faces major, even life-threatening defects. An example of this is seen in cattle, referred to as amorphous globosus. In mythology There are many instances of mythological characters showing signs of a deformity. Descriptions of mermaids may be related to the symptoms of sirenomelia. The Irish mythology includes the Fomorians, who are almost without exception described as being deformed, possessing only one of what most have two (eyes, arms, le Document 3::: In design for additive manufacturing (DFAM), there are both broad themes (which apply to many additive manufacturing processes) and optimizations specific to a particular AM process. Described here is DFM analysis for stereolithography, in which design for manufacturability (DFM) considerations are applied in designing a part (or assembly) to be manufactured by the stereolithography (SLA) process. In SLA, parts are built from a photocurable liquid resin that cures when exposed to a laser beam that scans across the surface of the resin (photopolymerization). Resins containing acrylate, epoxy, and urethane are typically used. Complex parts and assemblies can be directly made in one go, to a greater extent than in earlier forms of manufacturing such as casting, forming, metal fabrication, and machining. Realization of such a seamless process requires the designer to take in considerations of manufacturability of the part (or assembly) by the process. In any product design process, DFM considerations are important to reduce iterations, time and material wastage. Challenges in stereolithography Material Excessive setup specific material cost and lack of support for 3rd party resins is a major challenge with SLA process:. The choice of material (a design process) is restricted by the supported resin. Hence, the mechanical properties are also fixed. When scaling up dimensions selectively to deal with expected stresses, post curing is done by further treatment with UV light and heat. Although advantageous to mechanical properties, the additional polymerization and cross linkage can result in shrinkage, warping and residual thermal stresses. Hence, the part shall be designed in its 'green' stage i.e. pre-treatment stage. Setup and process SLA process is an additive manufacturing process. Hence, design considerations such as orientation, process latitude, support structures etc. have to be considered. Orientation affects the support structures, manufacturing time, part q Document 4::: The Teletype Model 37 is an electromechanical teleprinter manufactured by the Teletype Corporation in 1968. Electromechanical user interfaces would be superseded as a year later in 1969 the Computer Terminal Corporation introduced the electronic terminal with a screen. Features The Model 37 came with many features including upper- and lowercase letters, reverse page feed for printing charts, red and black ink, and optional tape and punch reader. It handled speeds up to 150 Baud (15 characters/second). This made it 50% faster than its predecessor, the Model 33. The Model 37 terminal utilizes a serial input / output 10 unit code signal consisting of a start bit, seven information bits, an even parity bit and a stop bit. It was produced in ASR (Automatic Send and Receive)also known as the Model 37/300, KSR (Keyboard Send and Receive) also known as the Model 37/200 and RO (Receive Only) also known as the Model 37/100. The Model 37 handles all 128 ASCII code combinations. It uses a six-row removable typebox with provisions for 96 type pallet positions. When the Shift-Out feature is included, the six-row typebox is replaced with a seven-row typebox allowing 112 pallet positions, or it can be replaced with an eight-row typebox allowing 128 type pallet positions. Technical specifications The Model 37 RO and KSR are 36.25 inches high, 27.5 inches deep and 22.5 inches deep. The ASR is 36.25 inches high, 44.5 inches wide and 27.5 inches deep. The ASR weighs approximately 340 pounds and KSR and RO weighs approximately 185 pounds. The Model 37 interface meets the requirements of EIA RS-232-B and has a recommended maintenance interval of every six months or every 1500 hours. Power Requirements - 115VAC ± 10%, 60 Hz ± .45 Hz, RO is approximately 200 Watts, KSR is approximately 300 Watts, ASR is approximately 550 Watts. Fun Facts Most Model 37s were re-purchased from customers and sold to the Soviet Union with antiquated mainframe computer systems. Further reading Dolotta, The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the significance of the relativistic Breit–Wigner distribution in high-energy physics? A. It models stable particles. B. It describes resonances of unstable particles. C. It calculates the speed of light. D. It establishes the mass-energy equivalence. Answer:	B. It describes resonances of unstable particles.
Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Concatenation theory, also called string theory, character-string theory, or theoretical syntax, studies character strings over finite alphabets of characters, signs, symbols, or marks. String theory is foundational for formal linguistics, computer science, logic, and metamathematics especially proof theory. A generative grammar can be seen as a recursive definition in string theory. The most basic operation on strings is concatenation; connect two strings to form a longer string whose length is the sum of the lengths of those two strings. ABCDE is the concatenation of AB with CDE, in symbols ABCDE = AB ^ CDE. Strings, and concatenation of strings can be treated as an algebraic system with some properties resembling those of the addition of integers; in modern mathematics, this system is called a free monoid. In 1956 Alonzo Church wrote: "Like any branch of mathematics, theoretical syntax may, and ultimately must, be studied by the axiomatic method". Church was evidently unaware that string theory already had two axiomatizations from the 1930s: one by Hans Hermes and one by Alfred Tarski. Coincidentally, the first English presentation of Tarski's 1933 axiomatic foundations of string theory appeared in 1956 – the same year that Church called for such axiomatizations. As Tarski himself noted using other terminology, serious difficulties arise if strings are construed as tokens rather than types in the sense of Peirce's type-token distinction. References Document 1::: Finite volume method (FVM) is a numerical method. FVM in computational fluid dynamics is used to solve the partial differential equation which arises from the physical conservation law by using discretisation. Convection is always followed by diffusion and hence where convection is considered we have to consider combine effect of convection and diffusion. But in places where fluid flow plays a non-considerable role we can neglect the convective effect of the flow. In this case we have to consider more simplistic case of only diffusion. The general equation for steady convection-diffusion can be easily derived from the general transport equation for property by deleting transient. General transport equation is defined as: …………………………………………….1 Where, is a conservative form of all fluid flow, is density, is a net rate of flow of out of fluid element represents convective term, is a transient term, is a rate of change of due to diffusion, is a rate of increase of due to source. Due to steady state condition transient term becomes zero and due to absence of convection convective term becomes zero, therefore steady state three- dimensional convection and diffusion equation becomes: ………………………………………………………….2 Therefore, …………………………………………………………………….3 Flow should also satisfy continuity equation therefore, ………………………………………………………………………………………………………4 To solve the problem we will follow following general steps Grid formation: 1. Divide the domain into discrete control volume. 2. Place the nodal point between end points defining the physical boundaries. Boundaries/ faces of the control volume are created midway between adjacent nodes. 3. Set up the control volume near the edge of domain such that physical as well as control volume boundaries will coincide with each other. 4. Considering a general nodal point P accompanied by six neighboring nodal point ‘E’ (which represent east), ‘W’ (which represent west), ‘N’ (which represent north), ‘S’ (which re Document 2::: In astronomy, planetary transits and occultations occur when a planet passes in front of another object, as seen by an observer. The occulted object may be a distant star, but in rare cases it may be another planet, in which case the event is called a mutual planetary occultation or mutual planetary transit, depending on the relative apparent diameters of the objects. The word "transit" refers to cases where the nearer object appears smaller than the more distant object. Cases where the nearer object appears larger and completely hides the more distant object are known as occultations. Mutual planetary occultations and transits Mutual occultations or transits of planets are extremely rare. The most recent event occurred on 3 January 1818, and the next will occur on 22 November 2065. Both involve the same two planets: Venus and Jupiter. Historical observations An occultation of Mars by Venus on 13 October 1590 was observed by the German astronomer Michael Maestlin at Heidelberg. The 1737 event (see list below) was observed by John Bevis at Greenwich Observatory – it is the only detailed account of a mutual planetary occultation. A transit of Mars across Jupiter on 12 September 1170 was observed by the monk Gervase at Canterbury, and by Chinese astronomers. Future events The next time a mutual planetary transit or occultation will happen (as seen from Earth) will be on 22 November 2065 at about 12:43 UTC, when Venus near superior conjunction (with an angular diameter of 10.6") will transit in front of Jupiter (with an angular diameter of 30.9"); however, this will take place only 8° west of the Sun, and will therefore not be visible to the unaided/unprotected eye. Before transiting Jupiter, Venus will occult Jupiter's moon Ganymede at around 11:24 UTC as seen from some southernmost parts of Earth. Parallax will cause actual observed times to vary by a few minutes, depending on the precise location of the observer. List of mutual planetary occultations and transit Document 3::: Diffbot is a developer of machine learning and computer vision algorithms and public APIs for extracting data from web pages / web scraping to create a knowledge base. The company has gained interest from its application of computer vision technology to web pages, wherein it visually parses a web page for important elements and returns them in a structured format. In 2015 Diffbot announced it was working on its version of an automated "Knowledge Graph" by crawling the web and using its automatic web page extraction to build a large database of structured web data. In 2019 Diffbot released their Knowledge Graph which has since grown to include over two billion entities (corporations, people, articles, products, discussions, and more), and ten trillion "facts." The company's products allow software developers to analyze web home pages and article pages, and extract the "important information" while ignoring elements deemed not core to the primary content. In August 2012 the company released its Page Classifier API, which automatically categorizes web pages into specific "page types". As part of this, Diffbot analyzed 750,000 web pages shared on the social media service Twitter and revealed that photos, followed by articles and videos, are the predominant web media shared on the social network. In September 2020 the company released a Natural Language Processing API for automatically building Knowledge Graphs from text. The company raised $2 million in funding in May 2012 from investors including Andy Bechtolsheim and Sky Dayton. Diffbot's customers include Adobe, AOL, Cisco, DuckDuckGo, eBay, Instapaper, Microsoft, Onswipe and Springpad. See also GPT-3 References External links Knowledge Graph Document 4::: Random self-reducibility (RSR) is the rule that a good algorithm for the average case implies a good algorithm for the worst case. RSR is the ability to solve all instances of a problem by solving a large fraction of the instances. Definition If for a function f evaluating any instance x can be reduced in polynomial time to the evaluation of f on one or more random instances yi, then it is self-reducible (this is also known as a non-adaptive uniform self-reduction). In a random self-reduction, an arbitrary worst-case instance x in the domain of f is mapped to a random set of instances y1, ..., yk. This is done so that f(x) can be computed in polynomial time, given the coin-toss sequence from the mapping, x, and f(y1), ..., f(yk). Therefore, taking the average with respect to the induced distribution on yi, the average-case complexity of f is the same (within polynomial factors) as the worst-case randomized complexity of f. One special case of note is when each random instance yi is distributed uniformly over the entire set of elements in the domain of f that have a length of \|x\|. In this case f is as hard on average as it is in the worst case. This approach contains two key restrictions. First the generation of y1, ..., yk is performed non-adaptively. This means that y2 is picked before f(y1) is known. Second, it is not necessary that the points y1, ..., yk be uniformly distributed. Application in cryptographic protocols Problems that require some privacy in the data (typically cryptographic problems) can use randomization to ensure that privacy. In fact, the only provably secure cryptographic system (the one-time pad) has its security relying totally on the randomness of the key data supplied to the system. The field of cryptography utilizes the fact that certain number-theoretic functions are randomly self-reducible. This includes probabilistic encryption and cryptographically strong pseudorandom number generation. Also, instance-hiding schemes (whe The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the primary role of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) in the process of meiotic arrest in oocytes? A. It promotes meiotic resumption by activating MPF. B. It inhibits meiotic resumption by regulating MPF activity. C. It facilitates the breakdown of the nuclear envelope. D. It increases the production of cGMP in granulosa cells. Answer:	B. It inhibits meiotic resumption by regulating MPF activity.