This video was a collaboration with the creative agencies Sagmeister and Walsh as a contribution to their upcoming beauty exhibition.

This video was a collaboration with the creative agencies Sagmeister and Walsh as a contribution to their upcoming beauty exhibition .


The exhibition will be shown at the MAK Vienna from October 23rd, 2018 until March 31st, 2019 and the MAK Frankfurt from May 1st until September 30th, 2019.

The exhibition will be shown at the MAK Vienna from October 23rd , 2018 until March 31st , 2019 and the MAK Frankfurt from May 1st until September 30th , 2019 .


Black holes are the most powerful things in the universe, strong enough to rip whole stars into atom-sized pieces.

Black holes are the most powerful things in the universe , strong enough to rip whole stars into atom - sized pieces .


While this is scary enough, they have an even more powerful and dark property.

While this is scary enough , they have an even more powerful and dark property .


They might delete the universe itself.


A black hole appears when an extraordinary amount of matter is concentrated in a tiny space.

A black hole appears when an extraordinary amount of matter is concentrated in a tiny space .


At their center, gravity is almost infinitely strong, and whatever gets too close is ripped into its elementary particles.

At their center , gravity is almost infinitely strong , and whatever gets too close is ripped into its elementary particles .


Not even light can escape black holes, and so we perceive them as spheres of blackness.

Not even light can escape black holes , and so we perceive them as spheres of blackness .


If you were to fall into a black hole, nothing bad would happen until well after you crossed its outer border, the event horizon.

If you were to fall into a black hole , nothing bad would happen until well after you crossed its outer border , the event horizon .


You can imagine this as swimming in a river that ends in an enormous waterfall.

You can imagine this as swimming in a river that ends in an enormous waterfall .


As you float along, imperceptibly, the stream gets faster and faster, even if you can't see the waterfall yet.

As you float along , imperceptibly , the stream gets faster and faster , even if you ca n't see the waterfall yet .


You could swim to safety, until without even noticing it, you cross the point of no return.

You could swim to safety , until without even noticing it , you cross the point of no return .


No matter how fast you try to swim now, the stream will pull you towards sudden death.

No matter how fast you try to swim now , the stream will pull you towards sudden death .


Nothing can escape a black hole waterfall once it gets too close.

Nothing can escape a black hole waterfall once it gets too close .


This border completely separates black holes from the rest of the universe.

This border completely separates black holes from the rest of the universe .


We can't access them unless we're willing to never return.

We ca n't access them unless we 're willing to never return .


So there's no way of telling what's really going on inside black holes, but we have a few ideas about what's going on right at their very edges.

So there 's no way of telling what 's really going on inside black holes , but we have a few ideas about what 's going on right at their very edges .


Black holes radiate their mass away, like a hot pot on a stove losing its water as steam.

Black holes radiate their mass away , like a hot pot on a stove losing its water as steam .


This is called Hawking radiation.


Black holes constantly lose an extremely tiny amount of their mass, a process that's unbelievably slow.

Black holes constantly lose an extremely tiny amount of their mass , a process that 's unbelievably slow .


It will take a black hole with the mass of our sun 10,000 billion billion billion billion billion billion years to lose 0.00000001% of its mass.

It will take a black hole with the mass of our sun 10,000 billion billion billion billion billion billion years to lose 0.00000001 % of its mass .


This is happening constantly and unstoppably, and as it goes on, it speeds up more and more.

This is happening constantly and unstoppably , and as it goes on , it speeds up more and more .


In the far far future, when the last star in the universe has been dead for trillions of years,

In the far far future , when the last star in the universe has been dead for trillions of years ,


black holes will become tinier and tinier until they evaporate and disappear, leaving behind just a bit of radiation.

black holes will become tinier and tinier until they evaporate and disappear , leaving behind just a bit of radiation .


But this is a problem, because in the process of disappearing, black holes might delete something fundamental, information.

But this is a problem , because in the process of disappearing , black holes might delete something fundamental , information .


2. What is information?


Information is nothing tangible.


It's typically understood as a property of the arrangement of particles.

It 's typically understood as a property of the arrangement of particles .


What does this mean?


Imagine a bunch of carbon atoms.


Arrange them in a certain way and you get coal.

Arrange them in a certain way and you get coal .


Arrange them in a different way and you get a diamond.

Arrange them in a different way and you get a diamond .


The atoms are the same.


What changes is the information.


If we make this more complex and add in a few more atoms, we get a banana.

If we make this more complex and add in a few more atoms , we get a banana .


Change the arrangement of the atoms and we get a squirrel.

Change the arrangement of the atoms and we get a squirrel .


The basic building blocks of everything in the universe are the same and don't care if they're part of a bird or a rock or a cup of coffee.

The basic building blocks of everything in the universe are the same and do n't care if they 're part of a bird or a rock or a cup of coffee .


Without information, everything in the universe would be the same.

Without information , everything in the universe would be the same .


According to the theory of quantum mechanics, information is indestructible.

According to the theory of quantum mechanics , information is indestructible .


It might change shape, but it can never be lost.

It might change shape , but it can never be lost .


For example, if you burn a piece of paper, you get ash.

For example , if you burn a piece of paper , you get ash .


That ash will never become paper again.

That ash will never become paper again .


and measured the exact properties of the smoke and heat radiating from the fire, you could, in theory, reconstruct the paper.

and measured the exact properties of the smoke and heat radiating from the fire , you could , in theory , reconstruct the paper .


The information of the paper is still in the universe.

The information of the paper is still in the universe .


It's not lost.


It's just hard to read.


If you could somehow measure every single atom and particle and wave of radiation in the universe, you could see and track every bit of information there is.

If you could somehow measure every single atom and particle and wave of radiation in the universe , you could see and track every bit of information there is .


Hypothetically, you could see the entire history of the universe right back to the Big Bang.

Hypothetically , you could see the entire history of the universe right back to the Big Bang .


And here, black holes trip us up.


Information tells us how things are different from each other and what used to be what.

Information tells us how things are different from each other and what used to be what .


Black holes do the opposite.


They take different things and make them the same.

They take different things and make them the same .


They destroy information.


This creates the information paradox and this is a serious problem.

This creates the information paradox and this is a serious problem .


It's fundamental for all our laws of physics that information can never be lost.

It 's fundamental for all our laws of physics that information can never be lost .


Existing, not existing, without information, everything is relative.

Existing , not existing , without information , everything is relative .


When it comes to our understanding of reality, we need absolutes.

When it comes to our understanding of reality , we need absolutes .


How could we solve this paradox?


There are a few possibilities.


One, information is lost.


This means we have to nix all our laws of physics, throwing out a lot of stuff that's worked very well so far and start from scratch.

This means we have to nix all our laws of physics , throwing out a lot of stuff that 's worked very well so far and start from scratch .


What those new laws of physics would look like or what that means for us, nobody knows.

What those new laws of physics would look like or what that means for us , nobody knows .


This is a little frightening, but also kind of exciting.

This is a little frightening , but also kind of exciting .


Two, information is hidden.


Maybe a little part of the black hole splits off and forms a baby universe.

Maybe a little part of the black hole splits off and forms a baby universe .


The information would be transferred into this new, weird place where we could never observe or interact with it, but technically it would not be lost.

The information would be transferred into this new , weird place where we could never observe or interact with it , but technically it would not be lost .


It's like having a broken hard drive with all your family photos that you could never access.

It 's like having a broken hard drive with all your family photos that you could never access .


Sure, it's nice that they've not been deleted, but also not very helpful.

Sure , it 's nice that they 've not been deleted , but also not very helpful .


Or maybe black holes don't disappear completely after the end of their life cycles, but a little piece is left.

Or maybe black holes do n't disappear completely after the end of their life cycles , but a little piece is left .


But there's a third option.


Information is safe after all, not lost or hidden.

Information is safe after all , not lost or hidden .


Perhaps we've just been looking at this whole thing the wrong way.

Perhaps we 've just been looking at this whole thing the wrong way .


We know that black holes trap information and might delete it later, but we never thought about what they do with it in the meantime.

We know that black holes trap information and might delete it later , but we never thought about what they do with it in the meantime .


Where do black holes store their information?

Where do black holes store their information ?


Let's create a black hole with dirty laundry.

Let 's create a black hole with dirty laundry .


First, we fill up a room with laundry baskets.

First , we fill up a room with laundry baskets .


The more laundry you want to store, the more baskets you put in the room.

The more laundry you want to store , the more baskets you put in the room .


But at some point, every single basket is full and the room is completely stacked.

But at some point , every single basket is full and the room is completely stacked .


Not a single extra sock fits in.


The room is at maximum capacity.


But if we still squeeze the sock in with a lot of energy and violence, the room collapses in on itself and forms a black hole.

But if we still squeeze the sock in with a lot of energy and violence , the room collapses in on itself and forms a black hole .


But the capacity of the room itself has not changed.

But the capacity of the room itself has not changed .


Fitting in more stuff for information is still impossible.

Fitting in more stuff for information is still impossible .


So what happens if we throw more laundry into it?

So what happens if we throw more laundry into it ?


The room itself gets a little bit bigger to make space for the new information.

The room itself gets a little bit bigger to make space for the new information .


It turns out a black hole grows its surface by a tiny pixel for each bit of information we throw into it.

It turns out a black hole grows its surface by a tiny pixel for each bit of information we throw into it .


In a nutshell, more information means more surface area.

In a nutshell , more information means more surface area .


The information gets painted on the surface similar to what happens when we throw a stone into a pond.

The information gets painted on the surface similar to what happens when we throw a stone into a pond .


After the stone sinks to the bottom, we can't see it anymore, but we can tell that something went in from the ripples on the surface of the pond.

After the stone sinks to the bottom , we ca n't see it anymore , but we can tell that something went in from the ripples on the surface of the pond .


Even the smallest black hole can store more information on its surface than all the data ever produced in human history.

Even the smallest black hole can store more information on its surface than all the data ever produced in human history .


They do this by storing information in a type of pixel that is unbelievably tiny.

They do this by storing information in a type of pixel that is unbelievably tiny .


Black holes are the ultimate hard drive.

Black holes are the ultimate hard drive .


This is a bit like taking a paperback and turning it into an e-book.

This is a bit like taking a paperback and turning it into an e - book .


It's just encoded and memorized in another way.

It 's just encoded and memorized in another way .


Black holes swallowing stars and planets is a bit like transferring a whole library onto an e-reader.

Black holes swallowing stars and planets is a bit like transferring a whole library onto an e - reader .


This solution is called the holographic principle.

This solution is called the holographic principle .


But if it's correct, then everything we thought we knew about the universe is wrong.

But if it 's correct , then everything we thought we knew about the universe is wrong .


The universe is a hologram.


If information is actually stored on the boundary of a black hole, the Hawking radiation has a chance of learning about the information encoded there and can carry it away.

If information is actually stored on the boundary of a black hole , the Hawking radiation has a chance of learning about the information encoded there and can carry it away .


So, information is not lost when black holes fade away and we do not need to redo physics.

So , information is not lost when black holes fade away and we do not need to redo physics .


The information paradox is resolved.


But we still have to change our understanding of reality in a fundamental way.

But we still have to change our understanding of reality in a fundamental way .


If everything that falls into the black hole is stored on its event horizon, that basically means that three-dimensional stuff is encoded on a flat surface.

If everything that falls into the black hole is stored on its event horizon , that basically means that three - dimensional stuff is encoded on a flat surface .


We have a name for this, a hologram.


A hologram is like a 3D photo, a flat piece of plastic that encodes a three-dimensional image.

A hologram is like a 3D photo , a flat piece of plastic that encodes a three - dimensional image .


A black hole is like a hologram because everything inside it is encoded on its event horizon.

A black hole is like a hologram because everything inside it is encoded on its event horizon .


A person inside a black hole would experience their usual three-dimensional life.

A person inside a black hole would experience their usual three - dimensional life .


But for us on the outside, they are flattened images on the surface of the black hole.

But for us on the outside , they are flattened images on the surface of the black hole .


The consequence of this is counterintuitive, but stay with us for a moment.

The consequence of this is counterintuitive , but stay with us for a moment .


Black holes are very extreme objects, but they're still bound to the same rules as everything else.

Black holes are very extreme objects , but they 're still bound to the same rules as everything else .


So if this crazy duality between 2D and 3D works for black holes, then it might work for the whole universe and you in it.

So if this crazy duality between 2D and 3D works for black holes , then it might work for the whole universe and you in it .


Since a person inside a black hole would not realize that they're encoded on a flat surface, we might share the same fate.

Since a person inside a black hole would not realize that they 're encoded on a flat surface , we might share the same fate .


You really might be stretched over a flat screen at the end of the universe.

You really might be stretched over a flat screen at the end of the universe .


The science behind this is complicated and really weird, with toy universes to play with, string theory, and a lot of maths.

The science behind this is complicated and really weird , with toy universes to play with , string theory , and a lot of maths .


We'll talk about this more in another video.

We 'll talk about this more in another video .


Regardless of what the true nature of the universe really is, we just know that it's strange and complicated, and we have to do a lot more physics to understand it.

Regardless of what the true nature of the universe really is , we just know that it 's strange and complicated , and we have to do a lot more physics to understand it .


But black holes might be key to understanding the nature of reality itself.

But black holes might be key to understanding the nature of reality itself .


This video was supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation and realized with the scientific advice of Alessandro Sfondrini.

This video was supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation and realized with the scientific advice of Alessandro Sfondrini .


Cancer is a creepy and mysterious thing.

Cancer is a creepy and mysterious thing .


In the process of trying to understand it, to get better at killing it, we discovered a biological paradox that remains unsolved to this day.

In the process of trying to understand it , to get better at killing it , we discovered a biological paradox that remains unsolved to this day .


Large animals seem to be immune to cancer, which doesn't make any sense.

Large animals seem to be immune to cancer , which does n't make any sense .


The bigger a being, the more cancer it should have.

The bigger a being , the more cancer it should have .


To understand why, we first need to take a look at the nature of cancer itself.

To understand why , we first need to take a look at the nature of cancer itself .


Our cells are protein robots made out of hundreds of millions of parts.

Our cells are protein robots made out of hundreds of millions of parts .


Guided only by chemical reactions, they create and dismantle structures, sustain a metabolism to gain energy, or make almost perfect copies of themselves.

Guided only by chemical reactions , they create and dismantle structures , sustain a metabolism to gain energy , or make almost perfect copies of themselves .


We call these complex chemical reactions pathways.

We call these complex chemical reactions pathways .


They are biochemical networks upon networks, intertwined and stacked on top of each other.

They are biochemical networks upon networks , intertwined and stacked on top of each other .


Most of them can barely be comprehended by a single human mind, and yet they function perfectly.

Most of them can barely be comprehended by a single human mind , and yet they function perfectly .


Until they don't.


With billions of trillions of reactions happening in thousands of networks over many years, the question is not if something will go wrong, but when.

With billions of trillions of reactions happening in thousands of networks over many years , the question is not if something will go wrong , but when .


Tiny mistakes add up until the grandiose machinery gets corrupted.

Tiny mistakes add up until the grandiose machinery gets corrupted .


To prevent this from getting out of hand, our cells have kill switches that make them commit suicide.

To prevent this from getting out of hand , our cells have kill switches that make them commit suicide .


But these kill switches are not infallible.

But these kill switches are not infallible .


If they fail, a cell can turn into a cancer cell.

If they fail , a cell can turn into a cancer cell .


Most of them are slain by the immune system very quickly.

Most of them are slain by the immune system very quickly .


But this is a numbers game.


Given enough time, a cell will accrue enough mistakes, slip by unnoticed, and begin making more of itself.

Given enough time , a cell will accrue enough mistakes , slip by unnoticed , and begin making more of itself .


All animals have to deal with this problem.

All animals have to deal with this problem .


In general, the cells of different animals are the same size.

In general , the cells of different animals are the same size .


The cells of a mouse aren't smaller than yours.

The cells of a mouse are n't smaller than yours .


It just has fewer cells in total, and a shorter lifespan.

It just has fewer cells in total , and a shorter lifespan .


Fewer cells and a short life means a lower chance of things going wrong or cells mutating.

Fewer cells and a short life means a lower chance of things going wrong or cells mutating .


Or, at least it should mean that.


Humans live about 50 times longer and have 1,000 times more cells than mice.

Humans live about 50 times longer and have 1,000 times more cells than mice .


Yet the rate of cancer is basically the same in humans and in mice.

Yet the rate of cancer is basically the same in humans and in mice .


Even weirder, blue whales with about 3,000 times more cells than humans don't seem to get cancer at all, really.

Even weirder , blue whales with about 3,000 times more cells than humans do n't seem to get cancer at all , really .


This is Pitot's paradox.


Scientists think there are two main ways of explaining the paradox.

Scientists think there are two main ways of explaining the paradox .


As multicellular beings developed 600 million years ago, animals became bigger and bigger,

As multicellular beings developed 600 million years ago , animals became bigger and bigger ,


So the collective had to invest in better and better cancer defenses.

So the collective had to invest in better and better cancer defenses .


But cancer doesn't just happen, it's a process that involves many individual mistakes and mutations in several specific genes within the same cell.

But cancer does n't just happen , it 's a process that involves many individual mistakes and mutations in several specific genes within the same cell .


These genes are called proto-oncogenes, and when they mutate, it's bad news.

These genes are called proto - oncogenes , and when they mutate , it 's bad news .


For example, with the right mutation, a cell will lose its ability to kill itself.

For example , with the right mutation , a cell will lose its ability to kill itself .


Another mutation, and it will develop the ability to hide.

Another mutation , and it will develop the ability to hide .


Another, and it will send out calls for resources.

Another , and it will send out calls for resources .


Another one, and it will multiply quickly.

Another one , and it will multiply quickly .


These oncogenes have an antagonist though.

These oncogenes have an antagonist though .


They prevent these critical mutations from happening, or order the cell to kill itself if they decide it's beyond repair.

They prevent these critical mutations from happening , or order the cell to kill itself if they decide it 's beyond repair .


It turns out that large animals have an increased number of them.

It turns out that large animals have an increased number of them .


Because of this, elephant cells require more mutations than mice cells to develop a tumor.

Because of this , elephant cells require more mutations than mice cells to develop a tumor .


They are not immune, but more resilient.

They are not immune , but more resilient .


This adaption probably comes with a cost in some form, but researchers still aren't sure what it is.

This adaption probably comes with a cost in some form , but researchers still are n't sure what it is .


Maybe tumor suppressors make elephants age quicker later in life, or slow down how quickly injuries heal.

Maybe tumor suppressors make elephants age quicker later in life , or slow down how quickly injuries heal .


We don't know yet.


But the solution to the paradox may actually be something different.

But the solution to the paradox may actually be something different .


Hypertumors are named after hyperparasites, the parasites of parasites.

Hypertumors are named after hyperparasites , the parasites of parasites .


Hypertumors are the tumors of tumors.


Cancer can be thought of as a breakdown in cooperation.

Cancer can be thought of as a breakdown in cooperation .


Normally, cells work together to form structures like organs, tissue, or elements of the immune system.

Normally , cells work together to form structures like organs , tissue , or elements of the immune system .


But cancer cells are selfish and only work for their own short-term benefit.

But cancer cells are selfish and only work for their own short - term benefit .


If they're successful, they form tumors, huge cancer collectives that can be very hard to kill.

If they 're successful , they form tumors , huge cancer collectives that can be very hard to kill .


Making a tumor is hard work, though.


Millions or billions of cancer cells multiply rapidly, which requires a lot of resources and energy.

Millions or billions of cancer cells multiply rapidly , which requires a lot of resources and energy .


The amount of nutrients they can steal from the body becomes the limiting factor for growth.

The amount of nutrients they can steal from the body becomes the limiting factor for growth .


So the tumor cells trick the body to build new blood vessels directly to the tumor to feed the thing killing it.

So the tumor cells trick the body to build new blood vessels directly to the tumor to feed the thing killing it .


And here, the nature of cancer cells may become their own undoing.

And here , the nature of cancer cells may become their own undoing .


Cancer cells are inherently unstable, and so they can continue to mutate, some of them faster than their buddies.

Cancer cells are inherently unstable , and so they can continue to mutate , some of them faster than their buddies .


If they do this for a while, at some point, one of the copies of the copies of the original cancer cell might suddenly think of itself as an individual again and stop cooperating.

If they do this for a while , at some point , one of the copies of the copies of the original cancer cell might suddenly think of itself as an individual again and stop cooperating .


So the newly mutated cells can create a hypertumor.

So the newly mutated cells can create a hypertumor .


Instead of helping, they cut off the blood supply to their former buddies, which will starve and kill the original cancer cells.

Instead of helping , they cut off the blood supply to their former buddies , which will starve and kill the original cancer cells .


Cancer is killing cancer.


This process can repeat over and over.


And this may prevent cancer from becoming a problem for a large organism.

And this may prevent cancer from becoming a problem for a large organism .


It is possible that large animals have more of these hypertumors than we realize.

It is possible that large animals have more of these hypertumors than we realize .


They might just not become big enough to notice.

They might just not become big enough to notice .


A 2-gram tumor is 10% of a mouse's body weight, while it's less than 0.002% of a human, and 0.000002% of a blue whale.

A 2 - gram tumor is 10 % of a mouse 's body weight , while it 's less than 0.002 % of a human , and 0.000002 % of a blue whale .


All three tumors require the same number of cell divisions and have the same number of cells.

All three tumors require the same number of cell divisions and have the same number of cells .


So an old blue whale might be filled with tiny cancers and just not care.

So an old blue whale might be filled with tiny cancers and just not care .


There are other proposed solutions to Pitot's paradox, such as different metabolic rates or different cellular architecture.

There are other proposed solutions to Pitot 's paradox , such as different metabolic rates or different cellular architecture .


But right now, we just don't know.


Scientists are working on the problem.


Figuring out how large animals are so resilient to one of the most deadly diseases we know could open the path to new therapies and treatments.

Figuring out how large animals are so resilient to one of the most deadly diseases we know could open the path to new therapies and treatments .


Cancer has always been a challenge.


Today, we are finally beginning to understand it, and by doing so, one day, we might finally overcome it.

Today , we are finally beginning to understand it , and by doing so , one day , we might finally overcome it .


This video was sponsored by you.


If you want to help us make more, you can do so by supporting us on Patreon or getting one of the beautiful things we've made, like our Space Explorer notebook,

If you want to help us make more , you can do so by supporting us on Patreon or getting one of the beautiful things we 've made , like our Space Explorer notebook ,


We put a lot of time and love into our merch, because just like with our videos, we only want to put things into the world that we feel good about.

We put a lot of time and love into our merch , because just like with our videos , we only want to put things into the world that we feel good about .


Kurzgesagt is a project that, by rights, shouldn't really work.

Kurzgesagt is a project that , by rights , should n't really work .


Videos like the one you just watched take months to finish, and we're only able to put in so much time

Videos like the one you just watched take months to finish , and we 're only able to put in so much time


Thank you for watching.


Here in the Kurzgesagt labs, we test very important ideas to see what happens when you blow things up or play with black holes.

Here in the Kurzgesagt labs , we test very important ideas to see what happens when you blow things up or play with black holes .


Many of you suggested that we look into an idea that sounds reasonable.

Many of you suggested that we look into an idea that sounds reasonable .


It's one of those concepts that seems like an easy fix for one of the main problems with a nuclear energy.

It 's one of those concepts that seems like an easy fix for one of the main problems with a nuclear energy .


But it turns out this idea is not just bad, but horribly bad, and it gets worse the longer you think about it.

But it turns out this idea is not just bad , but horribly bad , and it gets worse the longer you think about it .


What is nuclear waste?


Nuclear waste is a fuzzy term and comes in categories which vary from country to country, but in general there are three broad levels.

Nuclear waste is a fuzzy term and comes in categories which vary from country to country , but in general there are three broad levels .


90% is low-level nuclear waste, tools, gloves or trash used at a nuclear facility that could be weakly contaminated with some short-lived radioactivity.

90 % is low - level nuclear waste , tools , gloves or trash used at a nuclear facility that could be weakly contaminated with some short - lived radioactivity .


This stuff is generally safe for normal disposal.

This stuff is generally safe for normal disposal .


7% is intermediate level nuclear waste, mostly materials that have been in close proximity to a reactor core long enough to become dangerously radioactive.

7 % is intermediate level nuclear waste , mostly materials that have been in close proximity to a reactor core long enough to become dangerously radioactive .


With proper handling, it's either safely buried or melted down and mixed into glass or concrete and stored deep underground.

With proper handling , it 's either safely buried or melted down and mixed into glass or concrete and stored deep underground .


So 97% of nuclear waste is similar to toxic byproducts from other industries.

So 97 % of nuclear waste is similar to toxic byproducts from other industries .


We can handle it.


The remaining 3% is where our problems begin.

The remaining 3 % is where our problems begin .


High-level nuclear waste is very concentrated spent fuel taken out of a reactor core.

High - level nuclear waste is very concentrated spent fuel taken out of a reactor core .


Formerly uranium, it's now made of various dangerous and often highly radioactive elements.

Formerly uranium , it 's now made of various dangerous and often highly radioactive elements .


As a bonus, it's also incredibly hot and not easy to handle at all.

As a bonus , it 's also incredibly hot and not easy to handle at all .


This is what we want to shoot into space.

This is what we want to shoot into space .


All in all, around 140 active nuclear reactors create about 11,000 tons of high-level nuclear waste each year.

All in all , around 140 active nuclear reactors create about 11,000 tons of high - level nuclear waste each year .


Since 1954, we've accumulated 400,000 tons of dangerous radioactive waste.

Since 1954 , we 've accumulated 400,000 tons of dangerous radioactive waste .


Most countries are dealing with it by not dealing with it and kicking the can towards the future.

Most countries are dealing with it by not dealing with it and kicking the can towards the future .


Great, so let's launch it into space.

Great , so let 's launch it into space .


According to scientists, space is big and nobody lives there, so it seems perfect for yeeting away this mess.

According to scientists , space is big and nobody lives there , so it seems perfect for yeeting away this mess .


There are a few tiny problems though.


Problem one, stuff ain't cheap.


Even though spaceflight is getting more affordable, it's still extremely expensive.

Even though spaceflight is getting more affordable , it 's still extremely expensive .


Just to get something into low Earth orbit costs on average about $4,000 per kilogram.

Just to get something into low Earth orbit costs on average about $ 4,000 per kilogram .


Putting that into perspective, it costs about $1,600 to mine, separate, and fabricate one kilogram of nuclear fuel.

Putting that into perspective , it costs about $ 1,600 to mine , separate , and fabricate one kilogram of nuclear fuel .


So launching waste into space has suddenly made nuclear fuel for reactors way more expensive and greatly increased the cost of the electricity they produce.

So launching waste into space has suddenly made nuclear fuel for reactors way more expensive and greatly increased the cost of the electricity they produce .


To launch one reactor's worth of nuclear waste would cost at least $100 million per year.

To launch one reactor 's worth of nuclear waste would cost at least $ 100 million per year .


To deal with all the 440 operational nuclear power plants high-level nuclear waste would cost some $44 billion per year for space launch

To deal with all the 440 operational nuclear power plants high - level nuclear waste would cost some $ 44 billion per year for space launch


Okay, let's pretend we don't care.


Currently, we couldn't shoot all the nuclear waste into space even if we wanted to.

Currently , we could n't shoot all the nuclear waste into space even if we wanted to .


There just aren't enough rockets.


In 2021, we saw a record 135 launches into space.

In 2021 , we saw a record 135 launches into space .


If we repurposed each of those rockets and filled them all with nuclear waste, the total amount that could be lifted into a low Earth orbit,

If we repurposed each of those rockets and filled them all with nuclear waste , the total amount that could be lifted into a low Earth orbit ,


We'd need at least 14 times more rockets to handle just today's nuclear waste, let alone get rid of the hundreds of thousands of tons in temporary storage.

We 'd need at least 14 times more rockets to handle just today 's nuclear waste , let alone get rid of the hundreds of thousands of tons in temporary storage .


We would need to create entire new space industries to keep up with the demand for giant toxic space trash trucks, and it gets worse.

We would need to create entire new space industries to keep up with the demand for giant toxic space trash trucks , and it gets worse .


Problem 2, space is hard.


We only made the calculation for low Earth orbit where we send most of our rockets and satellites.

We only made the calculation for low Earth orbit where we send most of our rockets and satellites .


Littering the space around Earth with thousands of casks of spent nuclear fuel would be a nightmare for space junk management and satellite collision avoidance.

Littering the space around Earth with thousands of casks of spent nuclear fuel would be a nightmare for space junk management and satellite collision avoidance .


Worse still, at this altitude, there's still a little bit of atmosphere causing a tiny bit of drag,

Worse still , at this altitude , there 's still a little bit of atmosphere causing a tiny bit of drag ,


so we might have nuclear waste raining down from space within just a few years.

so we might have nuclear waste raining down from space within just a few years .


Experts would call this a huge problem.

Experts would call this a huge problem .


Clearly, we have to launch our waste further.

Clearly , we have to launch our waste further .


If we wanted to send it to perhaps the moon, we either need way more rockets, or we need to build much bigger ones, making it even more expensive.

If we wanted to send it to perhaps the moon , we either need way more rockets , or we need to build much bigger ones , making it even more expensive .


A single Saturn V, the rocket used by the Apollo program, which cost around 1.5 billion adjusted for inflation per launch, could get about 43.5 tons from the Earth to the moon.

A single Saturn V , the rocket used by the Apollo program , which cost around 1.5 billion adjusted for inflation per launch , could get about 43.5 tons from the Earth to the moon .


So we'd need about 260 Saturn V rocket launches every year, and of course, using the moon as target practice for nuclear waste tipped rockets kind of makes a huge mess.

So we 'd need about 260 Saturn V rocket launches every year , and of course , using the moon as target practice for nuclear waste tipped rockets kind of makes a huge mess .


Space is empty.


Do we really need a target?


Shooting waste in any random direction is, you guessed it, also a bad idea.

Shooting waste in any random direction is , you guessed it , also a bad idea .


Orbits are loops, which means they have a tendency to come back to where they started.

Orbits are loops , which means they have a tendency to come back to where they started .


Put enough in the sky in random directions, and you'll get one back eventually.

Put enough in the sky in random directions , and you 'll get one back eventually .


So we'd want to launch our nuclear waste deep into space, which means we need even bigger rockets that would be even more expensive.

So we 'd want to launch our nuclear waste deep into space , which means we need even bigger rockets that would be even more expensive .


Not that we would be completely safe then.

Not that we would be completely safe then .


Earth might run into these interplanetary caskets at some time in the far future, and experience a pretty meteor shower made from radioactive dust.

Earth might run into these interplanetary caskets at some time in the far future , and experience a pretty meteor shower made from radioactive dust .


Ironically, the Sun is pretty hard to hit.

Ironically , the Sun is pretty hard to hit .


While the Sun has very strong gravity, everything on Earth is moving with respect to the Sun,

While the Sun has very strong gravity , everything on Earth is moving with respect to the Sun ,


Because of this, it's actually easier to launch a rocket entirely out of the solar system than it is to launch it into the Sun.

Because of this , it 's actually easier to launch a rocket entirely out of the solar system than it is to launch it into the Sun .


But to do either of these things, we need even bigger rockets, probably the biggest we've ever built.

But to do either of these things , we need even bigger rockets , probably the biggest we 've ever built .


Hmm, nothing works.


The thing is, it gets even worse.


Problem 3, rockets go brrrr.


Rocket engineering has taken huge steps since the Apollo era.

Rocket engineering has taken huge steps since the Apollo era .


We've made them relatively safe.


We've mostly replaced the toxic explosive cancer fuels of the past decade with much saner mixes of liquid oxygen and hydrogen or kerosene.

We 've mostly replaced the toxic explosive cancer fuels of the past decade with much saner mixes of liquid oxygen and hydrogen or kerosene .


The newest designs even land themselves so that they can be reused.

The newest designs even land themselves so that they can be reused .


And yet, out of the 146 launches in 2021, there were 11 failures,

And yet , out of the 146 launches in 2021 , there were 11 failures ,


Each failure would be at least equivalent to a miniature nobble, but instead of being contained under a slab of concrete, spread throughout the atmosphere.

Each failure would be at least equivalent to a miniature nobble , but instead of being contained under a slab of concrete , spread throughout the atmosphere .


Radioactive particles could make their way to faraway places by riding on the winds.

Radioactive particles could make their way to faraway places by riding on the winds .


Most would fall into the ocean, but some would land on the inhabited parts of the world.

Most would fall into the ocean , but some would land on the inhabited parts of the world .


They could cover farmlands and get concentrated into our food or enter our water supply, which is, well, bad.

They could cover farmlands and get concentrated into our food or enter our water supply , which is , well , bad .


Imagine regular large-scale nuclear disasters happening.

Imagine regular large - scale nuclear disasters happening .


People wouldn't be happy.


Nuclear waste is scary, but the fear of it and horrible ideas like shooting it into space reveals how bad we are at understanding risk,

Nuclear waste is scary , but the fear of it and horrible ideas like shooting it into space reveals how bad we are at understanding risk ,


because the largest amounts of radioactive elements like uranium and radon are actually released by coal.

because the largest amounts of radioactive elements like uranium and radon are actually released by coal .


Burning millions of tons of coal each year leaves ash as a waste product that includes about 36,000 tons of radioactive materials.

Burning millions of tons of coal each year leaves ash as a waste product that includes about 36,000 tons of radioactive materials .


Some of this ash is caught by filters, but most is simply pushed back into leaky mines, shoved into piles exposed to the wind,

Some of this ash is caught by filters , but most is simply pushed back into leaky mines , shoved into piles exposed to the wind ,


Living within 1.6 kilometers of an ash pile increases your cancer risk up to 2,000 times over the acceptable limit.

Living within 1.6 kilometers of an ash pile increases your cancer risk up to 2,000 times over the acceptable limit .


And this is on top of other toxic chemicals like heavy metals and, of course, their massive CO2 emissions.

And this is on top of other toxic chemicals like heavy metals and , of course , their massive CO2 emissions .


And yet, while nuclear energy is flawed and its current form may only be a transitory technology, nuclear power plants are a harder sell than coal.

And yet , while nuclear energy is flawed and its current form may only be a transitory technology , nuclear power plants are a harder sell than coal .


Nuclear waste and the lack of willingness to deal with it are a real issue.

Nuclear waste and the lack of willingness to deal with it are a real issue .


It's not insurmountable, though.


There are good methods to handle it, like burying it deep underground or reprocessing some of it into new fuel.

There are good methods to handle it , like burying it deep underground or reprocessing some of it into new fuel .


But however we ultimately deal with this issue, we hope one thing is clear.

But however we ultimately deal with this issue , we hope one thing is clear .


Shooting nuclear waste into space is one of the worst ideas ever.

Shooting nuclear waste into space is one of the worst ideas ever .


Researching this crazy thing, conducting all of these important tests, and of course, creating this video, took us around 2,000 hours, which is insane for a YouTube video.

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And we couldn't do it without you.


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We are prisoners on Earth.


The universe taunts us by showing us all the places we can't ever visit.

The universe taunts us by showing us all the places we ca n't ever visit .


However, if our species wants to have a long-term future, we have to escape our prison.

However , if our species wants to have a long - term future , we have to escape our prison .


But what's keeping us here in the first place?

But what 's keeping us here in the first place ?


Everything with mass in the universe attracts every other thing with mass.

Everything with mass in the universe attracts every other thing with mass .


We call this phenomenon gravity.


The closer you are to a big chunk of mass, the stronger the attraction or the more you're pulled in.

The closer you are to a big chunk of mass , the stronger the attraction or the more you 're pulled in .


This effect traps us on Earth.


We can imagine this as being prisoners in a gravity prison or a gravity well.

We can imagine this as being prisoners in a gravity prison or a gravity well .


It's not a literal well, but a handy concept to understand how this works.

It 's not a literal well , but a handy concept to understand how this works .


Being in a gravity prison means that you owe gravity energy.

Being in a gravity prison means that you owe gravity energy .


But how can you owe energy?


Because in our universe, things don't want to change their speed or direction.

Because in our universe , things do n't want to change their speed or direction .


To convince them to move, you have to expend energy.

To convince them to move , you have to expend energy .


Billions of years ago, the gravitational attraction of trillions of trillions of dust particles orbiting our sun pulled them together until they formed a planet.

Billions of years ago , the gravitational attraction of trillions of trillions of dust particles orbiting our sun pulled them together until they formed a planet .


This process used energy and created the gravity well we're now a part of.

This process used energy and created the gravity well we 're now a part of .


The deeper you are inside a gravity well, the more energy you owe gravity.

The deeper you are inside a gravity well , the more energy you owe gravity .


If you don't find a way to get enough energy, you're not able to leave, no matter what you do.

If you do n't find a way to get enough energy , you 're not able to leave , no matter what you do .


Because your atoms were once part of the dust that the universe expended energy on to get to this place.

Because your atoms were once part of the dust that the universe expended energy on to get to this place .


Okay, hmm, let's summarize all of that again.

Okay , hmm , let 's summarize all of that again .


Objects in the universe don't like to move.

Objects in the universe do n't like to move .


You have to convince them to do so with energy.

You have to convince them to do so with energy .


Gravity used energy to convince the parts that make up our planet to move together.

Gravity used energy to convince the parts that make up our planet to move together .


This created a gravity prison in the process, trapping us.

This created a gravity prison in the process , trapping us .


To escape it, we need to repay it with energy.

To escape it , we need to repay it with energy .


Okay, how do we do that?


To get into space, we need to go through a complicated process of exchanging energy.

To get into space , we need to go through a complicated process of exchanging energy .


For this purpose, we build negative potential energy repaying machines, known by their more boring name, rockets.

For this purpose , we build negative potential energy repaying machines , known by their more boring name , rockets .


Rockets work by using some of the most energetic chemical reactions humans know about to basically explode fuel in a controlled way.

Rockets work by using some of the most energetic chemical reactions humans know about to basically explode fuel in a controlled way .


This converts chemical energy into kinetic energy.

This converts chemical energy into kinetic energy .


The exhaust of the reaction is directed outwards and pushes the rocket away from Earth.

The exhaust of the reaction is directed outwards and pushes the rocket away from Earth .


By expending a lot of energy, we are increasing our gravitational potential energy, which is a complicated way to say that we're paying back our energy debt to gravity.

By expending a lot of energy , we are increasing our gravitational potential energy , which is a complicated way to say that we 're paying back our energy debt to gravity .


But it's actually a lot trickier than that.

But it 's actually a lot trickier than that .


When you burn fuel to get into orbit, you lose lots of energy to heat, the exhaust, and atmospheric drag, so you actually need much more.

When you burn fuel to get into orbit , you lose lots of energy to heat , the exhaust , and atmospheric drag , so you actually need much more .


And you can't just pile a huge amount of really explosive, dangerous fuel close to your payload and detonate it.

And you ca n't just pile a huge amount of really explosive , dangerous fuel close to your payload and detonate it .


You need a controlled burn, which is complicated and makes your rocket very heavy, which means it has more mass.

You need a controlled burn , which is complicated and makes your rocket very heavy , which means it has more mass .


The more mass something has, the more energy you need to convince it to move.

The more mass something has , the more energy you need to convince it to move .


So you need more fuel to lift up your rocket.

So you need more fuel to lift up your rocket .


But if you need more fuel, that means you need more rocket to carry that fuel.

But if you need more fuel , that means you need more rocket to carry that fuel .


But this makes your rocket heavier, thus requiring more fuel, which requires more rocket to carry that new fuel, and so on.

But this makes your rocket heavier , thus requiring more fuel , which requires more rocket to carry that new fuel , and so on .


At the end of this madness, you need closer to a hundred times the weight of your payload to launch.

At the end of this madness , you need closer to a hundred times the weight of your payload to launch .


Ariane 6, for example, the European rocket, will weigh 800 tons and should be able to transport 10 tons into geostationary transfer orbit or 20 tons into medium Earth orbit.

Ariane 6 , for example , the European rocket , will weigh 800 tons and should be able to transport 10 tons into geostationary transfer orbit or 20 tons into medium Earth orbit .


But a rocket can only produce so much thrust, so there's a maximum weight after which it just won't take off.

But a rocket can only produce so much thrust , so there 's a maximum weight after which it just wo n't take off .


If you add too much weight, it won't lift off, so you can't just build bigger and bigger fuel tanks.

If you add too much weight , it wo n't lift off , so you ca n't just build bigger and bigger fuel tanks .


This is the tyranny of the rocket equation, and it means spaceflight will never become easy.

This is the tyranny of the rocket equation , and it means spaceflight will never become easy .


But wait, it gets worse.


Getting to space is still not good enough.

Getting to space is still not good enough .


You're still inside the gravity prison at the edge of space and will crash back to Earth.

You 're still inside the gravity prison at the edge of space and will crash back to Earth .


Staying in space is much harder than getting there.

Staying in space is much harder than getting there .


To get to a stable position where it can stay for a while, a rocket has to reach low Earth orbit.

To get to a stable position where it can stay for a while , a rocket has to reach low Earth orbit .


To do this, you need a lot of kinetic energy, which means going extremely fast.

To do this , you need a lot of kinetic energy , which means going extremely fast .


At an altitude of about 100 kilometers, this is 8 kilometers per second, 28,000 kilometers per hour.

At an altitude of about 100 kilometers , this is 8 kilometers per second , 28,000 kilometers per hour .


Here, we can use a trick.


Instead of flying straight up, we can go sideways.

Instead of flying straight up , we can go sideways .


Earth is a sphere, so if you're going sideways fast enough, even though you're falling towards Earth, the ground will curve away beneath you.

Earth is a sphere , so if you 're going sideways fast enough , even though you 're falling towards Earth , the ground will curve away beneath you .


So as long as you're above the atmosphere, about 100 kilometers up, you'll be able to stay up there in orbit.

So as long as you 're above the atmosphere , about 100 kilometers up , you 'll be able to stay up there in orbit .


This is what the ISS does, falling around Earth, expending energy from time to time to stay fast enough.

This is what the ISS does , falling around Earth , expending energy from time to time to stay fast enough .


If we look at orbits in scale, we see that near-Earth orbit is laughably close to Earth.

If we look at orbits in scale , we see that near - Earth orbit is laughably close to Earth .


To deploy, for example, satellites or leave for other planets requires another round of energy debt repayment.

To deploy , for example , satellites or leave for other planets requires another round of energy debt repayment .


Getting to orbit is the most difficult part of spaceflight for us right now.

Getting to orbit is the most difficult part of spaceflight for us right now .


For example, if we want to send a rocket to Mars, half the energy is necessary just to get into orbit, and the other half for the 55 million kilometers to Mars.

For example , if we want to send a rocket to Mars , half the energy is necessary just to get into orbit , and the other half for the 55 million kilometers to Mars .


Therefore, to be as effective as possible, rockets aren't built in one giant piece.

Therefore , to be as effective as possible , rockets are n't built in one giant piece .


Instead, we use multistage rockets.


You don't need to carry an empty fuel tank, so rockets drop it.

You do n't need to carry an empty fuel tank , so rockets drop it .


Rockets today shed their boosters and main stage as they ascend, with each successive stage being its own fully contained rocket, complete with its own engine and fuel.

Rockets today shed their boosters and main stage as they ascend , with each successive stage being its own fully contained rocket , complete with its own engine and fuel .


Okay, so this is why getting to space is hard.

Okay , so this is why getting to space is hard .


If you feel all of this seems really complicated, don't worry.

If you feel all of this seems really complicated , do n't worry .


It's literally rocket science.


This video was made possible in part by a sponsorship by Airbus Safran Launches and Arianespace, who are getting their new Ariane 6 rocket ready to launch into space in 2020.

This video was made possible in part by a sponsorship by Airbus Safran Launches and Arianespace , who are getting their new Ariane 6 rocket ready to launch into space in 2020 .


You can learn more about the rocket here.

You can learn more about the rocket here .


And as always, if you like what we do, please consider supporting us on Patreon.com.

And as always , if you like what we do , please consider supporting us on Patreon.com .


It really helps us out a lot.


If you're craving more space stuff now, here's a playlist for you.

If you 're craving more space stuff now , here 's a playlist for you .


Black holes are one of the strangest things in existence.

Black holes are one of the strangest things in existence .


They don't seem to make any sense at all.

They do n't seem to make any sense at all .


Where do they come from?


And what happens if you fall into one?


Stars are incredibly massive collections of mostly hydrogen atoms that collapse from enormous gas clouds under their own gravity.

Stars are incredibly massive collections of mostly hydrogen atoms that collapse from enormous gas clouds under their own gravity .


In their core, nuclear fusion crushes hydrogen atoms into helium, releasing a tremendous amount of energy.

In their core , nuclear fusion crushes hydrogen atoms into helium , releasing a tremendous amount of energy .


This energy, in the form of radiation, pushes against gravity, maintaining a delicate balance between the two forces.

This energy , in the form of radiation , pushes against gravity , maintaining a delicate balance between the two forces .


As long as there is fusion in the core, a star remains stable enough.

As long as there is fusion in the core , a star remains stable enough .


But for stars with way more mass than our own sun, the heat and pressure at the core allow them to fuse heavier elements until they reach iron.

But for stars with way more mass than our own sun , the heat and pressure at the core allow them to fuse heavier elements until they reach iron .


Unlike all the elements that went before, the fusion process that creates iron doesn't generate any energy.

Unlike all the elements that went before , the fusion process that creates iron does n't generate any energy .


Iron builds up at the center of the star until it reaches a critical amount, and the balance between radiation and gravity is suddenly broken.

Iron builds up at the center of the star until it reaches a critical amount , and the balance between radiation and gravity is suddenly broken .


The core collapses.


Within a fraction of a second, the star implodes, moving at about a quarter of the speed of light, feeding even more mass into the core.

Within a fraction of a second , the star implodes , moving at about a quarter of the speed of light , feeding even more mass into the core .


It's at this very moment that all the heavier elements in the universe are created as the star dies in a supernova explosion.

It 's at this very moment that all the heavier elements in the universe are created as the star dies in a supernova explosion .


This produces either a neutron star, or if the star is massive enough, the entire mass of the core collapses into a black hole.

This produces either a neutron star , or if the star is massive enough , the entire mass of the core collapses into a black hole .


If you looked at a black hole, what you'd really be seeing is the event horizon.

If you looked at a black hole , what you 'd really be seeing is the event horizon .


Anything that crosses the event horizon needs to be traveling faster than the speed of light to escape.

Anything that crosses the event horizon needs to be traveling faster than the speed of light to escape .


In other words, it's impossible.


So we just see a black sphere reflecting nothing.

So we just see a black sphere reflecting nothing .


But if the event horizon is the black part, what is the whole part of the black hole?

But if the event horizon is the black part , what is the whole part of the black hole ?


We're not sure what it is exactly.


A singularity may be infinitely dense, meaning all its mass is concentrated into a single point in space with no surface or volume, or something completely different.

A singularity may be infinitely dense , meaning all its mass is concentrated into a single point in space with no surface or volume , or something completely different .


Right now, we just don't know.


It's like a dividing by zero error.


By the way, black holes do not suck things up like a vacuum cleaner.

By the way , black holes do not suck things up like a vacuum cleaner .


If we were to swap the sun for an equally massive black hole, nothing much would change for Earth, except that we would freeze to death, of course.

If we were to swap the sun for an equally massive black hole , nothing much would change for Earth , except that we would freeze to death , of course .


What would happen to you if you fell into a black hole?

What would happen to you if you fell into a black hole ?


The experience of time is different around black holes.

The experience of time is different around black holes .


From the outside, you seem to slow down as you approach the event horizon, so time passes slower for you.

From the outside , you seem to slow down as you approach the event horizon , so time passes slower for you .


At some point, you would appear to freeze in time, slowly turn red, and disappear.

At some point , you would appear to freeze in time , slowly turn red , and disappear .


While from your perspective, you can watch the rest of the universe in fast-forward, kind of like seeing into the future.

While from your perspective , you can watch the rest of the universe in fast - forward , kind of like seeing into the future .


Right now, we don't know what happens next, but we think it could be one of two things.

Right now , we do n't know what happens next , but we think it could be one of two things .


A black hole curves space so much, that once you cross the event horizon, there is only one possible direction.

A black hole curves space so much , that once you cross the event horizon , there is only one possible direction .


You can take this literally.


Inside the event horizon, you can only go in one direction.

Inside the event horizon , you can only go in one direction .


It's like being in a really tight alley that closes behind you after each step.

It 's like being in a really tight alley that closes behind you after each step .


The mass of a black hole is so concentrated, at some point, even tiny distances of a few centimeters would mean that gravity acts with millions of times more force on different parts of your body.

The mass of a black hole is so concentrated , at some point , even tiny distances of a few centimeters would mean that gravity acts with millions of times more force on different parts of your body .


Your cells get torn apart as your body stretches more and more until you're a hot stream of plasma, one atom wide.

Your cells get torn apart as your body stretches more and more until you 're a hot stream of plasma , one atom wide .


Very soon after you cross the event horizon, you would hit a firewall and be terminated in an instant.

Very soon after you cross the event horizon , you would hit a firewall and be terminated in an instant .


Neither of these options are particularly pleasant.

Neither of these options are particularly pleasant .


How soon you would die depends on the mass of the black hole.

How soon you would die depends on the mass of the black hole .


A smaller black hole would kill you before you even entered its event horizon, while you probably could travel inside a supermassive black hole for quite a while.

A smaller black hole would kill you before you even entered its event horizon , while you probably could travel inside a supermassive black hole for quite a while .


As a rule of thumb, the further away from the singularity you are, the longer you live.

As a rule of thumb , the further away from the singularity you are , the longer you live .


Black holes come in different sizes.


There are stellar mass black holes, with a few times the mass of the sun and the diameter of an asteroid.

There are stellar mass black holes , with a few times the mass of the sun and the diameter of an asteroid .


And then there are these supermassive black holes, which are found at the heart of every galaxy and have been feeding for billions of years.

And then there are these supermassive black holes , which are found at the heart of every galaxy and have been feeding for billions of years .


Currently, the largest supermassive black hole known is S50014+81, 40 billion times the mass of our sun.

Currently , the largest supermassive black hole known is S50014 + 81 , 40 billion times the mass of our sun .


It is 236.7 billion kilometers in diameter, which is 47 times the distance from the sun to Pluto.

It is 236.7 billion kilometers in diameter , which is 47 times the distance from the sun to Pluto .


As powerful as black holes are, they will eventually evaporate through a process called Hawking radiation.

As powerful as black holes are , they will eventually evaporate through a process called Hawking radiation .


To understand how this works, we have to look at empty space.

To understand how this works , we have to look at empty space .


Empty space is not really empty, but filled with virtual particles popping into existence and annihilating each other again.

Empty space is not really empty , but filled with virtual particles popping into existence and annihilating each other again .


When this happens right on the edge of a black hole, one of the virtual particles will be drawn into the black hole and the other will escape and become a real particle.

When this happens right on the edge of a black hole , one of the virtual particles will be drawn into the black hole and the other will escape and become a real particle .


So the black hole is losing energy.


This happens incredibly slowly at first and gets faster as the black hole becomes smaller.

This happens incredibly slowly at first and gets faster as the black hole becomes smaller .


When it arrives at the mass of a large asteroid, it's radiating at room temperature.

When it arrives at the mass of a large asteroid , it 's radiating at room temperature .


When it has the mass of a mountain, it radiates with about the heat of our sun,

When it has the mass of a mountain , it radiates with about the heat of our sun ,


and in the last second of its life, the black hole radiates away with the energy of billions of nuclear bombs in a huge explosion.

and in the last second of its life , the black hole radiates away with the energy of billions of nuclear bombs in a huge explosion .


But this process is incredibly slow.


The biggest black holes we know might take up to a googol years to evaporate.

The biggest black holes we know might take up to a googol years to evaporate .


This is so long that when the last black hole radiates away, nobody will be around to witness it.

This is so long that when the last black hole radiates away , nobody will be around to witness it .


The universe will have become uninhabitable long before then.

The universe will have become uninhabitable long before then .


This is not the end of our story.


There are loads more interesting ideas about black holes.

There are loads more interesting ideas about black holes .


We'll explore them in part 2.


By the way, we've made some Kurzgesagt wallpapers in 4K for different screen sizes.

By the way , we 've made some Kurzgesagt wallpapers in 4 K for different screen sizes .


You can get them on our Patreon page, which also helps us to make more videos.

You can get them on our Patreon page , which also helps us to make more videos .


Every two years, one million Japanese disappear.

Every two years , one million Japanese disappear .


China's population will halve by the end of the century.

China 's population will halve by the end of the century .


The median age in Italy has reached 48.

The median age in Italy has reached 48 .


All around the world, birth rates are crashing.

All around the world , birth rates are crashing .


Is humanity dying out?


What's going on?


And how bad is it?


For hundreds of thousands of years, the human population barely grew at all, haunted by disease, famine and war, until the Industrial Revolution.

For hundreds of thousands of years , the human population barely grew at all , haunted by disease , famine and war , until the Industrial Revolution .


Exponential progress led to exponential growth, pushing our numbers to 6 billion in the year 1999, and 8 billion just 24 years later.

Exponential progress led to exponential growth , pushing our numbers to 6 billion in the year 1999 , and 8 billion just 24 years later .


And our numbers will continue to rise for at least another 60 years.

And our numbers will continue to rise for at least another 60 years .


But this growth obscures something.


People kind of stopped having babies.


For a stable population, every couple needs to have two children on average.

For a stable population , every couple needs to have two children on average .


If the number is higher, it grows.


If lower, it shrinks.


If it's well below, it shrinks a lot and quickly.

If it 's well below , it shrinks a lot and quickly .


Its fertility rate lay at 0.8 children per woman in 2022, the lowest in the world.

Its fertility rate lay at 0.8 children per woman in 2022 , the lowest in the world .


This means 100 South Koreans of childbearing age today will have 40 kids, who then will have 16 kids, who then will have 6.

This means 100 South Koreans of childbearing age today will have 40 kids , who then will have 16 kids , who then will have 6 .


If nothing changes, then within 100 years, there will be 94% fewer young people and South Korea will see a population implosion.

If nothing changes , then within 100 years , there will be 94 % fewer young people and South Korea will see a population implosion .


We have yet to see if there's a bottom to fertility rates.

We have yet to see if there 's a bottom to fertility rates .


Although looking at the bigger picture and absolute numbers, this population will not shrink that much.

Although looking at the bigger picture and absolute numbers , this population will not shrink that much .


It simply returns to the level it once was.

It simply returns to the level it once was .


In 1950, there were 20 million South Koreans.

In 1950 , there were 20 million South Koreans .


In 2023, there are 52 million.


And by 2100, there will be 24 million again.

And by 2100 , there will be 24 million again .


But the issue is not that there will be fewer South Koreans.

But the issue is not that there will be fewer South Koreans .


The issue is the composition of the population.

The issue is the composition of the population .


In 1950, the median age was 18.


In 2023, it's 45.


In 2100, it will be 59.


And South Korea is far from alone.


China may be seeing the steepest population reversal in history, unstoppable at this point.

China may be seeing the steepest population reversal in history , unstoppable at this point .


Rapid industrialization, urbanization and rising incomes meant that the Chinese started to prefer smaller families.

Rapid industrialization , urbanization and rising incomes meant that the Chinese started to prefer smaller families .


That, plus the introduction of the one-child policy, which aimed to slow population growth, means that China has had a low fertility rate for decades.

That , plus the introduction of the one - child policy , which aimed to slow population growth , means that China has had a low fertility rate for decades .


With a fertility rate of 1.16 births per woman, within four generations, 100 young Chinese will turn into 20.

With a fertility rate of 1.16 births per woman , within four generations , 100 young Chinese will turn into 20 .


China's fertility rates are now one of the lowest in East Asia, lower than even Japan's.

China 's fertility rates are now one of the lowest in East Asia , lower than even Japan 's .


In comparison, Europe's depopulation is much slower, despite low fertility, since unlike Asia, most states have had a steady flow of immigrants.

In comparison , Europe 's depopulation is much slower , despite low fertility , since unlike Asia , most states have had a steady flow of immigrants .


The impact is complex, as a good chunk of immigrants come from other low fertility rate areas.

The impact is complex , as a good chunk of immigrants come from other low fertility rate areas .


The number of immigrant women who do have a lot of children is not yet high enough to make a big dent,

The number of immigrant women who do have a lot of children is not yet high enough to make a big dent ,


and fertility rates of immigrants tend to adjust to the native population within two to three generations.

and fertility rates of immigrants tend to adjust to the native population within two to three generations .


In Eastern Europe, the decline has sped up even more because many young people have emigrated to stronger economies,

In Eastern Europe , the decline has sped up even more because many young people have emigrated to stronger economies ,


Latin America fell below replacement in 2015.

Latin America fell below replacement in 2015 .


In the US, immigration is the only thing keeping the population growing substantially.

In the US , immigration is the only thing keeping the population growing substantially .


There are still places where fertility rates have not fallen below replacement yet.

There are still places where fertility rates have not fallen below replacement yet .


In much of the Middle East, North and Sub-Saharan Africa, fertility is still high,

In much of the Middle East , North and Sub - Saharan Africa , fertility is still high ,


But recently, the UN has reduced its forecast for Africa's population drastically.

But recently , the UN has reduced its forecast for Africa 's population drastically .


For Nigeria, estimates were lowered from 733 million to 546 million by 2100.

For Nigeria , estimates were lowered from 733 million to 546 million by 2100 .


Similar trends are being noted across the continent.

Similar trends are being noted across the continent .


As Africa develops, fertility rates are shrinking much faster than anticipated.

As Africa develops , fertility rates are shrinking much faster than anticipated .


It's becoming more likely that East Asia's story will repeat itself.

It 's becoming more likely that East Asia 's story will repeat itself .


By the end of the century, most places in Africa may be below replacement too.

By the end of the century , most places in Africa may be below replacement too .


So declining birth rates and aging populations have become a general trend all over the world.

So declining birth rates and aging populations have become a general trend all over the world .


Why is all of this a big deal?


For a functioning society, you need enough people to sustain the prime of their lives.

For a functioning society , you need enough people to sustain the prime of their lives .


Young and middle-aged people do most of the work.

Young and middle - aged people do most of the work .


In any economic system, working-age people create a society's wealth.

In any economic system , working - age people create a society 's wealth .


In retirement, you stop contributing as much to the economy.

In retirement , you stop contributing as much to the economy .


But the majority of health care costs are generated by seniors.

But the majority of health care costs are generated by seniors .


The way the world worked in the past was that a lot of younger people took care of a few older people.

The way the world worked in the past was that a lot of younger people took care of a few older people .


Imagine a society where most people are older than 60.

Imagine a society where most people are older than 60 .


The financial burden for the young will be immense, and it will be unsustainable even for the richest countries.

The financial burden for the young will be immense , and it will be unsustainable even for the richest countries .


Even in the best case, this will mean people having to work way longer, exploding health care costs and poverty,

Even in the best case , this will mean people having to work way longer , exploding health care costs and poverty ,


Technology might soften the blow, but can't compensate entirely.

Technology might soften the blow , but ca n't compensate entirely .


We can see this happening already.


11 out of 31 provinces in China are running deficits for their pension funds.

11 out of 31 provinces in China are running deficits for their pension funds .


They got old before they got rich, and now they can't really catch up anymore.

They got old before they got rich , and now they ca n't really catch up anymore .


China's working-age population is predicted to fall by 20%, or 200 million people by 2050, as much as today's entire working-age population of the US.

China 's working - age population is predicted to fall by 20 % , or 200 million people by 2050 , as much as today 's entire working - age population of the US .


Infrastructure collapse is an almost universal constant of population decline,

Infrastructure collapse is an almost universal constant of population decline ,


because infrastructure works at scale and doesn't get cheaper to operate if it's used by fewer people.

because infrastructure works at scale and does n't get cheaper to operate if it 's used by fewer people .


If a population declines, be it because of urbanization or the loss of industry and employment,

If a population declines , be it because of urbanization or the loss of industry and employment ,


once people and their income disappear, the resources necessary to sustain infrastructure disappear too.

once people and their income disappear , the resources necessary to sustain infrastructure disappear too .


You can see it in many depopulated towns and cities in East Germany that suffered sharp population decline after German reunification.

You can see it in many depopulated towns and cities in East Germany that suffered sharp population decline after German reunification .


Or look at Japan.


You can tour the countryside to see dying towns.

You can tour the countryside to see dying towns .


Wait, if there are fewer people, won't life get cheaper and better, and there'll be more resources to go around?

Wait , if there are fewer people , wo n't life get cheaper and better , and there 'll be more resources to go around ?


Population decline doesn't lead to prosperity.

Population decline does n't lead to prosperity .


It's people's ideas and work that create our prosperity, not the mere availability of resources.

It 's people 's ideas and work that create our prosperity , not the mere availability of resources .


Another danger for aging societies is that elected governments could decide to mostly represent the interests and fears of their elderly populations,

Another danger for aging societies is that elected governments could decide to mostly represent the interests and fears of their elderly populations ,


That's not a society that can handle issues like climate change, which need massive investment and fresh ideas, something the world is already having a hard time with.

That 's not a society that can handle issues like climate change , which need massive investment and fresh ideas , something the world is already having a hard time with .


Many people think that having fewer humans on Earth is actually a good thing because our societies are too unsustainable,

Many people think that having fewer humans on Earth is actually a good thing because our societies are too unsustainable ,


we're using up too many resources, and because of climate change.

we 're using up too many resources , and because of climate change .


The problem is that even if you want fewer humans, this process is very likely too slow to have a positive impact on the environment.

The problem is that even if you want fewer humans , this process is very likely too slow to have a positive impact on the environment .


The world population is going to grow for at least 60 more years before it may shrink again.

The world population is going to grow for at least 60 more years before it may shrink again .


By then, we have to solve climate change.

By then , we have to solve climate change .


Likewise, any other upsides a lower population might have will most likely not materialize themselves this century.

Likewise , any other upsides a lower population might have will most likely not materialize themselves this century .


So, just like in poor people, the easiest solution seems to be immigration, but the fertility of immigrants adjusts to local levels within three generations.

So , just like in poor people , the easiest solution seems to be immigration , but the fertility of immigrants adjusts to local levels within three generations .


So you need a constant influx of new migrants, which is not sustainable long-term as birth rates are dropping everywhere.

So you need a constant influx of new migrants , which is not sustainable long - term as birth rates are dropping everywhere .


The only way would be to keep poor countries poor so that the young and motivated migrate to developed countries looking for opportunity and a better life.

The only way would be to keep poor countries poor so that the young and motivated migrate to developed countries looking for opportunity and a better life .


By the end of the century, Africa will have the highest number of young people in the world,

By the end of the century , Africa will have the highest number of young people in the world ,


and so African migrants might become the world's most sought-after immigrants, with elderly nations fighting hard for every person willing to make the move.

and so African migrants might become the world 's most sought - after immigrants , with elderly nations fighting hard for every person willing to make the move .


Immigration can also create societal or cultural tensions, which is a universal phenomenon in all cultures,

Immigration can also create societal or cultural tensions , which is a universal phenomenon in all cultures ,


especially when cultures with very different sets of values meet, often leading to a backlash that slows immigration down again.

especially when cultures with very different sets of values meet , often leading to a backlash that slows immigration down again .


It's easy to be frustrated at this, but ignoring this will only divide societies, empower demagogues, and increase xenophobia.

It 's easy to be frustrated at this , but ignoring this will only divide societies , empower demagogues , and increase xenophobia .


Economically, immigration is largely beneficial for societies, even if this seems counterintuitive to many people.

Economically , immigration is largely beneficial for societies , even if this seems counterintuitive to many people .


Especially countries like the US, an immigrant nation built on the idea of personal freedom and opportunity through hard work, will benefit the most.

Especially countries like the US , an immigrant nation built on the idea of personal freedom and opportunity through hard work , will benefit the most .


Countries like this will have a clear advantage this century, especially if they can attract the world's brightest and most ambitious.

Countries like this will have a clear advantage this century , especially if they can attract the world 's brightest and most ambitious .


This topic is way too big, affects societies as diverse as literally all of humanity.

This topic is way too big , affects societies as diverse as literally all of humanity .


So, please take this part with a gigantic grain of salt.

So , please take this part with a gigantic grain of salt .


Obviously, we're looking at this from our Central European perspective.

Obviously , we 're looking at this from our Central European perspective .


One way to look at falling birth rates is as a side effect of the world being less bad than it was.

One way to look at falling birth rates is as a side effect of the world being less bad than it was .


Especially women are freer, more educated, and wealthier than in the past.

Especially women are freer , more educated , and wealthier than in the past .


But it turns out that if societies are better off, individuals often decide to have fewer kids.

But it turns out that if societies are better off , individuals often decide to have fewer kids .


Interestingly, there's a gap between how many kids people want and how many they're having.

Interestingly , there 's a gap between how many kids people want and how many they 're having .


The mean number of kids women in Europe want is around 2.3, much more than they're actually having.

The mean number of kids women in Europe want is around 2.3 , much more than they 're actually having .


While we gained a lot of freedoms in the last century, across continents and economic systems, that came at a cost.

While we gained a lot of freedoms in the last century , across continents and economic systems , that came at a cost .


Today, young parents have to deal with different challenges and societal expectations.

Today , young parents have to deal with different challenges and societal expectations .


Women are kind of ground down between the wish and expectation to have a family and a career, being pressured to do both, but not compromise either.

Women are kind of ground down between the wish and expectation to have a family and a career , being pressured to do both , but not compromise either .


Men are sharing parental duties more equally than they used to, but are often still expected to be the provider.

Men are sharing parental duties more equally than they used to , but are often still expected to be the provider .


And it's sadly true that usually at least one parent's career is held back.

And it 's sadly true that usually at least one parent 's career is held back .


In many developed countries, the gender pay gap is chiefly a pay gap between mothers and everyone else.

In many developed countries , the gender pay gap is chiefly a pay gap between mothers and everyone else .


But it's not just outside pressure.


Our culture of individualism probably plays a role too.

Our culture of individualism probably plays a role too .


We have only one life to explore, be free, travel, have fun, accomplish something and try to be happy.

We have only one life to explore , be free , travel , have fun , accomplish something and try to be happy .


So people commit to partners later in life and often decide against big families or any at all.

So people commit to partners later in life and often decide against big families or any at all .


And that's fair.


Nobody owes their country babies.


So far, no country has successfully managed to increase birth rates significantly, so as of now, we don't really know what works.

So far , no country has successfully managed to increase birth rates significantly , so as of now , we do n't really know what works .


But here are a few options to at least make the lives of parents much easier.

But here are a few options to at least make the lives of parents much easier .


Parenthood has to stop being a career obstacle, and our culture needs to become more positive towards families.

Parenthood has to stop being a career obstacle , and our culture needs to become more positive towards families .


And that's something we can all work on.

And that 's something we can all work on .


The next time you sit next to a crying baby, don't be a jerk about it.

The next time you sit next to a crying baby , do n't be a jerk about it .


Kids are hard.


In the end, humanity will not die out because we're having fewer babies.

In the end , humanity will not die out because we 're having fewer babies .


The age and composition of our societies changes quickly, and we need to deal with that sooner rather than later.

The age and composition of our societies changes quickly , and we need to deal with that sooner rather than later .


But in the end, of all the incredibly hard challenges we've faced before, why would this be the one we can't solve?

But in the end , of all the incredibly hard challenges we 've faced before , why would this be the one we ca n't solve ?


Getting to the bottom of the population crash starts with analyzing and interpreting massive amounts of data.

Getting to the bottom of the population crash starts with analyzing and interpreting massive amounts of data .


And if you're looking for a free way to start building your data skills, which are more essential than ever these days, we recommend Brilliant.org.

And if you 're looking for a free way to start building your data skills , which are more essential than ever these days , we recommend Brilliant.org .


Brilliant's latest course, Predicting with Probability, will teach you everything you need to get started in data science.

Brilliant 's latest course , Predicting with Probability , will teach you everything you need to get started in data science .


You'll analyze vast data sets, compare distributions, and master fundamental concepts that are key to some of the most in-demand careers in today's world.

You 'll analyze vast data sets , compare distributions , and master fundamental concepts that are key to some of the most in - demand careers in today 's world .


Beyond data, Brilliant is the best way to master key concepts in everything from maths and science to computer science and programming.

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Just set your goal and Brilliant designs the perfect path and equips you with the right tools to reach it.

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They have thousands of lessons to explore, and each one is interactive like a one-on-one version of a Kurzgesagt video.

They have thousands of lessons to explore , and each one is interactive like a one - on - one version of a Kurzgesagt video .


We've actually designed a whole series of lessons in collaboration with our friends at Brilliant that cover the topics from our most popular videos,

We 've actually designed a whole series of lessons in collaboration with our friends at Brilliant that cover the topics from our most popular videos ,


And you can try them and many more for free today.

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To get hands-on with Kurzgesagt lessons and explore everything Brilliant has to offer, you can start your free 30-day trial by signing up at brilliant.org/nutshell.

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There's even an extra perk for Kurzgesagt viewers.

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Humans love meat.


Steak, fried chicken, bacon, pork belly and sausages are just the best things.

Steak , fried chicken , bacon , pork belly and sausages are just the best things .


Eating meat has become so trivial that many people don't consider something a proper meal if there's no animal involved.

Eating meat has become so trivial that many people do n't consider something a proper meal if there 's no animal involved .


Today, you can get a cheeseburger for a dollar.

Today , you can get a cheeseburger for a dollar .


Paradoxically, meat is pretty much the most inefficient way of feeding humans.

Paradoxically , meat is pretty much the most inefficient way of feeding humans .


If we look at it on a global scale, our meaty diet is literally eating up the planet.

If we look at it on a global scale , our meaty diet is literally eating up the planet .


Why is that and what can we do about it without giving up steak?

Why is that and what can we do about it without giving up steak ?


Humans keep a lot of animals for food.


That's a lot of mouths to feed, so we've transformed Earth into a giant feeding ground.

That 's a lot of mouths to feed , so we 've transformed Earth into a giant feeding ground .


83% of its farmland is used for livestock, for example as pasture and to farm fodder crops like corn and soy.

83 % of its farmland is used for livestock , for example as pasture and to farm fodder crops like corn and soy .


That's 26% of Earth's total land area.

That 's 26 % of Earth 's total land area .


If we include the water we need for these plants, meat and dairy production accounts for 27% of global freshwater consumption.

If we include the water we need for these plants , meat and dairy production accounts for 27 % of global freshwater consumption .


Unfortunately, meat production is like a black hole for resources.

Unfortunately , meat production is like a black hole for resources .


Since animals are living things, most of their food is used to keep them alive while they grow their tasty parts.

Since animals are living things , most of their food is used to keep them alive while they grow their tasty parts .


Only a fraction of the nutrients from fodder crops end up in the meat we buy in the end.

Only a fraction of the nutrients from fodder crops end up in the meat we buy in the end .


Cows, for example, convert only about 4% of the proteins and 3% of the calories of the plants we feed to them into beef.

Cows , for example , convert only about 4 % of the proteins and 3 % of the calories of the plants we feed to them into beef .


More than 97% of the calories are lost to us.

More than 97 % of the calories are lost to us .


To create 1 kg of steak, a cow needs to eat up to 25 kg of grain and uses up to 15,000 liters of water.

To create 1 kg of steak , a cow needs to eat up to 25 kg of grain and uses up to 15,000 liters of water .


Animal products are guzzling up tons of food, but they only make up 18% of the calories humans eat.

Animal products are guzzling up tons of food , but they only make up 18 % of the calories humans eat .


According to projections, we could nourish an additional 3.5 billion people if we just ate the stuff we feed to animals.

According to projections , we could nourish an additional 3.5 billion people if we just ate the stuff we feed to animals .


To make our favorite food group even more unsustainable, about 15% of all greenhouse gas emissions caused by humans are created by the meat industry.

To make our favorite food group even more unsustainable , about 15 % of all greenhouse gas emissions caused by humans are created by the meat industry .


And there's another aspect to meat.


It comes from actual living beings.


Pigs, cattle and chicken are not the ones writing the history books, but if they were, humans would appear as rampant genocidal maniacs that thrive on suffering.

Pigs , cattle and chicken are not the ones writing the history books , but if they were , humans would appear as rampant genocidal maniacs that thrive on suffering .


Globally, we kill about 200 million animals every day.

Globally , we kill about 200 million animals every day .


This means that every one and a half years, we kill more animals than people have lived in the entire 200,000 year history of humanity.

This means that every one and a half years , we kill more animals than people have lived in the entire 200,000 year history of humanity .


One could argue that we're doing them a favor.

One could argue that we 're doing them a favor .