But NAD++ is a serious candidate, and could become the first human anti-aging pill.

But NAD++ is a serious candidate , and could become the first human anti - aging pill .


Stem cells are like cell blueprints that sit at various places in the body and copy themselves to produce a steady flow of fresh young cells.

Stem cells are like cell blueprints that sit at various places in the body and copy themselves to produce a steady flow of fresh young cells .


But they decline as we age, and so we decline too.

But they decline as we age , and so we decline too .


Without new parts, human bodies break.

Without new parts , human bodies break .


In mice, scientists observed that as the stem cells in their brains disappeared, they started to develop diseases.

In mice , scientists observed that as the stem cells in their brains disappeared , they started to develop diseases .


So they took stem cells from baby mice brains and injected them directly into the brains of middle-aged mice.

So they took stem cells from baby mice brains and injected them directly into the brains of middle - aged mice .


The fresh stem cells reinvigorated older brain cells by secreting microRNAs that regulated their metabolism.

The fresh stem cells reinvigorated older brain cells by secreting microRNAs that regulated their metabolism .


After four months, brain and muscles worked better than those of untreated mice, and on average, they lived 10% longer.

After four months , brain and muscles worked better than those of untreated mice , and on average , they lived 10 % longer .


Another study took stem cells from mice embryos and injected them directly into the hearts of older mice.

Another study took stem cells from mice embryos and injected them directly into the hearts of older mice .


As a consequence, they had improved heart function, could exercise 20% longer, and weirdly enough, their hair regrew faster.

As a consequence , they had improved heart function , could exercise 20 % longer , and weirdly enough , their hair regrew faster .


What all of this tells us is that there is not a single magic bullet with which to cure aging.

What all of this tells us is that there is not a single magic bullet with which to cure aging .


It requires a complex array of different therapies.

It requires a complex array of different therapies .


We can kill off senescent cells to clear away the junk, give ourselves fresh new stem cells to fill the gap,

We can kill off senescent cells to clear away the junk , give ourselves fresh new stem cells to fill the gap ,


This video comes with a big caveat.


After all, these studies have been carried out on mice.

After all , these studies have been carried out on mice .


There's no guarantee the same therapies would work in us to the same extent, but they are proof of concepts.

There 's no guarantee the same therapies would work in us to the same extent , but they are proof of concepts .


To learn more about how we can modify our own health span, we need human trials.

To learn more about how we can modify our own health span , we need human trials .


We've only covered a tiny part of the research that's being done right now and only scratched the surface of these ideas.

We 've only covered a tiny part of the research that 's being done right now and only scratched the surface of these ideas .


The field of HealthSpan Extension needs more attention and funding.

The field of HealthSpan Extension needs more attention and funding .


If it gets it, all of us might enjoy growing old without pain.

If it gets it , all of us might enjoy growing old without pain .


If you now want to support the research on aging directly, you can do so at Lifespan.io, a community of people actively supporting the scientists working to cure aging.

If you now want to support the research on aging directly , you can do so at Lifespan.io , a community of people actively supporting the scientists working to cure aging .


Check them out to learn about the latest advances and visit their blog or group on Facebook.

Check them out to learn about the latest advances and visit their blog or group on Facebook .


The Lifespan team also kindly supported the creation of this video with a donation and their expertise.

The Lifespan team also kindly supported the creation of this video with a donation and their expertise .


If you want to help us make more of our videos, you can do so on patreon.com.

If you want to help us make more of our videos , you can do so on patreon.com .


For years, people have asked how we make our videos.

For years , people have asked how we make our videos .


So, let's finally talk about it.


First things first, we need a topic.


Our potential topic list is already endless, and every time we research something, it grows longer.

Our potential topic list is already endless , and every time we research something , it grows longer .


So, we just work on whatever we find exciting at the time.

So , we just work on whatever we find exciting at the time .


This could be something serious, fascinating, personal, or just really stupid.

This could be something serious , fascinating , personal , or just really stupid .


The variety is half the fun.


We want to explain complicated things in an easily graspable way and make sciencey topics fascinating and beautiful.

We want to explain complicated things in an easily graspable way and make sciencey topics fascinating and beautiful .


But we also want to tell stories and express how we feel about the universe from time to time.

But we also want to tell stories and express how we feel about the universe from time to time .


Our research begins by reading books or scientific papers and by talking to different experts who point us in the right direction.

Our research begins by reading books or scientific papers and by talking to different experts who point us in the right direction .


We want to have a fact-based worldview, and our videos are trying to reflect that.

We want to have a fact - based worldview , and our videos are trying to reflect that .


So, we often have to change our view on an issue while working on it.

So , we often have to change our view on an issue while working on it .


Usually, after a few weeks of researching, we start writing.

Usually , after a few weeks of researching , we start writing .


A script begins with a rough first draft that's then rewritten and edited over and over again.

A script begins with a rough first draft that 's then rewritten and edited over and over again .


To make sure we don't misrepresent something, we ask experts to fact-check and correct us.

To make sure we do n't misrepresent something , we ask experts to fact - check and correct us .


Writing is the bottleneck for our videos and very hard to speed up.

Writing is the bottleneck for our videos and very hard to speed up .


Usually, finishing a script takes between a few weeks and literally years to complete.

Usually , finishing a script takes between a few weeks and literally years to complete .


Let's visualize.


When the script is ready, we begin sketching out the video.

When the script is ready , we begin sketching out the video .


We try to think of visual metaphors, transitions between ideas, and decide which scenes need the most attention.

We try to think of visual metaphors , transitions between ideas , and decide which scenes need the most attention .


On average, 200 panels need to be illustrated in Adobe Illustrator.

On average , 200 panels need to be illustrated in Adobe Illustrator .


Although we have built up an illustration library, we still do most illustrations from scratch to give our videos a more unique look.

Although we have built up an illustration library , we still do most illustrations from scratch to give our videos a more unique look .


The general idea is to find the right images to the words in the script to explain as clearly as possible while also having interesting things to look at.

The general idea is to find the right images to the words in the script to explain as clearly as possible while also having interesting things to look at .


Also, here we include all the visual Easter eggs.

Also , here we include all the visual Easter eggs .


In total, 2-3 illustrators spend 8-12 weeks illustrating the video.

In total , 2 - 3 illustrators spend 8 - 12 weeks illustrating the video .


Now it's my turn.


When the whole video is illustrated, the narration is recorded in a small recording studio on a Neumann TLM 103 microphone and Pro Tools.

When the whole video is illustrated , the narration is recorded in a small recording studio on a Neumann TLM 103 microphone and Pro Tools .


It's important to keep the flow, so I try to get one version done and then go back through, retaking paragraphs and sentences until they feel right and a full version is ready.

It 's important to keep the flow , so I try to get one version done and then go back through , retaking paragraphs and sentences until they feel right and a full version is ready .


It's alive.


Now the scenes and audio need to be animated.

Now the scenes and audio need to be animated .


We make things move in Adobe After Effects, and recently we've begun experimenting with Cinema 4D.

We make things move in Adobe After Effects , and recently we 've begun experimenting with Cinema 4D.


The first thing to do is take the illustrated scenes apart and organize them.

The first thing to do is take the illustrated scenes apart and organize them .


The hundreds or thousands of parts are then imported into After Effects.

The hundreds or thousands of parts are then imported into After Effects .


Each character is rigged so we can move them more naturally.

Each character is rigged so we can move them more naturally .


Aside from a few plugins that help us save time, every single thing that's moving on screen has been moved manually.

Aside from a few plugins that help us save time , every single thing that 's moving on screen has been moved manually .


So 2-3 animators animate scene after scene for about 8-10 weeks in total.

So 2 - 3 animators animate scene after scene for about 8 - 10 weeks in total .


The final step is the music.


Every song is original music composed to the finished video to create a unique atmosphere and to highlight the important parts.

Every song is original music composed to the finished video to create a unique atmosphere and to highlight the important parts .


You can listen to all of the songs on Soundcloud and Spotify.

You can listen to all of the songs on Soundcloud and Spotify .


The icing on the cake are the sound effects.

The icing on the cake are the sound effects .


Many of you might not even really notice them, which is a shame because they really add an additional layer.

Many of you might not even really notice them , which is a shame because they really add an additional layer .


So try watching a video with headphones if you want to get the full depth of it.

So try watching a video with headphones if you want to get the full depth of it .


All of these steps happen in parallel since we usually work on 2-4 videos at the same time in various stages.

All of these steps happen in parallel since we usually work on 2 - 4 videos at the same time in various stages .


What we haven't mentioned are the countless revisions and edits.

What we have n't mentioned are the countless revisions and edits .


Every few days we sit together and review our work and tweak it until it feels just right.

Every few days we sit together and review our work and tweak it until it feels just right .


And that's it.


As you can imagine, making videos for thousands of hours as a big team and then putting them on the internet for free is a weird business model.

As you can imagine , making videos for thousands of hours as a big team and then putting them on the internet for free is a weird business model .


Over the years we've relied on a number of different things to stay afloat.

Over the years we 've relied on a number of different things to stay afloat .


We struck a deal with Funk from German public broadcasting to revive the German channel and with Wix to start a Spanish channel.

We struck a deal with Funk from German public broadcasting to revive the German channel and with Wix to start a Spanish channel .


But the reality is we can only do what we do because of you.

But the reality is we can only do what we do because of you .


Our two most important sources of income by far come from your direct support.

Our two most important sources of income by far come from your direct support .


you can directly support Kurzgesagt by getting something beautiful from our store or by becoming a Patreon and joining the bird army.

you can directly support Kurzgesagt by getting something beautiful from our store or by becoming a Patreon and joining the bird army .


Don't feel obligated though.


Watching, engaging or sharing our videos is already helping us a lot.

Watching , engaging or sharing our videos is already helping us a lot .


But if you want to support us directly, thank you so much.

But if you want to support us directly , thank you so much .


You're making our videos free for everyone.

You 're making our videos free for everyone .


You are enabling us to practice and improve, to stay independent and to work on ambitious projects that would be too scary or too big otherwise.

You are enabling us to practice and improve , to stay independent and to work on ambitious projects that would be too scary or too big otherwise .


Kurzgesagt did not start with an end goal in mind.

Kurzgesagt did not start with an end goal in mind .


It began as a personal project because it felt good to make something with time and love.

It began as a personal project because it felt good to make something with time and love .


And this is still true today.


Making these videos is our goal.


Thank you so much for sticking with us for seven years and from our first subscriber to the ten millionth.

Thank you so much for sticking with us for seven years and from our first subscriber to the ten millionth .


This journey has been so wild and so much fun.

This journey has been so wild and so much fun .


And we can't wait to share the stuff we're working on right now with you.

And we ca n't wait to share the stuff we 're working on right now with you .


We want to make meta videos like this from time to time now.

We want to make meta videos like this from time to time now .


If you want to ask us questions that you want us to answer, you can do so on Reddit.

If you want to ask us questions that you want us to answer , you can do so on Reddit .


Let's shrink an elephant to the size of a mouse, and enlarge a mouse and make it the size of an elephant, because this is our video and we want to see what happens.

Let 's shrink an elephant to the size of a mouse , and enlarge a mouse and make it the size of an elephant , because this is our video and we want to see what happens .


First, our now tiny elephant stumbles around and then drops dead.

First , our now tiny elephant stumbles around and then drops dead .


Tiny elephant buddy is very cold, frozen to death in minutes.

Tiny elephant buddy is very cold , frozen to death in minutes .


Our giant mouse looks very uncomfortable for a moment, and then it explodes, leaving hot mouse insides everywhere.

Our giant mouse looks very uncomfortable for a moment , and then it explodes , leaving hot mouse insides everywhere .


We are optimized to function precisely to the size we are, and would die horribly in any other environment.

We are optimized to function precisely to the size we are , and would die horribly in any other environment .


Why does our mouse explode, and can we do this to our elephant too if we try hard?

Why does our mouse explode , and can we do this to our elephant too if we try hard ?


Life on this planet is based on cells.


Cells do vary in size, but they're pretty similar in their dimensions across all species.

Cells do vary in size , but they 're pretty similar in their dimensions across all species .


A blue whale doesn't have bigger cells than a hummingbird, just a lot more of them.

A blue whale does n't have bigger cells than a hummingbird , just a lot more of them .


Cells have to do a lot of stuff to stay alive, and they need energy to be able to do so.

Cells have to do a lot of stuff to stay alive , and they need energy to be able to do so .


To get this energy, animal cells convert food and oxygen into usable chemical energy.

To get this energy , animal cells convert food and oxygen into usable chemical energy .


This happens in our mitochondria, the powerhouse of the cell.

This happens in our mitochondria , the powerhouse of the cell .


They're like little coal engines that spit out tiny ATP batteries, which the cell can use for almost everything it needs to do.

They 're like little coal engines that spit out tiny ATP batteries , which the cell can use for almost everything it needs to do .


Just like an engine, mitochondria get really hot while working.

Just like an engine , mitochondria get really hot while working .


In human skin cells, they reach a scorching 50 degrees Celsius.

In human skin cells , they reach a scorching 50 degrees Celsius .


And some of our cells have up to 2,000 mitochondria which are radiating their heat into the cell.

And some of our cells have up to 2,000 mitochondria which are radiating their heat into the cell .


So being alive generates a lot of heat.

So being alive generates a lot of heat .


The more cells you have, the more heat your body generates in total.

The more cells you have , the more heat your body generates in total .


If our bodies didn't find ways of losing this heat, we would be cooked from the inside and die.

If our bodies did n't find ways of losing this heat , we would be cooked from the inside and die .


But this is a problem for bigger animals because of the way bodies change as living beings scale up.

But this is a problem for bigger animals because of the way bodies change as living beings scale up .


Animals have three properties here that are important.

Animals have three properties here that are important .


The thing that's hard to wrap your head around is that when things grow, their insides grow faster than their outsides.

The thing that 's hard to wrap your head around is that when things grow , their insides grow faster than their outsides .


Imagine a fleshy cube.


If you double the length of its sides, its surface and volume do not double.

If you double the length of its sides , its surface and volume do not double .


In fact, the surface is now four times the original size and the volume of the cube eight times the original size,

In fact , the surface is now four times the original size and the volume of the cube eight times the original size ,


So why is this a problem for big animals?

So why is this a problem for big animals ?


So if we make our mouth the size of an elephant or 60 times longer, it has 3,600 times more surface from which to lose heat.

So if we make our mouth the size of an elephant or 60 times longer , it has 3,600 times more surface from which to lose heat .


But it has 216,000 times more volume filled with trillions and trillions of new hot mitochondria that produce more heat.

But it has 216,000 times more volume filled with trillions and trillions of new hot mitochondria that produce more heat .


Our mouse is very dead very fast.


But big things like elephants exist.


So how do they deal with the heat?


For one, they evolved ways to get rid of energy more easily, like huge flat ears that have a lot of surface where heat can escape.

For one , they evolved ways to get rid of energy more easily , like huge flat ears that have a lot of surface where heat can escape .


But that's not enough.


Nature's solution is actually very elegant.

Nature 's solution is actually very elegant .


Elephant cells are much, much slower than mice cells.

Elephant cells are much , much slower than mice cells .


The bigger an animal is, the less active its cells are.

The bigger an animal is , the less active its cells are .


it's clearly visible.


It's not 100% accurate, but it is a good rule of thumb.

It 's not 100 % accurate , but it is a good rule of thumb .


Elephants are huge meat sacks filled with trillions and trillions of little coal ovens.

Elephants are huge meat sacks filled with trillions and trillions of little coal ovens .


So they keep the ovens just active enough to keep them running and never at full power.

So they keep the ovens just active enough to keep them running and never at full power .


Their whole metabolism is slow.


Things move at a nice, chill pace.


Small animals need to go the exact opposite way.

Small animals need to go the exact opposite way .


If you're small, you have a lot of surface area compared to not a lot of volume.

If you 're small , you have a lot of surface area compared to not a lot of volume .


You don't have a lot of cell ovens and lose the heat they produce very fast.

You do n't have a lot of cell ovens and lose the heat they produce very fast .


So very tiny mammals came up with a very extreme solution.

So very tiny mammals came up with a very extreme solution .


Meet the Etruscan shrew, the smallest mammal on Earth.

Meet the Etruscan shrew , the smallest mammal on Earth .


With a body length of 4 centimeters, it only weighs about 1.8 grams, as much as a paperclip.

With a body length of 4 centimeters , it only weighs about 1.8 grams , as much as a paperclip .


It's a tiny, ridiculous being.


It would basically cool off immediately, so its cells run on overdrive to stay warm.

It would basically cool off immediately , so its cells run on overdrive to stay warm .


Its tiny ovens are filled at maximum capacity.

Its tiny ovens are filled at maximum capacity .


Its heart beats up to 1,200 times a minute, and it breathes up to 800 times a minute.

Its heart beats up to 1,200 times a minute , and it breathes up to 800 times a minute .


This creates an extreme need for energy, so the shrew has to eat constantly.

This creates an extreme need for energy , so the shrew has to eat constantly .


After only four hours without food, it starves to death.

After only four hours without food , it starves to death .


And while an African elephant consumes around 4% of its body weight in food each day, our shrew needs 200% of its body weight in food a day just to survive.

And while an African elephant consumes around 4 % of its body weight in food each day , our shrew needs 200 % of its body weight in food a day just to survive .


Imagine having to eat 2,000 Big Macs a day, more than one a minute.

Imagine having to eat 2,000 Big Macs a day , more than one a minute .


So a cubic centimeter of shrew needs 40 times more food than a cubic centimeter of elephant.

So a cubic centimeter of shrew needs 40 times more food than a cubic centimeter of elephant .


If an elephant's cells suddenly become as active as the cells of a shrew, a crazy amount of heat would be generated.

If an elephant 's cells suddenly become as active as the cells of a shrew , a crazy amount of heat would be generated .


All the liquids in the elephant would suddenly start boiling, and then it would explode in an impressive explosion of steaming hot, burning elephant parts.

All the liquids in the elephant would suddenly start boiling , and then it would explode in an impressive explosion of steaming hot , burning elephant parts .


In reality, before an explosion occurred, the proteins making up our cells would probably be denatured and stop producing heat.

In reality , before an explosion occurred , the proteins making up our cells would probably be denatured and stop producing heat .


But a meat explosion is much more fun than melting an elephant into a mass of hot goo.

But a meat explosion is much more fun than melting an elephant into a mass of hot goo .


Regardless, the scaling of the speed of metabolism happens everywhere, even in places we don't expect, like pregnant women.

Regardless , the scaling of the speed of metabolism happens everywhere , even in places we do n't expect , like pregnant women .


A baby in the womb of its mother behaves as if it were a part of her.

A baby in the womb of its mother behaves as if it were a part of her .


Its cells have about the same metabolic rate, the same speed of life as its mother's organs.

Its cells have about the same metabolic rate , the same speed of life as its mother 's organs .


It is truly a part of a bigger whole rather than an individual.

It is truly a part of a bigger whole rather than an individual .


Until it is not anymore.


The very moment a baby is born, a switch is flipped and all its internal processes speed up rapidly.

The very moment a baby is born , a switch is flipped and all its internal processes speed up rapidly .


Thirty-six hours after birth, the baby's cells have the same activity rate as a mammal at size.

Thirty - six hours after birth , the baby 's cells have the same activity rate as a mammal at size .


Babies literally transition from being an organ to being an individual in mere hours.

Babies literally transition from being an organ to being an individual in mere hours .


But there's one thing where big and small things are very similar.

But there 's one thing where big and small things are very similar .


Elephants tend to have a similar amount of heartbeats over their lifetime, typically around one billion.

Elephants tend to have a similar amount of heartbeats over their lifetime , typically around one billion .


So while the shrew and elephant are very different, they share a similar number of heartbeats over the course of their lives.

So while the shrew and elephant are very different , they share a similar number of heartbeats over the course of their lives .


Their speed of life is the opposite and somehow still the same.

Their speed of life is the opposite and somehow still the same .


And for a video in which we made elephants explode for no good reason, this is the most romantic ending we could come up with.

And for a video in which we made elephants explode for no good reason , this is the most romantic ending we could come up with .


Nothing in the universe is static.


In the Milky Way, billions of stars orbit the galactic center.

In the Milky Way , billions of stars orbit the galactic center .


Some like our sun are pretty consistent, keeping a distance of around 30,000 light-years from the galactic center, completing an orbit every 230 million years.

Some like our sun are pretty consistent , keeping a distance of around 30,000 light - years from the galactic center , completing an orbit every 230 million years .


This dance is not an orderly ballet, more like a skating rink filled with drunk toddlers.

This dance is not an orderly ballet , more like a skating rink filled with drunk toddlers .


This chaos makes the galaxy dangerous.


Our solar neighborhood is constantly changing, with stars moving hundreds of kilometers every second.

Our solar neighborhood is constantly changing , with stars moving hundreds of kilometers every second .


Only the vast distances between objects protect us from the dangers out there.

Only the vast distances between objects protect us from the dangers out there .


But we might get unlucky in the future.

But we might get unlucky in the future .


At some point, we could encounter a star-going supernova, or a massive object passing by and showering Earth with asteroids.

At some point , we could encounter a star - going supernova , or a massive object passing by and showering Earth with asteroids .


If something like this were to happen, we would likely know thousands, if not millions of years in advance.

If something like this were to happen , we would likely know thousands , if not millions of years in advance .


But we still couldn't do much about it.

But we still could n't do much about it .


Unless we move our whole solar system out of the way.

Unless we move our whole solar system out of the way .


To move the solar system, we need a stellar engine, a megastructure used to steer a star through the galaxy.

To move the solar system , we need a stellar engine , a megastructure used to steer a star through the galaxy .


It's the kind of thing that might be built by an advanced civilization with Dyson Sphere level technology that's thinking about their future millions of years ahead of time.

It 's the kind of thing that might be built by an advanced civilization with Dyson Sphere level technology that 's thinking about their future millions of years ahead of time .


But how do we possibly move the hundreds of thousands of objects in the solar system?

But how do we possibly move the hundreds of thousands of objects in the solar system ?


The good news is, we can ignore all of that.

The good news is , we can ignore all of that .


We only need to move the Sun, all the other stuff is glued to it by gravity and will follow it wherever it decides to go.

We only need to move the Sun , all the other stuff is glued to it by gravity and will follow it wherever it decides to go .


There are lots of ideas about what a stellar engine might look like and how it would work.

There are lots of ideas about what a stellar engine might look like and how it would work .


We've picked two grounded in our current understanding of physics that could be built in theory.

We 've picked two grounded in our current understanding of physics that could be built in theory .


The simplest kind of stellar engine is the Shkadov thruster, a giant mirror.

The simplest kind of stellar engine is the Shkadov thruster , a giant mirror .


It works on the same principle as a rocket.

It works on the same principle as a rocket .


Like rocket fuel, the photons released as solar radiation carry momentum.

Like rocket fuel , the photons released as solar radiation carry momentum .


For example, if an astronaut turned on a flashlight in space, it would push them backwards very, very slowly.

For example , if an astronaut turned on a flashlight in space , it would push them backwards very , very slowly .


A stellar engine will work a little better than a flashlight because the Sun produces a lot of photons.

A stellar engine will work a little better than a flashlight because the Sun produces a lot of photons .


The basic idea of the Shkadov thruster is to reflect up to half of the solar radiation to create thrust and slowly push the Sun where we want it to go.

The basic idea of the Shkadov thruster is to reflect up to half of the solar radiation to create thrust and slowly push the Sun where we want it to go .


In order for the Shkadov thruster to work, it must be kept in the same place, not orbiting the Sun.

In order for the Shkadov thruster to work , it must be kept in the same place , not orbiting the Sun .


Although the Sun's gravity will try to pull it in, it would be supported by radiation pressure which props the mirror up.

Although the Sun 's gravity will try to pull it in , it would be supported by radiation pressure which props the mirror up .


This means the mirror would have to be very light, made of micron-thin reflecting foil from materials like aluminium alloys.

This means the mirror would have to be very light , made of micron - thin reflecting foil from materials like aluminium alloys .


The mirror's shape is important too.


Enveloping the Sun in a giant spherical shell wouldn't work because that would refocus light back to the Sun, heating it up and creating all sorts of unpleasant problems.

Enveloping the Sun in a giant spherical shell would n't work because that would refocus light back to the Sun , heating it up and creating all sorts of unpleasant problems .


Instead, we use a parabola, which sends most of the photons around the Sun and in the same direction, which maximizes thrust.

Instead , we use a parabola , which sends most of the photons around the Sun and in the same direction , which maximizes thrust .


To prevent accidentally burning or freezing Earth with too much or too little sunlight, the only safe place to build a Shkadov thruster is over the Sun's poles.

To prevent accidentally burning or freezing Earth with too much or too little sunlight , the only safe place to build a Shkadov thruster is over the Sun 's poles .


This means we can only move the Sun vertically in the plane of the solar system and one direction in the Milky Way, which limits our travel options a bit.

This means we can only move the Sun vertically in the plane of the solar system and one direction in the Milky Way , which limits our travel options a bit .


But that is basically it.


For a civilization capable of building a Dyson sphere, this is a relatively simple endeavour.

For a civilization capable of building a Dyson sphere , this is a relatively simple endeavour .


At full throttle, the solar system could probably be moved by about 100 light years over 230 million years.

At full throttle , the solar system could probably be moved by about 100 light years over 230 million years .


Over a few billion years, it gives us near complete control over the Sun's orbit in the galaxy.

Over a few billion years , it gives us near complete control over the Sun 's orbit in the galaxy .


But in the short term, this might not be fast enough to dodge a deadly supernova.

But in the short term , this might not be fast enough to dodge a deadly supernova .


That's why we thought we could do better.

That 's why we thought we could do better .


So we asked our astrophysicist friend if he could design a faster stellar engine for this video.

So we asked our astrophysicist friend if he could design a faster stellar engine for this video .


He did, and wrote a paper about it that's been published in a peer-reviewed journal.

He did , and wrote a paper about it that 's been published in a peer - reviewed journal .


You can find it in our sources document.

You can find it in our sources document .


We're going to call our new stellar engine the Kaplan thruster.

We 're going to call our new stellar engine the Kaplan thruster .


It works a lot like a traditional rocket.

It works a lot like a traditional rocket .


It's a large space station platform, powered by a Dyson sphere, that gathers matter from the Sun to power nuclear fusion.

It 's a large space station platform , powered by a Dyson sphere , that gathers matter from the Sun to power nuclear fusion .


It shoots out a very fast jet of particles at nearly 1% the speed of light out of the solar system.

It shoots out a very fast jet of particles at nearly 1 % the speed of light out of the solar system .


A second jet pushes the Sun along like a tugboat.

A second jet pushes the Sun along like a tugboat .


The Kaplan thruster requires a lot of fuel, millions of tons per second.

The Kaplan thruster requires a lot of fuel , millions of tons per second .


To gather this fuel, our thruster uses very large electromagnetic fields to funnel hydrogen and helium from the solar wind into the engine.

To gather this fuel , our thruster uses very large electromagnetic fields to funnel hydrogen and helium from the solar wind into the engine .


The solar wind alone doesn't provide enough fuel though.

The solar wind alone does n't provide enough fuel though .


And that's where the Dyson sphere comes in.

And that 's where the Dyson sphere comes in .


Using its power, sunlight can be refocused to the surface of the Sun.

Using its power , sunlight can be refocused to the surface of the Sun .


This heats small regions to extreme temperatures, lifting billions of tons of mass off the Sun.

This heats small regions to extreme temperatures , lifting billions of tons of mass off the Sun .


This mass can be collected and separated into hydrogen and helium.

This mass can be collected and separated into hydrogen and helium .


The helium is burned explosively in thermonuclear fusion reactors.

The helium is burned explosively in thermonuclear fusion reactors .


A jet of radioactive oxygen at a temperature of nearly a billion degrees is expelled and becomes our primary source of propulsion from our stellar engine.

A jet of radioactive oxygen at a temperature of nearly a billion degrees is expelled and becomes our primary source of propulsion from our stellar engine .


To prevent the engine from just crashing into the Sun, it needs to balance itself.

To prevent the engine from just crashing into the Sun , it needs to balance itself .


To do this, we accelerate the collected hydrogen with electromagnetic fields using particle accelerators and shoot a jet back at the Sun.

To do this , we accelerate the collected hydrogen with electromagnetic fields using particle accelerators and shoot a jet back at the Sun .


This balances the thruster and transfers the thrust of our engine back to the Sun.

This balances the thruster and transfers the thrust of our engine back to the Sun .


In as little as a million years, this engine can move the Sun by 50 light years, more than enough to dodge a supernova.

In as little as a million years , this engine can move the Sun by 50 light years , more than enough to dodge a supernova .


At full throttle, the solar system can be completely redirected in its galactic orbit in 10 million years.

At full throttle , the solar system can be completely redirected in its galactic orbit in 10 million years .


Fortunately, the Sun is so massive that even billions of tons of material will barely scratch the surface.

Fortunately , the Sun is so massive that even billions of tons of material will barely scratch the surface .


In fact, this megastructure will actually extend our Sun's life since lower-mass stars burn slower, keeping the solar system inhabitable for many more billions of years.

In fact , this megastructure will actually extend our Sun 's life since lower - mass stars burn slower , keeping the solar system inhabitable for many more billions of years .


With a Kaplan thruster, we could turn the entire solar system into our spaceship.

With a Kaplan thruster , we could turn the entire solar system into our spaceship .


It may even be possible to escape the galaxy entirely and expand beyond the Milky Way.

It may even be possible to escape the galaxy entirely and expand beyond the Milky Way .


Stellar engines are the kind of machines built by civilizations thinking not in terms of years or decades, but eons.

Stellar engines are the kind of machines built by civilizations thinking not in terms of years or decades , but eons .


Since we know that our Sun will die one day, a stellar engine could allow the far future descendants of humans to travel to other stars without ever having to venture into the terrifying dark abyss of interstellar space.

Since we know that our Sun will die one day , a stellar engine could allow the far future descendants of humans to travel to other stars without ever having to venture into the terrifying dark abyss of interstellar space .


Until we build a stellar engine, we're adrift and subject to the whims of the galactic sea.

Until we build a stellar engine , we 're adrift and subject to the whims of the galactic sea .


We may not like where it leads us.


Maybe our descendants will set sail and become an interstellar species for millions of years to come.

Maybe our descendants will set sail and become an interstellar species for millions of years to come .


This was our last video for the year 12,019 of the human era.

This was our last video for the year 12,019 of the human era .


And what a year it was.


So much stuff happened everywhere, to so many different people.

So much stuff happened everywhere , to so many different people .


Calendars and holidays are just imaginary, but they help us to cut our lives into pieces that our brains can handle.

Calendars and holidays are just imaginary , but they help us to cut our lives into pieces that our brains can handle .


We're leaving 12,019 behind with a weird mixture of disillusion and hope.

We 're leaving 12,019 behind with a weird mixture of disillusion and hope .


The world is screwed up, but we can fix it.

The world is screwed up , but we can fix it .


In a few days, this year will be over and we'll get to try again.

In a few days , this year will be over and we 'll get to try again .


Thank you for watching our videos and for sticking around for so many years.

Thank you for watching our videos and for sticking around for so many years .


See you all in 12,020.


Be prepared to make contact!


Our new limited drop has landed, only on the Kurzgesagt Shop!

Our new limited drop has landed , only on the Kurzgesagt Shop !


Could aliens destroy us from light years away?

Could aliens destroy us from light years away ?


where we answer the most important questions with science.

where we answer the most important questions with science .


Today, how might civilizations wage war across light years?

Today , how might civilizations wage war across light years ?


What kind of devastating weapons could they use,

What kind of devastating weapons could they use ,


and what would they look like?


Meet our two players, a yellow dwarf star system,

Meet our two players , a yellow dwarf star system ,


They have rockets, nuclear reactors, and memes.

They have rockets , nuclear reactors , and memes .


The Smorpians disagree.


They reside on a planet around the orange dwarf star HD 40307,

They reside on a planet around the orange dwarf star HD 40307 ,


Smorpian civilization developed earlier than humans,

Smorpian civilization developed earlier than humans ,


and they have much better technology.


They've recently built a Dyson swarm around their star,

They 've recently built a Dyson swarm around their star ,


And they noticed humanity,


So they decided that humanity has to go.

So they decided that humanity has to go .


Interstellar war is hard though.


Frontlines, tactics, and logistics are meaningless at these scales.

Frontlines , tactics , and logistics are meaningless at these scales .


It's also fought across time.


Decades will pass between firing a weapon and learning whether it hit or not.

Decades will pass between firing a weapon and learning whether it hit or not .


Sending an invasion fleet is futile.


the journey to Earth would take decades or even centuries,

the journey to Earth would take decades or even centuries ,


and humans would have plenty of time to prepare.

and humans would have plenty of time to prepare .


If you want to learn more about the mind-numbing problem of war between alien civilizations, we made a video about it.

If you want to learn more about the mind - numbing problem of war between alien civilizations , we made a video about it .


Today, we'll help the Smorpians construct a weapon that is not only extremely long-range and as fast as physically possible,

Today , we 'll help the Smorpians construct a weapon that is not only extremely long - range and as fast as physically possible ,


but that will totally destroy everything on Earth.

but that will totally destroy everything on Earth .


No human survivors will come to enact vengeance on Smorp in the future.

No human survivors will come to enact vengeance on Smorp in the future .


In interstellar war, you want to win with one shot.

In interstellar war , you want to win with one shot .


Our bird scientists have found three Smorpian designs.

Our bird scientists have found three Smorpian designs .


Let's see how they work.


As an advanced technological civilization, the Smorpians  harness the energy of their star by surrounding it with billions of solar power satellites.

As an advanced technological civilization , the Smorpians harness the energy of their star by surrounding it with billions of solar power satellites .


This Dyson swarm collects 1% of the star's energy output.

This Dyson swarm collects 1 % of the star 's energy output .


Human-built lasers use small mirrors to focus, so they have short ranges.

Human - built lasers use small mirrors to focus , so they have short ranges .


The Smorpians could turn their entire Dyson swarm into a collective focusing element a million kilometers wide.

The Smorpians could turn their entire Dyson swarm into a collective focusing element a million kilometers wide .


The Star Laser has an insane range as a result.

The Star Laser has an insane range as a result .


Okay, let's shoot it.


Countless tiny beams combine into a single huge beam.

Countless tiny beams combine into a single huge beam .


Laser beams are normally invisible in space,

Laser beams are normally invisible in space ,


but the Star Laser is so powerful,


that light scattering off bits of dust and gas in its path makes it clearly visible in the sky.

that light scattering off bits of dust and gas in its path makes it clearly visible in the sky .


The laser travels at the speed of light, which, oddly enough, is still pretty slow on a galactic level.

The laser travels at the speed of light , which , oddly enough , is still pretty slow on a galactic level .


It takes a whole day until the laser has left the Smorpian system, shooting into the emptiness between stars.

It takes a whole day until the laser has left the Smorpian system , shooting into the emptiness between stars .


It will travel for decades, occasionally melting the odd bit of interstellar dust or asteroid.

It will travel for decades , occasionally melting the odd bit of interstellar dust or asteroid .


42 years after being fired, it arrives without warning.

42 years after being fired , it arrives without warning .


Humans only notice a weird green glow in the sky, and then they're gone.

Humans only notice a weird green glow in the sky , and then they 're gone .


1% of the energy of a star concentrated into a beam the diameter of Earth, traveling 42 light years.

1 % of the energy of a star concentrated into a beam the diameter of Earth , traveling 42 light years .


It burns the exposed half of the planet with the intensity of 3 million suns.

It burns the exposed half of the planet with the intensity of 3 million suns .


The seas boil and evaporate, fires scour the land, and within minutes, Earth's crust begins to melt into a sea of lava.

The seas boil and evaporate , fires scour the land , and within minutes , Earth 's crust begins to melt into a sea of lava .


As the planet rotates, it turns into a red-hot hell with no trace of life.

As the planet rotates , it turns into a red - hot hell with no trace of life .


After a day, it's all over, and the laser dies down.

After a day , it 's all over , and the laser dies down .


In another 42 years, the Smorpians will know if they've been successful.

In another 42 years , the Smorpians will know if they 've been successful .


That's another thing about interstellar war.

That 's another thing about interstellar war .


When you attack, your grandchildren will be the ones to find out if you won.

When you attack , your grandchildren will be the ones to find out if you won .


It's like all the bombs from World War II exploding in the 80s, and us only seeing the effect today.

It 's like all the bombs from World War II exploding in the 80s , and us only seeing the effect today .


But is there something else?


This sort of weapon is at the limits of what the Smorpians' technology can handle,

This sort of weapon is at the limits of what the Smorpians ' technology can handle ,


as it requires loads of a highly dangerous material, antimatter, the evil twin of regular matter.

as it requires loads of a highly dangerous material , antimatter , the evil twin of regular matter .


Humans have only managed to produce a few nanograms of antimatter.

Humans have only managed to produce a few nanograms of antimatter .


With their unlimited energy, Smorpians can manufacture it at an industrial scale to build antimatter rockets.

With their unlimited energy , Smorpians can manufacture it at an industrial scale to build antimatter rockets .


When antimatter and matter are mixed, they annihilate,

When antimatter and matter are mixed , they annihilate ,


The physics is complicated, but basically, if you have a really strong magnetic field,

The physics is complicated , but basically , if you have a really strong magnetic field ,


you can deflect the plasma through a nozzle, just like in the chemical rockets humans use.

you can deflect the plasma through a nozzle , just like in the chemical rockets humans use .


But it would be much, much faster.


Our relativistic missile is much bigger than a skyscraper.

Our relativistic missile is much bigger than a skyscraper .


At the bottom is the bell-shaped magnetic nozzle, 100 meters wide.

At the bottom is the bell - shaped magnetic nozzle , 100 meters wide .


On top of it are 250 floors, filled with antimatter and matter, ready to annihilate each other.

On top of it are 250 floors , filled with antimatter and matter , ready to annihilate each other .


On the top floor is a 300 kilogram projectile, looking quite small, about the size of a person.

On the top floor is a 300 kilogram projectile , looking quite small , about the size of a person .


To stop them getting damaged on the way, the missiles have dozens of sacrificial layers that form a Whipple shield.

To stop them getting damaged on the way , the missiles have dozens of sacrificial layers that form a Whipple shield .


To make sure they do their job, the Smorpians build 1,000 missiles.

To make sure they do their job , the Smorpians build 1,000 missiles .


Let's fire them!


Launching all the relativistic missiles is a spectacular event.

Launching all the relativistic missiles is a spectacular event .


For a moment, the antimatter engines lighting up outshine their star.

For a moment , the antimatter engines lighting up outshine their star .


Their exhaust is a long trail of brilliant white, and as they accelerate away,

Their exhaust is a long trail of brilliant white , and as they accelerate away ,


they appear redder and redder until they turn invisible.

they appear redder and redder until they turn invisible .


the missiles are accelerated to 99.9999996% of the speed of light.

the missiles are accelerated to 99.9999996 % of the speed of light .


They have effectively infinite range, as there's nothing really to slow them down.

They have effectively infinite range , as there 's nothing really to slow them down .


They arrive shortly after you can see them.

They arrive shortly after you can see them .


The light from their launch will take 42 years to reach Earth.

The light from their launch will take 42 years to reach Earth .


So, human astronomers might see the flash of the missile's launch,

So , human astronomers might see the flash of the missile 's launch ,


and then a few days later, they'll hit.

and then a few days later , they 'll hit .


Each relativistic missile packs the kinetic energy of a dinosaur-killer asteroid,

Each relativistic missile packs the kinetic energy of a dinosaur - killer asteroid ,


so only one needs to hit.


They never reach the ground, disintegrating instead at the edge of Earth's atmosphere.

They never reach the ground , disintegrating instead at the edge of Earth 's atmosphere .


Intense blue flashes set everything on fire.

Intense blue flashes set everything on fire .


Then, continent-sized fireballs slam down on the surface to smash everything into dust.

Then , continent - sized fireballs slam down on the surface to smash everything into dust .


But they are a hassle to build.


Is there something else, maybe?


Humans do funny things to their food to rid it of bacteria and make it safe to eat, like shooting electron beams at strawberries.

Humans do funny things to their food to rid it of bacteria and make it safe to eat , like shooting electron beams at strawberries .


Small particle accelerators send electrons into the food with an energy similar to the radiation from nuclear reactions.

Small particle accelerators send electrons into the food with an energy similar to the radiation from nuclear reactions .


Smorpians had the same idea, but bigger.

Smorpians had the same idea , but bigger .


The main challenge with an electron beam is range.

The main challenge with an electron beam is range .


Electrons are negatively charged particles, so they don't want to stay near each other.

Electrons are negatively charged particles , so they do n't want to stay near each other .


A regular electron beam will quickly spread out, making it harmless.

A regular electron beam will quickly spread out , making it harmless .


Smorpians needed to cover distances of dozens of light years.

Smorpians needed to cover distances of dozens of light years .


So, they've used the rules of the universe to trick the electrons by building an ultra-relativistic electron beam .

So , they 've used the rules of the universe to trick the electrons by building an ultra - relativistic electron beam .


What it does is accelerate the electrons to 99.999*998% of the speed of light, faster than even the most powerful cosmic rays.

What it does is accelerate the electrons to 99.999 * 998 % of the speed of light , faster than even the most powerful cosmic rays .


The closest something travels to the speed of light, the slower time moves for it relative to the rest of the universe.

The closest something travels to the speed of light , the slower time moves for it relative to the rest of the universe .


The biggest particle accelerator on Earth is 27 kilometers long.

The biggest particle accelerator on Earth is 27 kilometers long .


The Smorpians need one that's over 100,000 kilometers long, a megastructure eight times longer than Earth is wide.

The Smorpians need one that 's over 100,000 kilometers long , a megastructure eight times longer than Earth is wide .


It's mostly a tube of magnets holding the beam together until the exit, like a long trumpet of doom surrounded by an aura of deadly radiation.

It 's mostly a tube of magnets holding the beam together until the exit , like a long trumpet of doom surrounded by an aura of deadly radiation .


When it's fired, it produces a ruler-straight lightning bolt pointed at Earth.

When it 's fired , it produces a ruler - straight lightning bolt pointed at Earth .


Its effects on arrival are less visible than the other weapons.

Its effects on arrival are less visible than the other weapons .


It doesn't destroy rocks, it destroys DNA.

It does n't destroy rocks , it destroys DNA .


People get dizzy, then fall sick as their cells are pierced by radiation.

People get dizzy , then fall sick as their cells are pierced by radiation .


You might think that a deep bunker could save a few humans, but no.

You might think that a deep bunker could save a few humans , but no .


The URUB is so penetrating that its effects accumulate to lethal doses even underground over days or weeks.

The URUB is so penetrating that its effects accumulate to lethal doses even underground over days or weeks .


In the end, just like our strawberries, Earth becomes sterile.

In the end , just like our strawberries , Earth becomes sterile .


Luckily, the Smorpians don't really exist, but others might.

Luckily , the Smorpians do n't really exist , but others might .


One major downside of all our weapons is that others around the Milky Way could see you firing them,

One major downside of all our weapons is that others around the Milky Way could see you firing them ,


the best course of action seems to be to stay relatively quiet for now and observe.

the best course of action seems to be to stay relatively quiet for now and observe .


Maybe one day we'll witness distant stars shooting at each other and be glad we stayed out of it.

Maybe one day we 'll witness distant stars shooting at each other and be glad we stayed out of it .


But we don't have to stay out of intergalactic fun.

But we do n't have to stay out of intergalactic fun .


There's a peaceful way to join Type 2 civilizations on their galactic adventures.

There 's a peaceful way to join Type 2 civilizations on their galactic adventures .


Look, it's the Galactic Club, a cozy corner in the vast universe reserved for friendly, quirky folk like you.

Look , it 's the Galactic Club , a cozy corner in the vast universe reserved for friendly , quirky folk like you .


Come in and don't worry.


We've got everything you need to fit right in.

We 've got everything you need to fit right in .


It's all part of our latest limited drop.

It 's all part of our latest limited drop .


Kill your alien friends with kindness and impress them with these colorful patches and sweaters.

Kill your alien friends with kindness and impress them with these colorful patches and sweaters .


Wear these new iconic T-shirts that represent your love of stargazing and show allegiance to our ultimate overlord dad.

Wear these new iconic T - shirts that represent your love of stargazing and show allegiance to our ultimate overlord dad .


Like with our last limited drop, these items are available now until they sell out, and then never again.

Like with our last limited drop , these items are available now until they sell out , and then never again .


Pair them up with the 12,024 Cosmic Creations Calendar to have a beautiful daily reminder of potential alien civilizations.

Pair them up with the 12,024 Cosmic Creations Calendar to have a beautiful daily reminder of potential alien civilizations .


All of our products are designed and produced with love and care by us here at Kurzgesagt.

All of our products are designed and produced with love and care by us here at Kurzgesagt .


They are an integral part of the science story we try to tell.

They are an integral part of the science story we try to tell .


So start your journey on our channel.


And continue it with our posters, calendars, and plushes.

And continue it with our posters , calendars , and plushes .


Every purchase directly funds what we do on this channel.

Every purchase directly funds what we do on this channel .


Thank you so much for your support.


Join the Galactic Club now.


Overlord Duck is waiting.


The 14 moons of Neptune are a strange bunch.

The 14 moons of Neptune are a strange bunch .


Most of them are small potato-shaped pieces of ice and rock.

Most of them are small potato - shaped pieces of ice and rock .


Some are so far away from Neptune that they need 29 years to circle Neptune once.

Some are so far away from Neptune that they need 29 years to circle Neptune once .


Almost all of them are asteroids trapped by Neptune's gravity.

Almost all of them are asteroids trapped by Neptune 's gravity .


99.5% of all the mass around Neptune is concentrated in Triton.

99.5 % of all the mass around Neptune is concentrated in Triton .


It's the 7th biggest moon and more massive than all other known moons in the solar system that are smaller than itself combined.

It 's the 7th biggest moon and more massive than all other known moons in the solar system that are smaller than itself combined .


Its surface area is about as big as the mainland of Russia and Australia together.

Its surface area is about as big as the mainland of Russia and Australia together .


Also, Triton is one of only four objects in the solar system that we know is geologically active.

Also , Triton is one of only four objects in the solar system that we know is geologically active .


Triton orbits Neptune in the wrong direction, against the rotation of Neptune, which is unique in our solar system for an object as big as Triton.

Triton orbits Neptune in the wrong direction , against the rotation of Neptune , which is unique in our solar system for an object as big as Triton .


We can conclude from this that Triton hasn't always been a moon of Neptune,

We can conclude from this that Triton has n't always been a moon of Neptune ,


The most popular theory here is that Triton was once part of a double system.

The most popular theory here is that Triton was once part of a double system .


its gravity interfered with the double system and catapulted the other object into space, while Triton was forced into orbit.

its gravity interfered with the double system and catapulted the other object into space , while Triton was forced into orbit .


This would have disrupted the orbits of other Neptune moons rather violently and would most likely have either pushed them away from Neptune or let them collide or crash into Neptune.

This would have disrupted the orbits of other Neptune moons rather violently and would most likely have either pushed them away from Neptune or let them collide or crash into Neptune .


This would explain why Neptune's moons are so dominated by Triton.

This would explain why Neptune 's moons are so dominated by Triton .


But this will end one day.


Triton is being slowed down by Neptune, and eventually it will either crash into it or be ground by Neptune's gravity into a huge ring system similar to Saturn's.

Triton is being slowed down by Neptune , and eventually it will either crash into it or be ground by Neptune 's gravity into a huge ring system similar to Saturn 's .


So don't buy real estate on Triton.


Oh dear, just when you thought the Iraq problem was solved because you haven't heard about it for a while, everything's back to murderous chaos and terror.

Oh dear , just when you thought the Iraq problem was solved because you have n't heard about it for a while , everything 's back to murderous chaos and terror .


What happened?


In 2003, the US invaded Iraq because of its alleged connections to terrorism and weapons of mass destruction.

In 2003 , the US invaded Iraq because of its alleged connections to terrorism and weapons of mass destruction .


At the time, Saddam Hussein, a brutal dictator, ruled the country.

At the time , Saddam Hussein , a brutal dictator , ruled the country .


He was part of the Sunni minority and suppressed the Shia majority.

He was part of the Sunni minority and suppressed the Shia majority .


Iraq was conquered fairly quickly, but the US had no plan for the country.

Iraq was conquered fairly quickly , but the US had no plan for the country .


The until-then-suppressed Shia majority took over and began oppressing the Sunnis because suppressing other faiths has proven to be such a good idea.

The until - then - suppressed Shia majority took over and began oppressing the Sunnis because suppressing other faiths has proven to be such a good idea .


Unsurprisingly, a Sunni rebel uprising began and terrorist groups like Al-Qaeda trickled into Iraq and local forces, often former Sunni military,

Unsurprisingly , a Sunni rebel uprising began and terrorist groups like Al - Qaeda trickled into Iraq and local forces , often former Sunni military ,


Since then, people in Iraq have basically been segregated by religion.

Since then , people in Iraq have basically been segregated by religion .


So, in a tragic irony of history, the US invasion led to the formation of the very terrorists the US wanted to eliminate in the first place because Iraq was now the perfect training ground for terrorism.

So , in a tragic irony of history , the US invasion led to the formation of the very terrorists the US wanted to eliminate in the first place because Iraq was now the perfect training ground for terrorism .


To understand this complicated conflict better, we need to understand the relationship between the two main branches of the Muslim faith, Shia and Sunni Islam.

To understand this complicated conflict better , we need to understand the relationship between the two main branches of the Muslim faith , Shia and Sunni Islam .


Sunnis make up about 80% of the Muslim world and Shia about 20%.

Sunnis make up about 80 % of the Muslim world and Shia about 20 % .


And the hardliners on both sides don't like each other very much.

And the hardliners on both sides do n't like each other very much .


Saudi Arabia and Iran are the two most powerful players in the game of faiths.

Saudi Arabia and Iran are the two most powerful players in the game of faiths .


They both have no separation of state and religion, domestic problems, and a lot of oil money.

They both have no separation of state and religion , domestic problems , and a lot of oil money .


And they support groups that fight the other religious orientation.

And they support groups that fight the other religious orientation .


And one of those terror organizations supported by Saudi Arabia was the Islamic State in Iraq, or ISI for short.

And one of those terror organizations supported by Saudi Arabia was the Islamic State in Iraq , or ISI for short .


In 2010, the Arab Spring happened and changed the whole situation in the Middle East.

In 2010 , the Arab Spring happened and changed the whole situation in the Middle East .


In Syria, dictator Bashar al-Assad didn't think much of resigning and started a gruesome civil war against his own people.

In Syria , dictator Bashar al - Assad did n't think much of resigning and started a gruesome civil war against his own people .


The longer the war went on, the more foreign groups joined the fight, most of them for religious reasons and with the goal of building an Islamic state in the region.

The longer the war went on , the more foreign groups joined the fight , most of them for religious reasons and with the goal of building an Islamic state in the region .


And one of them was the infamous ISI, which now became the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria, or ISIS.

And one of them was the infamous ISI , which now became the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria , or ISIS .


They had fought in Iraq for years and had thousands of well-trained and fanatic soldiers.

They had fought in Iraq for years and had thousands of well - trained and fanatic soldiers .


They already quasi-controlled parts of northern Iraq and were very determined to build their religious state.

They already quasi - controlled parts of northern Iraq and were very determined to build their religious state .


And they changed the game in Syria like no one expected.

And they changed the game in Syria like no one expected .


ISIS was so unbelievably violent and radical that soon it was at war with almost every other faction of the Syrian rebel armies.

ISIS was so unbelievably violent and radical that soon it was at war with almost every other faction of the Syrian rebel armies .


They attacked and killed members of other Muslim terrorist groups in the territories they controlled.

They attacked and killed members of other Muslim terrorist groups in the territories they controlled .


They built an Islamic state with rules so strict that even the hardliners of Al-Qaeda and Saudi Arabia were shocked and withdrew their support.

They built an Islamic state with rules so strict that even the hardliners of Al - Qaeda and Saudi Arabia were shocked and withdrew their support .


ISIS has been accused of responsibility for multiple massacres against civilians, countless suicide bombings,

ISIS has been accused of responsibility for multiple massacres against civilians , countless suicide bombings ,


And this lovely gathering of human beings recently decided it was time to take more territory in Iraq.

And this lovely gathering of human beings recently decided it was time to take more territory in Iraq .


Since the US left Iraq, the Shia Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki has monopolized power and discriminated against Sunnis wherever possible.

Since the US left Iraq , the Shia Prime Minister Nouri al - Maliki has monopolized power and discriminated against Sunnis wherever possible .


The government of Iraq is widely regarded as being corrupt, incapable, and it's certainly hated by a large part of its citizens.

The government of Iraq is widely regarded as being corrupt , incapable , and it 's certainly hated by a large part of its citizens .


The Iraqi army, consisting of about 300,000 soldiers, was created using 25 billion US dollars in tax money,

The Iraqi army , consisting of about 300,000 soldiers , was created using 25 billion US dollars in tax money ,


but it's not loyal to its government and has been withdrawing or completely disbanding, giving up city after city.

but it 's not loyal to its government and has been withdrawing or completely disbanding , giving up city after city .


Because ISIS has announced that everyone who opposes them will be killed, they have proven they mean business.

Because ISIS has announced that everyone who opposes them will be killed , they have proven they mean business .


By June 2014, they'd conquered a big chunk of Iraq, including Mosul, Iraq's second largest city.

By June 2014 , they 'd conquered a big chunk of Iraq , including Mosul , Iraq 's second largest city .


They'd stolen hundreds of millions from captured banks, making them the richest terror organization on earth,

They 'd stolen hundreds of millions from captured banks , making them the richest terror organization on earth ,


and they are constantly working on establishing a super medieval religious state.

and they are constantly working on establishing a super medieval religious state .


Iran and the US are even considering working together to fight them.

Iran and the US are even considering working together to fight them .


That's how gruesome the situation is.


Events in Iraq show again that exploiting the people you've defeated in a war, denying them power,

Events in Iraq show again that exploiting the people you 've defeated in a war , denying them power ,


a living and a stake in the rebuilding of the country, is just sowing the seeds of the next bout of violence.

a living and a stake in the rebuilding of the country , is just sowing the seeds of the next bout of violence .


Somehow, we have to break this circle.

Somehow , we have to break this circle .


At its height, the Roman Empire was home to about 30% of the world's population, and in many ways it was the pinnacle of human advancement.

At its height , the Roman Empire was home to about 30 % of the world 's population , and in many ways it was the pinnacle of human advancement .


Its citizens enjoyed the benefits of central heating, concrete, double glazing, banking, international trade, and upward social mobility.

Its citizens enjoyed the benefits of central heating , concrete , double glazing , banking , international trade , and upward social mobility .


Rome became the first city in history with one million inhabitants, and was a center of technological, legal, and economic progress.

Rome became the first city in history with one million inhabitants , and was a center of technological , legal , and economic progress .


First slowly, then suddenly, the most powerful civilization on earth collapsed.

First slowly , then suddenly , the most powerful civilization on earth collapsed .


By civilization, we mean a complex society where labor is specialized and social classes emerge and which is ruled by institutions.

By civilization , we mean a complex society where labor is specialized and social classes emerge and which is ruled by institutions .


Civilizations share a dominant mutual language and culture, and domesticate plants and animals to feed and sustain large cities, where they often construct impressive monuments.

Civilizations share a dominant mutual language and culture , and domesticate plants and animals to feed and sustain large cities , where they often construct impressive monuments .


Civilization lets us become efficient on large scales, collect vast amounts of knowledge, and put human ingenuity and the natural resources of the world to work.

Civilization lets us become efficient on large scales , collect vast amounts of knowledge , and put human ingenuity and the natural resources of the world to work .


Without civilization, most people would never have been born.

Without civilization , most people would never have been born .


Virtually all civilizations end, on average, after 340 years.

Virtually all civilizations end , on average , after 340 years .


Collapse is rarely nice for individuals.

Collapse is rarely nice for individuals .


Their shared cultural identity is shattered as institutions lose the power to organize people.

Their shared cultural identity is shattered as institutions lose the power to organize people .


Knowledge is lost, living standards fall, violence increases, and often the population declines.

Knowledge is lost , living standards fall , violence increases , and often the population declines .


Just as Europeans forgot how to build indoor plumbing and make cement, will we lose our industrial technology,

Just as Europeans forgot how to build indoor plumbing and make cement , will we lose our industrial technology ,


Can all this go away too?


Today our cities stretch for thousands of square kilometers, we travel the skies, our communication is instant.

Today our cities stretch for thousands of square kilometers , we travel the skies , our communication is instant .


Industrial agriculture with engineered high-yield plants, efficient machinery, and high-potency fertilizer feeds billions of people.

Industrial agriculture with engineered high - yield plants , efficient machinery , and high - potency fertilizer feeds billions of people .


Modern medicine gives us the longest lifespan we've ever had, while industrial technology gives us an unprecedented level of comfort and abundance,

Modern medicine gives us the longest lifespan we 've ever had , while industrial technology gives us an unprecedented level of comfort and abundance ,


even though we haven't yet learned to attain them without destroying our ecosphere.

even though we have n't yet learned to attain them without destroying our ecosphere .


There are arguably still different civilizations around today that compete and coexist with each other, but together they also form a singular global civilization.

There are arguably still different civilizations around today that compete and coexist with each other , but together they also form a singular global civilization .


But this modern globalized civilization is even more vulnerable in some ways than past empires because we are much more deeply interconnected.

But this modern globalized civilization is even more vulnerable in some ways than past empires because we are much more deeply interconnected .


A collapse of the industrialized world literally means that the majority of people alive today would perish since without industrial agriculture we would no longer be able to feed them.

A collapse of the industrialized world literally means that the majority of people alive today would perish since without industrial agriculture we would no longer be able to feed them .


And there's an even greater risk.


A global civilizational collapse could be an existential catastrophe, something that ruins not just the lives of everyone alive today,

A global civilizational collapse could be an existential catastrophe , something that ruins not just the lives of everyone alive today ,


All the knowledge we might have discovered, the art we might have created, the joys we might have experienced would be lost.

All the knowledge we might have discovered , the art we might have created , the joys we might have experienced would be lost .


So how likely is all of this?


Let's start with some good news.


While civilization collapses have happened regularly, none have ever derailed the course of global civilization.

While civilization collapses have happened regularly , none have ever derailed the course of global civilization .


Rome collapsed, but the Aksumite Empire, or the Tertiokans, and of course the Byzantine Empire carried on.

Rome collapsed , but the Aksumite Empire , or the Tertiokans , and of course the Byzantine Empire carried on .


So far we've not seen a catastrophe that has killed much more than 10% of the global population.

So far we 've not seen a catastrophe that has killed much more than 10 % of the global population .


The last clear example of a rapid global population decrease was the Black Death,

The last clear example of a rapid global population decrease was the Black Death ,


If any event was going to cause the collapse of civilization, that should have been it.

If any event was going to cause the collapse of civilization , that should have been it .


But even the Black Death demonstrates humanity's resilience more than its fragility.

But even the Black Death demonstrates humanity 's resilience more than its fragility .


the intense loss of human lives and suffering did little to negatively impact European economic and technological development in the long run.

the intense loss of human lives and suffering did little to negatively impact European economic and technological development in the long run .


Population size recovered within two centuries, and just two centuries later the Industrial Revolution began.

Population size recovered within two centuries , and just two centuries later the Industrial Revolution began .


History is full of incredible recoveries from horrible tragedies.

History is full of incredible recoveries from horrible tragedies .


Take the atomic bombing of Hiroshima during World War II.

Take the atomic bombing of Hiroshima during World War II .


140,000 people were killed and 90% of the city was at least partially incinerated or reduced to rubble.

140,000 people were killed and 90 % of the city was at least partially incinerated or reduced to rubble .


But against all odds, they made a remarkable recovery.

But against all odds , they made a remarkable recovery .


Hiroshima's population recovered within a decade, and today it's a thriving city of 1.2 million people.

Hiroshima 's population recovered within a decade , and today it 's a thriving city of 1.2 million people .


None of this made these horrible events any less horrible for those who lived through them.

None of this made these horrible events any less horrible for those who lived through them .


But for us as a species, these signs of resilience are good news.

But for us as a species , these signs of resilience are good news .


Why recovery is likely, even in the worst case.

Why recovery is likely , even in the worst case .


One thing that's different from historic collapses is that humanity now has unprecedented destructive power.

One thing that 's different from historic collapses is that humanity now has unprecedented destructive power .


Today's nuclear arsenals are so powerful that all-out global war could cause a nuclear winter and billions of deaths.

Today 's nuclear arsenals are so powerful that all - out global war could cause a nuclear winter and billions of deaths .


Our knowledge of our own biology and how to manipulate it is getting so advanced that it's becoming possible to engineer viruses as contagious as the coronavirus and as deadly as Ebola.

Our knowledge of our own biology and how to manipulate it is getting so advanced that it 's becoming possible to engineer viruses as contagious as the coronavirus and as deadly as Ebola .


Increasingly, the risk of global pandemics is much higher than in the past.

Increasingly , the risk of global pandemics is much higher than in the past .


So we may cause a collapse ourselves, and it might be much worse than the things nature has thrown at us so far.

So we may cause a collapse ourselves , and it might be much worse than the things nature has thrown at us so far .


But if, say, 99% of the population died, would global civilization collapse forever?

But if , say , 99 % of the population died , would global civilization collapse forever ?


Could we recover from such a tragedy?


We have some reasons to be optimistic.


Let's start with food.


There are 1 billion agricultural workers today, so even if the global population fell to just 80 million, it's virtually guaranteed that many survivors would know how to produce food.

There are 1 billion agricultural workers today , so even if the global population fell to just 80 million , it 's virtually guaranteed that many survivors would know how to produce food .


And we don't need to start at square one, because we could still use modern high-yield crops.

And we do n't need to start at square one , because we could still use modern high - yield crops .


Maize is 10 times bigger than its wild ancestor.

Maize is 10 times bigger than its wild ancestor .


Ancient tomatoes were the size of today's peas.

Ancient tomatoes were the size of today 's peas .


After agriculture, the next step towards recovery would be rebuilding industrial capacity, like power grids and automated manufacturing.

After agriculture , the next step towards recovery would be rebuilding industrial capacity , like power grids and automated manufacturing .


A huge problem is that our economies of scale make it impossible to just pick up where we left off.

A huge problem is that our economies of scale make it impossible to just pick up where we left off .


Many of our high-tech industries are only functional because of huge demand and intensely interconnected supply chains across different continents.

Many of our high - tech industries are only functional because of huge demand and intensely interconnected supply chains across different continents .


Even if our infrastructure were left unharmed, we would make huge steps backwards technologically.

Even if our infrastructure were left unharmed , we would make huge steps backwards technologically .


But then again, we are thinking in larger timeframes.

But then again , we are thinking in larger timeframes .


Reconstruction originally happened 12,000 years after the agricultural revolution.

Reconstruction originally happened 12,000 years after the agricultural revolution .


So if we need to start over after a massive collapse, it shouldn't be that hard to reindustrialize, at least on evolutionary timescales.

So if we need to start over after a massive collapse , it should n't be that hard to reindustrialize , at least on evolutionary timescales .


There's a hitch, though.


The industrial revolution was fueled literally by burning easily accessible coal, and we are still very much reliant on it.

The industrial revolution was fueled literally by burning easily accessible coal , and we are still very much reliant on it .


If we use it all up today, aside from making rapid climate change much worse, we could hinder our ability to recover from a huge crisis.

If we use it all up today , aside from making rapid climate change much worse , we could hinder our ability to recover from a huge crisis .


So we should stop using easy-to-access coal so it can serve as a civilization insurance in case something bad happens.

So we should stop using easy - to - access coal so it can serve as a civilization insurance in case something bad happens .


Another thing that makes recovery likely is that we'd probably have most of the information we need to rebuild civilization.

Another thing that makes recovery likely is that we 'd probably have most of the information we need to rebuild civilization .


We would certainly lose a lot of crucial institutional knowledge, especially on hard drives that nobody could read or operate anymore.

We would certainly lose a lot of crucial institutional knowledge , especially on hard drives that nobody could read or operate anymore .


But a lot of the technological, scientific, and cultural knowledge stored in the world's 2.6 million libraries would survive the catastrophe.

But a lot of the technological , scientific , and cultural knowledge stored in the world 's 2.6 million libraries would survive the catastrophe .


The post-collapse survivors would know what used to be possible, and they could reverse-engineer some of the tools and machines they'd find.

The post - collapse survivors would know what used to be possible , and they could reverse - engineer some of the tools and machines they 'd find .


In conclusion, despite the bleak prospect of catastrophic threats, natural or created by ourselves, there is reason for optimism.

In conclusion , despite the bleak prospect of catastrophic threats , natural or created by ourselves , there is reason for optimism .


Humankind is remarkably resilient, and even in the case of a global civilizational collapse, it seems likely that we would be able to recover.

Humankind is remarkably resilient , and even in the case of a global civilizational collapse , it seems likely that we would be able to recover .


Even if we lost cultural and technological achievements in the process.

Even if we lost cultural and technological achievements in the process .


But given the stakes, the risks are still unnervingly high.

But given the stakes , the risks are still unnervingly high .


Nuclear war and dangerous pandemics threaten the amazing global civilization we have built.

Nuclear war and dangerous pandemics threaten the amazing global civilization we have built .


Humanity is like a teenager, speeding around blind corners, drunk without a seatbelt.

Humanity is like a teenager , speeding around blind corners , drunk without a seatbelt .


The good news is that it's still early enough to prepare for and to mitigate these risks.

The good news is that it 's still early enough to prepare for and to mitigate these risks .


We just need to actually do it.


We made this video together with Will McCaskill, a professor of philosophy at Oxford and one of the founders of the Affective Altruism Movement,

We made this video together with Will McCaskill , a professor of philosophy at Oxford and one of the founders of the Affective Altruism Movement ,


Will just published a new book called What We Owe the Future, which is about how you can positively impact the long-term future of our world.

Will just published a new book called What We Owe the Future , which is about how you can positively impact the long - term future of our world .


If you like Kurzgesagt videos, the chances are high you'll like it.

If you like Kurzgesagt videos , the chances are high you 'll like it .


The book has some pretty counterintuitive arguments, like that risks from new technologies such as AI and synthetic biology are at least as grave as those from climate change.

The book has some pretty counterintuitive arguments , like that risks from new technologies such as AI and synthetic biology are at least as grave as those from climate change .


Or that the world doesn't contain too many people, but too few.

Or that the world does n't contain too many people , but too few .


And especially that everyday actions like recycling or refusing to fly just aren't that big a deal compared to where you donate or what career you pursue.

And especially that everyday actions like recycling or refusing to fly just are n't that big a deal compared to where you donate or what career you pursue .


Most importantly, it argues that by acting wisely, you can help make tomorrow better than today.

Most importantly , it argues that by acting wisely , you can help make tomorrow better than today .


And how we together can build a flourishing world for the thousands or millions of generations that will come after us.

And how we together can build a flourishing world for the thousands or millions of generations that will come after us .


Many things we at Kurzgesagt talk about regularly are discussed here in much greater detail.

Many things we at Kurzgesagt talk about regularly are discussed here in much greater detail .


Check out What We Owe the Future wherever you get your books or audiobooks.

Check out What We Owe the Future wherever you get your books or audiobooks .


Did we manage to unlock a new fear for you?

Did we manage to unlock a new fear for you ?


Let's counter existential dread with appreciation for humanity.

Let 's counter existential dread with appreciation for humanity .


Look how far we've come as a species, what we've built and where we've gathered.

Look how far we 've come as a species , what we 've built and where we 've gathered .


Let this new world map poster be a reminder of what we can achieve.

Let this new world map poster be a reminder of what we can achieve .


Until recently, the vast majority of the world population worked on farms,

Until recently , the vast majority of the world population worked on farms ,


and the total production of the world's economy was mostly the total agricultural output.

and the total production of the world 's economy was mostly the total agricultural output .


And this output was limited by the fixed size of the land.

And this output was limited by the fixed size of the land .


The total output of the economy did not change a lot year by year.

The total output of the economy did not change a lot year by year .


The size of the pie was fixed.


The world was a zero-sum game.


In such a stagnating world, the only way to get better off is if someone else gets worse off.

In such a stagnating world , the only way to get better off is if someone else gets worse off .


If you take a bigger piece of the pie, someone else's gets smaller.

If you take a bigger piece of the pie , someone else 's gets smaller .


If you want more food, then conquering, plundering and stealing are great strategies.

If you want more food , then conquering , plundering and stealing are great strategies .


Your neighbor's loss is your gain.


This was the state of things for thousands of years.

This was the state of things for thousands of years .


Societies invaded each other constantly to get more pie.

Societies invaded each other constantly to get more pie .


Economic inequality was extreme.


Some had all the pie they wanted, while others had to live with the crumbs.

Some had all the pie they wanted , while others had to live with the crumbs .


Then the Industrial Revolution happened, and everything changed.

Then the Industrial Revolution happened , and everything changed .


We developed machinery, better crops, better fertilizers.

We developed machinery , better crops , better fertilizers .


Agricultural output skyrocketed.


But we didn't just produce more food.


Every industrial sector exploded in terms of productivity.

Every industrial sector exploded in terms of productivity .


From 1700 to 1870, the production of iron in Britain increased 137-fold.

From 1700 to 1870 , the production of iron in Britain increased 137 - fold .


The Industrial Revolution led to a previously unimaginable increase in economic output.

The Industrial Revolution led to a previously unimaginable increase in economic output .


This altered the nature of our societies.

This altered the nature of our societies .


Economic growth changed the world from a zero-sum game to a positive-sum game.

Economic growth changed the world from a zero - sum game to a positive - sum game .


We had found a way to create a bigger pie.

We had found a way to create a bigger pie .


More people could have more at the same time.

More people could have more at the same time .


This development is spreading and continuing today.

This development is spreading and continuing today .


Antibiotics kill bacteria.


Power plants deliver energy.


Cell phones connect us.


Planes let us travel cheaply.


Fridges store food.


Continuous progress in all sectors of the economy seems normal to us today.

Continuous progress in all sectors of the economy seems normal to us today .


But the change from stagnation to economic growth really was the most drastic shift in human history.

But the change from stagnation to economic growth really was the most drastic shift in human history .


How was this possible?


At the very core of this massive transformation stand new ideas that lead to innovation.

At the very core of this massive transformation stand new ideas that lead to innovation .


Innovation has many different definitions.

Innovation has many different definitions .


But in the context of this video, we mean better solutions to existing problems and solutions to problems we didn't know we had.

But in the context of this video , we mean better solutions to existing problems and solutions to problems we did n't know we had .


The more you innovate, the more complex and interesting problems you discover as your wishes and needs evolve.

The more you innovate , the more complex and interesting problems you discover as your wishes and needs evolve .


The average citizen in Norway 250 years ago might have wanted some really good shoes.

The average citizen in Norway 250 years ago might have wanted some really good shoes .


Once we get what we want, we don't stop.

Once we get what we want , we do n't stop .


We can see how we can improve things even more and how to make things even better.

We can see how we can improve things even more and how to make things even better .


The new positive-sum world has existed for 0.1% of human history and we have yet to get used to it.

The new positive - sum world has existed for 0.1 % of human history and we have yet to get used to it .


It has a consequence that feels really unintuitive.

It has a consequence that feels really unintuitive .


In a positive-sum world, it's in your personal, selfish, best interest that every human on planet Earth is well-off.

In a positive - sum world , it 's in your personal , selfish , best interest that every human on planet Earth is well - off .


It's good for you if people in obscure parts of countries you've never heard of are prospering.

It 's good for you if people in obscure parts of countries you 've never heard of are prospering .


There is a genuine, selfish argument for making the world a better place.

There is a genuine , selfish argument for making the world a better place .


In a positive-sum world, the more people are well-off, the better your own life is.

In a positive - sum world , the more people are well - off , the better your own life is .


This is because of the nature of innovation.

This is because of the nature of innovation .


It is fundamentally driven by supply and demand.

It is fundamentally driven by supply and demand .


The supply increases when more people have the freedom and education to contribute.

The supply increases when more people have the freedom and education to contribute .


They become inventors, researchers, engineers or thinkers that come up with new ideas.

They become inventors , researchers , engineers or thinkers that come up with new ideas .


The demand for ideas increases as people get richer and can pay for new solutions.

The demand for ideas increases as people get richer and can pay for new solutions .


They increase the size of the market for innovations.

They increase the size of the market for innovations .


Innovation follows incentives.


So naturally, if many people want and can pay for something, it will get the innovators' attention and energy.

So naturally , if many people want and can pay for something , it will get the innovators ' attention and energy .


Improving the lives of those who are worst off has a multiplying effect.

Improving the lives of those who are worst off has a multiplying effect .


It increases demand for ideas while at the same time making it easier for ideas to be produced.

It increases demand for ideas while at the same time making it easier for ideas to be produced .


Let's take an example that interests all of us, a cure for cancer.

Let 's take an example that interests all of us , a cure for cancer .


If there are 1 billion people in the world that have the wealth to pay for cancer treatments, innovation will follow this demand.

If there are 1 billion people in the world that have the wealth to pay for cancer treatments , innovation will follow this demand .


So hundreds of billions of dollars have been invested in medical research.

So hundreds of billions of dollars have been invested in medical research .


This had a huge effect, but we're still nowhere near to curing all forms of cancer.

This had a huge effect , but we 're still nowhere near to curing all forms of cancer .


Today, every sixth person in the world dies of cancer, and you might be one of them.

Today , every sixth person in the world dies of cancer , and you might be one of them .


Now imagine if demand were higher.


Imagine instead of 1 billion people being able to pay for a cure for cancer, there were 4 billion or 7 billion.

Imagine instead of 1 billion people being able to pay for a cure for cancer , there were 4 billion or 7 billion .


Imagine how far medicine could have developed if we'd invested seven times as much in curing cancer.

Imagine how far medicine could have developed if we 'd invested seven times as much in curing cancer .


On top of that, there's so much human potential being wasted right now.

On top of that , there 's so much human potential being wasted right now .


The work of a poor farmer in a developing nation is not useful to you.

The work of a poor farmer in a developing nation is not useful to you .


But if he becomes better off, his children might spend their time in university developing things that are useful to you.

But if he becomes better off , his children might spend their time in university developing things that are useful to you .


Instead of having some hotspots of innovation in the developed world, we would have many hotspots all over the world.

Instead of having some hotspots of innovation in the developed world , we would have many hotspots all over the world .


The research output of humanity would be many times what it is right now.

The research output of humanity would be many times what it is right now .


Could we have cured cancer by now if that were the case?

Could we have cured cancer by now if that were the case ?


and a global network of medical research, things would certainly be further ahead than they are now.

and a global network of medical research , things would certainly be further ahead than they are now .


And this is the core of the argument.


The more people want the same thing that you want, the more likely you are to get it.

The more people want the same thing that you want , the more likely you are to get it .


That is what it means to live in a positive-sum world.

That is what it means to live in a positive - sum world .


You don't gain more pie if poor places stay poor.

You do n't gain more pie if poor places stay poor .


Instead, you get more pie if poor places get richer, contribute ideas, and grow the global pie.

Instead , you get more pie if poor places get richer , contribute ideas , and grow the global pie .


Do you like space travel?


Imagine there were billions of people in Africa and Asia with their own space programs,

Imagine there were billions of people in Africa and Asia with their own space programs ,


Do you like being alive?