This is one factor in increasing diversity within a species.

This is one factor in increasing diversity within a species .


The more offspring that are produced, the more little differences occur.

The more offspring that are produced , the more little differences occur .


And this is what nature wants – as many little differences as possible.

And this is what nature wants – as many little differences as possible .


The second major cause of the uniqueness of individuals occurs in heredity itself.

The second major cause of the uniqueness of individuals occurs in heredity itself .


By the way, heredity means the passing on of DNA to offspring.

By the way , heredity means the passing on of DNA to offspring .


Two very interesting factors come into play in this process – recombination and mutation.

Two very interesting factors come into play in this process – recombination and mutation .


Recombination is the random mixing of the DNA of two creatures.

Recombination is the random mixing of the DNA of two creatures .


When two creatures fall in love and mate, they recombine their genes twice.

When two creatures fall in love and mate , they recombine their genes twice .


The gametes take half of the genes and shuffle them.

The gametes take half of the genes and shuffle them .


The second recombination occurs when a male inseminates a female.

The second recombination occurs when a male inseminates a female .


The parents each provide 50% of their DNA, in other words, 50% of their unique traits and characteristics.

The parents each provide 50 % of their DNA , in other words , 50 % of their unique traits and characteristics .


These are then recombined or mixed, and the result is new offspring.

These are then recombined or mixed , and the result is new offspring .


These offspring have a random mix of the DNA and therefore the traits and characteristics of their parents.

These offspring have a random mix of the DNA and therefore the traits and characteristics of their parents .


This increases the diversity and differences within a species even further.

This increases the diversity and differences within a species even further .


But mutations are also important for evolution.

But mutations are also important for evolution .


Mutations are random changes in DNA.


These can also be described as copying errors within the DNA, triggered by toxins or other chemical substances or by radiation.

These can also be described as copying errors within the DNA , triggered by toxins or other chemical substances or by radiation .


A mutation exists when a part of the DNA is altered.

A mutation exists when a part of the DNA is altered .


These changes are often negative and may result in illnesses such as cancer.

These changes are often negative and may result in illnesses such as cancer .


However, they may also have neutral or positive effects, such as the blue eye colour in humans, which is one such random mutation.

However , they may also have neutral or positive effects , such as the blue eye colour in humans , which is one such random mutation .


In all cases, a mutation has to affect a gamete, that is, a sperm or egg cell.

In all cases , a mutation has to affect a gamete , that is , a sperm or egg cell .


Because only the DNA in the gametes is passed on to the offspring.

Because only the DNA in the gametes is passed on to the offspring .


This is also the reason why we protect our sexual organs during X-rays, whilst other parts of the body are not at risk.

This is also the reason why we protect our sexual organs during X - rays , whilst other parts of the body are not at risk .


In summary then, in the heredity process, creatures pass on their characteristics to their offspring in the form of DNA.

In summary then , in the heredity process , creatures pass on their characteristics to their offspring in the form of DNA .


Recombination and mutation change the DNA, so that each child looks different to its siblings and receives a random mix of the characteristics of its parents.

Recombination and mutation change the DNA , so that each child looks different to its siblings and receives a random mix of the characteristics of its parents .


There's a key word here.


All of these processes are based on chance.

All of these processes are based on chance .


Random recombination and mutations result in individuals with random mixes of traits and characteristics, which in turn mix these randomly and pass them on.

Random recombination and mutations result in individuals with random mixes of traits and characteristics , which in turn mix these randomly and pass them on .


But how can so much be down to chance when all living creatures are so perfectly adapted to their environment?

But how can so much be down to chance when all living creatures are so perfectly adapted to their environment ?


The answer is provided by the second key point, selection.

The answer is provided by the second key point , selection .


Each individual is subjected to a process of natural selection.

Each individual is subjected to a process of natural selection .


As we have learned, each individual is somewhat different to its fellows, and there is extensive variation within a species.

As we have learned , each individual is somewhat different to its fellows , and there is extensive variation within a species .


Environmental influences have an effect on living creatures.

Environmental influences have an effect on living creatures .


These so-called selection factors include predators, parasites, animals of the same species, toxins, changes in habitat or the climate.

These so - called selection factors include predators , parasites , animals of the same species , toxins , changes in habitat or the climate .


Selection is a process that each individual is subjected to.

Selection is a process that each individual is subjected to .


Every creature has a unique mix of traits and characteristics.

Every creature has a unique mix of traits and characteristics .


This mix helps them to survive in their environment.

This mix helps them to survive in their environment .


Anyone with an unsuitable mix will be selected from the environment.

Anyone with an unsuitable mix will be selected from the environment .


Those with the right mix survive and can pass on their enhanced traits and characteristics.

Those with the right mix survive and can pass on their enhanced traits and characteristics .


This is why diversity is so important.


This is why creatures make so much effort to produce offspring that are as different as possible.

This is why creatures make so much effort to produce offspring that are as different as possible .


They increase the likelihood that at least one of their offspring passes nature's selection process.

They increase the likelihood that at least one of their offspring passes nature 's selection process .


They maximize their chances of survival.

They maximize their chances of survival .


A good example of this can be seen in a group of finches living on a remote island.

A good example of this can be seen in a group of finches living on a remote island .


They are some of the most famous animals in the world of science and are known as Darwin finches, after their discoverer Charles Darwin.

They are some of the most famous animals in the world of science and are known as Darwin finches , after their discoverer Charles Darwin .


And this is the story of those finches.

And this is the story of those finches .


A few hundred years ago, a small group of finches was blown onto the Galapagos Islands in the middle of the Pacific, probably by a big storm.

A few hundred years ago , a small group of finches was blown onto the Galapagos Islands in the middle of the Pacific , probably by a big storm .


The finches found themselves in an environment that was completely new to them.

The finches found themselves in an environment that was completely new to them .


They reproduced rapidly and numerously.

They reproduced rapidly and numerously .


The islands were soon heaving with finches.

The islands were soon heaving with finches .


This meant that food supplies became increasingly scarce.

This meant that food supplies became increasingly scarce .


The finch paradise was threatened with famine and finch friends became competitors.

The finch paradise was threatened with famine and finch friends became competitors .


This is when selection intervened.


Their individuality and small differences, in this case their slightly different beaks, meant that some of the birds were able to avoid competing with their fellow finches.

Their individuality and small differences , in this case their slightly different beaks , meant that some of the birds were able to avoid competing with their fellow finches .


The beaks of some of the finches were more suitable for digging for worms.

The beaks of some of the finches were more suitable for digging for worms .


Other finches were able to use their beaks better for cracking seeds.

Other finches were able to use their beaks better for cracking seeds .


The finches consequently sought out ecological niches.

The finches consequently sought out ecological niches .


In these niches, they were safe from excessive competition.

In these niches , they were safe from excessive competition .


They soon began to mate primarily with other finches that used the same niche.

They soon began to mate primarily with other finches that used the same niche .


Over the course of many generations, these characteristics were enhanced, enabling the finches to exploit their niches successfully.

Over the course of many generations , these characteristics were enhanced , enabling the finches to exploit their niches successfully .


The differences between the worm diggers and the seed crackers became so large that they were no longer able to mate with one another.

The differences between the worm diggers and the seed crackers became so large that they were no longer able to mate with one another .


Different species emerged as a result.


Today there are 14 different species of finch living on the Galapagos Islands, all of which are descended from the same group of stranded finches.

Today there are 14 different species of finch living on the Galapagos Islands , all of which are descended from the same group of stranded finches .


This is how new species are created by evolution.

This is how new species are created by evolution .


Why is this so important?


It tells us where the variety of life comes from and why living creatures are so perfectly adapted to their habitats.

It tells us where the variety of life comes from and why living creatures are so perfectly adapted to their habitats .


But it also affects us personally.


Every person is the result of 3.5 billion years of evolution.

Every person is the result of 3.5 billion years of evolution .


And that includes you.


Your ancestors fought and adapted in order to survive.

Your ancestors fought and adapted in order to survive .


This survival was an extremely uncertain thing.

This survival was an extremely uncertain thing .


If we consider the fact that 99% of all the species that have ever lived are extinct, then you can consider yourself part of a success story.

If we consider the fact that 99 % of all the species that have ever lived are extinct , then you can consider yourself part of a success story .


The dinosaurs have disappeared, but you are alive, watching this video.

The dinosaurs have disappeared , but you are alive , watching this video .


Because you're incredibly special.


A few days ago, Facebook proudly announced that they'd achieved 8 billion video views a day.

A few days ago , Facebook proudly announced that they 'd achieved 8 billion video views a day .


That's really impressive, until you learn that in the first quarter of 2015, 725 of the thousand most viewed videos on Facebook were stolen, amassing a total of 17 billion views.

That 's really impressive , until you learn that in the first quarter of 2015 , 725 of the thousand most viewed videos on Facebook were stolen , amassing a total of 17 billion views .


Sites and content aggregators steal videos from YouTube to go viral on Facebook.

Sites and content aggregators steal videos from YouTube to go viral on Facebook .


These videos go viral because Facebook is cheating.

These videos go viral because Facebook is cheating .


They rigged their algorithm so that videos uploaded into their player are preferred to YouTube links,

They rigged their algorithm so that videos uploaded into their player are preferred to YouTube links ,


because users should be kept as long as possible on the site, so Facebook can show them as many ads as possible.

because users should be kept as long as possible on the site , so Facebook can show them as many ads as possible .


This is, after all, their business model.

This is , after all , their business model .


But it also cheats when it comes to views.

But it also cheats when it comes to views .


A view is counted after 3 seconds, even if the video is muted.

A view is counted after 3 seconds , even if the video is muted .


That means engagement is terrible.


Compared to YouTube views, Facebook views plummet after a few seconds, because most views are not real.

Compared to YouTube views , Facebook views plummet after a few seconds , because most views are not real .


But large numbers are impressive, so Facebook keeps pretending.

But large numbers are impressive , so Facebook keeps pretending .


While this force to virality is weird, the real problem is the so-called freebooting, the stealing of videos.

While this force to virality is weird , the real problem is the so - called freebooting , the stealing of videos .


Since facebook prefers its own player, stolen videos reach way more people than the original.

Since facebook prefers its own player , stolen videos reach way more people than the original .


Lately, this has happened to us more and more often.

Lately , this has happened to us more and more often .


The most recent example amassed 3.2 million views and 140,000 shares in two days, while our own post just reached 100,000 people and got shared 1,000 times.

The most recent example amassed 3.2 million views and 140,000 shares in two days , while our own post just reached 100,000 people and got shared 1,000 times .


Other creators are hit even harder.


Smarter Every Day's videos get stolen constantly, getting viewed up to 17 million times.

Smarter Every Day 's videos get stolen constantly , getting viewed up to 17 million times .


But even this is dwarfed by examples like Tyrese Gibson, a singer who steals viral videos like this with 86 million views on his Facebook page.

But even this is dwarfed by examples like Tyrese Gibson , a singer who steals viral videos like this with 86 million views on his Facebook page .


He adds a link to buy his music, too.


He's not alone in this.


A whole group of people have built their online presence around stealing other people's work.

A whole group of people have built their online presence around stealing other people 's work .


This is really bad for independent creators.

This is really bad for independent creators .


Contrary to popular belief, stolen content gives creators close to no exposure at all.

Contrary to popular belief , stolen content gives creators close to no exposure at all .


Only the thief and Facebook profit from this.

Only the thief and Facebook profit from this .


Quality content takes a lot of creativity, time, and love.

Quality content takes a lot of creativity , time , and love .


In our case, a single video literally takes hundreds of hours to make.

In our case , a single video literally takes hundreds of hours to make .


Even we, with more than a million subscribers, are dependent on the ads and exposure.

Even we , with more than a million subscribers , are dependent on the ads and exposure .


Without ads, and the support of our generous patrons, we could not make videos.

Without ads , and the support of our generous patrons , we could not make videos .


For a small creator, a viral video can mean the difference between a career and a hobby.

For a small creator , a viral video can mean the difference between a career and a hobby .


On YouTube, this kind of theft is not a problem because they have major safeguards that protect content from being stolen.

On YouTube , this kind of theft is not a problem because they have major safeguards that protect content from being stolen .


Although the content ID system is far from perfect, especially for film critics and gamers.

Although the content ID system is far from perfect , especially for film critics and gamers .


Facebook, on the other hand, pretends everything is fine and constantly announces one milestone after the other.

Facebook , on the other hand , pretends everything is fine and constantly announces one milestone after the other .


But things are not fine.


Let's look at the process of claiming your copyright on Facebook in the last year.

Let 's look at the process of claiming your copyright on Facebook in the last year .


One, get an email or tweet from a fan that gives you a direct link to your video.

One , get an email or tweet from a fan that gives you a direct link to your video .


It's not possible to search for your videos on Facebook yourself.

It 's not possible to search for your videos on Facebook yourself .


You depend on luck to find your stolen videos.

You depend on luck to find your stolen videos .


Two, search for Facebook copyright infringement on Google because it's actually faster this way.

Two , search for Facebook copyright infringement on Google because it 's actually faster this way .


Three, fill out an annoyingly long contact form.

Three , fill out an annoyingly long contact form .


Four, watch the views on your stolen videos rise.

Four , watch the views on your stolen videos rise .


Five, Facebook finally pulls the video.

Five , Facebook finally pulls the video .


Conveniently, the video has already gained 99% of all the views it will ever get.

Conveniently , the video has already gained 99 % of all the views it will ever get .


The thief doesn't have to fear any negative consequences at all.

The thief does n't have to fear any negative consequences at all .


This is what successful creators have to deal with constantly.

This is what successful creators have to deal with constantly .


And on top of losing out in terms of exposure and money, it just feels like a violation to be treated like that.

And on top of losing out in terms of exposure and money , it just feels like a violation to be treated like that .


In a recent statement, Facebook announced they want to change.

In a recent statement , Facebook announced they want to change .


But it's hard to take them seriously when it still takes days for a stolen viral video to be taken down.

But it 's hard to take them seriously when it still takes days for a stolen viral video to be taken down .


And Facebook does not share the profits made from it.

And Facebook does not share the profits made from it .


At this point, Facebook is not a partner creators look forward to working with.

At this point , Facebook is not a partner creators look forward to working with .


They've built their video empire on stolen content and disregard for original content creators.

They 've built their video empire on stolen content and disregard for original content creators .


This is absolutely unacceptable for a corporation worth billions of dollars.

This is absolutely unacceptable for a corporation worth billions of dollars .


Facebook is already testing various monetization models that will give the uploaders a cut of the ad revenue, which with the current state of play is troubling.

Facebook is already testing various monetization models that will give the uploaders a cut of the ad revenue , which with the current state of play is troubling .


Right now, this is mainly being tested with big media companies.

Right now , this is mainly being tested with big media companies .


But as creators, we don't feel like we're being asked or taken into consideration by the giant that is Facebook.

But as creators , we do n't feel like we 're being asked or taken into consideration by the giant that is Facebook .


Staying alive is about doing things.


This very second, your cells are combusting glucose molecules with oxygen to make energy available, which keeps you alive for another precious moment.

This very second , your cells are combusting glucose molecules with oxygen to make energy available , which keeps you alive for another precious moment .


To get the oxygen to your cells, you're breathing.

To get the oxygen to your cells , you 're breathing .


Breathing is an answer to a very hard problem.

Breathing is an answer to a very hard problem .


How do you get the resources that your cells need to survive from the outside to the inside of your cells?

How do you get the resources that your cells need to survive from the outside to the inside of your cells ?


Every living thing has to solve this problem, and the solution is surprisingly different depending on one of the most important regulators of life – size.

Every living thing has to solve this problem , and the solution is surprisingly different depending on one of the most important regulators of life – size .


As we've discussed in other videos, at different scales, the physical laws of the universe have different consequences for its inhabitants.

As we 've discussed in other videos , at different scales , the physical laws of the universe have different consequences for its inhabitants .


Simple things like temperature, microgravity or surface tension might not matter to you or be a deadly danger, depending on how big you are.

Simple things like temperature , microgravity or surface tension might not matter to you or be a deadly danger , depending on how big you are .


Living things need a lot of different materials to keep themselves going, and they somehow need to transport them from the outside to the inside.

Living things need a lot of different materials to keep themselves going , and they somehow need to transport them from the outside to the inside .


This was a huge problem for the first things on the verge of being alive, because doing anything in our universe requires energy.

This was a huge problem for the first things on the verge of being alive , because doing anything in our universe requires energy .


And the first living beings on Earth did not have the abundance of tools and techniques available that life has today after billions of years of evolution.

And the first living beings on Earth did not have the abundance of tools and techniques available that life has today after billions of years of evolution .


So, at the very beginning, life needed to find a way to get good stuff inside and bad stuff outside of itself without using energy.

So , at the very beginning , life needed to find a way to get good stuff inside and bad stuff outside of itself without using energy .


Luckily, the very first forms of life were very, very small.

Luckily , the very first forms of life were very , very small .


And because they were so small, they were able to use a free form of transport that was based on a physical law called diffusion.

And because they were so small , they were able to use a free form of transport that was based on a physical law called diffusion .


Diffusion is the rule of the universe that molecules, especially in liquids or gases, are constantly moving around in all directions.

Diffusion is the rule of the universe that molecules , especially in liquids or gases , are constantly moving around in all directions .


And because they move around and bump into each other and other molecules, they tend to spread.

And because they move around and bump into each other and other molecules , they tend to spread .


For example, if you drop a sugar cube into water, then there is a lot of sugar in one place, and in another place, there's none.

For example , if you drop a sugar cube into water , then there is a lot of sugar in one place , and in another place , there 's none .


As sugar molecules dissolve in the water, they will start randomly bumping against the water molecules and other sugar molecules.

As sugar molecules dissolve in the water , they will start randomly bumping against the water molecules and other sugar molecules .


Slowly, all the sugar molecules will spread out and form multiple phases of different concentrations.

Slowly , all the sugar molecules will spread out and form multiple phases of different concentrations .


These random movements continue endlessly until at some point, the sugar will be spread evenly in the water.

These random movements continue endlessly until at some point , the sugar will be spread evenly in the water .


The great thing about diffusion is that life can use it for free.

The great thing about diffusion is that life can use it for free .


It doesn't require energy.


And life loves free things.


So all life on Earth relies on diffusion.

So all life on Earth relies on diffusion .


Let's look at the smallest living being on Earth, a bacterium.

Let 's look at the smallest living being on Earth , a bacterium .


Cell membranes allow for diffusion of certain molecules.

Cell membranes allow for diffusion of certain molecules .


This specific bacterium consumes oxygen to live, while carbon dioxide is produced inside as a waste product.

This specific bacterium consumes oxygen to live , while carbon dioxide is produced inside as a waste product .


So inside the bacterium, there isn't a lot of oxygen, but a lot of carbon dioxide.

So inside the bacterium , there is n't a lot of oxygen , but a lot of carbon dioxide .


Because of diffusion, these molecules will eventually spread evenly, so the carbon dioxide diffuses out, while oxygen is constantly replenished from the outside.

Because of diffusion , these molecules will eventually spread evenly , so the carbon dioxide diffuses out , while oxygen is constantly replenished from the outside .


But this kind of breathing only works for the very small world.

But this kind of breathing only works for the very small world .


Insects, for example, have a fine network of trachea, tunnels with a pressure gradient, where air very slowly can diffuse in and exchange gases with the insect cells.

Insects , for example , have a fine network of trachea , tunnels with a pressure gradient , where air very slowly can diffuse in and exchange gases with the insect cells .


But even insects seem to be able to contract their trachea, and at least some even have specialized breathing organs like spiracles and air sacs.

But even insects seem to be able to contract their trachea , and at least some even have specialized breathing organs like spiracles and air sacs .


At certain scales, diffusion is just too slow to keep cells alive.

At certain scales , diffusion is just too slow to keep cells alive .


The fundamental problem is that the exchange with the environment can only happen at the surface, and diffusion of materials can only sustain a certain amount of inside.

The fundamental problem is that the exchange with the environment can only happen at the surface , and diffusion of materials can only sustain a certain amount of inside .


Tiny living things have only a little bit of inside, or volume, and a lot of outside, or surface area.

Tiny living things have only a little bit of inside , or volume , and a lot of outside , or surface area .


We would sadly be messed up by the square cube law.

We would sadly be messed up by the square cube law .


In a nutshell, it means that if you make something ten times larger, its outside, or surface, would grow by 100, but its insides, or volume, grows by 1000 times.

In a nutshell , it means that if you make something ten times larger , its outside , or surface , would grow by 100 , but its insides , or volume , grows by 1000 times .


If we compare the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa with a blue whale, we see that the bacterium has 10 million times more surface in relation to its volume than the whale.

If we compare the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa with a blue whale , we see that the bacterium has 10 million times more surface in relation to its volume than the whale .


The bacterium has a lot of outsides, while the whale has a lot of insides.

The bacterium has a lot of outsides , while the whale has a lot of insides .


If we make a bacterium the size of a whale, our giant bacteria now has too much insides, and most of its inside is now very far from its surface.

If we make a bacterium the size of a whale , our giant bacteria now has too much insides , and most of its inside is now very far from its surface .


The oxygen our bacterium needs would never reach the inside before it would run out of oxygen.

The oxygen our bacterium needs would never reach the inside before it would run out of oxygen .


Our giant bacterium would just die.


Still, being bigger has many upsides.


But the size of cells is limited by the distance oxygen and nutrients can effectively diffuse to provide the inside with enough resources.

But the size of cells is limited by the distance oxygen and nutrients can effectively diffuse to provide the inside with enough resources .


So, life avoided this problem by forming multicellular structures.

So , life avoided this problem by forming multicellular structures .


Because diffusion works better if you have many small units instead of one much bigger one.

Because diffusion works better if you have many small units instead of one much bigger one .


Over time, the cell buddies began to share work and specialize.

Over time , the cell buddies began to share work and specialize .


But that still wasn't enough.


The problem of diffusion and surface and energy production remained, limiting the size these first multicellular forms of life could attain.

The problem of diffusion and surface and energy production remained , limiting the size these first multicellular forms of life could attain .


So, in order to become even bigger, life solved the diffusion problem by having holes and caves and tunnels and by folding in on itself.

So , in order to become even bigger , life solved the diffusion problem by having holes and caves and tunnels and by folding in on itself .


So diffusion could happen easily in each one of the cells.

So diffusion could happen easily in each one of the cells .


Take yourself.


But your lungs have a surface area of about 70 square meters.

But your lungs have a surface area of about 70 square meters .


They aren't like balloons, they're more like sponges filled with many tightly packed tiny balloons surrounded by blood vessels.

They are n't like balloons , they 're more like sponges filled with many tightly packed tiny balloons surrounded by blood vessels .


When you breathe in, all these tiny balloons fill up with fresh air.

When you breathe in , all these tiny balloons fill up with fresh air .


Blood filled up with CO2 is pumped around the balloons.

Blood filled up with CO2 is pumped around the balloons .


And then the magic of diffusion happens.

And then the magic of diffusion happens .


The oxygen diffuses into the blood where it's picked up by red blood cells.

The oxygen diffuses into the blood where it 's picked up by red blood cells .


And the CO2 diffuses out of the blood and into your lungs where it can be breathed out again.

And the CO2 diffuses out of the blood and into your lungs where it can be breathed out again .


Your blood then carries oxygen-rich blood into the furthest corners of your body and picks up the CO2 waste.

Your blood then carries oxygen - rich blood into the furthest corners of your body and picks up the CO2 waste .


Diffusion in the body is effective at about 1 millimeter.

Diffusion in the body is effective at about 1 millimeter .


So every cell in your body is at most 1 millimeter away from a blood vessel.

So every cell in your body is at most 1 millimeter away from a blood vessel .


So medium-sized animals like you need a lot of blood vessels to reach every cell in the body.

So medium - sized animals like you need a lot of blood vessels to reach every cell in the body .


Your body has around 100,000 kilometers of capillaries alone, the tiniest of your blood vessels, with a surface area of around 1,000 square meters.

Your body has around 100,000 kilometers of capillaries alone , the tiniest of your blood vessels , with a surface area of around 1,000 square meters .


This is true for all parts of you that want to exchange something with the outside world.

This is true for all parts of you that want to exchange something with the outside world .


Your body needs surfaces to take in nutrients from your food, so your gut has the surface area of half a badminton court, roughly 40 square meters.

Your body needs surfaces to take in nutrients from your food , so your gut has the surface area of half a badminton court , roughly 40 square meters .


The larger you are, the more hidden surfaces you need.

The larger you are , the more hidden surfaces you need .


Take a tree.


Its way to stay alive is to create sugar out of thin air and sunlight.

Its way to stay alive is to create sugar out of thin air and sunlight .


An orange tree with 2,000 leaves has a leaf surface area of 200 square meters.

An orange tree with 2,000 leaves has a leaf surface area of 200 square meters .


But the surface inside the leaves, where diffusion actually occurs, is 6,000 square meters.

But the surface inside the leaves , where diffusion actually occurs , is 6,000 square meters .


The roots of 1 square meter of grass add up to around 350 square meters of surface.

The roots of 1 square meter of grass add up to around 350 square meters of surface .


If we look at the breathtaking diversity of life on this planet, it seems like everything is pretty different.

If we look at the breathtaking diversity of life on this planet , it seems like everything is pretty different .


But some basic principles are the same for everybody, and have not changed significantly for billions of years.

But some basic principles are the same for everybody , and have not changed significantly for billions of years .


Waste goes out and fresh fuel comes in.

Waste goes out and fresh fuel comes in .


Big animals just need a lot of complex plumbing to make it possible.

Big animals just need a lot of complex plumbing to make it possible .


Fresh fuel is something we can all use from time to time, especially for our creativity.

Fresh fuel is something we can all use from time to time , especially for our creativity .


All it really takes is to try something new, and we have the perfect opportunity to get you started.

All it really takes is to try something new , and we have the perfect opportunity to get you started .


We partnered with Skillshare, an online learning community that offers courses on almost any creative skill, such as design, illustration, animation, photography, and cooking.

We partnered with Skillshare , an online learning community that offers courses on almost any creative skill , such as design , illustration , animation , photography , and cooking .


They have thousands of courses starting from every level, so wherever you are right now, there'll be something for you.

They have thousands of courses starting from every level , so wherever you are right now , there 'll be something for you .


Maybe you want to look behind the scenes of our animations, for example.

Maybe you want to look behind the scenes of our animations , for example .


We've made a couple of Skillshare classes that teach you how we animated scenes from our videos with video lessons classes and hands-on projects.

We 've made a couple of Skillshare classes that teach you how we animated scenes from our videos with video lessons classes and hands - on projects .


Or if you'd rather look into illustration first, we recommend Adobe Illustrator.

Or if you 'd rather look into illustration first , we recommend Adobe Illustrator .


Level up your colors by Hayden Obey.


But what you pick first doesn't really matter that much.

But what you pick first does n't really matter that much .


The important part is to get started, have some fun, and get new inspiration.

The important part is to get started , have some fun , and get new inspiration .


Unlimited access to all classes is only $10 a month with an annual premium membership.

Unlimited access to all classes is only $ 10 a month with an annual premium membership .


And the first 1,000 Kurzgesagt viewers to click the link in the description get a special treat.

And the first 1,000 Kurzgesagt viewers to click the link in the description get a special treat .


You'll get a free trial of Skillshare Premium.

You 'll get a free trial of Skillshare Premium .


If you want to break out of your rut by exploring a new skill and support Kurzgesagt, give it a try.

If you want to break out of your rut by exploring a new skill and support Kurzgesagt , give it a try .


And we have something else to make your learning experience truly perfect, our new Ocean Explorer notebook.

And we have something else to make your learning experience truly perfect , our new Ocean Explorer notebook .


It has beautiful sparkly four-lettering and four illustrated infographic pages inside, taking you on a journey under the sea.

It has beautiful sparkly four - lettering and four illustrated infographic pages inside , taking you on a journey under the sea .


Thank you for watching.


Atoms are ridiculous and unbelievably small.

Atoms are ridiculous and unbelievably small .


A single human hair is about as thick as 500,000 carbon atoms stacked over each other.

A single human hair is about as thick as 500,000 carbon atoms stacked over each other .


Look at your fist.


It contains trillions and trillions of atoms.

It contains trillions and trillions of atoms .


If one atom in it were about as big as a marble, how big would your fist be?

If one atom in it were about as big as a marble , how big would your fist be ?


Let's try something different.


Look at your little finger.


Imagine that its tip is as big as the room you're sitting in right now.

Imagine that its tip is as big as the room you 're sitting in right now .


Now, fill the room with grains of rice.

Now , fill the room with grains of rice .


One rice corn represents one cell of your fingertip.

One rice corn represents one cell of your fingertip .


Now let's zoom in on the rice corn.


And now, one cell is as big as the room you're in right now.

And now , one cell is as big as the room you 're in right now .


Let's fill it with rice again.


This is about the size of a protein.


And now, let us fill all the empty spaces between the rice corns with fine grains of sand.

And now , let us fill all the empty spaces between the rice corns with fine grains of sand .


This is roughly how small atoms are.


Let us just pretend that atoms look like this for a minute to make it easier to understand.

Let us just pretend that atoms look like this for a minute to make it easier to understand .


An atom consists of three elementary particles.

An atom consists of three elementary particles .


Protons and neutrons bind together and form the atom core.

Protons and neutrons bind together and form the atom core .


They are made from quarks and held together by gluons.

They are made from quarks and held together by gluons .


Nobody knows exactly how small quarks are.

Nobody knows exactly how small quarks are .


We think they might literally be points, like in geometry.

We think they might literally be points , like in geometry .


Try to imagine them as being zero-dimensional.

Try to imagine them as being zero - dimensional .


We suspect that quarks and electrons are the most fundamental components of matter in the universe.

We suspect that quarks and electrons are the most fundamental components of matter in the universe .


Electrons orbit the atom core.


They travel at a speed of about 2,200 km per second.

They travel at a speed of about 2,200 km per second .


Like quarks, we think electrons are fundamental particles.

Like quarks , we think electrons are fundamental particles .


99.99999999999999% of an atom's volume is just empty space.

99.99999999999999 % of an atom 's volume is just empty space .


What we perceive as emptiness is actually a space filled by quantum fluctuations.

What we perceive as emptiness is actually a space filled by quantum fluctuations .


These fluctuations have a fundamental impact on how charged particles interact.

These fluctuations have a fundamental impact on how charged particles interact .


But that's a topic for another video.


How much space do the core and electrons actually fill?

How much space do the core and electrons actually fill ?


If you were to subtract all the spaces between the atom cores from the Empire State Building, it would be about as big as a rice corn.

If you were to subtract all the spaces between the atom cores from the Empire State Building , it would be about as big as a rice corn .


All the atoms of humanity would fit in a teaspoon.

All the atoms of humanity would fit in a teaspoon .


There are extreme objects where states like this actually exist.

There are extreme objects where states like this actually exist .


In a neutron star, atom cores are compacted so densely that the mass of three suns fits into an object only a few kilometers wide.

In a neutron star , atom cores are compacted so densely that the mass of three suns fits into an object only a few kilometers wide .


By the way, what do atoms look like?


Electrons are like a wave function and a particle at the same time.

Electrons are like a wave function and a particle at the same time .


We can calculate where an electron might be at any given moment in time.

We can calculate where an electron might be at any given moment in time .


These clouds of probability, called orbitals, are where electrons might be with a certainty of 95%.

These clouds of probability , called orbitals , are where electrons might be with a certainty of 95 % .


The probability of finding an electron approaches zero the further we get away from the atom core.

The probability of finding an electron approaches zero the further we get away from the atom core .


But it actually never is zero, which means that, in theory, the electron of an atom could be on the other side of the universe.

But it actually never is zero , which means that , in theory , the electron of an atom could be on the other side of the universe .


Okay, wait a second.


These strange thingies make up all the matter in the universe.

These strange thingies make up all the matter in the universe .


For many dozens of known elements, you don't need many dozens of elementary particles, just three.

For many dozens of known elements , you do n't need many dozens of elementary particles , just three .


Take one proton and one electron, and you have hydrogen.

Take one proton and one electron , and you have hydrogen .


Add a proton and a neutron, you have helium.

Add a proton and a neutron , you have helium .


Add a few more, you get carbon.


And every atom of an element is the same.

And every atom of an element is the same .


All hydrogen atoms in the universe, for example, are the same.

All hydrogen atoms in the universe , for example , are the same .


The hydrogen in your body is exactly the same as the hydrogen in the sun.

The hydrogen in your body is exactly the same as the hydrogen in the sun .


Do you feel confused right now?


We certainly do.


Nothing on this scale of the universe makes any sense in our world, and we've not even begun talking about quantum mechanics or the particle zoo, which are even stranger.

Nothing on this scale of the universe makes any sense in our world , and we 've not even begun talking about quantum mechanics or the particle zoo , which are even stranger .


Our model of atoms has changed a number of times since we first conceived it, and the current one will certainly not be the last.

Our model of atoms has changed a number of times since we first conceived it , and the current one will certainly not be the last .


So, let us support scientists and research, and wait for the next wave of mind-boggling new information about this strange world that is the basis for our existence.

So , let us support scientists and research , and wait for the next wave of mind - boggling new information about this strange world that is the basis for our existence .


The human immune system is the most complex biological system we know after the human brain, and yet most of us never learn how it works, or what it is.

The human immune system is the most complex biological system we know after the human brain , and yet most of us never learn how it works , or what it is .


Your immune system consists of hundreds of tiny and two large organs.

Your immune system consists of hundreds of tiny and two large organs .


It has its own transport network spread throughout your body.

It has its own transport network spread throughout your body .


Every day it makes hundreds of billions of fresh cells, organized like an army, with soldiers, captains, intelligence officers, heavy weapons, and crazy suicide bombers.

Every day it makes hundreds of billions of fresh cells , organized like an army , with soldiers , captains , intelligence officers , heavy weapons , and crazy suicide bombers .


It's not some sort of abstract entity.

It 's not some sort of abstract entity .


Your immune system is you.


It's so manifold that it's impossible to cover in one video, so we'll make a series looking at different aspects of it.

It 's so manifold that it 's impossible to cover in one video , so we 'll make a series looking at different aspects of it .


Today, what happens when your body is invaded, and your first lines of defenses are engaged in a fight for life and death?

Today , what happens when your body is invaded , and your first lines of defenses are engaged in a fight for life and death ?


It's been a normal day, when suddenly the world explodes, and an asteroid rips the sky open.

It 's been a normal day , when suddenly the world explodes , and an asteroid rips the sky open .


Countless alien lifeforms invade, ready to destroy cities and infrastructure, and eat civilians.

Countless alien lifeforms invade , ready to destroy cities and infrastructure , and eat civilians .


Or, this is what your cells experience.

Or , this is what your cells experience .


You look at your bleeding thumb that you just cut on a dirty twig in the park.

You look at your bleeding thumb that you just cut on a dirty twig in the park .


But inside the wound, a horrible catastrophe has happened.

But inside the wound , a horrible catastrophe has happened .


There are dead cells and blood and dirt everywhere.

There are dead cells and blood and dirt everywhere .


Even worse, countless bacteria invade the warm caverns between your helpless cells, to explore their new home, steal your resources, and poop everywhere.

Even worse , countless bacteria invade the warm caverns between your helpless cells , to explore their new home , steal your resources , and poop everywhere .


Immediately, the first stage of your defense kicks in.

Immediately , the first stage of your defense kicks in .


The cells that survived the impact or are hurt or dying, scream in panic, releasing an onslaught of chemical alarm signals that awaken your immune system.

The cells that survived the impact or are hurt or dying , scream in panic , releasing an onslaught of chemical alarm signals that awaken your immune system .


The first cells to show up are macrophages.

The first cells to show up are macrophages .


If an average cell were the size of a human, a macrophage would be the size of a black rhino.

If an average cell were the size of a human , a macrophage would be the size of a black rhino .


Bacteria do annoy them.


Within seconds, the large cells attack and begin killing them without mercy.

Within seconds , the large cells attack and begin killing them without mercy .


They stretch out parts like the arms of an octopus, and grab the bacteria to swallow them whole and digest them alive.

They stretch out parts like the arms of an octopus , and grab the bacteria to swallow them whole and digest them alive .


A macrophage can eat 100 bacteria before it's exhausted.

A macrophage can eat 100 bacteria before it 's exhausted .


But there are too many enemies, so the macrophages call for reinforcements.

But there are too many enemies , so the macrophages call for reinforcements .


In your blood, hundreds of thousands of neutrophils pick up their signals and move to the battlefield.

In your blood , hundreds of thousands of neutrophils pick up their signals and move to the battlefield .


Neutrophils are intense suicide warriors that only live to kill.

Neutrophils are intense suicide warriors that only live to kill .


They're so enthusiastic about killing that they kill themselves a few days after birth, so they don't have time to accidentally destroy your body from the inside.

They 're so enthusiastic about killing that they kill themselves a few days after birth , so they do n't have time to accidentally destroy your body from the inside .


As soon as neutrophils arrive, they begin vomiting deadly chemicals at bacteria or devour them.

As soon as neutrophils arrive , they begin vomiting deadly chemicals at bacteria or devour them .


They are so careless in their attacks that they are causing real damage to your own cells, but collateral damage is not their concern now.

They are so careless in their attacks that they are causing real damage to your own cells , but collateral damage is not their concern now .


Some neutrophils go so far to push their suicide button and explode, casting wide and toxic nets made from their own DNA, filled with deadly chemicals that trap and kill bacteria.

Some neutrophils go so far to push their suicide button and explode , casting wide and toxic nets made from their own DNA , filled with deadly chemicals that trap and kill bacteria .


Sometimes they can continue fighting after that, even though they're sort of dead already.

Sometimes they can continue fighting after that , even though they 're sort of dead already .


This is how much fun they have killing.

This is how much fun they have killing .


While the battle rages, your blood vessels let fluids stream into the battlefield, like a dam opening up towards a valley.

While the battle rages , your blood vessels let fluids stream into the battlefield , like a dam opening up towards a valley .


You notice this as inflammation.


Your thumb swells up a little and gets red and warm.

Your thumb swells up a little and gets red and warm .


The fluid brings a silent killer into the battle zone, millions of complement proteins, a sort of automated liquid weapon that stuns and kills bacteria by ripping holes into them.

The fluid brings a silent killer into the battle zone , millions of complement proteins , a sort of automated liquid weapon that stuns and kills bacteria by ripping holes into them .


We made a whole video explaining them in detail.

We made a whole video explaining them in detail .


We're reaching a crossroad now.


If things go well, your first line of defense kills the invaders quickly.

If things go well , your first line of defense kills the invaders quickly .


But sometimes the enemies are too strong and would overwhelm your defenses eventually, which means certain death for you, the human.

But sometimes the enemies are too strong and would overwhelm your defenses eventually , which means certain death for you , the human .


This is the hour of the dendritic cell, your immune system's intelligence officer.

This is the hour of the dendritic cell , your immune system 's intelligence officer .


While your soldiers were bashing in heads, it was collecting samples by ripping bacteria into tiny parts and covering itself in it,

While your soldiers were bashing in heads , it was collecting samples by ripping bacteria into tiny parts and covering itself in it ,


The cell leaves the battlefield and enters the superhighway of your immune system that connects all your tissues with your immune headquarters, your lymph nodes.

The cell leaves the battlefield and enters the superhighway of your immune system that connects all your tissues with your immune headquarters , your lymph nodes .


The dendritic cell coming from the battlefield is looking for a helper T-cell, which is a sort of all-purpose commander cell within your immune army.

The dendritic cell coming from the battlefield is looking for a helper T - cell , which is a sort of all - purpose commander cell within your immune army .


So it goes around and rubs itself, still covered in bacteria parts, against every helper T-cell it meets.

So it goes around and rubs itself , still covered in bacteria parts , against every helper T - cell it meets .


Most T-cells are a bit disgusted and not interested.

Most T - cells are a bit disgusted and not interested .


But after a few hours, something clicks.

But after a few hours , something clicks .


A helper T-cell recognizes the bacteria parts.

A helper T - cell recognizes the bacteria parts .


This cell is the weapon that's needed right now.

This cell is the weapon that 's needed right now .


The dendritic cell is overjoyed and activates the helper T-cell.

The dendritic cell is overjoyed and activates the helper T - cell .


Okay, wait.


How come your immune system has a cell that has a weapon against the specific bacteria that infected you?

How come your immune system has a cell that has a weapon against the specific bacteria that infected you ?


Well, your immune system has a perfect weapon against every possible disease in the universe, against the Black Death, the coronavirus,

Well , your immune system has a perfect weapon against every possible disease in the universe , against the Black Death , the coronavirus ,


We'll talk about this a bit more in the next video because it's very complex.

We 'll talk about this a bit more in the next video because it 's very complex .


So for now, just know that you have billions of unique helper T-cells that each have weapons against every possible enemy.

So for now , just know that you have billions of unique helper T - cells that each have weapons against every possible enemy .


After the right T-cell is activated, your second line of defense awakes and rises like a teenager that needs to get up on a school day.

After the right T - cell is activated , your second line of defense awakes and rises like a teenager that needs to get up on a school day .


Your heavy weapons are incredibly effective, but they're not fast.

Your heavy weapons are incredibly effective , but they 're not fast .


The activated helper T-cell begins to clone itself over and over again.

The activated helper T - cell begins to clone itself over and over again .


One becomes two, two become four, until there are thousands of them.

One becomes two , two become four , until there are thousands of them .


Now they split into two groups.


The first group quickly moves to help out your soldiers.

The first group quickly moves to help out your soldiers .


At the battlefield, things are getting out of hand.

At the battlefield , things are getting out of hand .


A tired macrophage is ready to give up.

A tired macrophage is ready to give up .


After fighting for days, it just wants to go to sleep, like many of its buddies have done already.

After fighting for days , it just wants to go to sleep , like many of its buddies have done already .


But now the helper T-cells arrive.


One of them comes to the tired macrophage and whispers something using special chemical signals.

One of them comes to the tired macrophage and whispers something using special chemical signals .


In a heartbeat, the demoralized soldier feels fresh again.

In a heartbeat , the demoralized soldier feels fresh again .


But there's something else.


The macrophage knows what it needs to do.

The macrophage knows what it needs to do .


Invigorated, it throws itself against the enemies once again.

Invigorated , it throws itself against the enemies once again .


All over the battlefield, this begins to happen.

All over the battlefield , this begins to happen .


Meanwhile, the second group of helper T-cells was working on activating another line of defense.

Meanwhile , the second group of helper T - cells was working on activating another line of defense .


Antibodies are protein superweapons that look like tiny crabs with two pincers to grab enemies.

Antibodies are protein superweapons that look like tiny crabs with two pincers to grab enemies .


Just like the helper T-cells, there are B-cells in your body that are able to make just the right antibodies for every possible enemy.

Just like the helper T - cells , there are B - cells in your body that are able to make just the right antibodies for every possible enemy .


And the helper T-cell is looking for exactly these B-cells.

And the helper T - cell is looking for exactly these B - cells .


After a day or two, the right B-cell is found and begins to clone itself.

After a day or two , the right B - cell is found and begins to clone itself .


As soon as enough clones have been made, each B-cell begins pumping out up to 2,000 antibodies per second.

As soon as enough clones have been made , each B - cell begins pumping out up to 2,000 antibodies per second .


About a week after you injured yourself and bacteria invaded, your second line of defense finally arrives in full force.

About a week after you injured yourself and bacteria invaded , your second line of defense finally arrives in full force .


The tiny army begins to saturate the battlefield, pinching and stunning desperate bacteria.

The tiny army begins to saturate the battlefield , pinching and stunning desperate bacteria .


The antibodies clump them together and make them unable to move or fight, while your soldiers massacre the defenseless victims.

The antibodies clump them together and make them unable to move or fight , while your soldiers massacre the defenseless victims .


The tide is turning fast.


As the last enemies are cleaned up, your soldiers realize they are no longer needed and begin to kill themselves to save resources.

As the last enemies are cleaned up , your soldiers realize they are no longer needed and begin to kill themselves to save resources .


A few helper T-cells remain and turn into memory cells.

A few helper T - cells remain and turn into memory cells .


They will guard the tissue for years, making sure the same bacteria will never again gain a foothold here.

They will guard the tissue for years , making sure the same bacteria will never again gain a foothold here .


Similarly, a few B-cells will stay alive and keep producing a low amount of antibodies, making you immune against this bacteria, maybe for the rest of your life.

Similarly , a few B - cells will stay alive and keep producing a low amount of antibodies , making you immune against this bacteria , maybe for the rest of your life .


One day you wake up and notice that the wound has grown over and left nothing but a faint red mark.

One day you wake up and notice that the wound has grown over and left nothing but a faint red mark .


You were completely unaware of the drama your cells had to deal with.

You were completely unaware of the drama your cells had to deal with .


For you, the whole ordeal was a slight annoyance, while for millions of cells it was a desperate fight for life and death.

For you , the whole ordeal was a slight annoyance , while for millions of cells it was a desperate fight for life and death .


But this is just the beginning of the epic story that unfolds inside you every day and is told in full in Immune!

But this is just the beginning of the epic story that unfolds inside you every day and is told in full in Immune !


The book is a beautifully illustrated deep dive into the immune system, the most important thing you don't know enough about,

The book is a beautifully illustrated deep dive into the immune system , the most important thing you do n't know enough about ,


that will forever change how you think about your body.

that will forever change how you think about your body .


it's been an ongoing passion project for almost a decade because the immune system is just about the most amazing and fascinating topic there is.

it 's been an ongoing passion project for almost a decade because the immune system is just about the most amazing and fascinating topic there is .


So, go on a journey and get to know your own body, from mystery organs, murder universities, to the largest library in the universe.

So , go on a journey and get to know your own body , from mystery organs , murder universities , to the largest library in the universe .


Explore how incredibly vast your immune system is and how it actually works, how it fights enemies from cancer to HIV or just the flu.

Explore how incredibly vast your immune system is and how it actually works , how it fights enemies from cancer to HIV or just the flu .


Learn how you can boost it and if that's actually a good idea.

Learn how you can boost it and if that 's actually a good idea .


The book will be out in six weeks and it would mean the world to us and Philip if you could pre-order it.

The book will be out in six weeks and it would mean the world to us and Philip if you could pre - order it .


Pre-ordering is super important in the world of books and in contrast to games, we can guarantee that it's actually finished and there will be no day one patch.

Pre - ordering is super important in the world of books and in contrast to games , we can guarantee that it 's actually finished and there will be no day one patch .


There's a link in the description.


This is the end of a decade long personal journey and we'd love to see what you think.

This is the end of a decade long personal journey and we 'd love to see what you think .


Thank you for watching.


What is the Stock Exchange and how does it work?

What is the Stock Exchange and how does it work ?


The Stock Exchange is nothing more than a giant, globally networked and organized marketplace, where everyday huge sums of money are moved back and forth.

The Stock Exchange is nothing more than a giant , globally networked and organized marketplace , where everyday huge sums of money are moved back and forth .


In total, over 60 trillion euros a year are traded.

In total , over 60 trillion euros a year are traded .


However, it's not apples or second-hand toothbrushes that are traded on this marketplace, but predominantly securities.

However , it 's not apples or second - hand toothbrushes that are traded on this marketplace , but predominantly securities .


Securities are rights to assets mostly in the form of shares.

Securities are rights to assets mostly in the form of shares .


A share stands for a share in a company.

A share stands for a share in a company .


But why are shares traded at all?


Well, first and foremost, the value of a share relates to the company behind it.

Well , first and foremost , the value of a share relates to the company behind it .


If you think of the value of the company in terms of a pizza, the bigger the overall size of the pizza, the bigger every piece is.

If you think of the value of the company in terms of a pizza , the bigger the overall size of the pizza , the bigger every piece is .


the size of the company's pizza will also increase and as a result so will the value of its shares.

the size of the company 's pizza will also increase and as a result so will the value of its shares .


This is of course great for the shareholders.

This is of course great for the shareholders .


A share which perhaps used to be worth 38 euros could now be worth a whole 50 euros.

A share which perhaps used to be worth 38 euros could now be worth a whole 50 euros .


When it's sold, this represents a profit of 12 euros per share.

When it 's sold , this represents a profit of 12 euros per share .


But what does Facebook gain from this?


The company can raise funds by selling the shares and invest or expand its business.

The company can raise funds by selling the shares and invest or expand its business .


Facebook, for example, has earned 16 billion dollars from its listing on the stock exchange.

Facebook , for example , has earned 16 billion dollars from its listing on the stock exchange .


The trading of shares, though, is frequently a game of chance.

The trading of shares , though , is frequently a game of chance .


No one can say which company will perform well and which will not.

No one can say which company will perform well and which will not .


If a company has a good reputation, investors will back it.

If a company has a good reputation , investors will back it .


A company with a poor reputation or poor performance will have difficulty selling its shares.

A company with a poor reputation or poor performance will have difficulty selling its shares .


Unlike a normal market in which goods can be touched and taken home, on the stock exchange only virtual goods are available.

Unlike a normal market in which goods can be touched and taken home , on the stock exchange only virtual goods are available .


They appear in the form of share prices and tables on monitors.

They appear in the form of share prices and tables on monitors .


Such share prices can rise or fall within seconds.

Such share prices can rise or fall within seconds .


Shareholders therefore have to act quickly in order not to miss an opportunity.

Shareholders therefore have to act quickly in order not to miss an opportunity .


Even a simple rumor can result in the demand for a share falling fast, regardless of the real value of the company.

Even a simple rumor can result in the demand for a share falling fast , regardless of the real value of the company .


Of course, the opposite is also possible.

Of course , the opposite is also possible .


If a particularly large number of people buy weak shares because they see, for example, great potential behind an idea, their value will rise as a result.

If a particularly large number of people buy weak shares because they see , for example , great potential behind an idea , their value will rise as a result .


In particular, young companies can benefit from this.

In particular , young companies can benefit from this .


Even though their sales might be falling, they can generate cash by placing their shares.

Even though their sales might be falling , they can generate cash by placing their shares .


In the best-case scenario, this will result in their idea being turned into reality.

In the best - case scenario , this will result in their idea being turned into reality .


In the worst-case scenario, this will result in a speculative bubble with nothing more than hot air.

In the worst - case scenario , this will result in a speculative bubble with nothing more than hot air .


And, as in the case with bubbles, at some point they will burst.

And , as in the case with bubbles , at some point they will burst .


The value of Germany's biggest 30 companies is summarized in what's known as the DAX share index.

The value of Germany 's biggest 30 companies is summarized in what 's known as the DAX share index .


The DAX curve shows how well or poorly these major companies, and thereby the economy as a whole, are performing at the present time.

The DAX curve shows how well or poorly these major companies , and thereby the economy as a whole , are performing at the present time .


Stock exchanges in other countries also have their own indices.

Stock exchanges in other countries also have their own indices .


And all of these markets together create a globally networked marketplace.

And all of these markets together create a globally networked marketplace .


This video was made possible by you.


Every sale of our limited edition calendar supports what we do here at Kurzgesagt.

Every sale of our limited edition calendar supports what we do here at Kurzgesagt .


And our brand new 12024 calendar is our most spectacular yet.

And our brand new 12024 calendar is our most spectacular yet .


Don't miss out on your chance to own a special piece of Kurzgesagt history.

Do n't miss out on your chance to own a special piece of Kurzgesagt history .


The universe is going to die one day.


Well, it turns out our cosmic fate will be decided by a fight between two titans.

Well , it turns out our cosmic fate will be decided by a fight between two titans .


Our universe was born 14 billion years ago in the Big Bang and has been expanding ever since.

Our universe was born 14 billion years ago in the Big Bang and has been expanding ever since .


For some reason, new empty space is being created out of nothing between galaxies.

For some reason , new empty space is being created out of nothing between galaxies .


Space itself is becoming bigger.


Will it go on forever or will it stop one day?

Will it go on forever or will it stop one day ?


Today, we think the universe is at the mercy of two cosmic demigods fighting for dominance.

Today , we think the universe is at the mercy of two cosmic demigods fighting for dominance .


The first one is all the stuff in the universe.

The first one is all the stuff in the universe .


While they're very different, they just want to do one thing.

While they 're very different , they just want to do one thing .


Matter is attracted by matter, pulled together by gravity.

Matter is attracted by matter , pulled together by gravity .


And gravity also pulls on the universe as a whole, slowing the expansion that started at the Big Bang.

And gravity also pulls on the universe as a whole , slowing the expansion that started at the Big Bang .


Our second warrior is empty space.


Empty space has an intrinsic energy.


We don't really have an idea what this energy is or why it's there.

We do n't really have an idea what this energy is or why it 's there .


It's really a placeholder that fills a blank in our understanding of reality.

It 's really a placeholder that fills a blank in our understanding of reality .


But it's got a cool name.


Dark energy pushes things apart.


So we have all the matter in the universe pulling in and empty space infused with dark energy pushing out.

So we have all the matter in the universe pulling in and empty space infused with dark energy pushing out .


Whoever wins will kill the universe in fun ways.

Whoever wins will kill the universe in fun ways .


But who will win?


It all depends on the mysterious dark energy.

It all depends on the mysterious dark energy .


Will its strength stay the same?


Or will it get weaker?


Or will it get more powerful over time?

Or will it get more powerful over time ?


If the strength of dark energy stays constant, it will win the war.

If the strength of dark energy stays constant , it will win the war .


Since space is growing, matter is getting more and more diluted, like sugar in a cup being filled with more and more tea.

Since space is growing , matter is getting more and more diluted , like sugar in a cup being filled with more and more tea .


But as the universe expands, new empty space is created,

But as the universe expands , new empty space is created ,


Every 12 billion years or so, it will double in diameter forever.

Every 12 billion years or so , it will double in diameter forever .


But while dark energy is winning the war, matter is winning at least one battle.

But while dark energy is winning the war , matter is winning at least one battle .


At short distances, it can keep things together.

At short distances , it can keep things together .


Local galaxy bubbles can overcome the push of dark energy.

Local galaxy bubbles can overcome the push of dark energy .


In a few billion years, our local group of galaxies will merge into a gigantic ball with trillions of stars.

In a few billion years , our local group of galaxies will merge into a gigantic ball with trillions of stars .


It will soon become our last view of the cosmos.

It will soon become our last view of the cosmos .


All other galaxies will be pushed away by the expansion.

All other galaxies will be pushed away by the expansion .


For us, it will look like the rest of the universe is rushing away, until in a few hundred billion years, we won't see other galaxies at all.

For us , it will look like the rest of the universe is rushing away , until in a few hundred billion years , we wo n't see other galaxies at all .


We'll be alone, surrounded by a seemingly infinite dark void.

We 'll be alone , surrounded by a seemingly infinite dark void .


In about 100 trillion years, all the stars of our supergalaxy will have died out.

In about 100 trillion years , all the stars of our supergalaxy will have died out .


All gas that could create new stars has been consumed, and no new gas can come in.

All gas that could create new stars has been consumed , and no new gas can come in .


The galaxy will be dark and filled with stellar corpses.

The galaxy will be dark and filled with stellar corpses .


Over quadrillions of years, white dwarfs and neutron stars will slowly cool, until becoming truly dark.

Over quadrillions of years , white dwarfs and neutron stars will slowly cool , until becoming truly dark .


Turning off the last lights of the universe, all structures, big and small, will slowly dissolve.

Turning off the last lights of the universe , all structures , big and small , will slowly dissolve .


One by one, all dead stars and planets will leave the supergalaxy, which slowly dissolves over six trillion years.

One by one , all dead stars and planets will leave the supergalaxy , which slowly dissolves over six trillion years .


Every object will end up on its own, which means that dark energy takes over again, creating more and more empty space between everything.

Every object will end up on its own , which means that dark energy takes over again , creating more and more empty space between everything .


Objects will be so far apart, that it will be as if each had a universe for itself.

Objects will be so far apart , that it will be as if each had a universe for itself .


Not much happens anymore, until in a googol years, all black holes will have evaporated.

Not much happens anymore , until in a googol years , all black holes will have evaporated .


In the end, entropy and dark energy won't stop until their job is finished.

In the end , entropy and dark energy wo n't stop until their job is finished .


Over time spans you might as well call forever, all remaining structures might even dissolve into single particles that will be pushed away from each other by an ever-growing empty space.

Over time spans you might as well call forever , all remaining structures might even dissolve into single particles that will be pushed away from each other by an ever - growing empty space .


Imagine a whole universe, with just a single lonely particle traveling through nothingness.

Imagine a whole universe , with just a single lonely particle traveling through nothingness .


This is the final state, the true end.

This is the final state , the true end .


Nothing will ever be able to happen again.

Nothing will ever be able to happen again .


Phew, that was a bummer.


What else could happen?


In this case, empty space won't just win over matter, it will literally rip it to pieces.

In this case , empty space wo n't just win over matter , it will literally rip it to pieces .


In the big freeze scenario, matter lost the war but won some battles.

In the big freeze scenario , matter lost the war but won some battles .


But here, matter wins nothing.


Dark energy is growing stronger over time, overcoming the pull of gravity, and creating new empty space at smaller and smaller distances.

Dark energy is growing stronger over time , overcoming the pull of gravity , and creating new empty space at smaller and smaller distances .


In this scenario, things will escalate quickly.

In this scenario , things will escalate quickly .


It could start as early as 20 billion years from now.

It could start as early as 20 billion years from now .


First, dark energy will create empty space between individual galaxies.

First , dark energy will create empty space between individual galaxies .


Our galaxy will leave its local cluster and begin to drift alone in a rapidly inflating and ever darker cosmos.

Our galaxy will leave its local cluster and begin to drift alone in a rapidly inflating and ever darker cosmos .


Some billion years later, empty space starts to push between individual stars, dissolving the galaxy.

Some billion years later , empty space starts to push between individual stars , dissolving the galaxy .


If you live on a planet in a star system, the night sky will start looking sad and gloomy, as other stars are pushed too far away to be seen.

If you live on a planet in a star system , the night sky will start looking sad and gloomy , as other stars are pushed too far away to be seen .


A few million years after the sky turns dark, dark energy starts to create empty space inside star systems.

A few million years after the sky turns dark , dark energy starts to create empty space inside star systems .


Your planet is pushed away from its star, and all life in the universe freezes to death.

Your planet is pushed away from its star , and all life in the universe freezes to death .


There's not much time left, as a few months later, dark energy is creating empty space inside solid objects.

There 's not much time left , as a few months later , dark energy is creating empty space inside solid objects .


Stars, neutron stars, planets, asteroids, everything solid is being ripped into pieces.

Stars , neutron stars , planets , asteroids , everything solid is being ripped into pieces .


If you're on a spaceship, you only have a short time before you are ripped apart.

If you 're on a spaceship , you only have a short time before you are ripped apart .


Half an hour later, even atoms are destroyed, as new space is being created so furiously that electrons and nuclei are separated.

Half an hour later , even atoms are destroyed , as new space is being created so furiously that electrons and nuclei are separated .


Now the universe has just a fraction of a second left.

Now the universe has just a fraction of a second left .


In this final moment, only dying black holes remain, drained and defeated by dark energy.

In this final moment , only dying black holes remain , drained and defeated by dark energy .


They're tiny, septillions of times smaller than an atom, and they explode with the power of a trillion supernovae in a trillionth of an octillionth of a second.

They 're tiny , septillions of times smaller than an atom , and they explode with the power of a trillion supernovae in a trillionth of an octillionth of a second .


Finally, the very fabric of reality is torn to its core, obliterating space-time itself.

Finally , the very fabric of reality is torn to its core , obliterating space - time itself .


Space and time have lost their meanings, making it impossible to predict what will happen next.

Space and time have lost their meanings , making it impossible to predict what will happen next .


But there is one scenario where it wins.

But there is one scenario where it wins .


the pull of gravity will win, and all the things in existence will move towards each other, unfortunately making the universe collapse into itself.

the pull of gravity will win , and all the things in existence will move towards each other , unfortunately making the universe collapse into itself .


No one knows when this might begin, but it could be as soon as a few hundred million years.

No one knows when this might begin , but it could be as soon as a few hundred million years .


What will it look like?


As the universe begins to contract, over billions of years, galaxies and galaxy clusters approach each other until they eventually collide.

As the universe begins to contract , over billions of years , galaxies and galaxy clusters approach each other until they eventually collide .


They're mostly made of empty space, so a collision is like the gentle merger of two clouds.

They 're mostly made of empty space , so a collision is like the gentle merger of two clouds .


At any rate, first galaxies and later individual stars get closer and closer.

At any rate , first galaxies and later individual stars get closer and closer .


As the universe goes on collapsing, you might worry about stars and planets eventually crashing against each other.

As the universe goes on collapsing , you might worry about stars and planets eventually crashing against each other .


This will happen, but it's not your worst problem.

This will happen , but it 's not your worst problem .


If space itself shrinks, this also concentrates all the radiation emitted in the past by all the stars, supernovae, and quasars that ever existed.

If space itself shrinks , this also concentrates all the radiation emitted in the past by all the stars , supernovae , and quasars that ever existed .


Now, empty space is filled with radiation.

Now , empty space is filled with radiation .


The dark nothing between stars is heating up, making life unpleasant and then impossible as planets just burn.

The dark nothing between stars is heating up , making life unpleasant and then impossible as planets just burn .


Slowly at first, then rapidly, space gets as hot as it was after the Big Bang.

Slowly at first , then rapidly , space gets as hot as it was after the Big Bang .


Stars are pretty hot, but now the space around them is hotter.

Stars are pretty hot , but now the space around them is hotter .


They're literally boiled from the outside.

They 're literally boiled from the outside .


As the universe collapses into itself, all galaxies and all stars merge into a single ball of hot plasma.

As the universe collapses into itself , all galaxies and all stars merge into a single ball of hot plasma .


The Big Crunch is complete.


From here on, there are two possibilities.

From here on , there are two possibilities .


Either the universe will collapse completely into a singularity, a point of zero size and infinite density, without space and time, the way it might have been before the Big Bang.

Either the universe will collapse completely into a singularity , a point of zero size and infinite density , without space and time , the way it might have been before the Big Bang .


Or the universe will collapse and the stars could bounce back, restarting the cosmic expansion, creating a new baby universe.

Or the universe will collapse and the stars could bounce back , restarting the cosmic expansion , creating a new baby universe .


Everything died, but everything is reborn.

Everything died , but everything is reborn .


But to be clear, we have zero evidence that this has happened before or will in the future.

But to be clear , we have zero evidence that this has happened before or will in the future .


So what will happen?


Most scientists think that dark energy will stay constant, so the likely fate of the universe is heat death, eternal cold, and utter boredom.

Most scientists think that dark energy will stay constant , so the likely fate of the universe is heat death , eternal cold , and utter boredom .


In this scenario, we get to have the universe for the longest.

In this scenario , we get to have the universe for the longest .


It gives us trillions of years to expand, jump from star to star, maybe even from galaxy to galaxy.

It gives us trillions of years to expand , jump from star to star , maybe even from galaxy to galaxy .


We might even find a way to keep consciousness around forever.

We might even find a way to keep consciousness around forever .


We don't know.


So we just have to wait and see, and make the most of the amazing universe we have right now.

So we just have to wait and see , and make the most of the amazing universe we have right now .


Hey you, why don't you stick around for a bit longer?

Hey you , why do n't you stick around for a bit longer ?


We want to tell you about something that changed Kurzgesagt forever.

We want to tell you about something that changed Kurzgesagt forever .


Kurzgesagt started out as a small-scale passion project, but creating animated science videos that are free for everyone doesn't pay the bills.

Kurzgesagt started out as a small - scale passion project , but creating animated science videos that are free for everyone does n't pay the bills .


In order to make ends meet, we had to take on real jobs during the day and create Kurzgesagt videos at night.

In order to make ends meet , we had to take on real jobs during the day and create Kurzgesagt videos at night .


It was tough, but our dream of inspiring people all around the world kept us going.

It was tough , but our dream of inspiring people all around the world kept us going .


Then, in 2016, everything changed.


Kurzgesagt's founder, Philip Detmer, had an idea.

Kurzgesagt 's founder , Philip Detmer , had an idea .


He wanted to create something inspiring that would extend beyond the digital YouTube cosmos.

He wanted to create something inspiring that would extend beyond the digital YouTube cosmos .


It establishes a new Year Zero to include all people and cultures around the world.

It establishes a new Year Zero to include all people and cultures around the world .


This new Year Zero, roughly 12,000 years ago, signifies a time when humans first started working together on a larger scale, laying the foundation for modern society, and eventually, our future ahead of us.

This new Year Zero , roughly 12,000 years ago , signifies a time when humans first started working together on a larger scale , laying the foundation for modern society , and eventually , our future ahead of us .


The first Human Era Calendar was a huge success.

The first Human Era Calendar was a huge success .


It sold out within a few hours and inspired thousands of burbs around the globe.

It sold out within a few hours and inspired thousands of burbs around the globe .


Every year since then, we've created a new edition of the Human Era Calendar, each one more spectacular and successful than the last.

Every year since then , we 've created a new edition of the Human Era Calendar , each one more spectacular and successful than the last .


It has enabled us to grow our team, improve our video quality and research standards, and still release our videos for free for everyone.

It has enabled us to grow our team , improve our video quality and research standards , and still release our videos for free for everyone .


This year's calendar is extra special.

This year 's calendar is extra special .


Join us as we conduct a series of space experiments to see how they would affect the development of life.

Join us as we conduct a series of space experiments to see how they would affect the development of life .


What would a creature living near an orange dwarf look like?

What would a creature living near an orange dwarf look like ?


Could life still exist after a supernova explosion?

Could life still exist after a supernova explosion ?


And what the hell is this?


Join us in 12,024 and find out.


And of course, you can also use it to plan humanity's next steps towards greatness.

And of course , you can also use it to plan humanity 's next steps towards greatness .


To celebrate what may be our most glorious calendar yet, we've prepared a few spectacular limited deals for you.

To celebrate what may be our most glorious calendar yet , we 've prepared a few spectacular limited deals for you .


Thank you so much for being a part of our story and for coming together every year to make all of this possible.

Thank you so much for being a part of our story and for coming together every year to make all of this possible .


See you in 12,024.


Mars is a disappointing hellhole lacking practically everything we need to stay alive.

Mars is a disappointing hellhole lacking practically everything we need to stay alive .


It looks like we'll only ever have small crews spend a miserable time hidden underground.

It looks like we 'll only ever have small crews spend a miserable time hidden underground .


But to solve the planet's problems, we first need to make it worse and turn it into oceans of lava with gigantic lasers.

But to solve the planet 's problems , we first need to make it worse and turn it into oceans of lava with gigantic lasers .


This isn't a far-fetched science fiction tale.

This is n't a far - fetched science fiction tale .


Terraforming Mars is possible on the kind of timescale our ancestors built great monuments in.

Terraforming Mars is possible on the kind of timescale our ancestors built great monuments in .


If humanity solves some of its pressing problems and ventures into space to expand into the solar system, this may not be that far off.

If humanity solves some of its pressing problems and ventures into space to expand into the solar system , this may not be that far off .


Okay, so how do we terraform Mars quickly?

Okay , so how do we terraform Mars quickly ?


Well, it's complicated.


Mars is dry and has no soil to grow anything.

Mars is dry and has no soil to grow anything .


Its atmosphere is too thin to breathe or protect us from radiation, giving you a high risk of cancer.

Its atmosphere is too thin to breathe or protect us from radiation , giving you a high risk of cancer .


So to turn it into a new home for humanity, we have to give it a proper atmosphere similar to Earth's.

So to turn it into a new home for humanity , we have to give it a proper atmosphere similar to Earth 's .


It should be made of 21% oxygen, 79% nitrogen and a tiny bit of CO2 at an average temperature of 48 degrees Celsius, and under 1 bar of pressure.

It should be made of 21 % oxygen , 79 % nitrogen and a tiny bit of CO2 at an average temperature of 48 degrees Celsius , and under 1 bar of pressure .


We have to create oceans and rivers, and then the ground has to be weathered into fertile soil to host living things.

We have to create oceans and rivers , and then the ground has to be weathered into fertile soil to host living things .


Then we need to install a biosphere on the surface and prevent it all from being undone by installing protective measures that can stand the test of time.

Then we need to install a biosphere on the surface and prevent it all from being undone by installing protective measures that can stand the test of time .


It is difficult, but a big laser makes it a lot easier.

It is difficult , but a big laser makes it a lot easier .


Some 4 billion years ago, Mars had a nice oxygen-rich atmosphere and was home to vast oceans and rivers.

Some 4 billion years ago , Mars had a nice oxygen - rich atmosphere and was home to vast oceans and rivers .


It held on to it for several hundred million years before it got blown away.

It held on to it for several hundred million years before it got blown away .


Ultraviolet rays broke down the atmospheric gases and then the oceans until they were swept away by solar wind.

Ultraviolet rays broke down the atmospheric gases and then the oceans until they were swept away by solar wind .


Today, Mars is a dry, barren wasteland.

Today , Mars is a dry , barren wasteland .


Luckily, a sizable portion of the water is frozen in deep reservoirs and in the polar ice caps, enough to create a very shallow ocean.

Luckily , a sizable portion of the water is frozen in deep reservoirs and in the polar ice caps , enough to create a very shallow ocean .


And enormous amounts of oxygen are bound as minerals in the Martian rocks,

And enormous amounts of oxygen are bound as minerals in the Martian rocks ,


To free these gases, we need to reverse the reactions that lock them away by using thermolysis, which occurs at temperatures as high as on the surface of the Sun.

To free these gases , we need to reverse the reactions that lock them away by using thermolysis , which occurs at temperatures as high as on the surface of the Sun .


In short, we want to melt the surface of Mars.

In short , we want to melt the surface of Mars .


The best way to do that would be to put lasers in orbit, aiming their beams down on Mars.

The best way to do that would be to put lasers in orbit , aiming their beams down on Mars .


The most powerful laser today is the Eli NP, able to produce beams of 10 petawatts of power for a trillionth of a second.

The most powerful laser today is the Eli NP , able to produce beams of 10 petawatts of power for a trillionth of a second .


To melt Mars, we need a laser twice as powerful that runs continuously.

To melt Mars , we need a laser twice as powerful that runs continuously .


The easiest way is to use a solar-pumped laser that can be powered directly with sunlight.

The easiest way is to use a solar - pumped laser that can be powered directly with sunlight .


At its core are metal-infused glass rods that absorb energy and release it as a laser beam.

At its core are metal - infused glass rods that absorb energy and release it as a laser beam .


If we build an array of mirrors in space about 11 times the size of the United States, we can focus enough sunlight onto them to melt Mars.

If we build an array of mirrors in space about 11 times the size of the United States , we can focus enough sunlight onto them to melt Mars .


Let's do it!


As the lasers hit the surface, about 750 kilograms of oxygen and some carbon dioxide emerge from every cubic meter of rock melted.

As the lasers hit the surface , about 750 kilograms of oxygen and some carbon dioxide emerge from every cubic meter of rock melted .


If we are efficient, our lasers only need to melt through the top 8 meters of the surface to get enough oxygen.

If we are efficient , our lasers only need to melt through the top 8 meters of the surface to get enough oxygen .


It would look terrifying.


The skies would be shrouded in storms, while the ground would glow red-hot, criss-crossed by currents of lava.

The skies would be shrouded in storms , while the ground would glow red - hot , criss - crossed by currents of lava .


Tireless laser beams sweep over the landscape, leaving trails too bright to look at.

Tireless laser beams sweep over the landscape , leaving trails too bright to look at .


After they pass, the ground cools quickly.

After they pass , the ground cools quickly .


A strange snow falls, the ashes from all the elements that solidify as they cool down, like silicon and iron.

A strange snow falls , the ashes from all the elements that solidify as they cool down , like silicon and iron .


Mars is still a cold planet at this point.

Mars is still a cold planet at this point .


A happy side effect of this inferno is that all the water in the polar ice caps and even deep underground rises into the sky as hot steam,

A happy side effect of this inferno is that all the water in the polar ice caps and even deep underground rises into the sky as hot steam ,


They would wash out the nastier gases from the atmosphere, like chlorine, and carry away harmful elements that accumulated on the surface.

They would wash out the nastier gases from the atmosphere , like chlorine , and carry away harmful elements that accumulated on the surface .


In the end, they would form shallow oceans, saltier than on Earth.

In the end , they would form shallow oceans , saltier than on Earth .


We might need to do an extra cleanup afterwards.

We might need to do an extra cleanup afterwards .


It would take about 50 years of continuous lasering to create our oxygen atmosphere.

It would take about 50 years of continuous lasering to create our oxygen atmosphere .


We could use this opportunity to dig deeper in some places to create the basins for salty oceans or rivers,

We could use this opportunity to dig deeper in some places to create the basins for salty oceans or rivers ,


We're not done though.


The resulting atmosphere is nearly 100% oxygen and only 0.2 bar.

The resulting atmosphere is nearly 100 % oxygen and only 0.2 bar .


It's hard to breathe and very flammable.

It 's hard to breathe and very flammable .


To make it similar to Earth and a lot safer, we need to add a lot of nitrogen, which Mars is sadly lacking.

To make it similar to Earth and a lot safer , we need to add a lot of nitrogen , which Mars is sadly lacking .


We have to import it.


The ideal source is Titan, a large moon of Saturn, covered in a thick atmosphere that's almost entirely nitrogen.

The ideal source is Titan , a large moon of Saturn , covered in a thick atmosphere that 's almost entirely nitrogen .


We just have to move 3,000 trillion tons from the outer solar system to Mars.

We just have to move 3,000 trillion tons from the outer solar system to Mars .


While that's not easy, it is doable.


To process that much of Titan's atmosphere, we have to construct giant automated factories on its surface, powered by our lasers,

To process that much of Titan 's atmosphere , we have to construct giant automated factories on its surface , powered by our lasers ,


This gets pumped into bullet-shaped tanks, which are mass drivers shoots all the way to the Red Planet, where they explode and mix with the oxygen.

This gets pumped into bullet - shaped tanks , which are mass drivers shoots all the way to the Red Planet , where they explode and mix with the oxygen .


We've already been able to send individual missions to Saturn in just a few years.

We 've already been able to send individual missions to Saturn in just a few years .


With enough resources, it should be possible to complete the task within two generations.

With enough resources , it should be possible to complete the task within two generations .


Of course, it would be much more convenient to have nitrogen left over from terraforming Venus on the side.

Of course , it would be much more convenient to have nitrogen left over from terraforming Venus on the side .


We explained this in detail in another video.

We explained this in detail in another video .


So, about a century after the start of the terraforming process, we have a breathable atmosphere that has the right gases.

So , about a century after the start of the terraforming process , we have a breathable atmosphere that has the right gases .