Variola is highly infectious and catches a ride in small droplets you breathe in.

Variola is highly infectious and catches a ride in small droplets you breathe in .


Immediately, it begins to infect the cells that line your throat and starts killing them to cause chaos.

Immediately , it begins to infect the cells that line your throat and starts killing them to cause chaos .


Whenever cells in your body die a violent death, your immune cells immediately stream to the site of infection to help out.

Whenever cells in your body die a violent death , your immune cells immediately stream to the site of infection to help out .


In this case, that backfires horribly.

In this case , that backfires horribly .


As immune cells begin cleaning up dead cells, eating viruses and killing infected cells, Variola infects a crucial cell of your immune system, your dendritic cells.

As immune cells begin cleaning up dead cells , eating viruses and killing infected cells , Variola infects a crucial cell of your immune system , your dendritic cells .


They enter your lymphatic system, a highway network that spans your entire body and connects hundreds of immune bases.

They enter your lymphatic system , a highway network that spans your entire body and connects hundreds of immune bases .


In these bases, your heavy defenses are activated and should be the last place an enemy would want to invade.

In these bases , your heavy defenses are activated and should be the last place an enemy would want to invade .


But Variola wants to get here.


For about 12 days, the virus quietly infects civilian and immune cells, jumping from cell to cell, infecting more and more of them.

For about 12 days , the virus quietly infects civilian and immune cells , jumping from cell to cell , infecting more and more of them .


At some point, a critical threshold is reached and Variola starts its attack for real.

At some point , a critical threshold is reached and Variola starts its attack for real .


Millions of viruses use the lymphatic highway to spill into your blood and organs, infecting your whole body.

Millions of viruses use the lymphatic highway to spill into your blood and organs , infecting your whole body .


Suddenly, Variola is everywhere.


But despite this global attack, your adaptive immune system is struggling to wake up.

But despite this global attack , your adaptive immune system is struggling to wake up .


Immune cells look for and use critical transmitters called interferons to mobilize the body against viruses.

Immune cells look for and use critical transmitters called interferons to mobilize the body against viruses .


Interferons, as the name suggests, interfere, significantly slowing down virus infections, but also quickly activating millions of antivirus weapons.

Interferons , as the name suggests , interfere , significantly slowing down virus infections , but also quickly activating millions of antivirus weapons .


But Variola is able to deactivate interferons, which stuns the antivirus side of your defense system.

But Variola is able to deactivate interferons , which stuns the antivirus side of your defense system .


Other systems would usually help, like the complement system, a sort of mobile minefield that can destroy viruses.

Other systems would usually help , like the complement system , a sort of mobile minefield that can destroy viruses .


But Variola manages to shut this down too.

But Variola manages to shut this down too .


And so, with little resistance, Variola spreads everywhere and infects billions of your cells all over your body.

And so , with little resistance , Variola spreads everywhere and infects billions of your cells all over your body .


Among the infected are your capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in your body, which die in great numbers.

Among the infected are your capillaries , the smallest blood vessels in your body , which die in great numbers .


All this death activates an immune cell that you really don't need right now, but that's attracted by death, the neutrophil.

All this death activates an immune cell that you really do n't need right now , but that 's attracted by death , the neutrophil .


Normally an efficient killer of invaders great and small, it's not very effective against smallpox.

Normally an efficient killer of invaders great and small , it 's not very effective against smallpox .


And even worse, neutrophils fight by vomiting deadly chemicals, which kills even more of your cells.

And even worse , neutrophils fight by vomiting deadly chemicals , which kills even more of your cells .


On top of that, they order inflammation, fluids streaming from your blood vessels into your tissue.

On top of that , they order inflammation , fluids streaming from your blood vessels into your tissue .


All over your body, as first millions, then billions of your cells die, you get a rash that only gets worse and worse.

All over your body , as first millions , then billions of your cells die , you get a rash that only gets worse and worse .


Pus and cellular junk fills it up as your body swells up with hundreds of lesions, all over your skin and inside, even on your organs.

Pus and cellular junk fills it up as your body swells up with hundreds of lesions , all over your skin and inside , even on your organs .


Now, the critical phase begins.


As you fight for survival, you burn up in a high fever.

As you fight for survival , you burn up in a high fever .


Thousands of battlegrounds drain your blood of fluid that streams into your tissue and organs.

Thousands of battlegrounds drain your blood of fluid that streams into your tissue and organs .


Blood clotting appears all over your body, while floods of toxins from dead cells build up and can cause organs to fail.

Blood clotting appears all over your body , while floods of toxins from dead cells build up and can cause organs to fail .


Your lungs fill up with fluid, making it harder and harder to breathe.

Your lungs fill up with fluid , making it harder and harder to breathe .


And one of two things happens now.


Either your immune system wrestles back control, heavy weapons have been dispatched,

Either your immune system wrestles back control , heavy weapons have been dispatched ,


The immune system will forever remember Variola, making you immune forever.

The immune system will forever remember Variola , making you immune forever .


Or you die, overwhelmed by the infection, and your immune system's panicked reaction to the body-wide infection.

Or you die , overwhelmed by the infection , and your immune system 's panicked reaction to the body - wide infection .


About a third of people who can track smallpox don't survive.

About a third of people who can track smallpox do n't survive .


And if you survive, you're very likely branded by scars and may even lose your eyesight or hearing.

And if you survive , you 're very likely branded by scars and may even lose your eyesight or hearing .


For thousands of years, this terrible disease ravaged the world, leaving death and destruction, traumatized and maimed survivors.

For thousands of years , this terrible disease ravaged the world , leaving death and destruction , traumatized and maimed survivors .


Why don't we have smallpox anymore?


Smallpox is one of the worst diseases humanity has ever known.

Smallpox is one of the worst diseases humanity has ever known .


There was nothing you could do for the infected, but people noticed that if you survived, you were immune.

There was nothing you could do for the infected , but people noticed that if you survived , you were immune .


So out of desperation, they came up with the dangerous practice of variolation.

So out of desperation , they came up with the dangerous practice of variolation .


Take scabs from an infected person that had a mild case of smallpox, let them dry out, and grind them to a fine powder.

Take scabs from an infected person that had a mild case of smallpox , let them dry out , and grind them to a fine powder .


Then blow the powder up the nostril of a patient or scratch their skin with it.

Then blow the powder up the nostril of a patient or scratch their skin with it .


If things went well, they only got a mild version of smallpox and gained immunity against the disease.

If things went well , they only got a mild version of smallpox and gained immunity against the disease .


Variolation probably worked because it introduced variola in a part of the body the virus wasn't prepared for, disabling most of its nasty tricks.

Variolation probably worked because it introduced variola in a part of the body the virus was n't prepared for , disabling most of its nasty tricks .


And because the inoculation was left to dry out, that damaged the virus so it couldn't cause the full disease.

And because the inoculation was left to dry out , that damaged the virus so it could n't cause the full disease .


Unfortunately, 2-3% of all patients still died because they got the smallpox or suffered other diseases as a result of treatment.

Unfortunately , 2 - 3 % of all patients still died because they got the smallpox or suffered other diseases as a result of treatment .


Still, smallpox was such a horrible and to some degree unavoidable disease that people took the risk for themselves and their children.

Still , smallpox was such a horrible and to some degree unavoidable disease that people took the risk for themselves and their children .


Variolation spread around the globe, while variola continued to kill millions.

Variolation spread around the globe , while variola continued to kill millions .


A victory over the virus only became a real possibility when scientists realized that it wasn't necessary to variolate with the real smallpox disease,

A victory over the virus only became a real possibility when scientists realized that it was n't necessary to variolate with the real smallpox disease ,


A truly revolutionary step, and only a few years later, this led to one of humankind's most outstanding achievements, vaccinations.

A truly revolutionary step , and only a few years later , this led to one of humankind 's most outstanding achievements , vaccinations .


The innovation was simple.


Instead of using the real virus to train the immune system, use a related virus, cowpox, that was only mild but also gave you immunity.

Instead of using the real virus to train the immune system , use a related virus , cowpox , that was only mild but also gave you immunity .


Still, it would take another 200 years, countless individuals fighting the monster where they could, delivering vaccines to the most remote places on earth.

Still , it would take another 200 years , countless individuals fighting the monster where they could , delivering vaccines to the most remote places on earth .


All the while, the disease ravaged on, killing over 300 million people in the 20th century alone.

All the while , the disease ravaged on , killing over 300 million people in the 20th century alone .


In 1966, the World Health Organization decided that humanity had to come together in a final, major effort.

In 1966 , the World Health Organization decided that humanity had to come together in a final , major effort .


A global smallpox news network, based on residents in hotspots, was created, tackling local outbreaks of the virus.

A global smallpox news network , based on residents in hotspots , was created , tackling local outbreaks of the virus .


Cases were encircled, vaccines given, preventing further spread.

Cases were encircled , vaccines given , preventing further spread .


Smallpox only infects humans, so if we stopped the human transmission chain, we would starve the virus.

Smallpox only infects humans , so if we stopped the human transmission chain , we would starve the virus .


The last naturally occurring infection was in 1977, and in 1980, just shy of 200 years since the first vaccine was used, smallpox was declared eradicated.

The last naturally occurring infection was in 1977 , and in 1980 , just shy of 200 years since the first vaccine was used , smallpox was declared eradicated .


Variola, the scourge of humanity, was dead.

Variola , the scourge of humanity , was dead .


No more children would be killed by it, no more mothers or brothers or uncles or cousins.

No more children would be killed by it , no more mothers or brothers or uncles or cousins .


It's hard to convey to people around today what an incredible win this was.

It 's hard to convey to people around today what an incredible win this was .


One of the cruelest, most dangerous monsters that has hunted us for literally millennia was slain by us, apes with pointy needles.

One of the cruelest , most dangerous monsters that has hunted us for literally millennia was slain by us , apes with pointy needles .


Today, we live in a time of enlightenment.

Today , we live in a time of enlightenment .


None of us alive today are haunted by the specter of smallpox.

None of us alive today are haunted by the specter of smallpox .


This light is not natural.


It was set in the sky by the sheer will of humankind, wanting to be safe from the monsters haunting us.

It was set in the sky by the sheer will of humankind , wanting to be safe from the monsters haunting us .


But because we live without them, we forget that they ever existed and that they are real.

But because we live without them , we forget that they ever existed and that they are real .


That the diseases might reawaken, or new ones might be brewing in jungles, wet markets or laboratories, ready to strike us once more.

That the diseases might reawaken , or new ones might be brewing in jungles , wet markets or laboratories , ready to strike us once more .


We forget what an incredible gift vaccines are and how hard we had to battle to get them.

We forget what an incredible gift vaccines are and how hard we had to battle to get them .


We are still protected by the light, but it's cooling each and every day, and we owe it to those who will come after us to make sure it doesn't go out.

We are still protected by the light , but it 's cooling each and every day , and we owe it to those who will come after us to make sure it does n't go out .


We killed one monster.


We can do it again.


This video was supported by Open Philanthropy.

This video was supported by Open Philanthropy .


Do you want to continue learning about the fascinating world of biology?

Do you want to continue learning about the fascinating world of biology ?


We've got you.


Let's take a real close look at the human body.

Let 's take a real close look at the human body .


This is an arm, and this is a human cell.

This is an arm , and this is a human cell .


Even though it's the smallest unit of life, the cell is extremely complex.

Even though it 's the smallest unit of life , the cell is extremely complex .


But don't worry, we managed to fit everything you need to know on a single poster.

But do n't worry , we managed to fit everything you need to know on a single poster .


And in true Kurzgesagt fashion, it's easy to understand, and even easier on the eyes.

And in true Kurzgesagt fashion , it 's easy to understand , and even easier on the eyes .


Grasping a complex topic is much easier when it's presented in exciting ways.

Grasping a complex topic is much easier when it 's presented in exciting ways .


The poster was researched and designed in collaboration with molecular biologist James Gurney.

The poster was researched and designed in collaboration with molecular biologist James Gurney .


So it's expert approved and contains all the latest cutting-edge science about organelles, their function, and their place in the cellular world.

So it 's expert approved and contains all the latest cutting - edge science about organelles , their function , and their place in the cellular world .


We love bringing science into your home with our videos, and we're so excited whenever we get to do it literally.

We love bringing science into your home with our videos , and we 're so excited whenever we get to do it literally .


That's why we take hundreds of hours to create our science posters, all researched with care and crafted with love by us here at Kurzgesagt.

That 's why we take hundreds of hours to create our science posters , all researched with care and crafted with love by us here at Kurzgesagt .


We love having such a curious audience, and we want to inspire you and all the birbs in your life to learn all about biology, space, humans, and life itself.

We love having such a curious audience , and we want to inspire you and all the birbs in your life to learn all about biology , space , humans , and life itself .


Get the human cell poster now exclusively on the Kurzgesagt shop, and support the Kurzgesagt vision of sparking curiosity.

Get the human cell poster now exclusively on the Kurzgesagt shop , and support the Kurzgesagt vision of sparking curiosity .


What would you say if we told you that humanity is currently making a collaborative effort to engineer the perfect superbug?

What would you say if we told you that humanity is currently making a collaborative effort to engineer the perfect superbug ?


Well, it is happening right now.


We are in the process of creating a super bacterium.

We are in the process of creating a super bacterium .


Bacteria are among the oldest living things on this planet.

Bacteria are among the oldest living things on this planet .


The smallest thing we still consider life, they are masters of survival and can be found everywhere.

The smallest thing we still consider life , they are masters of survival and can be found everywhere .


Most bacteria are harmless to us.


Your body hosts trillions of them and they help you to survive.

Your body hosts trillions of them and they help you to survive .


But others can invade your body, spread quickly and kill you.

But others can invade your body , spread quickly and kill you .


Millions of people used to die as a result of bacterial infections, until we developed a super weapon, antibiotics.

Millions of people used to die as a result of bacterial infections , until we developed a super weapon , antibiotics .


Together with vaccinations, antibiotics revolutionized medicine and saved millions of lives.

Together with vaccinations , antibiotics revolutionized medicine and saved millions of lives .


Antibiotics kill the vast majority of susceptible bacteria fairly quickly, leaving only a small group of survivors that our immune system then deals with easily.

Antibiotics kill the vast majority of susceptible bacteria fairly quickly , leaving only a small group of survivors that our immune system then deals with easily .


How do antibiotics do this?


Imagine a bacterium as a very complex machine with thousands of complex processes going on that keep it alive and active.

Imagine a bacterium as a very complex machine with thousands of complex processes going on that keep it alive and active .


Antibiotics disrupt this complex machinery, for example by interfering with its metabolism, slowing down their growth significantly, so they are less of a threat.

Antibiotics disrupt this complex machinery , for example by interfering with its metabolism , slowing down their growth significantly , so they are less of a threat .


Other antibiotics attack DNA and prevent it from being replicated, which stops bacteria from multiplying, ultimately killing them.

Other antibiotics attack DNA and prevent it from being replicated , which stops bacteria from multiplying , ultimately killing them .


But now, evolution is making things more complicated.

But now , evolution is making things more complicated .


By pure random chance, a small minority of the bacteria invading your body might have evolved a way to protect themselves.

By pure random chance , a small minority of the bacteria invading your body might have evolved a way to protect themselves .


A few immune bacteria are not that big a deal, because the immune system can take care of them.

A few immune bacteria are not that big a deal , because the immune system can take care of them .


But if they escape, they might spread their immunity.

But if they escape , they might spread their immunity .


How can bacteria spread immunity?


First of all, bacteria have two kinds of DNA.

First of all , bacteria have two kinds of DNA .


They can hug each other and exchange those plasmids to exchange useful abilities.

They can hug each other and exchange those plasmids to exchange useful abilities .


This way, immunity can be spread quickly through a population.

This way , immunity can be spread quickly through a population .


Or in a process called transformation, bacteria can harvest dead bacteria and collect DNA pieces.

Or in a process called transformation , bacteria can harvest dead bacteria and collect DNA pieces .


This even works between different bacteria species and can lead to superbugs, bacteria that are immune to multiple antibiotics.

This even works between different bacteria species and can lead to superbugs , bacteria that are immune to multiple antibiotics .


A variety of superbugs already exist in the world.

A variety of superbugs already exist in the world .


Especially hospitals are the perfect breeding grounds for them.

Especially hospitals are the perfect breeding grounds for them .


Humans have short memories.


The horrors of the pre-antibiotic era have been forgotten.

The horrors of the pre - antibiotic era have been forgotten .


Today, we treat this powerful medicine as a commodity instead of as the game-changing achievement of science that it is.

Today , we treat this powerful medicine as a commodity instead of as the game - changing achievement of science that it is .


This has led to a strange disconnect.


Hundreds of millions of people still don't have access to antibiotics in developing countries.

Hundreds of millions of people still do n't have access to antibiotics in developing countries .


While in other parts of the world, antibiotics are prescribed too freely and taken without care.

While in other parts of the world , antibiotics are prescribed too freely and taken without care .


Antibiotics should be a last resort drug, not something you take because your cold is annoying.

Antibiotics should be a last resort drug , not something you take because your cold is annoying .


Another serious problem is antibiotic use in meat production.

Another serious problem is antibiotic use in meat production .


At any particular point in time, humanity holds between 20 and 30 billion animals as livestock.

At any particular point in time , humanity holds between 20 and 30 billion animals as livestock .


To make meat cheaper, many animals are held in horrible conditions, in very tight spaces, and in unhygienic conditions.

To make meat cheaper , many animals are held in horrible conditions , in very tight spaces , and in unhygienic conditions .


So many animals are given antibiotics to kill as many bacteria as possible and prevent them from getting sick.

So many animals are given antibiotics to kill as many bacteria as possible and prevent them from getting sick .


Because a cheeseburger has to cost a dollar.

Because a cheeseburger has to cost a dollar .


Unsurprisingly, as a result of this system, we have created more and more bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics.

Unsurprisingly , as a result of this system , we have created more and more bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics .


To counteract this, we use different antibiotics and we have another secret weapon.

To counteract this , we use different antibiotics and we have another secret weapon .


There are specific antibiotics that are used to wipe out bacteria that have developed resistance.

There are specific antibiotics that are used to wipe out bacteria that have developed resistance .


There are strict rules for using these to avoid the creation of a super bacterium.

There are strict rules for using these to avoid the creation of a super bacterium .


Or so we thought.


In late 2015, scary news arrived from China.

In late 2015 , scary news arrived from China .


Resistance against colistin, a last-ditch antibiotic, had been discovered.

Resistance against colistin , a last - ditch antibiotic , had been discovered .


Colistin is an old drug and was rarely used because it can damage the liver.

Colistin is an old drug and was rarely used because it can damage the liver .


So there was little resistance against it, which made it a great antibiotic of last resort for certain complex infections

So there was little resistance against it , which made it a great antibiotic of last resort for certain complex infections


that occur in hospitals to fight bacteria that have become immune to a whole bunch of other drugs.

that occur in hospitals to fight bacteria that have become immune to a whole bunch of other drugs .


Bacteria resistance to colistin is very, very bad news.

Bacteria resistance to colistin is very , very bad news .


It might destroy a last line of defense and lead to a whole lot of dead people.

It might destroy a last line of defense and lead to a whole lot of dead people .


How could this happen?


Millions of animals in Chinese pig farms have been given colistin for years.

Millions of animals in Chinese pig farms have been given colistin for years .


Resistant bacteria developed, spreading first from animal to animal and then to humans without being noticed.

Resistant bacteria developed , spreading first from animal to animal and then to humans without being noticed .


On an average day, there are over 100,000 flights on Earth, kind of connecting every human on the planet.

On an average day , there are over 100,000 flights on Earth , kind of connecting every human on the planet .


By creating the modern world, we have also built the infrastructure for a dangerous pandemic.

By creating the modern world , we have also built the infrastructure for a dangerous pandemic .


Still, we don't need to panic just yet.

Still , we do n't need to panic just yet .


Bacteria evolve.


Humans do research.


New antibiotics are developed as old ones become obsolete.

New antibiotics are developed as old ones become obsolete .


Technology is advancing every day.


The problem is real and serious, but the fight is far from over.

The problem is real and serious , but the fight is far from over .


If humanity plays its cards right, super bugs might turn out to be not very super after all.

If humanity plays its cards right , super bugs might turn out to be not very super after all .


This video was made possible by viewer support on patreon.com and a grant from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

This video was made possible by viewer support on patreon.com and a grant from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation .


If you want to support us to make more videos, you can buy a Kurzgesagt poster or mug or donate on Patreon.

If you want to support us to make more videos , you can buy a Kurzgesagt poster or mug or donate on Patreon .


Thank you so much for your help.


Up to the middle of the 20th century, most scientists thought of the universe as infinite and ageless.

Up to the middle of the 20th century , most scientists thought of the universe as infinite and ageless .


Until Einstein's theory of relativity gave us a better understanding of gravity and Edwin Hubble discovered that galaxies are moving apart from one another in a way that fits previous predictions.

Until Einstein 's theory of relativity gave us a better understanding of gravity and Edwin Hubble discovered that galaxies are moving apart from one another in a way that fits previous predictions .


In 1964, by accident, cosmic background radiation was discovered, a relic of the early universe,

In 1964 , by accident , cosmic background radiation was discovered , a relic of the early universe ,


Since then, improved technology like the Hubble telescope has given us a pretty good picture of the Big Bang and the structure of the cosmos.

Since then , improved technology like the Hubble telescope has given us a pretty good picture of the Big Bang and the structure of the cosmos .


Recent observations even seem to suggest that the expansion of the universe is accelerating.

Recent observations even seem to suggest that the expansion of the universe is accelerating .


But how did this Big Bang work?


How can something come from nothing?


Let's explore what we know.


We can ignore the beginning part for now.

We can ignore the beginning part for now .


First of all, the Big Bang was not an explosion.

First of all , the Big Bang was not an explosion .


It was all space, stretching everywhere all at once.

It was all space , stretching everywhere all at once .


The universe started very, very, very small and quickly expanded to the size of a football.

The universe started very , very , very small and quickly expanded to the size of a football .


The universe didn't expand into anything, space was just expanding into itself.

The universe did n't expand into anything , space was just expanding into itself .


The universe cannot expand into anything because the universe has no borders.

The universe can not expand into anything because the universe has no borders .


There is by definition no outside the universe.

There is by definition no outside the universe .


The universe is all there is.


In this hot, dense environment, energy manifested itself in particles that existed only for the tiniest glimpses of time.

In this hot , dense environment , energy manifested itself in particles that existed only for the tiniest glimpses of time .


From gluons, pairs of quarks were created, which destroyed one another, perhaps after giving off more gluons.

From gluons , pairs of quarks were created , which destroyed one another , perhaps after giving off more gluons .


These found other short-lived quarks to interact with, forming new quark pairs and gluons again.

These found other short - lived quarks to interact with , forming new quark pairs and gluons again .


Matter and energy were not just theoretically equivalent, it was so hot they were practically the same stuff.

Matter and energy were not just theoretically equivalent , it was so hot they were practically the same stuff .


Somewhere around this time, matter won over antimatter.

Somewhere around this time , matter won over antimatter .


Today, we're left with almost all matter and nearly no antimatter at all.

Today , we 're left with almost all matter and nearly no antimatter at all .


Somehow, one billion and one matter particles were formed for every one billion particles of antimatter.

Somehow , one billion and one matter particles were formed for every one billion particles of antimatter .


Instead of one massive ultimate force in the universe, there were now several refined versions of it, acting under different rules.

Instead of one massive ultimate force in the universe , there were now several refined versions of it , acting under different rules .


By now, the universe has stretched to a billion kilometers in diameter, which leads to a decrease in temperature.

By now , the universe has stretched to a billion kilometers in diameter , which leads to a decrease in temperature .


The cycle of quarks being born and converted back to energy suddenly stops.

The cycle of quarks being born and converted back to energy suddenly stops .


From now on, we work with what we have.

From now on , we work with what we have .


Quarks begin forming new particles, hadrons, like protons and neutrons.

Quarks begin forming new particles , hadrons , like protons and neutrons .


There are many, many combinations of quarks that can form all sorts of hadrons, but only very few are reasonably stable for any length of time.

There are many , many combinations of quarks that can form all sorts of hadrons , but only very few are reasonably stable for any length of time .


Please take a moment to appreciate that by now, only one second has passed since the beginning of everything.

Please take a moment to appreciate that by now , only one second has passed since the beginning of everything .


The universe, which has grown to 100 billion kilometers, is now cold enough to allow most of the neutrons to decay into protons and form the first atom, hydrogen.

The universe , which has grown to 100 billion kilometers , is now cold enough to allow most of the neutrons to decay into protons and form the first atom , hydrogen .


Imagine the universe at this point as an extremely hot soup, 10 billion degrees Celsius, filled with countless particles and energy.

Imagine the universe at this point as an extremely hot soup , 10 billion degrees Celsius , filled with countless particles and energy .


Over the next few minutes, things cooled and settled down very fast.

Over the next few minutes , things cooled and settled down very fast .


Atoms formed out of hadrons and electrons, making for a stable and electrically neutral environment.

Atoms formed out of hadrons and electrons , making for a stable and electrically neutral environment .


Some call this period the Dark Age, because there were no stars and the hydrogen gas didn't allow visible light to move around.

Some call this period the Dark Age , because there were no stars and the hydrogen gas did n't allow visible light to move around .


But what's the meaning of visible light anyway, when there's nothing alive yet that could have eyes?

But what 's the meaning of visible light anyway , when there 's nothing alive yet that could have eyes ?


When the hydrogen gas clumped together after millions of years and gravity put it under great pressure, stars and galaxies began to form.

When the hydrogen gas clumped together after millions of years and gravity put it under great pressure , stars and galaxies began to form .


Their radiation dissolved the stable hydrogen gas into a plasma that still permeates the universe today and allows visible light to pass.

Their radiation dissolved the stable hydrogen gas into a plasma that still permeates the universe today and allows visible light to pass .


Finally, there was light.


What happened right at the beginning?


This part can be defined as the Big Bang.

This part can be defined as the Big Bang .


We don't know at all what happened here.

We do n't know at all what happened here .


At this point, our tools break down.


Natural laws stop making sense.


Time itself becomes wibbly-wobbly.


To understand what happened here, we need a theory that unifies Einstein's relativity and quantum mechanics, something countless scientists are working on right now.

To understand what happened here , we need a theory that unifies Einstein 's relativity and quantum mechanics , something countless scientists are working on right now .


But this leaves us with lots of unanswered questions.

But this leaves us with lots of unanswered questions .


Were there universes before our own?


Is this the first and only universe?


What started the Big Bang, or did it just occur naturally, based on laws we don't understand yet?

What started the Big Bang , or did it just occur naturally , based on laws we do n't understand yet ?


We don't know, and maybe we never will.

We do n't know , and maybe we never will .


But what we do know is that the universe as we know it started here and gave birth to particles, galaxies, stars, the Earth, and you.

But what we do know is that the universe as we know it started here and gave birth to particles , galaxies , stars , the Earth , and you .


Since we ourselves are made of dead stars, we are not separate from the universe.

Since we ourselves are made of dead stars , we are not separate from the universe .


We are part of it.


You could even say that we are the universe's way of experiencing itself.

You could even say that we are the universe 's way of experiencing itself .


So let's keep on experiencing it until there are no more questions to ask.

So let 's keep on experiencing it until there are no more questions to ask .


In nearly every corner of the earth, ants wage war against each other.

In nearly every corner of the earth , ants wage war against each other .


Their weapons are what nature gave them.

Their weapons are what nature gave them .


Some have strong armor, deadly stingers, or sharp mandibles.

Some have strong armor , deadly stingers , or sharp mandibles .


And then there's this tiny and not very impressive ant.

And then there 's this tiny and not very impressive ant .


But it rules the biggest empire any ant has ever built.

But it rules the biggest empire any ant has ever built .


Let's take a look at this unlikely warrioress, Linipithema humanae, the Argentine ant.

Let 's take a look at this unlikely warrioress , Linipithema humanae , the Argentine ant .


This story begins in the floodplains around the Paraná River in South America.

This story begins in the floodplains around the Paraná River in South America .


It's a crowded ant megalopolis where dozens of ant species fight for dominance, including fire ants, army ants, and the rather unimpressive Argentine ant.

It 's a crowded ant megalopolis where dozens of ant species fight for dominance , including fire ants , army ants , and the rather unimpressive Argentine ant .


It measures only 2-3 mm in length, and with its small mandibles, it's surprising that it survived among its buff competitors.

It measures only 2 - 3 mm in length , and with its small mandibles , it 's surprising that it survived among its buff competitors .


Their homes are equally unremarkable.


Their colonies range from fairly small to very large, and can be found anywhere.

Their colonies range from fairly small to very large , and can be found anywhere .


Here, Argentine ants prepare their most effective weapon against their competitors, bodies.

Here , Argentine ants prepare their most effective weapon against their competitors , bodies .


Most ant species have only one queen to produce ants, while Argentine ants went all in on numbers.

Most ant species have only one queen to produce ants , while Argentine ants went all in on numbers .


For every 120 workers, there's one queen, laying up to 60 eggs a day.

For every 120 workers , there 's one queen , laying up to 60 eggs a day .


So their colonies grow fast and have millions or billions of individuals.

So their colonies grow fast and have millions or billions of individuals .


Teams of queens and workers frequently branch out and found new colonies.

Teams of queens and workers frequently branch out and found new colonies .


But this strategy has a downside.


As colonies grow and produce a lot of offspring, mutations occur and new colonies adapt to new environments.

As colonies grow and produce a lot of offspring , mutations occur and new colonies adapt to new environments .


Their DNA slowly changes from generation to generation, and differences accumulate.

Their DNA slowly changes from generation to generation , and differences accumulate .


So after a while, the ants that left the colony will become more like distant cousins and start to compete with their mother colony.

So after a while , the ants that left the colony will become more like distant cousins and start to compete with their mother colony .


In their native South American range, this is how Argentine ants behave.

In their native South American range , this is how Argentine ants behave .


Within their colonies, they are very cooperative and well-organized.

Within their colonies , they are very cooperative and well - organized .


But they fight vicious wars against other Argentine ant colonies and other ant species.

But they fight vicious wars against other Argentine ant colonies and other ant species .


With equally strong opponents on every side, the Argentine ant became extremely aggressive, fighting for every inch of ground.

With equally strong opponents on every side , the Argentine ant became extremely aggressive , fighting for every inch of ground .


But it could never dominate its neighbors, until humans showed up.

But it could never dominate its neighbors , until humans showed up .


We did what humans do and transported things around the world by ship.

We did what humans do and transported things around the world by ship .


On one of them, a few Argentine ant queens hitched a ride as stowaways from South America to Madeira and New Orleans.

On one of them , a few Argentine ant queens hitched a ride as stowaways from South America to Madeira and New Orleans .


The Argentine ants suddenly found themselves in a strange world.

The Argentine ants suddenly found themselves in a strange world .


Instead of being surrounded by deadly enemies, they found only victims.

Instead of being surrounded by deadly enemies , they found only victims .


Nobody could fight them effectively.


Because only a few Argentine ant queens were introduced to the outside world, the resulting colonies had very low genetic diversity.

Because only a few Argentine ant queens were introduced to the outside world , the resulting colonies had very low genetic diversity .


On top of that, the introduced Argentine ants kill up to 90% of their queens every year.

On top of that , the introduced Argentine ants kill up to 90 % of their queens every year .


So, as these colonies spread across the landscape, ants that left the colony were no longer considered distant cousins.

So , as these colonies spread across the landscape , ants that left the colony were no longer considered distant cousins .


As a result, the new colonies form not opposing, but cooperating parties called supercolonies.

As a result , the new colonies form not opposing , but cooperating parties called supercolonies .


This is a very uncommon strategy in the ant kingdom.

This is a very uncommon strategy in the ant kingdom .


Only a few of the 16,000 ant species have evolved supercolonies.

Only a few of the 16,000 ant species have evolved supercolonies .


A supercolony was established on the west coast of the USA and became a base for the tiny ants' global conquest.

A supercolony was established on the west coast of the USA and became a base for the tiny ants ' global conquest .


Today, the Argentine ant inhabits the Mediterranean zones of six continents and many islands.

Today , the Argentine ant inhabits the Mediterranean zones of six continents and many islands .


This one supercolony was especially successful, establishing sister locations in California, Europe, Japan, New Zealand and Australia, forming one massive intercontinental megacolony of Argentine ants.

This one supercolony was especially successful , establishing sister locations in California , Europe , Japan , New Zealand and Australia , forming one massive intercontinental megacolony of Argentine ants .


This makes them the largest society on Earth, more numerous than even the human one.

This makes them the largest society on Earth , more numerous than even the human one .


But their success has changed the ecosystems they invaded.

But their success has changed the ecosystems they invaded .


California is a perfect example of this.

California is a perfect example of this .


In their greed for more territory, the invading Argentine ants have overrun and replaced 90% of the native ant species, including several species of Californian carpenter ants.

In their greed for more territory , the invading Argentine ants have overrun and replaced 90 % of the native ant species , including several species of Californian carpenter ants .


Although carpenter ant workers are giants, their colonies have only between 3,000 and 6,000 individuals and stand no chance against an expanding supercolony of billions of Argentine ants.

Although carpenter ant workers are giants , their colonies have only between 3,000 and 6,000 individuals and stand no chance against an expanding supercolony of billions of Argentine ants .


Argentine ant workers attack by wiping toxic chemicals on their victims, which irritates the enemy and marks them as a target for other Argentine ants.

Argentine ant workers attack by wiping toxic chemicals on their victims , which irritates the enemy and marks them as a target for other Argentine ants .


When they attack, the Argentine ants wash over their victims, clinging on to their opponents in groups and pulling apart their limbs.

When they attack , the Argentine ants wash over their victims , clinging on to their opponents in groups and pulling apart their limbs .


It doesn't matter how many of them die, there are always more.

It does n't matter how many of them die , there are always more .


Once the colony is overrun and exterminated, the Argentine ants feed on their victims' brood and take over their home and territory.

Once the colony is overrun and exterminated , the Argentine ants feed on their victims ' brood and take over their home and territory .


The Argentine ant numbers allow them to hunt down and devour such an excessive mass of different insects that over time, some species disappear from the ant's territory completely.

The Argentine ant numbers allow them to hunt down and devour such an excessive mass of different insects that over time , some species disappear from the ant 's territory completely .


Argentine ants don't care about working with the local flora and fauna, they consume them and move on.

Argentine ants do n't care about working with the local flora and fauna , they consume them and move on .


And if their next stop happens to be human property, they will rudely make themselves at home there too.

And if their next stop happens to be human property , they will rudely make themselves at home there too .


They forage in dumpsters, bowls of pet food and sneak into kitchens to claim leftovers.

They forage in dumpsters , bowls of pet food and sneak into kitchens to claim leftovers .


Not just our homes, our gardens and fields are also impacted by Argentine ants since they tend to hordes of aphids as their cattle.

Not just our homes , our gardens and fields are also impacted by Argentine ants since they tend to hordes of aphids as their cattle .


The aphids feed from plants and produce a sweet honeydew, which they trade with the ants for protection.

The aphids feed from plants and produce a sweet honeydew , which they trade with the ants for protection .


Since the ants have no major enemy to fear in their new homes, the aphids thrive and ultimately kill the plants they live on.

Since the ants have no major enemy to fear in their new homes , the aphids thrive and ultimately kill the plants they live on .


So, on top of being a major disruption for the ecosystems they invade, they are also a huge pest for agriculture.

So , on top of being a major disruption for the ecosystems they invade , they are also a huge pest for agriculture .


But the rule of the Argentine ant is being challenged.

But the rule of the Argentine ant is being challenged .


Parts of the supercolonies have broken off and become their own empires.

Parts of the supercolonies have broken off and become their own empires .


A merciless civil war has broken out.


For example, the Lake Hodges supercolony has been fighting against the very large colony for years in San Diego County.

For example , the Lake Hodges supercolony has been fighting against the very large colony for years in San Diego County .


A massive war is going on over a dynamic front line stretching over kilometers.

A massive war is going on over a dynamic front line stretching over kilometers .


An estimated 30 million ants die here each year.

An estimated 30 million ants die here each year .


On other fronts, an old acquaintance from the Paraná River has risen from the shadows.

On other fronts , an old acquaintance from the Paraná River has risen from the shadows .


Red imported fire ants, which were accidentally introduced from their old home to the coast of Alabama.

Red imported fire ants , which were accidentally introduced from their old home to the coast of Alabama .


Not only are the red fire ants fierce fighters and more than able to deal with the Argentine ant, they are also able to form supercolonies themselves.

Not only are the red fire ants fierce fighters and more than able to deal with the Argentine ant , they are also able to form supercolonies themselves .


Now, the old wars from their distant home have been taken to a foreign battleground.

Now , the old wars from their distant home have been taken to a foreign battleground .


In the southeastern US, the supercolonies clashed fiercely.

In the southeastern US , the supercolonies clashed fiercely .


The Argentine ants found themselves outgunned by the fire ants.

The Argentine ants found themselves outgunned by the fire ants .


The fire ants' major workers are more than twice the size of the Argentine ants and wield venom-injecting stingers.

The fire ants ' major workers are more than twice the size of the Argentine ants and wield venom - injecting stingers .


Even though the Argentine ants fought fiercely, the fire ants were too much for them.

Even though the Argentine ants fought fiercely , the fire ants were too much for them .


After countless lost battles, the red imported fire ant exterminated the Argentine ants' supercolony from much of the southeastern US.

After countless lost battles , the red imported fire ant exterminated the Argentine ants ' supercolony from much of the southeastern US .


This is one territory lost, but the Argentine ants will fight on.

This is one territory lost , but the Argentine ants will fight on .


This amazing network of cooperating supercolonies is the biggest success in their history.

This amazing network of cooperating supercolonies is the biggest success in their history .


And they'll not give it up because of a small defeat.

And they 'll not give it up because of a small defeat .


They will stand their ground against any enemy that might arise.

They will stand their ground against any enemy that might arise .


Thank you to out friends at CuriosityStream for supporting our ant's obsession and making ambitious projects like this possible.

Thank you to out friends at CuriosityStream for supporting our ant 's obsession and making ambitious projects like this possible .


Stay tuned for part 3 and visit curiositystream.com/kurzgesagt for your free trial.

Stay tuned for part 3 and visit curiositystream.com/kurzgesagt for your free trial .


Black holes are the largest collections of pure violent energy in the universe.

Black holes are the largest collections of pure violent energy in the universe .


If you come too close, they'll devour you and add your energy to their collection.

If you come too close , they 'll devour you and add your energy to their collection .


And so, the energy is lost to us forever.

And so , the energy is lost to us forever .


It turns out there's a universe cheat code.

It turns out there 's a universe cheat code .


Didn't we learn that all energy is trapped forever in black holes, even light?

Did n't we learn that all energy is trapped forever in black holes , even light ?


This is true.


Black holes are spinning.


Why black holes spin?


When really, really massive stars die, their cores collapse under their own gravity into black holes.

When really , really massive stars die , their cores collapse under their own gravity into black holes .


This means something very big becomes very, very tiny.

This means something very big becomes very , very tiny .


Like the tiniest anything can be in this universe.

Like the tiniest anything can be in this universe .


But stars are rotating, and a fundamental property of our universe is that things that are spinning don't want to stop spinning.

But stars are rotating , and a fundamental property of our universe is that things that are spinning do n't want to stop spinning .


We call this angular momentum.


And this angular momentum can't go away.

And this angular momentum ca n't go away .


A big thing that spins and becomes smaller spins faster.

A big thing that spins and becomes smaller spins faster .


So as the core of a star collapses, its momentum makes it spin faster and faster and faster until it collapses into a black hole.

So as the core of a star collapses , its momentum makes it spin faster and faster and faster until it collapses into a black hole .


And the black hole keeps on spinning, inconceivably fast.

And the black hole keeps on spinning , inconceivably fast .


Some of them spin millions of times a second.

Some of them spin millions of times a second .


Why spinning black holes are special?


Just like non-spinning black holes, spinning black holes have an event horizon and a singularity at their core where all of their mass is concentrated.

Just like non - spinning black holes , spinning black holes have an event horizon and a singularity at their core where all of their mass is concentrated .


The singularity is usually described as a single, infinitely small point with no surface area.

The singularity is usually described as a single , infinitely small point with no surface area .


But points can't rotate, so a rotating singularity can't be a point.

But points ca n't rotate , so a rotating singularity ca n't be a point .


Instead, it's a ringularity.


A ringularity is a ring with a thickness of zero and no surface, spinning extremely fast, containing all the mass of the black hole.

A ringularity is a ring with a thickness of zero and no surface , spinning extremely fast , containing all the mass of the black hole .


The black hole is spinning so fast that it morphs space and time itself.

The black hole is spinning so fast that it morphs space and time itself .


It literally drags space with it, such is its power.

It literally drags space with it , such is its power .


This creates a new and super weird region of space-time, the ergosphere, which envelops the black hole.

This creates a new and super weird region of space - time , the ergosphere , which envelops the black hole .


If space and time are completely broken inside the event horizon, then they're only half broken inside the ergosphere.

If space and time are completely broken inside the event horizon , then they 're only half broken inside the ergosphere .


Inside the ergosphere, nothing makes sense.

Inside the ergosphere , nothing makes sense .


It's possible to enter it and then leave it again, but it's probably not a great experience.

It 's possible to enter it and then leave it again , but it 's probably not a great experience .


You can imagine it like this.


Falling into a static black hole is like sliding down a hole.

Falling into a static black hole is like sliding down a hole .


Being inside the ergosphere of a spinning black hole is like spiraling down a deadly drain.

Being inside the ergosphere of a spinning black hole is like spiraling down a deadly drain .


The black hole transfers its own kinetic energy in the form of rotation to everything that enters the ergosphere.

The black hole transfers its own kinetic energy in the form of rotation to everything that enters the ergosphere .


The ringularity makes you dance, whether you want to or not.

The ringularity makes you dance , whether you want to or not .


You need to move faster than the speed of light just to stand still here, which is impossible.

You need to move faster than the speed of light just to stand still here , which is impossible .


But here's our cheat code.


We can steal this energy.


And there's a lot of energy to steal.


Take the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way.

Take the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way .


We could steal as much energy from it as every single star in the Milky Way emits in a billion years combined.

We could steal as much energy from it as every single star in the Milky Way emits in a billion years combined .


The easiest way to steal this energy is, oddly enough, to drop something into the black hole.

The easiest way to steal this energy is , oddly enough , to drop something into the black hole .


We've seen that the ringularity forces energy on us when we enter the ergosphere, which is a lot like being in a whirlpool with space-time rushing around and around.

We 've seen that the ringularity forces energy on us when we enter the ergosphere , which is a lot like being in a whirlpool with space - time rushing around and around .


If you're clever, you can use the water to your advantage and swim faster than before.

If you 're clever , you can use the water to your advantage and swim faster than before .


In practice, this means sending a rocket into the ergosphere and making a trade with the black hole.

In practice , this means sending a rocket into the ergosphere and making a trade with the black hole .


We give it some mass energy and it gives us some of its rotational energy.

We give it some mass energy and it gives us some of its rotational energy .


But it's not a fair trade.


We get the better deal.


Normally, if you fire a rocket, you exchange chemical energy for kinetic energy.

Normally , if you fire a rocket , you exchange chemical energy for kinetic energy .


This is like pushing yourself forward in a swimming pool.

This is like pushing yourself forward in a swimming pool .


But if you fire a rocket inside the ergosphere, it's like pushing yourself forward in a wavepool.

But if you fire a rocket inside the ergosphere , it 's like pushing yourself forward in a wavepool .


The rotational energy of the waves gives you a much stronger boost than you could get just by pushing yourself.

The rotational energy of the waves gives you a much stronger boost than you could get just by pushing yourself .


The boost from the rotation of the black hole is so big that you leave the ergosphere with much more energy than you entered it.

The boost from the rotation of the black hole is so big that you leave the ergosphere with much more energy than you entered it .


The black hole gives a tiny amount of its rotational energy to you and slows down a little.

The black hole gives a tiny amount of its rotational energy to you and slows down a little .


Obviously, this requires a lot of food.

Obviously , this requires a lot of food .


Fortunately, black holes aren't picky eaters.

Fortunately , black holes are n't picky eaters .


An advanced future civilization would probably harvest asteroids to drop them into the black hole when they needed an energy boost.

An advanced future civilization would probably harvest asteroids to drop them into the black hole when they needed an energy boost .


There's an even better way to get energy from a black hole and, oddly enough, it builds the biggest bomb any living thing could ever hope to build.

There 's an even better way to get energy from a black hole and , oddly enough , it builds the biggest bomb any living thing could ever hope to build .


We only need two things to build a black hole bomb.

We only need two things to build a black hole bomb .


The mirror has to completely envelop the black hole, which is similar to a Dyson sphere, a megastructure that harvests the energy of an entire star.

The mirror has to completely envelop the black hole , which is similar to a Dyson sphere , a megastructure that harvests the energy of an entire star .


Although our mirror would be easier to build.

Although our mirror would be easier to build .


Mirrors are simpler and black holes are much, much more compact than stars.

Mirrors are simpler and black holes are much , much more compact than stars .


If we made the mirror 10 centimeters thick, the metal of a big asteroid would probably be enough material for a black hole with the mass of our sun.

If we made the mirror 10 centimeters thick , the metal of a big asteroid would probably be enough material for a black hole with the mass of our sun .


Once our mirror is in place, we only need to open a window and shoot electromagnetic waves at the black hole.

Once our mirror is in place , we only need to open a window and shoot electromagnetic waves at the black hole .


You can imagine what happens next by imagining tossing a ball at a wall and it coming back faster than a bullet.

You can imagine what happens next by imagining tossing a ball at a wall and it coming back faster than a bullet .


The waves hit the black hole at light speed.

The waves hit the black hole at light speed .


A small proportion of the waves falls past the event horizon to disappear forever.

A small proportion of the waves falls past the event horizon to disappear forever .


But a much larger amount sloshes through the ergosphere where the black hole forces some of its rotational energy on them and amplifies them.

But a much larger amount sloshes through the ergosphere where the black hole forces some of its rotational energy on them and amplifies them .


They now begin super radiant scattering, which are fancy science words meaning bouncing around between mirror and black hole and getting stronger.

They now begin super radiant scattering , which are fancy science words meaning bouncing around between mirror and black hole and getting stronger .


Every time they go around, they are getting exponentially stronger.

Every time they go around , they are getting exponentially stronger .


By opening some windows in the mirror, we can extract the energy from the waves as fast as they grow,

By opening some windows in the mirror , we can extract the energy from the waves as fast as they grow ,


Or we could blow it up.


If the waves are not released, they will continue to get stronger and stronger and take more and more energy from the black hole until the mirror shatters.

If the waves are not released , they will continue to get stronger and stronger and take more and more energy from the black hole until the mirror shatters .


A supermassive black hole would release as much energy as a supernova, making the bomb the largest explosion any living being could ever create.

A supermassive black hole would release as much energy as a supernova , making the bomb the largest explosion any living being could ever create .


The beauty of the black hole bomb, the Penrose process and the super radiant scattering is that they are not science fiction.

The beauty of the black hole bomb , the Penrose process and the super radiant scattering is that they are not science fiction .


In the far, far future, this might be the only way to survive in our dying universe.

In the far , far future , this might be the only way to survive in our dying universe .


After all the red dwarfs have cooled down and all the white dwarfs transformed into black dwarfs, the universe will turn dark forever.

After all the red dwarfs have cooled down and all the white dwarfs transformed into black dwarfs , the universe will turn dark forever .


Rotating black holes might be the only sources of energy in the entire universe that life could harvest.

Rotating black holes might be the only sources of energy in the entire universe that life could harvest .


If so, the last living being in existence might one day end its life around a black hole, which is equally chilling and uplifting.

If so , the last living being in existence might one day end its life around a black hole , which is equally chilling and uplifting .


It turns out that even without any light, there are places we can go.

It turns out that even without any light , there are places we can go .


Black holes are as interesting as they are mysterious, but there's actually a surprising amount we do know.

Black holes are as interesting as they are mysterious , but there 's actually a surprising amount we do know .


Using maths, we can calculate things and come up with theories about how we die if we fall into them.

Using maths , we can calculate things and come up with theories about how we die if we fall into them .


If you're the sort of person who gets excited about maths and calculating these things for yourself,

If you 're the sort of person who gets excited about maths and calculating these things for yourself ,


our friends at Brilliant have put together a fantastic black hole quiz to help you get your head around them.

our friends at Brilliant have put together a fantastic black hole quiz to help you get your head around them .


Brilliant is a problem-solving website that teaches you to think like a scientist by guiding you through the problems.

Brilliant is a problem - solving website that teaches you to think like a scientist by guiding you through the problems .


They take concepts like these, break them up into bite-sized pieces, present clear thinking in each part, and then build back up to an interesting conclusion.

They take concepts like these , break them up into bite - sized pieces , present clear thinking in each part , and then build back up to an interesting conclusion .


If you visit brilliant.org slash nutshell or click the link in the description, you can sign up for free and learn all kinds of cool stuff.

If you visit brilliant.org slash nutshell or click the link in the description , you can sign up for free and learn all kinds of cool stuff .


And as a bonus for Kurzgesagt viewers, the first 688 people will also get 20% off their annual membership.

And as a bonus for Kurzgesagt viewers , the first 688 people will also get 20 % off their annual membership .


If you want to truly learn about black holes and support Kurzgesagt, this is one of the best ways to do it.

If you want to truly learn about black holes and support Kurzgesagt , this is one of the best ways to do it .


The universe looks like a vast, empty ocean sprinkled with rare islands of galaxies.

The universe looks like a vast , empty ocean sprinkled with rare islands of galaxies .


But this is an illusion.


Just a small fraction of all atoms are found in galaxies, while the rest is thought to be drifting in between, in the intergalactic medium.

Just a small fraction of all atoms are found in galaxies , while the rest is thought to be drifting in between , in the intergalactic medium .


Like the roots of some massive tree, gas spreads out from each galaxy, gravity funneling fresh mass into this dense, cosmic forest.

Like the roots of some massive tree , gas spreads out from each galaxy , gravity funneling fresh mass into this dense , cosmic forest .


Here, in the intergalactic medium, are the raw materials of creation.

Here , in the intergalactic medium , are the raw materials of creation .


But if we look closely, we see who's actually in charge.

But if we look closely , we see who 's actually in charge .


As small as a grain of sand compared to the Amazon River, they reside in the centers of some galaxies,

As small as a grain of sand compared to the Amazon River , they reside in the centers of some galaxies ,


They're so powerful that they can kill a galaxy.

They 're so powerful that they can kill a galaxy .


What are they, and how do they mold the structure of the universe at their whim?

What are they , and how do they mold the structure of the universe at their whim ?


In the 1950s, astronomers noticed mysterious loud radio waves coming from spots all over the sky.

In the 1950s , astronomers noticed mysterious loud radio waves coming from spots all over the sky .


They were named quasi-stellar radio sources, or quasars, because they were dots like stars, but were seen in radio waves rather than visible light.

They were named quasi - stellar radio sources , or quasars , because they were dots like stars , but were seen in radio waves rather than visible light .


Everything about them was strange.


Some flickered, others emitted high-energy X-rays in addition to radio waves, but all seemed to be tiny.

Some flickered , others emitted high - energy X - rays in addition to radio waves , but all seemed to be tiny .


They all moved extremely fast, as much as over 30% the speed of light.

They all moved extremely fast , as much as over 30 % the speed of light .


The only explanation was that they must have been so distant that their apparent speed was actually the expansion of the universe moving them away from us.

The only explanation was that they must have been so distant that their apparent speed was actually the expansion of the universe moving them away from us .


But these enormous distances meant that quasars couldn't just be stars, but the active cores of galaxies billions of light-years away.

But these enormous distances meant that quasars could n't just be stars , but the active cores of galaxies billions of light - years away .


And it gets crazier.


To appear so bright and loud, given these vast distances, they are thousands of times brighter than the entire Milky Way.

To appear so bright and loud , given these vast distances , they are thousands of times brighter than the entire Milky Way .


As we mapped the sky, we discovered over a million quasars.

As we mapped the sky , we discovered over a million quasars .


And they all seemed to be very far away.

And they all seemed to be very far away .


Looking into space far away means very long ago, because light takes so long to reach us.

Looking into space far away means very long ago , because light takes so long to reach us .


Quasars were common in the early universe, having peaked in number 10 billion years ago, when galaxies and the universe itself were still very young.

Quasars were common in the early universe , having peaked in number 10 billion years ago , when galaxies and the universe itself were still very young .


Let's go back in time, just 3 billion years after the Big Bang, and see what was going on back then.

Let 's go back in time , just 3 billion years after the Big Bang , and see what was going on back then .


How could an early baby galaxy be so incredibly bright and violent?

How could an early baby galaxy be so incredibly bright and violent ?


All that light and radiation couldn't be stars, as there weren't nearly enough of them.

All that light and radiation could n't be stars , as there were n't nearly enough of them .


And since galaxies tend to grow with time by emerging, the starlight from small galaxies shouldn't be far brighter than any galaxy today.

And since galaxies tend to grow with time by emerging , the starlight from small galaxies should n't be far brighter than any galaxy today .


There's only one way to generate the vast amounts of energy a quasar shines with.

There 's only one way to generate the vast amounts of energy a quasar shines with .


We still don't know how exactly they formed, but it seems that every galaxy has one in their center.

We still do n't know how exactly they formed , but it seems that every galaxy has one in their center .


But how can the brightest things in the universe be black holes, which trap anything and everything that crosses their event horizon?

But how can the brightest things in the universe be black holes , which trap anything and everything that crosses their event horizon ?


Well, the light of a quasar is not coming from inside these black holes.

Well , the light of a quasar is not coming from inside these black holes .


Rather, it comes from the space around them, a massive orbiting disk of gas called an attrition disk.

Rather , it comes from the space around them , a massive orbiting disk of gas called an attrition disk .


Quasars use the same fuel as stars to shine.

Quasars use the same fuel as stars to shine .


It's just that black holes are the most efficient engines for converting matter into energy in the universe.

It 's just that black holes are the most efficient engines for converting matter into energy in the universe .


The energy released by matter falling into a black hole can be 60 times greater than that released by nuclear fusion in the core of a star,

The energy released by matter falling into a black hole can be 60 times greater than that released by nuclear fusion in the core of a star ,


because the energy released by a black hole comes from gravity, not from nuclear reactions.

because the energy released by a black hole comes from gravity , not from nuclear reactions .


Matter falling into a black hole speeds up to almost the speed of light before it crosses the event horizon, buzzing with an incredible amount of kinetic energy.

Matter falling into a black hole speeds up to almost the speed of light before it crosses the event horizon , buzzing with an incredible amount of kinetic energy .


Of course, once inside the black hole, it takes that energy with it.

Of course , once inside the black hole , it takes that energy with it .


You only get to witness this energy if you drop your matter in the right way.

You only get to witness this energy if you drop your matter in the right way .


Fall straight down, and the outside universe gets nothing.

Fall straight down , and the outside universe gets nothing .


But when you have a lot of matter, it spirals in incredibly fast towards the event horizon, forming a disk.

But when you have a lot of matter , it spirals in incredibly fast towards the event horizon , forming a disk .


Collisions between particles and friction heat it up to hundreds of thousands of degrees.

Collisions between particles and friction heat it up to hundreds of thousands of degrees .


In a space not much bigger than our solar system, the core of a galaxy can release many times more energy than all its stars combined.

In a space not much bigger than our solar system , the core of a galaxy can release many times more energy than all its stars combined .


This is what a quasar is.


And these black holes eat a lot.


Typical quasars consume 1 to 100 Earth masses of gas per minute.

Typical quasars consume 1 to 100 Earth masses of gas per minute .


10 billion years ago, the universe was about a third of its current size, so the intergalactic medium was much less spread out,

10 billion years ago , the universe was about a third of its current size , so the intergalactic medium was much less spread out ,


The brightest quasars power jets, tangling the magnetic field of the matter around them into a narrow cone.

The brightest quasars power jets , tangling the magnetic field of the matter around them into a narrow cone .


Like a particle accelerator, they launch enormous beams of matter out,

Like a particle accelerator , they launch enormous beams of matter out ,


It's almost unfathomable in scale.


But quasars can't eat for long, maybe a few million years, because their feast ultimately kills their galaxy.

But quasars ca n't eat for long , maybe a few million years , because their feast ultimately kills their galaxy .


How quasars kill galaxies ?


Okay, maybe killing is a bit of an exaggeration.

Okay , maybe killing is a bit of an exaggeration .


A galaxy is still there after its quasar turns off, but it will never be the same again.

A galaxy is still there after its quasar turns off , but it will never be the same again .


Quasars, being among the hottest and brightest things in the universe, break their galaxies by heating them up too much and stopping star formation.

Quasars , being among the hottest and brightest things in the universe , break their galaxies by heating them up too much and stopping star formation .


Stars are gas that collapsed in on itself and then got really hot.

Stars are gas that collapsed in on itself and then got really hot .


But in a cloud of gas that's already hot, atoms are moving quickly.

But in a cloud of gas that 's already hot , atoms are moving quickly .


When they collide, they hit hard, exerting pressure that resists gravity's squeeze.

When they collide , they hit hard , exerting pressure that resists gravity 's squeeze .


So hot gas cannot form stars.


Instead, the best gas for forming stars is already cold and won't put up a fight when it's time to collapse into a star.

Instead , the best gas for forming stars is already cold and wo n't put up a fight when it 's time to collapse into a star .


On top of that, quasars push gas out of their galaxies.

On top of that , quasars push gas out of their galaxies .


Not only does this starve the quasar, but its galaxy loses the raw materials for new stars.

Not only does this starve the quasar , but its galaxy loses the raw materials for new stars .


As sad as this sounds, it might be a good thing for life.

As sad as this sounds , it might be a good thing for life .


The alternative can be far more dangerous.

The alternative can be far more dangerous .


New stars forming is usually followed by massive stars exploding in supernovae, so planets would be burned sterile.

New stars forming is usually followed by massive stars exploding in supernovae , so planets would be burned sterile .


But of course, it's more complicated.

But of course , it 's more complicated .


Like the intricacies of our own planet's biosphere, every piece of the galaxy is dependent on and influencing every other part of the galactic environment.

Like the intricacies of our own planet 's biosphere , every piece of the galaxy is dependent on and influencing every other part of the galactic environment .


While hot things like quasars and supernovae tend to push gas out of the galaxy, shockwaves and quasar jets can also compress gas, making new stars at least for a short time.

While hot things like quasars and supernovae tend to push gas out of the galaxy , shockwaves and quasar jets can also compress gas , making new stars at least for a short time .


But in general, we can say that without things becoming a bit more chill, we would not exist today.

But in general , we can say that without things becoming a bit more chill , we would not exist today .


Did the Milky Way have a quasar in the past?

Did the Milky Way have a quasar in the past ?


It's unclear if every galaxy went through a quasar phase, but understanding distant quasars may provide clues to the history of the Milky Way.

It 's unclear if every galaxy went through a quasar phase , but understanding distant quasars may provide clues to the history of the Milky Way .


Galaxies don't do a good job of preserving their history.

Galaxies do n't do a good job of preserving their history .


Like sand on a beach, the endless churning mixes away the clues to their past.

Like sand on a beach , the endless churning mixes away the clues to their past .


It's possible the Milky Way was once a quasar, which may have allowed our supermassive black hole Sagittarius A star to have grown to 4 million times the mass of the Sun.

It 's possible the Milky Way was once a quasar , which may have allowed our supermassive black hole Sagittarius A star to have grown to 4 million times the mass of the Sun .


And as dormant as it is now, Sagittarius A star could turn into a quasar in the future.

And as dormant as it is now , Sagittarius A star could turn into a quasar in the future .


In a few billion years, the Milky Way will merge with Andromeda.

In a few billion years , the Milky Way will merge with Andromeda .


We've seen over a hundred double quasars in galaxies smashing together, where fresh gas is provided for the central black holes.

We 've seen over a hundred double quasars in galaxies smashing together , where fresh gas is provided for the central black holes .


But it won't last for long.


When galaxies merge, so do their supermassive black holes, sinking into the center of their new galaxy, kicking up dust and stars in every direction.

When galaxies merge , so do their supermassive black holes , sinking into the center of their new galaxy , kicking up dust and stars in every direction .


We don't know whether this will happen, but it would truly be an incredible sight.

We do n't know whether this will happen , but it would truly be an incredible sight .


Maybe some beings in the far future are going to witness it, and be in awe of what they see.

Maybe some beings in the far future are going to witness it , and be in awe of what they see .


But you don't have to wait that long.


There are already plenty of fascinating things to explore right here on this planet, right now, if you have the knowledge to understand them.

There are already plenty of fascinating things to explore right here on this planet , right now , if you have the knowledge to understand them .


To help you with that, we've created a series of lessons to take your scientific knowledge to the next level.

To help you with that , we 've created a series of lessons to take your scientific knowledge to the next level .


Made in collaboration with our friends at Brilliant.org, these lessons give you a deeper understanding of the topics from our most popular videos,

Made in collaboration with our friends at Brilliant.org , these lessons give you a deeper understanding of the topics from our most popular videos ,


There's also a lesson on black holes, where you can delve into the fundamental principles behind their formation and behavior.

There 's also a lesson on black holes , where you can delve into the fundamental principles behind their formation and behavior .


A deeper understanding will also help you appreciate their role in powering the quasars we talked about in this video.

A deeper understanding will also help you appreciate their role in powering the quasars we talked about in this video .


Brilliant is an interactive learning tool that makes maths, science and computer science accessible with a hands-on approach.

Brilliant is an interactive learning tool that makes maths , science and computer science accessible with a hands - on approach .


Because we know that to really learn something, you've got to do it.

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Think of each lesson as a one - on - one tutoring version of a Kurzgesagt video .


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Brilliant has thousands of other lessons to explore as well .


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To get hands-on with Kurzgesagt's lessons and explore everything Brilliant has to offer, you can start your free 30-day trial by signing up at brilliant.org/nutshell.

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We love seeing how the gears interlock with our research.

We love seeing how the gears interlock with our research .


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Brilliant gives you the tools to understand how everything fits together .


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In December 2019, the Chinese authorities notified the world that a virus was spreading through their communities.

In December 2019 , the Chinese authorities notified the world that a virus was spreading through their communities .


In the following months, it spread to other countries, with cases doubling within days.

In the following months , it spread to other countries , with cases doubling within days .


This virus is the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-related coronavirus-2 that causes the disease called COVID-19 and that everyone simply calls coronavirus.

This virus is the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome - related coronavirus-2 that causes the disease called COVID-19 and that everyone simply calls coronavirus .


What actually happens when it infects a human, and what should we all do?

What actually happens when it infects a human , and what should we all do ?


A virus is really just a hull around genetic material and a few proteins, arguably not even a living thing.

A virus is really just a hull around genetic material and a few proteins , arguably not even a living thing .


It can only make more of itself by entering a living cell.

It can only make more of itself by entering a living cell .


Corona may spread via surfaces, but it's still uncertain how long it can survive on them.

Corona may spread via surfaces , but it 's still uncertain how long it can survive on them .


Its main way of spreading seems to be droplet infection, when people cough, or if you touch someone who's ill and then your face, say rubbing your eyes or nose.

Its main way of spreading seems to be droplet infection , when people cough , or if you touch someone who 's ill and then your face , say rubbing your eyes or nose .


The virus starts its journey here and then hitches a ride as a stowaway deeper into the body.

The virus starts its journey here and then hitches a ride as a stowaway deeper into the body .


Its destinations are the intestines, the spleen or the lungs, where it can have the most dramatic effect.

Its destinations are the intestines , the spleen or the lungs , where it can have the most dramatic effect .


Even just a few coronaviruses can cause quite a dramatic situation.

Even just a few coronaviruses can cause quite a dramatic situation .


The lungs are lined with billions of epithelial cells.

The lungs are lined with billions of epithelial cells .


These are the border cells of your body, lining your organs and mucosa, waiting to be infected.

These are the border cells of your body , lining your organs and mucosa , waiting to be infected .


Corona connects to a specific receptor on its victim's membranes to inject its genetic material.

Corona connects to a specific receptor on its victim 's membranes to inject its genetic material .


The cell, ignorant of what's happening, executes the new instructions, which are pretty simple, copy and reassemble.

The cell , ignorant of what 's happening , executes the new instructions , which are pretty simple , copy and reassemble .


It fills up with more and more copies of the original virus, until it reaches a critical point and receives one final order, self-destruct.

It fills up with more and more copies of the original virus , until it reaches a critical point and receives one final order , self - destruct .


The cell sort of melts away, releasing new corona particles, ready to attack more cells.

The cell sort of melts away , releasing new corona particles , ready to attack more cells .


The number of infected cells grows exponentially.

The number of infected cells grows exponentially .


After about 10 days, millions of body cells are infected and billions of viruses swarm the lungs.

After about 10 days , millions of body cells are infected and billions of viruses swarm the lungs .


The virus has not caused too much damage yet, but corona is now going to release a real beast on you, your own immune system.

The virus has not caused too much damage yet , but corona is now going to release a real beast on you , your own immune system .


The immune system, while there to protect you, can actually be pretty dangerous to yourself and needs tight regulation.

The immune system , while there to protect you , can actually be pretty dangerous to yourself and needs tight regulation .


And as immune cells pour into the lungs to fight the virus, corona infects some of them and creates confusion.

And as immune cells pour into the lungs to fight the virus , corona infects some of them and creates confusion .


Cells have neither ears nor eyes, they communicate mostly via tiny information proteins called cytokines.

Cells have neither ears nor eyes , they communicate mostly via tiny information proteins called cytokines .


Nearly every important immune reaction is controlled by them.

Nearly every important immune reaction is controlled by them .


Corona causes infected immune cells to overreact and yell bloody murder.

Corona causes infected immune cells to overreact and yell bloody murder .


In a sense, it puts the immune system into a fighting frenzy and sends way more soldiers than it should, wasting its resources and causing damage.

In a sense , it puts the immune system into a fighting frenzy and sends way more soldiers than it should , wasting its resources and causing damage .


Two kinds of cells in particular wreak havoc.

Two kinds of cells in particular wreak havoc .


As they arrive in their thousands, they start pumping out enzymes that destroy as many friends as enemies.

As they arrive in their thousands , they start pumping out enzymes that destroy as many friends as enemies .


The other important type of cells that go into a frenzy are killer T-cells, which usually order infected cells to commit controlled suicide.

The other important type of cells that go into a frenzy are killer T - cells , which usually order infected cells to commit controlled suicide .


Confused as they are, they start ordering healthy cells to kill themselves too.

Confused as they are , they start ordering healthy cells to kill themselves too .


The more and more immune cells arrive, the more damage they do and the more healthy lung tissue they kill.

The more and more immune cells arrive , the more damage they do and the more healthy lung tissue they kill .


This might get so bad that it can cause permanent irreversible damage that leads to lifelong disabilities.

This might get so bad that it can cause permanent irreversible damage that leads to lifelong disabilities .


In most cases, the immune system slowly regains control.

In most cases , the immune system slowly regains control .


It kills the infected cells, intercepts the viruses trying to infect new ones and cleans up the battlefield.

It kills the infected cells , intercepts the viruses trying to infect new ones and cleans up the battlefield .


Recovery begins.


The majority of people infected by corona will get through it with relatively mild symptoms.

The majority of people infected by corona will get through it with relatively mild symptoms .


But many cases become severe or even critical.

But many cases become severe or even critical .


We don't know the percentage because not all cases have been identified, but it's safe to say that there is a lot more than with the flu.

We do n't know the percentage because not all cases have been identified , but it 's safe to say that there is a lot more than with the flu .


In more severe cases, millions of epithelial cells have died and with them, the lungs' protective lining is gone.

In more severe cases , millions of epithelial cells have died and with them , the lungs ' protective lining is gone .


That means that the alveoli, tiny air sacs via which breathing occurs, can be infected by bacteria that aren't usually a big problem.

That means that the alveoli , tiny air sacs via which breathing occurs , can be infected by bacteria that are n't usually a big problem .


Patients get pneumonia, respiration becomes hard or even fails, and patients need ventilators to survive.

Patients get pneumonia , respiration becomes hard or even fails , and patients need ventilators to survive .


The immune system has fought at full capacity for weeks and made millions of antiviral weapons.

The immune system has fought at full capacity for weeks and made millions of antiviral weapons .


And as thousands of bacteria rapidly multiply, it is overwhelmed.

And as thousands of bacteria rapidly multiply , it is overwhelmed .


They enter the blood and overrun the body.

They enter the blood and overrun the body .


If this happens, death is very likely.

If this happens , death is very likely .


The coronavirus is often compared to the flu, but actually it's much more dangerous.

The coronavirus is often compared to the flu , but actually it 's much more dangerous .


While the exact death rate is hard to pin down during an ongoing pandemic, we know for sure that it's much more contagious and spreads faster than the flu.

While the exact death rate is hard to pin down during an ongoing pandemic , we know for sure that it 's much more contagious and spreads faster than the flu .


There are two futures for a pandemic like corona, fast and slow.

There are two futures for a pandemic like corona , fast and slow .


Which future we will see depends on how we all react to it in the early days of the outbreak.

Which future we will see depends on how we all react to it in the early days of the outbreak .


A fast pandemic will be horrible and cost many lives.

A fast pandemic will be horrible and cost many lives .


A slow pandemic will not be remembered by the history books.

A slow pandemic will not be remembered by the history books .


The worst case scenario for a fast pandemic begins with a very rapid rate of infection because there are no countermeasures in place to slow it down.

The worst case scenario for a fast pandemic begins with a very rapid rate of infection because there are no countermeasures in place to slow it down .


Why is this so bad?


In a fast pandemic, many people get sick at the same time.

In a fast pandemic , many people get sick at the same time .


If the numbers get too large, healthcare systems become unable to handle it.

If the numbers get too large , healthcare systems become unable to handle it .


There aren't enough resources like medical staff or equipment like ventilators left to help everybody.

There are n't enough resources like medical staff or equipment like ventilators left to help everybody .


People will die untreated.


And as more healthcare workers get sick themselves, the capacity of healthcare systems falls even further.

And as more healthcare workers get sick themselves , the capacity of healthcare systems falls even further .


If this becomes the case, then horrible decisions will have to be made about who gets to live and who doesn't.

If this becomes the case , then horrible decisions will have to be made about who gets to live and who does n't .


The number of deaths rises significantly in such a scenario.

The number of deaths rises significantly in such a scenario .


To avoid this, the world, that means all of us, needs to do what it can to turn this into a slow pandemic.

To avoid this , the world , that means all of us , needs to do what it can to turn this into a slow pandemic .


A pandemic is slowed down by the right responses, especially in the early phase,

A pandemic is slowed down by the right responses , especially in the early phase ,


so that everyone who gets sick can get treatment and there's no crunch point with overwhelmed hospitals.

so that everyone who gets sick can get treatment and there 's no crunch point with overwhelmed hospitals .


Since we don't have a vaccine for corona, we have to socially engineer our behavior to act like a social vaccine.

Since we do n't have a vaccine for corona , we have to socially engineer our behavior to act like a social vaccine .


This simply means two things.


Although it sounds trivial, the very best thing you can do is to wash your hands.

Although it sounds trivial , the very best thing you can do is to wash your hands .


Soap is actually a powerful tool.


The coronavirus is encased in what is basically a layer of fat.

The coronavirus is encased in what is basically a layer of fat .


Soap breaks that fat apart and leaves it unable to infect you.

Soap breaks that fat apart and leaves it unable to infect you .


It also makes your hands slippery and with the mechanical motions of washing, viruses are ripped away.

It also makes your hands slippery and with the mechanical motions of washing , viruses are ripped away .


To do it properly, wash your hands as if you've just cut up some jalapenos and want to put in your contacts next.

To do it properly , wash your hands as if you 've just cut up some jalapenos and want to put in your contacts next .


The next thing is social distancing, which is not a nice experience, but a nice thing to do.

The next thing is social distancing , which is not a nice experience , but a nice thing to do .


This means no hugging, no handshakes.


If you can stay at home, stay at home to protect those who need to be out for society to function.

If you can stay at home , stay at home to protect those who need to be out for society to function .


You depend on all of them.


They all depend on you to not get sick.

They all depend on you to not get sick .


On a larger level, there are quarantines, which can mean different things from travel restrictions or actual orders to stay at home.

On a larger level , there are quarantines , which can mean different things from travel restrictions or actual orders to stay at home .


Quarantines are not great to experience and certainly not popular.

Quarantines are not great to experience and certainly not popular .


But they buy us and especially the researchers working on medication and vaccination crucial time.

But they buy us and especially the researchers working on medication and vaccination crucial time .


So if you are put under quarantine, you should understand why and respect it.

So if you are put under quarantine , you should understand why and respect it .


None of this is fun, but looking at the big picture, it is a really small price to pay.

None of this is fun , but looking at the big picture , it is a really small price to pay .


The question of how pandemics end depends on how they start.

The question of how pandemics end depends on how they start .


If they start fast with a steep slope, they end badly.

If they start fast with a steep slope , they end badly .


If they start slow with a not so steep slope, they end okayish.

If they start slow with a not so steep slope , they end okayish .


And in this day and age, it really is in all of our hands.

And in this day and age , it really is in all of our hands .


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