After all, they wouldn't exist without us.

After all , they would n't exist without us .


We might eat them in the end, but we also provide food and shelter and the gift of existence to them.

We might eat them in the end , but we also provide food and shelter and the gift of existence to them .


Unfortunately, we're not very nice gods.

Unfortunately , we 're not very nice gods .


A lot of our meat comes from factory farms, huge industrial systems that house thousands of animals.

A lot of our meat comes from factory farms , huge industrial systems that house thousands of animals .


Engineered to be as efficient as possible, they have little regard for things like quality of life.

Engineered to be as efficient as possible , they have little regard for things like quality of life .


Most pigs are raised in gigantic windowless sheds and never get to see the sun.

Most pigs are raised in gigantic windowless sheds and never get to see the sun .


Sows are kept in pens too small to turn around, where they give birth to one litter of piglets after another until it's their turn to be turned into bacon.

Sows are kept in pens too small to turn around , where they give birth to one litter of piglets after another until it 's their turn to be turned into bacon .


Dairy cows are forced to breed continually to ensure their milk supply, but are separated from their calves hours after birth.

Dairy cows are forced to breed continually to ensure their milk supply , but are separated from their calves hours after birth .


To fatten up beef cattle for slaughter, they're put in feedlots, confined pens where they can't roam, and put on weight more quickly.

To fatten up beef cattle for slaughter , they 're put in feedlots , confined pens where they ca n't roam , and put on weight more quickly .


To make it possible to keep them so tightly together without dying of diseases, the majority of antibiotics we use are for livestock, up to 80% in the US.

To make it possible to keep them so tightly together without dying of diseases , the majority of antibiotics we use are for livestock , up to 80 % in the US .


But the ones that may have got the worst deal are chickens.

But the ones that may have got the worst deal are chickens .


In factory farms, they're kept in such vast numbers and so close to each other that they can't form the social structures they have in nature, so they start attacking each other.

In factory farms , they 're kept in such vast numbers and so close to each other that they ca n't form the social structures they have in nature , so they start attacking each other .


To stop that, we cut their beaks and claws.

To stop that , we cut their beaks and claws .


Male chickens are deemed worthless since they can't lay eggs and are not suitable for meat production,

Male chickens are deemed worthless since they ca n't lay eggs and are not suitable for meat production ,


so within minutes after birth, they're usually gassed and shredded in grinders.

so within minutes after birth , they 're usually gassed and shredded in grinders .


Several hundred million baby chickens are killed this way each year.

Several hundred million baby chickens are killed this way each year .


Even if you had a personal score to settle with chickens, how we treat them is beyond broken.

Even if you had a personal score to settle with chickens , how we treat them is beyond broken .


Organic farming regulations are designed to grant animals a minimum of comfort.

Organic farming regulations are designed to grant animals a minimum of comfort .


The problem is that organic is an elastic term.

The problem is that organic is an elastic term .


According to EU regulations, an organic hen still might share one square meter of space with five others.

According to EU regulations , an organic hen still might share one square meter of space with five others .


That's a long way off from happy farmyard chickens.

That 's a long way off from happy farmyard chickens .


Farms that sincerely do their best do exist, of course.

Farms that sincerely do their best do exist , of course .


But meat is still a business.


An organic label is a way to charge more money, and countless scandals have revealed producers looking for ways to cheat the system.

An organic label is a way to charge more money , and countless scandals have revealed producers looking for ways to cheat the system .


And while organic meat might be less cruel, it needs even more resources than conventional meat production.

And while organic meat might be less cruel , it needs even more resources than conventional meat production .


So, buying organic is still preferable, but does not grant you moral absolution.

So , buying organic is still preferable , but does not grant you moral absolution .


The truth is, if suffering were a resource, we would create billions of tons of it per year.

The truth is , if suffering were a resource , we would create billions of tons of it per year .


The way we treat animals will probably be one of the things future generations will look down on in disgust.

The way we treat animals will probably be one of the things future generations will look down on in disgust .


While all these things are true, something else is true too.

While all these things are true , something else is true too .


Steak is amazing.


Burgers are the best food.


Chicken wings taste great.


Meat satisfies something buried deep in our lizard brain.

Meat satisfies something buried deep in our lizard brain .


We hardly ever see how our meat is made, we just eat it and love it.

We hardly ever see how our meat is made , we just eat it and love it .


It creates joy, it brings us together for family meals and barbecue parties.

It creates joy , it brings us together for family meals and barbecue parties .


Eating meat doesn't make you a bad person, not eating meat doesn't make you a good one.

Eating meat does n't make you a bad person , not eating meat does n't make you a good one .


Life is complicated, and so is the world we've created.

Life is complicated , and so is the world we 've created .


So, how should we deal with the fact that meat is extremely unsustainable and a sort of horrible torture?

So , how should we deal with the fact that meat is extremely unsustainable and a sort of horrible torture ?


For now, the easiest option is opting out more often.

For now , the easiest option is opting out more often .


Taking a meat-free day per week already makes a difference.

Taking a meat - free day per week already makes a difference .


If you want to eat meat produced with less suffering, try to buy from trusted producers with a good track record, even if it costs more.

If you want to eat meat produced with less suffering , try to buy from trusted producers with a good track record , even if it costs more .


To make an impact on the environment, go for chicken and pig rather than lamb and beef, as they convert their feed more efficiently into meat.

To make an impact on the environment , go for chicken and pig rather than lamb and beef , as they convert their feed more efficiently into meat .


And if you're going to have your steak, you should eat it too.

And if you 're going to have your steak , you should eat it too .


An average American throws out nearly a pound of food per day, a lot of which is meat.

An average American throws out nearly a pound of food per day , a lot of which is meat .


In the future, science could get us clean meat.

In the future , science could get us clean meat .


Various startups have successfully grown meat in labs and are working on doing so on a commercial scale.

Various startups have successfully grown meat in labs and are working on doing so on a commercial scale .


But solutions like this are still a few years away.

But solutions like this are still a few years away .


For now, enjoy your steak, but also respect it.

For now , enjoy your steak , but also respect it .


And if you can, make it something special again.

And if you can , make it something special again .


We have something else for you that's also special and tastes even better than steak.

We have something else for you that 's also special and tastes even better than steak .


We get asked a lot how we make our videos.

We get asked a lot how we make our videos .


We thought we'd just show you.


Kurzgesagt teamed up with Skillshare, our favorite online tutorial service, to teach you our unique animation style.

Kurzgesagt teamed up with Skillshare , our favorite online tutorial service , to teach you our unique animation style .


We've just released part 3 of our animation tutorial series where you can learn to animate a scene from our videos.

We 've just released part 3 of our animation tutorial series where you can learn to animate a scene from our videos .


Skillshare is an online learning community with over 20,000 classes in all kinds of cool stuff like writing, illustration, and animation.

Skillshare is an online learning community with over 20,000 classes in all kinds of cool stuff like writing , illustration , and animation .


With their premium membership, you get unlimited access to high-quality classes from skilled professionals.

With their premium membership , you get unlimited access to high - quality classes from skilled professionals .


One of them is us.


And we also snagged a special offer for you.

And we also snagged a special offer for you .


The first 1,000 people to use the link in the description get two months of unlimited access for free.

The first 1,000 people to use the link in the description get two months of unlimited access for free .


If you want to learn how we animate our videos, you can start there today.

If you want to learn how we animate our videos , you can start there today .


Over 40 years ago, US President Richard Nixon declared drug abuse public enemy number one, starting an unprecedented global campaign, the War on Drugs.

Over 40 years ago , US President Richard Nixon declared drug abuse public enemy number one , starting an unprecedented global campaign , the War on Drugs .


Today, the numbers are in.


The War on Drugs is a huge failure with devastating unintended consequences.

The War on Drugs is a huge failure with devastating unintended consequences .


It led to mass incarceration in the US, to corruption, political destabilization and violence in Latin America, Asia and Africa, to systemic human rights abuses across the world.

It led to mass incarceration in the US , to corruption , political destabilization and violence in Latin America , Asia and Africa , to systemic human rights abuses across the world .


It negatively affected the lives of millions of people.

It negatively affected the lives of millions of people .


How could this happen?


The core strategy of the War on Drugs is no drugs, no problems.

The core strategy of the War on Drugs is no drugs , no problems .


So almost all of the efforts in the last few decades have been focused on eradicating the supply of drugs and incarcerating drug traffickers.

So almost all of the efforts in the last few decades have been focused on eradicating the supply of drugs and incarcerating drug traffickers .


But this ignores the most fundamental of market forces, supply and demand.

But this ignores the most fundamental of market forces , supply and demand .


If you reduce the supply of anything without reducing the demand first, its price goes up.

If you reduce the supply of anything without reducing the demand first , its price goes up .


This might lower sales for many products, but not for drugs.

This might lower sales for many products , but not for drugs .


The drugs market is not price sensitive.

The drugs market is not price sensitive .


Drugs will be consumed no matter what they cost.

Drugs will be consumed no matter what they cost .


So the effect is to encourage production of more drugs and recruitment of more traffickers, which increases availability.

So the effect is to encourage production of more drugs and recruitment of more traffickers , which increases availability .


This is also known as the balloon effect.

This is also known as the balloon effect .


Even if drug production or a major supply route is destroyed, the supply for the end user is not reduced.

Even if drug production or a major supply route is destroyed , the supply for the end user is not reduced .


A perfect example of this is crystal meth.

A perfect example of this is crystal meth .


The US government tried to stop its production by strictly regulating the sale of chemicals used to manufacture the drug.

The US government tried to stop its production by strictly regulating the sale of chemicals used to manufacture the drug .


This forced big meth producers out of business, but the unintended consequences were that thousands of small-scale operations started all over the country,

This forced big meth producers out of business , but the unintended consequences were that thousands of small - scale operations started all over the country ,


In response to this, some US states wanted to reduce the supply of homegrown meth by regulating even more chemicals, which reduced small-scale meth production drastically.

In response to this , some US states wanted to reduce the supply of homegrown meth by regulating even more chemicals , which reduced small - scale meth production drastically .


But the supply of meth still stayed the same.

But the supply of meth still stayed the same .


Mexican drug cartels immediately took over and opened big production operations.

Mexican drug cartels immediately took over and opened big production operations .


Their meth was even better than it was before, and they had loads of experience in smuggling.

Their meth was even better than it was before , and they had loads of experience in smuggling .


So all these efforts made meth production more professional, the drug more potent, while supply wasn't reduced at all.

So all these efforts made meth production more professional , the drug more potent , while supply was n't reduced at all .


You can't win this war on the supply side.

You ca n't win this war on the supply side .


Not only are drugs widely available, demand unbroken, and some drugs purer than in the past, with a budget of around $30 billion,

Not only are drugs widely available , demand unbroken , and some drugs purer than in the past , with a budget of around $ 30 billion ,


the US Drug Enforcement Agency has an efficiency rate of less than 1% when it comes to stopping the flow of drugs into the US and inside the US.

the US Drug Enforcement Agency has an efficiency rate of less than 1 % when it comes to stopping the flow of drugs into the US and inside the US .


For many miners around the world, it's as easy to get illegal drugs as alcohol.

For many miners around the world , it 's as easy to get illegal drugs as alcohol .


But it doesn't stop here.


Prohibition may prevent a certain amount of people from taking drugs, but in the process, it causes huge damage to society as a whole.

Prohibition may prevent a certain amount of people from taking drugs , but in the process , it causes huge damage to society as a whole .


Many of the problems we associate with drug use are actually caused by the war against them.

Many of the problems we associate with drug use are actually caused by the war against them .


For example, prohibition makes drugs stronger.

For example , prohibition makes drugs stronger .


The more potent drugs you can store in as little space as possible, the more profit you'll make.

The more potent drugs you can store in as little space as possible , the more profit you 'll make .


It was the same during alcohol prohibition, which led to an increased consumption of strong liquor over beer.

It was the same during alcohol prohibition , which led to an increased consumption of strong liquor over beer .


The prohibition of drugs also led to more violence and murders around the world.

The prohibition of drugs also led to more violence and murders around the world .


Gangs and cartels have no access to the legal system to settle disputes, so they use violence.

Gangs and cartels have no access to the legal system to settle disputes , so they use violence .


This led to an ever-increasing spiral of brutality.

This led to an ever - increasing spiral of brutality .


According to some estimates, the homicide rate in the US is 25-75% higher because of the war on drugs.

According to some estimates , the homicide rate in the US is 25 - 75 % higher because of the war on drugs .


And in Mexico, a country on the front line, an estimated 164,000 have been murdered between 2007 and 2014.

And in Mexico , a country on the front line , an estimated 164,000 have been murdered between 2007 and 2014 .


But where the war on drugs might do the most damage to society is the incarceration of non-violent drug offenders.

But where the war on drugs might do the most damage to society is the incarceration of non - violent drug offenders .


For example, the United States, one of the driving forces of the war on drugs, has 5% of the world's total population,

For example , the United States , one of the driving forces of the war on drugs , has 5 % of the world 's total population ,


Minorities suffer because of this especially.

Minorities suffer because of this especially .


African Americans make up 40% of all US prison inmates.

African Americans make up 40 % of all US prison inmates .


While white kids are more likely to abuse drugs, black kids are 10 times more likely to get arrested for drug offenses.

While white kids are more likely to abuse drugs , black kids are 10 times more likely to get arrested for drug offenses .


Okay, but is there actually something different we can do?

Okay , but is there actually something different we can do ?


Is there a way out of this mess?


In the 1980s, Switzerland experienced a public health crisis related to heroin use.

In the 1980s , Switzerland experienced a public health crisis related to heroin use .


HIV rates skyrocketed and street crime became a problem.

HIV rates skyrocketed and street crime became a problem .


Swiss authorities tried a new strategy, harm reduction.

Swiss authorities tried a new strategy , harm reduction .


They opened free heroin maintenance centers where addicts would be treated and stabilized.

They opened free heroin maintenance centers where addicts would be treated and stabilized .


Here, people would be given free heroin of high quality, they would get clean needles and have access to safe injection rooms, showers, beds and medical supervision.

Here , people would be given free heroin of high quality , they would get clean needles and have access to safe injection rooms , showers , beds and medical supervision .


Social workers helped them find housing and deal with other problems in their lives.

Social workers helped them find housing and deal with other problems in their lives .


The results were a sharp drop in drug-related crime, and two-thirds of the people in the centers got regular jobs

The results were a sharp drop in drug - related crime , and two - thirds of the people in the centers got regular jobs


because now they could focus on getting better instead of financing their addiction.

because now they could focus on getting better instead of financing their addiction .


Today, over 70% of all heroin addicts in Switzerland receive treatment.

Today , over 70 % of all heroin addicts in Switzerland receive treatment .


HIV infections have dropped drastically.

HIV infections have dropped drastically .


Deaths from heroin overdoses have dropped by 50%.

Deaths from heroin overdoses have dropped by 50 % .


And drug-related street sex work and crime has been reduced enormously.

And drug - related street sex work and crime has been reduced enormously .


So there are methods that are not only way cheaper, but also actually work instead of creating more problems.

So there are methods that are not only way cheaper , but also actually work instead of creating more problems .


Drug prohibition led to a system that bulldozes human rights, costs vast sums of money and creates a lot of human misery.

Drug prohibition led to a system that bulldozes human rights , costs vast sums of money and creates a lot of human misery .


After 40 years of fighting, it's time to finally end the war on drugs and move on to something better.

After 40 years of fighting , it 's time to finally end the war on drugs and move on to something better .


This video was supported by the Open Society Foundations and by viewer donations on Patreon.

This video was supported by the Open Society Foundations and by viewer donations on Patreon .


If you want to learn more about how you can influence drug policy, check out the Stop the Harm campaign.

If you want to learn more about how you can influence drug policy , check out the Stop the Harm campaign .


We finally have some merchandise.


If you want your own Kurzgesagt poster, T-shirt, mug or stickers of little monsters, you can get them now at the DFTBA store.

If you want your own Kurzgesagt poster , T - shirt , mug or stickers of little monsters , you can get them now at the DFTBA store .


The universe is incredibly big and seems full of potential for life, with billions of habitable planets.

The universe is incredibly big and seems full of potential for life , with billions of habitable planets .


If an advanced civilization had the technology to travel between the stars at just 0.1% of the speed of light, it could colonize our galaxy in roughly 100 million years.

If an advanced civilization had the technology to travel between the stars at just 0.1 % of the speed of light , it could colonize our galaxy in roughly 100 million years .


So in principle, any spacefaring civilization should be able to spread rapidly over huge sectors of the galaxy.

So in principle , any spacefaring civilization should be able to spread rapidly over huge sectors of the galaxy .


And yet we see nothing, hear nothing.


The universe seems empty, devoid of others.

The universe seems empty , devoid of others .


This is the Fermi Paradox, which we've discussed in more detail in other videos.

This is the Fermi Paradox , which we 've discussed in more detail in other videos .


Confronted with the seemingly empty universe, humanity faces a dilemma.

Confronted with the seemingly empty universe , humanity faces a dilemma .


We desperately want to know if we are alone in the Milky Way.

We desperately want to know if we are alone in the Milky Way .


We want to call out and reveal ourselves to anyone watching, but that could be the last thing we ever do.

We want to call out and reveal ourselves to anyone watching , but that could be the last thing we ever do .


Because maybe the universe is not empty.

Because maybe the universe is not empty .


Maybe it's full of civilizations, but they are hiding from each other.

Maybe it 's full of civilizations , but they are hiding from each other .


Maybe the civilizations that attracted attention in the past were wiped away by invisible arrows.

Maybe the civilizations that attracted attention in the past were wiped away by invisible arrows .


This is the Dark Forest solution to the Fermi Paradox.

This is the Dark Forest solution to the Fermi Paradox .


The hunter awakes in his hiding place and carefully listens for suspicious noises from the thick undergrowth before he gets up.

The hunter awakes in his hiding place and carefully listens for suspicious noises from the thick undergrowth before he gets up .


Another night has passed without incident.

Another night has passed without incident .


The forest is dark and full of fog.


He considers calling out to others to end his loneliness, but stops himself at the last moment.

He considers calling out to others to end his loneliness , but stops himself at the last moment .


All living things seek to survive, secure resources, and multiply.

All living things seek to survive , secure resources , and multiply .


Their greatest obstacle are other living things that share the same objective.

Their greatest obstacle are other living things that share the same objective .


Competition between species favored the survival of beings with advantageous traits.

Competition between species favored the survival of beings with advantageous traits .


Their ancestors were inventive, competitive, expansionist, and greedy for resources, which led them to winning the competition for our planet.

Their ancestors were inventive , competitive , expansionist , and greedy for resources , which led them to winning the competition for our planet .


Today, most other animals are so utterly at our mercy that we wipe out about a dozen species a day just as an unintentional byproduct of how we like to run things.

Today , most other animals are so utterly at our mercy that we wipe out about a dozen species a day just as an unintentional byproduct of how we like to run things .


But humans are more than individuals.


From us, cultures emerge that also compete with each other.

From us , cultures emerge that also compete with each other .


Competitive and expansionary cultures spread faster and further and merge with, subdue, or destroy others.

Competitive and expansionary cultures spread faster and further and merge with , subdue , or destroy others .


If we look at our history, it becomes clear we are dangerous.

If we look at our history , it becomes clear we are dangerous .


Our human nature has driven us to take over every corner of our planet, and soon we will look to the stars both to expand our domain and ensure access to ever more resources.

Our human nature has driven us to take over every corner of our planet , and soon we will look to the stars both to expand our domain and ensure access to ever more resources .


Then we might stumble upon others trying to do the same thing.

Then we might stumble upon others trying to do the same thing .


It's likely that the competition of life also takes place on faraway planets,

It 's likely that the competition of life also takes place on faraway planets ,


so it's logical to assume that an alien civilization that came to dominate their planet would be in some regards similar to us.

so it 's logical to assume that an alien civilization that came to dominate their planet would be in some regards similar to us .


But if they're similar to us, they too may be dangerous.

But if they 're similar to us , they too may be dangerous .


As the hunter sneaks through the dark forest all alone, he knows that there might be others like him.

As the hunter sneaks through the dark forest all alone , he knows that there might be others like him .


He can't know their intentions, if they are aggressive or not.

He ca n't know their intentions , if they are aggressive or not .


The hunter knows he would kill to ensure his own survival, so he has to assume that they would too.

The hunter knows he would kill to ensure his own survival , so he has to assume that they would too .


And it might be that if he stumbles upon another hunter, the one that shoots first survives.

And it might be that if he stumbles upon another hunter , the one that shoots first survives .


None of this means that conflict is unavoidable.

None of this means that conflict is unavoidable .


So far the progress of the modern world seems to have made us more peaceful, not more violent.

So far the progress of the modern world seems to have made us more peaceful , not more violent .


Different alien civilizations also should vary from the mild and peaceful to the malevolent and militaristic.

Different alien civilizations also should vary from the mild and peaceful to the malevolent and militaristic .


The existential problem we're facing is that when we meet others between the stars, we have no way of telling who is peaceful or aggressive and what their true intentions are.

The existential problem we 're facing is that when we meet others between the stars , we have no way of telling who is peaceful or aggressive and what their true intentions are .


Similarly, they might not understand or trust our intentions, even if we tell them that we are peaceful.

Similarly , they might not understand or trust our intentions , even if we tell them that we are peaceful .


On top of that, if we did discover another civilization and they discovered us, the light years between us would mean years of communication delay.

On top of that , if we did discover another civilization and they discovered us , the light years between us would mean years of communication delay .


Both sides would be in a state of uncertainty, wondering if the wisest move is to just attack,

Both sides would be in a state of uncertainty , wondering if the wisest move is to just attack ,


because there's another serious issue, technological explosions and the first strike advantage.

because there 's another serious issue , technological explosions and the first strike advantage .


We don't know where the limits of technology are, but we do know how much technological progress matters in war.

We do n't know where the limits of technology are , but we do know how much technological progress matters in war .


A few hundred or thousand years can turn conflict with uncertain results into a one-sided massacre.

A few hundred or thousand years can turn conflict with uncertain results into a one - sided massacre .


Caesar's legions would stand no chance against Napoleon's army with their cannons and muskets,

Caesar 's legions would stand no chance against Napoleon 's army with their cannons and muskets ,


So the power level of different civilizations may vary massively,

So the power level of different civilizations may vary massively ,


If your opponent is light years away, sending an invasion fleet takes so long that by the time it arrives, it might be hopelessly obsolete.

If your opponent is light years away , sending an invasion fleet takes so long that by the time it arrives , it might be hopelessly obsolete .


So war between civilizations might be just about eliminating the other to remove an existential threat to yourself.

So war between civilizations might be just about eliminating the other to remove an existential threat to yourself .


In this environment, the only way to guarantee a win is to strike with such force and speed that the target has no chance of survival or time to counterattack or escape to seek revenge later.

In this environment , the only way to guarantee a win is to strike with such force and speed that the target has no chance of survival or time to counterattack or escape to seek revenge later .


The stakes are the highest possible, with no room for error.

The stakes are the highest possible , with no room for error .


If we assume that the majority of civilizations live on planets, that leaves them pretty vulnerable.

If we assume that the majority of civilizations live on planets , that leaves them pretty vulnerable .


All you need to do is throw something massive at a planet to make it uninhabitable.

All you need to do is throw something massive at a planet to make it uninhabitable .


So the ultimate interplanetary annihilation weapon is probably something like a relativistic kill vehicle.

So the ultimate interplanetary annihilation weapon is probably something like a relativistic kill vehicle .


A missile shot at a planet at a significant fraction of the speed of light.

A missile shot at a planet at a significant fraction of the speed of light .


For example, a missile the size of a person going 95% the speed of light has as much energy as all nuclear bombs on Earth.

For example , a missile the size of a person going 95 % the speed of light has as much energy as all nuclear bombs on Earth .


If you shot a few dozen at the civilization you wanted to wipe out, success would be fairly certain, even a single hit would suffice.

If you shot a few dozen at the civilization you wanted to wipe out , success would be fairly certain , even a single hit would suffice .


This is not that absurd of an idea.


A civilization only slightly above us on the Kardashev scale would have enough energy to send multiple strikes against every planet it suspects of harboring life.

A civilization only slightly above us on the Kardashev scale would have enough energy to send multiple strikes against every planet it suspects of harboring life .


What makes these weapons so sinister is how much they favor a first strike,

What makes these weapons so sinister is how much they favor a first strike ,


since they would be so fast that it might be impossible to protect yourself effectively against them once they're launched.

since they would be so fast that it might be impossible to protect yourself effectively against them once they 're launched .


Conflict between civilizations may not be lengthy affairs, but rapid winner-takes-all situations, where the first one to shoot wins.

Conflict between civilizations may not be lengthy affairs , but rapid winner - takes - all situations , where the first one to shoot wins .


This makes any civilization an existential threat to any other.

This makes any civilization an existential threat to any other .


And if every civilization is an existential threat to every other, there may be only two kinds of civilizations out there.

And if every civilization is an existential threat to every other , there may be only two kinds of civilizations out there .


So what should we do?


Should we worry?


It's unlikely that anybody has noticed humanity yet.

It 's unlikely that anybody has noticed humanity yet .


The radio signals we've transmitted in the last 100 years traveled a relatively tiny distance and have long decayed into unreadable noise.

The radio signals we 've transmitted in the last 100 years traveled a relatively tiny distance and have long decayed into unreadable noise .


At our technological stage, if we don't actively try to get noticed, and if nobody specifically looks at our pretty unremarkable solar system, we'll stay hidden.

At our technological stage , if we do n't actively try to get noticed , and if nobody specifically looks at our pretty unremarkable solar system , we 'll stay hidden .


But one day we will venture into space in a serious way, and need to consider these kinds of questions again.

But one day we will venture into space in a serious way , and need to consider these kinds of questions again .


We don't know if there are others or if we are going through the forest alone.

We do n't know if there are others or if we are going through the forest alone .


But we have no way of knowing for sure.

But we have no way of knowing for sure .


For the time being, it seems the best we can do is to carefully listen.

For the time being , it seems the best we can do is to carefully listen .


And even if we see others step into a clearing and make themselves known, we should not reply right away, but carefully watch them from the undergrowth.

And even if we see others step into a clearing and make themselves known , we should not reply right away , but carefully watch them from the undergrowth .


Perhaps we are also thinking about this all wrong by allowing our primitive brain


that evolved in the context of the gruesome competition of life to conjure fears of predatory aliens all around us.

that evolved in the context of the gruesome competition of life to conjure fears of predatory aliens all around us .


Maybe the fact that we are looking at the universe like this is a sign that we are not grown up yet as a species.

Maybe the fact that we are looking at the universe like this is a sign that we are not grown up yet as a species .


There could be a friendly, welcoming community of alien civilizations waiting to hear from us when we are ready.

There could be a friendly , welcoming community of alien civilizations waiting to hear from us when we are ready .


As for now, the good news is there is actually little we need to do.

As for now , the good news is there is actually little we need to do .


We just need to be thoughtful about the signals we send out into the galaxy, we need to watch the sky and learn more about our galaxy, our forest.

We just need to be thoughtful about the signals we send out into the galaxy , we need to watch the sky and learn more about our galaxy , our forest .


Because whatever the nature of our forest is, full of dangers or friends or nobody at all, only careful observation can tell.

Because whatever the nature of our forest is , full of dangers or friends or nobody at all , only careful observation can tell .


So let's do that.


At last, the hunter reaches a clearing and finds a comfortable position.

At last , the hunter reaches a clearing and finds a comfortable position .


Slowly, the sun melts the fog away.


Lost in thought, he admires the vegetation, until suddenly he is eye to eye with another hunter, frozen in terror just like himself.

Lost in thought , he admires the vegetation , until suddenly he is eye to eye with another hunter , frozen in terror just like himself .


His mind is racing, considering all the different options.

His mind is racing , considering all the different options .


The hunter takes a deep breath and makes a decision.

The hunter takes a deep breath and makes a decision .


Maybe the only way out of the dark forest is to step into the clearing together.

Maybe the only way out of the dark forest is to step into the clearing together .


And with this hopeful picture, we say goodbye to the year 12,021 of the human era.

And with this hopeful picture , we say goodbye to the year 12,021 of the human era .


It was a wild year to say the least, still much more fun than 12,020.

It was a wild year to say the least , still much more fun than 12,020 .


Kurzgesagt had its most successful month ever and published a book.

Kurzgesagt had its most successful month ever and published a book .


We tried a lot of new techniques and really got into Blender and Cinema 4D, hiding more 3D in our videos.

We tried a lot of new techniques and really got into Blender and Cinema 4D , hiding more 3D in our videos .


We have so many ideas for next year and big and ambitious plans that we can't wait to share with you.

We have so many ideas for next year and big and ambitious plans that we ca n't wait to share with you .


And all of this was and is possible because of your direct support.

And all of this was and is possible because of your direct support .


Thank you so much.


Kurzgesagt only works because of you.


So in tune with the end of the year, we've designed a few products that will help you to visualize your place in the universe.

So in tune with the end of the year , we 've designed a few products that will help you to visualize your place in the universe .


Our very shiny The Night Sky poster shows you the little piece of space we can see from Earth


We design and produce every single product with great care.

We design and produce every single product with great care .


Getting something from our shop is the best way to support Quantic Azart.

Getting something from our shop is the best way to support Quantic Azart .


We hope you have a wonderful end of the year and that 2022 is more fun and less exciting than the last two years.

We hope you have a wonderful end of the year and that 2022 is more fun and less exciting than the last two years .


Thank you for watching.


Friends make life good.


They provide the scaffolding that makes it not just bearable, but fun.

They provide the scaffolding that makes it not just bearable , but fun .


They give us a sense of meaning and purpose, and are a source of security, self-esteem, and happiness.

They give us a sense of meaning and purpose , and are a source of security , self - esteem , and happiness .


Almost nothing predicts how happy you will be as how connected you feel, and a lack of social connection is associated with a number of diseases and a shorter life.

Almost nothing predicts how happy you will be as how connected you feel , and a lack of social connection is associated with a number of diseases and a shorter life .


But maybe you have scrolled through your phone, unsure who to call to go to a movie with, to celebrate with, or ask for comfort.

But maybe you have scrolled through your phone , unsure who to call to go to a movie with , to celebrate with , or ask for comfort .


You may realize that you don't have enough friends and feel lonely.

You may realize that you do n't have enough friends and feel lonely .


And it's not just you.


Disconnectedness and loneliness are widespread.

Disconnectedness and loneliness are widespread .


Many people want more close friends, but don't know how to get them.

Many people want more close friends , but do n't know how to get them .


Surprisingly, nowadays, loneliness is highest among young people, whose relationships were also hit especially hard by the global pandemic.

Surprisingly , nowadays , loneliness is highest among young people , whose relationships were also hit especially hard by the global pandemic .


Social distancing stopped teens and young adults from mingling in classrooms, clubs, or dorms.

Social distancing stopped teens and young adults from mingling in classrooms , clubs , or dorms .


Millions of friendships, maybe lifelong friendships, that might have blossomed, will never exist, with profound long-term consequences for our collective happiness.

Millions of friendships , maybe lifelong friendships , that might have blossomed , will never exist , with profound long - term consequences for our collective happiness .


The good news is that it's not too late, and there are lots of friends to be found.

The good news is that it 's not too late , and there are lots of friends to be found .


We'll mix scientific information with actionable advice in this video, but we can't address every individual situation.

We 'll mix scientific information with actionable advice in this video , but we ca n't address every individual situation .


People, cultures, and schedules are different.

People , cultures , and schedules are different .


If you suffer from chronic loneliness, you can also watch the video we made about it.

If you suffer from chronic loneliness , you can also watch the video we made about it .


Okay, as with all important things in life, making friends is infuriatingly simple, but not necessarily easy.

Okay , as with all important things in life , making friends is infuriatingly simple , but not necessarily easy .


But it works through a few pretty straightforward mechanisms.

But it works through a few pretty straightforward mechanisms .


People make friends with other people when they spend casual time together.

People make friends with other people when they spend casual time together .


This is how our ancestors formed their relationships, because humans lived in small, close-knit communities in which options for making friends were limited,

This is how our ancestors formed their relationships , because humans lived in small , close - knit communities in which options for making friends were limited ,


so we just formed good relationships with the people who were around us.

so we just formed good relationships with the people who were around us .


This is why it's so easy to form new friendships in school and university.

This is why it 's so easy to form new friendships in school and university .


Society locks you and your peers in a building for several years.

Society locks you and your peers in a building for several years .


You share similar activities, but more importantly, similar schedules.

You share similar activities , but more importantly , similar schedules .


Overlapping and fluctuating social circles form, naturally giving you regular face time and shared experiences with many different people.

Overlapping and fluctuating social circles form , naturally giving you regular face time and shared experiences with many different people .


Proximity can be more important than similar interests.

Proximity can be more important than similar interests .


One study found that in student dormitories, the distance between rooms was the strongest friendship predictor.

One study found that in student dormitories , the distance between rooms was the strongest friendship predictor .


Living closer together meant a higher chance of becoming friends.

Living closer together meant a higher chance of becoming friends .


Another study showed that being physically present in a class a lot, without saying a word, makes others more sympathetic to you.

Another study showed that being physically present in a class a lot , without saying a word , makes others more sympathetic to you .


So the most important principle of making friends is to regularly spend time with people in the real world.

So the most important principle of making friends is to regularly spend time with people in the real world .


This alone can make it happen automatically and trumps all other advice.

This alone can make it happen automatically and trumps all other advice .


But don't forget that making friends is not a numbers game or a competition, don't compare yourself to others.

But do n't forget that making friends is not a numbers game or a competition , do n't compare yourself to others .


Everyone has a social calibrator that can change as you go through life.

Everyone has a social calibrator that can change as you go through life .


Maybe you were more introverted as a teen, but yearn for connection in your twenties.

Maybe you were more introverted as a teen , but yearn for connection in your twenties .


Maybe you were part of sprawling social circles, but prefer fewer friends in your thirties.

Maybe you were part of sprawling social circles , but prefer fewer friends in your thirties .


There is no right or wrong, only right for you.

There is no right or wrong , only right for you .


Why we don't have enough friends.


The main reason for lack of friendships is the simple fact that most people don't prioritize friendships nearly enough.

The main reason for lack of friendships is the simple fact that most people do n't prioritize friendships nearly enough .


They don't realize until it's too late that retaining friendships demands regular energy and attention.

They do n't realize until it 's too late that retaining friendships demands regular energy and attention .


Although they are so important for happiness, friends often take a back seat to other life decisions.

Although they are so important for happiness , friends often take a back seat to other life decisions .


Work, commuting, romance, or kids take up so much time and energy that it's so much easier to crash on your couch and lose yourself in mindless activities.

Work , commuting , romance , or kids take up so much time and energy that it 's so much easier to crash on your couch and lose yourself in mindless activities .


Especially as an adult, going for a bike ride, getting dinner, or visiting a hobby store takes much more mental effort and commitment than it did after school

Especially as an adult , going for a bike ride , getting dinner , or visiting a hobby store takes much more mental effort and commitment than it did after school


But it's not just adults who are too busy for friends.

But it 's not just adults who are too busy for friends .


The average American teenager spends more time on TikTok every day than socializing at parties, events, or on the phone with friends combined.

The average American teenager spends more time on TikTok every day than socializing at parties , events , or on the phone with friends combined .


Established friendships don't require the same time investment as early friendships to keep up, but they do require some commitment.

Established friendships do n't require the same time investment as early friendships to keep up , but they do require some commitment .


As life distracts you, it's easy to skip out on checking in when a friend goes through exciting or depressing times.

As life distracts you , it 's easy to skip out on checking in when a friend goes through exciting or depressing times .


And so many friendships fade for lack of attention, often by accident.

And so many friendships fade for lack of attention , often by accident .


Another thing that makes many people vulnerable is the way friendship networks are structured.

Another thing that makes many people vulnerable is the way friendship networks are structured .


The friendship paradox is the phenomenon that on average, most people have fewer friends than their friends.

The friendship paradox is the phenomenon that on average , most people have fewer friends than their friends .


Rather than being densely interconnected, friendship networks are often built around central hubs.

Rather than being densely interconnected , friendship networks are often built around central hubs .


So if central people disappear from your life, this can deprive you of many connections at once.

So if central people disappear from your life , this can deprive you of many connections at once .


And it can lead to a distorted self-perception that you are less popular than others, although you are perfectly average.

And it can lead to a distorted self - perception that you are less popular than others , although you are perfectly average .


It can get worse quickly with big life events.

It can get worse quickly with big life events .


Maybe you move for school, work, or love, and are left without social networks.

Maybe you move for school , work , or love , and are left without social networks .


Or you had a breakup that left you with the smaller part of the formerly shared social pie.

Or you had a breakup that left you with the smaller part of the formerly shared social pie .


The reasons why you find yourself with less connection than you want are as diverse as people but the underlying cause is almost always time.

The reasons why you find yourself with less connection than you want are as diverse as people but the underlying cause is almost always time .


There is no shortcut.


To make new friends and retain friendships, you have to prioritize relationships, spend time with people in real life, and make them feel that you care.

To make new friends and retain friendships , you have to prioritize relationships , spend time with people in real life , and make them feel that you care .


So take a look at yourself and rebalance what you spend your life doing.

So take a look at yourself and rebalance what you spend your life doing .


Studies have shown that new friendships can develop quite quickly, weeks after you meet someone.

Studies have shown that new friendships can develop quite quickly , weeks after you meet someone .


But it takes a few months for a casual friendship to become a close relationship, with the biggest impediment being time invested and the quality of your interactions.

But it takes a few months for a casual friendship to become a close relationship , with the biggest impediment being time invested and the quality of your interactions .


To make friends, it helps if you intentionally look for people you have things in common with and who are open to new relationships.

To make friends , it helps if you intentionally look for people you have things in common with and who are open to new relationships .


You want to make it easy for yourself, so examine what kind of person you are.

You want to make it easy for yourself , so examine what kind of person you are .


Generally speaking, extroverts tend to crave sensory stimulation, spicier foods, loud music, or the excitement of engaging a crowd.

Generally speaking , extroverts tend to crave sensory stimulation , spicier foods , loud music , or the excitement of engaging a crowd .


Introverts, often confused with shy people, tend to be more sensitive to sensory stimulants and prefer quieter surroundings, fewer people, and even less spicy food.

Introverts , often confused with shy people , tend to be more sensitive to sensory stimulants and prefer quieter surroundings , fewer people , and even less spicy food .


Different places attract different people.

Different places attract different people .


Not everybody can easily make friends at a bar or a football game, not everybody finds a stroll through a park or a bookstore stimulating.

Not everybody can easily make friends at a bar or a football game , not everybody finds a stroll through a park or a bookstore stimulating .


Men especially form friendships around shared activities,

Men especially form friendships around shared activities ,


but in general it's a good idea to go to places that feel comfortable, where there are people you might like, who do things you find interesting.

but in general it 's a good idea to go to places that feel comfortable , where there are people you might like , who do things you find interesting .


Look for local clubs or opportunities to volunteer.

Look for local clubs or opportunities to volunteer .


Check out what hobby stores are around and dust off your space marines, or see if there are new D&D groups in your city and ask if you could join one.

Check out what hobby stores are around and dust off your space marines , or see if there are new D&D groups in your city and ask if you could join one .


Check meetup apps for gaming nights or wine tasting, join a sports club, or look for people who go hiking or want to cook together.

Check meetup apps for gaming nights or wine tasting , join a sports club , or look for people who go hiking or want to cook together .


Another obvious avenue is your professional life.

Another obvious avenue is your professional life .


It helps if you work in a job that attracts people like you, so you might consider this when you choose a career.

It helps if you work in a job that attracts people like you , so you might consider this when you choose a career .


Deepening your relationship with colleagues can lead to great friendships, especially if you look for peers and there is no power imbalance.

Deepening your relationship with colleagues can lead to great friendships , especially if you look for peers and there is no power imbalance .


And of course, there are friends you've lost touch with.

And of course , there are friends you 've lost touch with .


You may be able to revive some of these relationships.

You may be able to revive some of these relationships .


In some cases, all it needs is a call or an invitation.

In some cases , all it needs is a call or an invitation .


Research shows that more often than not, the other person will appreciate that you've reached out.

Research shows that more often than not , the other person will appreciate that you 've reached out .


There are likely way more opportunities to spend time with others than you are aware of, and if there aren't, you can take the initiative and create them.

There are likely way more opportunities to spend time with others than you are aware of , and if there are n't , you can take the initiative and create them .


Invitations are signals to start friendships, so bring people together by having a dinner party, organizing a football game after work, or starting a board game group.

Invitations are signals to start friendships , so bring people together by having a dinner party , organizing a football game after work , or starting a board game group .


Everybody appreciates people who organize fun things, and the simple act of reaching out can kickstart a self-propelling upward spiral of well-being, fun, and connectedness

Everybody appreciates people who organize fun things , and the simple act of reaching out can kickstart a self - propelling upward spiral of well - being , fun , and connectedness


that can seriously improve the life of everyone around you in meaningful ways.

that can seriously improve the life of everyone around you in meaningful ways .


If you meet someone you vibe with, it's pretty scary to make the first move, but they may feel the same way.

If you meet someone you vibe with , it 's pretty scary to make the first move , but they may feel the same way .


So it's worth going for it.


Worst case, they're not interested, which will sting for a few hours, but the best case could be a lifelong friendship.

Worst case , they 're not interested , which will sting for a few hours , but the best case could be a lifelong friendship .


Once you've formed early connections, check in whether they have important things happening in their life.

Once you 've formed early connections , check in whether they have important things happening in their life .


Of course, it's important not to be overbearing, but the more time you invest, the more opportunity you have to engage in meaningful banter or silly jokes.

Of course , it 's important not to be overbearing , but the more time you invest , the more opportunity you have to engage in meaningful banter or silly jokes .


The fact that friendships take time also means that you need to be patient and kind with yourself, especially if you're out of practice.

The fact that friendships take time also means that you need to be patient and kind with yourself , especially if you 're out of practice .


Things will not improve overnight, but slowly, step by step, if you keep up.

Things will not improve overnight , but slowly , step by step , if you keep up .


Open up, care, and share.


Many people don't have an issue being around others, but struggle to turn acquaintances into friends.

Many people do n't have an issue being around others , but struggle to turn acquaintances into friends .


So let's talk about two important principles that make it more likely that you'll connect.

So let 's talk about two important principles that make it more likely that you 'll connect .


In general, our favorite topic is ourselves and the things we care about, because we are literally at the center of our own universe.

In general , our favorite topic is ourselves and the things we care about , because we are literally at the center of our own universe .


So people tend to like people who are genuinely interested in them.

So people tend to like people who are genuinely interested in them .


So if you want to make friends, your goal should be trying to learn what makes them tick.

So if you want to make friends , your goal should be trying to learn what makes them tick .


Just as important as caring about others is reciprocity and openness.

Just as important as caring about others is reciprocity and openness .


To connect, you need to share the experiences that made you, you.

To connect , you need to share the experiences that made you , you .


Now, you don't want to overwhelm the other person and immediately spill out your deepest secrets,

Now , you do n't want to overwhelm the other person and immediately spill out your deepest secrets ,


but open up a little and reveal personal things, because this also signals to others that it's okay to do the same.

but open up a little and reveal personal things , because this also signals to others that it 's okay to do the same .


The best case is that you find shared experiences.

The best case is that you find shared experiences .


Maybe you both had a hard time in school, maybe you share a passion for weird movies.

Maybe you both had a hard time in school , maybe you share a passion for weird movies .


Learning about others and sharing personal stories in a balanced way and not overdoing it is not an exact science.

Learning about others and sharing personal stories in a balanced way and not overdoing it is not an exact science .


Noticing the line between opening up and oversharing requires practice and depends on the vibe of the conversation.

Noticing the line between opening up and oversharing requires practice and depends on the vibe of the conversation .


One of the perplexities of life is that to get something, it can be helpful to convince yourself that you want it less than you do.

One of the perplexities of life is that to get something , it can be helpful to convince yourself that you want it less than you do .


In general, it's good to be laid back, have fun and enjoy yourself.

In general , it 's good to be laid back , have fun and enjoy yourself .


Do things for yourself without expectations, but also be open to social opportunities and accept invitations if they show up.

Do things for yourself without expectations , but also be open to social opportunities and accept invitations if they show up .


And that's basically it.


Give friendships more priority in your life.

Give friendships more priority in your life .


Check in with friends and regularly go to things to have fun.

Check in with friends and regularly go to things to have fun .


Show genuine interest in others and give them the opportunity to know you without selling yourself too hard.

Show genuine interest in others and give them the opportunity to know you without selling yourself too hard .


If you do this, you're on track.


If this sounds a bit scary, the good news is that human brains are hardwired to seek connection.

If this sounds a bit scary , the good news is that human brains are hardwired to seek connection .


It's perfectly normal to seek out new friends and there are many people who would welcome more close relationships.

It 's perfectly normal to seek out new friends and there are many people who would welcome more close relationships .


There are friendships up for grabs everywhere and there are plenty of people who will be so happy to have you in their life as a good friend.

There are friendships up for grabs everywhere and there are plenty of people who will be so happy to have you in their life as a good friend .


We want to be part of your friendship journey, so we've created a few things you can share with new and old friends.

We want to be part of your friendship journey , so we 've created a few things you can share with new and old friends .


If you want to share something with your entire friend group, get a little bird pin for each of them.

If you want to share something with your entire friend group , get a little bird pin for each of them .


They're all unique but fit together like pieces of a puzzle.

They 're all unique but fit together like pieces of a puzzle .


Or get matching posters to let your friends know you're thinking of them.

Or get matching posters to let your friends know you 're thinking of them .


Or just browse all the science-y things we made for you.

Or just browse all the science - y things we made for you .


If you like videos like this, getting something from our shop is the best way to support us.

If you like videos like this , getting something from our shop is the best way to support us .


Thank you for watching!


If you saw a wormhole in reality, it would appear round, spherical, a bit like a black hole.

If you saw a wormhole in reality , it would appear round , spherical , a bit like a black hole .


Light from the other side passes through and gives you a window to a faraway place.

Light from the other side passes through and gives you a window to a faraway place .


Once crossed, the other side comes fully into view, with your old home now receding into that shimmering spherical window.

Once crossed , the other side comes fully into view , with your old home now receding into that shimmering spherical window .


But are wormholes real, or are they just magic disguised as physics and maths?

But are wormholes real , or are they just magic disguised as physics and maths ?


If they are real, how do they work, and where can we find them?

If they are real , how do they work , and where can we find them ?


For most of human history, we thought space was pretty simple.

For most of human history , we thought space was pretty simple .


Even if you take down the set of planets and stars, there's still something left.

Even if you take down the set of planets and stars , there 's still something left .


That empty stage is space, and it exists, unchanging and eternal.

That empty stage is space , and it exists , unchanging and eternal .


Einstein's theory of relativity changed that.

Einstein 's theory of relativity changed that .


It says that space and time make up that stage together, and they aren't the same everywhere.

It says that space and time make up that stage together , and they are n't the same everywhere .


The things on the stage can affect the stage itself, stretching and warping it.

The things on the stage can affect the stage itself , stretching and warping it .


If the old stage was like unmoving hardwood, Einstein's stage is more like a waterbed.

If the old stage was like unmoving hardwood , Einstein 's stage is more like a waterbed .


This kind of elastic space can be bent and maybe even torn and patched together, which could make wormholes possible.

This kind of elastic space can be bent and maybe even torn and patched together , which could make wormholes possible .


Let's see what that would look like in 2D.

Let 's see what that would look like in 2D.


Our universe is like a big, flat sheet.

Our universe is like a big , flat sheet .


Bent in just the right way, wormholes could connect two very, very distant spots with a short bridge that you could cross almost instantaneously, enabling you to travel the universe even faster than the speed of light.

Bent in just the right way , wormholes could connect two very , very distant spots with a short bridge that you could cross almost instantaneously , enabling you to travel the universe even faster than the speed of light .


So, where can we find a wormhole?


General relativity says they might be possible, but that doesn't mean they have to exist.

General relativity says they might be possible , but that does n't mean they have to exist .


General relativity is a mathematical theory.

General relativity is a mathematical theory .


It's a set of equations that have many possible answers, but not all maths describes reality.

It 's a set of equations that have many possible answers , but not all maths describes reality .


But they are theoretically possible, and there are different kinds.

But they are theoretically possible , and there are different kinds .


The first kind of wormholes to be theorized were Einstein-Rosen bridges.

The first kind of wormholes to be theorized were Einstein - Rosen bridges .


They describe every black hole as a sort of portal to an infinite parallel universe.

They describe every black hole as a sort of portal to an infinite parallel universe .


Let's try to picture them in 2D again.

Let 's try to picture them in 2D again .


Empty space-time is flat, but curved by objects on it.

Empty space - time is flat , but curved by objects on it .


If we compress that object, space-time gets more curved around it.

If we compress that object , space - time gets more curved around it .


Eventually, space-time becomes so warped that it has no choice but to collapse into a black hole.

Eventually , space - time becomes so warped that it has no choice but to collapse into a black hole .


A one-way barrier forms, the event horizon, which anything can enter, but nothing can escape.

A one - way barrier forms , the event horizon , which anything can enter , but nothing can escape .


But maybe there is no singularity here.

But maybe there is no singularity here .


One possibility is that the other side of the event horizon looks a bit like our universe again, but mirrored upside down, where time runs backwards.

One possibility is that the other side of the event horizon looks a bit like our universe again , but mirrored upside down , where time runs backwards .


In our universe, things fall into the black hole.

In our universe , things fall into the black hole .


In the parallel universe, with backwards time, the mirror black hole is spewing things out, a bit like a big bang.

In the parallel universe , with backwards time , the mirror black hole is spewing things out , a bit like a big bang .


This is called a white hole.


Unfortunately, Einstein-Rosen bridges can't actually be crossed.

Unfortunately , Einstein - Rosen bridges ca n't actually be crossed .


It takes an infinite amount of time to cross over to the opposite universe, and they crimp shut in the middle.

It takes an infinite amount of time to cross over to the opposite universe , and they crimp shut in the middle .


If you go into a black hole, you won't become the stuff coming out of the white hole.

If you go into a black hole , you wo n't become the stuff coming out of the white hole .


You'll only become dead.


So, to travel the cosmos in the blink of an eye, humans need a different kind of wormhole, a traversable wormhole.

So , to travel the cosmos in the blink of an eye , humans need a different kind of wormhole , a traversable wormhole .


If string theory or one of its variations is the correct description of our universe, then we could be lucky, and our universe might even have a tangled web of countless wormholes already.

If string theory or one of its variations is the correct description of our universe , then we could be lucky , and our universe might even have a tangled web of countless wormholes already .


Shortly after the big bang, quantum fluctuations in the universe at the smallest scales, far, far smaller than an atom, may have created many, many traversable wormholes.

Shortly after the big bang , quantum fluctuations in the universe at the smallest scales , far , far smaller than an atom , may have created many , many traversable wormholes .


Threaded through them are strings, called cosmic strings.

Threaded through them are strings , called cosmic strings .


In the first billionth of a trillionth of a second after the big bang, the ends of these tiny, tiny wormholes were pulled light-years apart, scattering them through the universe.

In the first billionth of a trillionth of a second after the big bang , the ends of these tiny , tiny wormholes were pulled light - years apart , scattering them through the universe .


If wormholes were made in the early universe, whether with cosmic strings or some other way, they could be all over, just waiting to be discovered.

If wormholes were made in the early universe , whether with cosmic strings or some other way , they could be all over , just waiting to be discovered .


One might even be closer than we realize.

One might even be closer than we realize .


From the outside, black holes and wormholes can look very similar, leading some physicists to suggest the supermassive black holes in the center of galaxies are actually wormholes.

From the outside , black holes and wormholes can look very similar , leading some physicists to suggest the supermassive black holes in the center of galaxies are actually wormholes .


It will be very hard to go all the way to the center of the Milky Way to find out, though, but that's okay.

It will be very hard to go all the way to the center of the Milky Way to find out , though , but that 's okay .


There might be an equally extremely hard way to get our hands on a wormhole.

There might be an equally extremely hard way to get our hands on a wormhole .


We could try to make one.


To be traversable and useful, there are a few properties we want a wormhole to have.

To be traversable and useful , there are a few properties we want a wormhole to have .


First, it must obviously connect two distant parts of space-time, like your bedroom and the bathroom, or Earth and Jupiter.

First , it must obviously connect two distant parts of space - time , like your bedroom and the bathroom , or Earth and Jupiter .


Second, it should not contain any event horizons, which would block two-way travel.

Second , it should not contain any event horizons , which would block two - way travel .


Third, it should be sufficiently sized so that the gravitational forces don't kill human travelers.

Third , it should be sufficiently sized so that the gravitational forces do n't kill human travelers .


The biggest problem we have to solve is keeping our wormholes open.

The biggest problem we have to solve is keeping our wormholes open .


No matter how we make wormholes, gravity tries to close them.

No matter how we make wormholes , gravity tries to close them .


Gravity wants to pinch it closed and cut the bridge, leaving only black holes at the ends.

Gravity wants to pinch it closed and cut the bridge , leaving only black holes at the ends .


Whether it's a traversable wormhole with both ends in ours, or a wormhole to another universe, it will try to close unless we have something propping it open.

Whether it 's a traversable wormhole with both ends in ours , or a wormhole to another universe , it will try to close unless we have something propping it open .


For very old string theory wormholes, that's the cosmic strings job.

For very old string theory wormholes , that 's the cosmic strings job .


For man-made wormholes, we need a new ingredient.

For man - made wormholes , we need a new ingredient .


This isn't anything like we find on Earth, or even antimatter.

This is n't anything like we find on Earth , or even antimatter .


It's something totally new and different and exciting, with crazy properties like nothing that's ever been seen before.

It 's something totally new and different and exciting , with crazy properties like nothing that 's ever been seen before .


Exotic matter is stuff that has negative mass.

Exotic matter is stuff that has negative mass .


Positive mass, like people and planets and everything else in the universe, is attractive because of gravity.

Positive mass , like people and planets and everything else in the universe , is attractive because of gravity .


But negative mass would be repulsive.


It would push you away.


This makes a kind of anti-gravity that props open our wormholes.

This makes a kind of anti - gravity that props open our wormholes .


And exotic matter must exert enormous pressure to push spacetime open, greater even than the pressure at the centers of neutron stars.

And exotic matter must exert enormous pressure to push spacetime open , greater even than the pressure at the centers of neutron stars .


With exotic matter, we could weave spacetime however we see fit.

With exotic matter , we could weave spacetime however we see fit .


We may even have a candidate for this exotic matter, the vacuum of space itself.

We may even have a candidate for this exotic matter , the vacuum of space itself .


Quantum fluctuations in empty space are constantly creating pairs of particles and antiparticles, only for them to be annihilated an instant later.

Quantum fluctuations in empty space are constantly creating pairs of particles and antiparticles , only for them to be annihilated an instant later .


The vacuum of space is boiling with them, and we can already manipulate them to produce an effect similar to the negative mass we're looking for.

The vacuum of space is boiling with them , and we can already manipulate them to produce an effect similar to the negative mass we 're looking for .


We could use this to stabilize our wormholes.

We could use this to stabilize our wormholes .


Once we're keeping it open, the ends would start together, so we'd have to move them around to interesting places.

Once we 're keeping it open , the ends would start together , so we 'd have to move them around to interesting places .


We could start by wiring the solar system, leaving one end of each wormhole in orbit around the Earth.

We could start by wiring the solar system , leaving one end of each wormhole in orbit around the Earth .


We could fling others into deep space.


The Earth could be a wormhole hub for a vast interstellar human civilization, spread over light-years, but only a wormhole away.

The Earth could be a wormhole hub for a vast interstellar human civilization , spread over light - years , but only a wormhole away .


However, wormholes have a dark side.


Even opening a single wormhole kind of breaks the universe in fundamental ways, potentially creating time travel paradoxes and violating the causal structure of the universe.

Even opening a single wormhole kind of breaks the universe in fundamental ways , potentially creating time travel paradoxes and violating the causal structure of the universe .


Many scientists think that this not only means they should be impossible to make, but that it's impossible for them to exist at all.

Many scientists think that this not only means they should be impossible to make , but that it 's impossible for them to exist at all .


So, for now, we only know that wormholes exist in our hearts, and on paper in the form of equations.

So , for now , we only know that wormholes exist in our hearts , and on paper in the form of equations .


We know you want to know more about universe stuff, so we're trying something new.

We know you want to know more about universe stuff , so we 're trying something new .


Kurzgesagt and Brilliant are collaborating on a six-part video series about our favorite science and space things.

Kurzgesagt and Brilliant are collaborating on a six - part video series about our favorite science and space things .


Thanks to their help, there will be more videos on this channel in the next six months.

Thanks to their help , there will be more videos on this channel in the next six months .


Kurzgesagt has worked with Brilliant for a while now, and we love what they're doing.

Kurzgesagt has worked with Brilliant for a while now , and we love what they 're doing .


In a nutshell, Brilliant helps you to get ahead by mastering maths and science skills through actively solving challenging and fascinating problems.

In a nutshell , Brilliant helps you to get ahead by mastering maths and science skills through actively solving challenging and fascinating problems .


To support our collaboration with them, visit brilliant.org/nutshell and sign up for free today.

To support our collaboration with them , visit brilliant.org/nutshell and sign up for free today .


The first 688 people that use the link will get 20% off their annual premium subscription.

The first 688 people that use the link will get 20 % off their annual premium subscription .


Nuclear energy creates an uneasy feeling of danger for many people.

Nuclear energy creates an uneasy feeling of danger for many people .


Ancient and dangerous minerals are concentrated to awaken seemingly unnatural powers, creating horribly toxic elements that if they escape, can and have killed people in horrible ways.

Ancient and dangerous minerals are concentrated to awaken seemingly unnatural powers , creating horribly toxic elements that if they escape , can and have killed people in horrible ways .


How many people has nuclear energy killed, and how?

How many people has nuclear energy killed , and how ?


Nuclear energy has been a thing since 1951, and since then, there have been around 30 reported accidents globally.

Nuclear energy has been a thing since 1951 , and since then , there have been around 30 reported accidents globally .


Most of them were pretty minor compared to the two disasters everybody is familiar with, Fukushima and Chernobyl.

Most of them were pretty minor compared to the two disasters everybody is familiar with , Fukushima and Chernobyl .


Chernobyl is undoubtedly the worst nuclear accident in history for a number of reasons.

Chernobyl is undoubtedly the worst nuclear accident in history for a number of reasons .


The reactor technology was old and ill-prepared for emergencies, and the government response was slow and more concerned about image than damage control.

The reactor technology was old and ill - prepared for emergencies , and the government response was slow and more concerned about image than damage control .


Still, only 31 people died directly in the accident.

Still , only 31 people died directly in the accident .


But what makes nuclear energy scary is not reactors blowing up, but the radiation they release.

But what makes nuclear energy scary is not reactors blowing up , but the radiation they release .


So the real question is how many deaths through cancer and other diseases will Chernobyl cause?

So the real question is how many deaths through cancer and other diseases will Chernobyl cause ?


Here things get really complicated because you dip right into controversy, and just discussing the different estimates and how they were calculated deserves a video of its own.

Here things get really complicated because you dip right into controversy , and just discussing the different estimates and how they were calculated deserves a video of its own .


The most pessimistic estimate comes from a study commissioned by the European Green Party and projects up to 60,000 premature deaths by the year 2065.

The most pessimistic estimate comes from a study commissioned by the European Green Party and projects up to 60,000 premature deaths by the year 2065 .


Most scientific studies come up with numbers much lower than this.

Most scientific studies come up with numbers much lower than this .


The WHO has estimated that in total, the long-term death toll will be around 4,000.

The WHO has estimated that in total , the long - term death toll will be around 4,000 .


While the UN Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation concluded that even this figure could be too high.

While the UN Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation concluded that even this figure could be too high .


For more details on this, check our research document.

For more details on this , check our research document .


The second big nuclear accident was Fukushima Daiichi in 2011.

The second big nuclear accident was Fukushima Daiichi in 2011 .


Fukushima did not only operate with much better technology that was less dangerous in the first place, much better security measures were in place, and the official response was fast and decisive.

Fukushima did not only operate with much better technology that was less dangerous in the first place , much better security measures were in place , and the official response was fast and decisive .


And so the current death toll is only 573.

And so the current death toll is only 573 .


The major difference here is that these deaths were not a consequence of radiation.

The major difference here is that these deaths were not a consequence of radiation .


They were indirect deaths from the stress of the evacuation of the areas around the reactors and occurred almost entirely in older populations.

They were indirect deaths from the stress of the evacuation of the areas around the reactors and occurred almost entirely in older populations .


Estimates of the possible long-term deaths from radiation vary widely, from none at all to about 1,000.

Estimates of the possible long - term deaths from radiation vary widely , from none at all to about 1,000 .


In terms of the other long-term consequences, an increase in thyroid cancer in children has been observed, but according to the WHO, this is related to the increased screening rate.

In terms of the other long - term consequences , an increase in thyroid cancer in children has been observed , but according to the WHO , this is related to the increased screening rate .


By 2018, there had been only one confirmed death among workers as a result of radiation-induced lung cancer.

By 2018 , there had been only one confirmed death among workers as a result of radiation - induced lung cancer .


Now, let's compare this to renewable energy.

Now , let 's compare this to renewable energy .


Solar, wind, and geothermal energy basically only cause deaths as a result of construction and maintenance accidents.

Solar , wind , and geothermal energy basically only cause deaths as a result of construction and maintenance accidents .


Unfortunately, their current share of global energy is pretty low.

Unfortunately , their current share of global energy is pretty low .


The major player in renewable energy is hydropower, which mostly means building dams and letting water flow through turbines from a higher elevation to a lower elevation.

The major player in renewable energy is hydropower , which mostly means building dams and letting water flow through turbines from a higher elevation to a lower elevation .


In total, hydro has been the most fatal in terms of accidents, with hundreds of thousands of deaths in the last half-century.

In total , hydro has been the most fatal in terms of accidents , with hundreds of thousands of deaths in the last half - century .


One accident clearly stands out, the 1975 Banqiao hydroelectric dam failure in China, which has striking similarities to Chernobyl.

One accident clearly stands out , the 1975 Banqiao hydroelectric dam failure in China , which has striking similarities to Chernobyl .


In a nutshell, a massive typhoon triggered intense flooding that destroyed the dam and, subsequently, a number of smaller dams in a chain reaction, unleashing a flood of over 15 billion cubic meters of water in total.

In a nutshell , a massive typhoon triggered intense flooding that destroyed the dam and , subsequently , a number of smaller dams in a chain reaction , unleashing a flood of over 15 billion cubic meters of water in total .


Kilometer-wide waves as high as buildings devastated thousands of square kilometers of countryside and countless communities.

Kilometer - wide waves as high as buildings devastated thousands of square kilometers of countryside and countless communities .


All in all, the death toll from just this one accident and its direct consequences is estimated to lie between 85,000 to 240,000.

All in all , the death toll from just this one accident and its direct consequences is estimated to lie between 85,000 to 240,000 .


But all of these deaths caused by nuclear and renewable energy are actually negligible in comparison to the real killer energy source, fossil fuel, the most widely used source of energy and electricity.

But all of these deaths caused by nuclear and renewable energy are actually negligible in comparison to the real killer energy source , fossil fuel , the most widely used source of energy and electricity .


When we burn fossil fuels to heat up water and make turbines spin, or to cause mini-explosions to move cars with internal combustion engines,

When we burn fossil fuels to heat up water and make turbines spin , or to cause mini - explosions to move cars with internal combustion engines ,


gases like ozone, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen dioxide are released into the atmosphere.

gases like ozone , sulfur dioxide , carbon monoxide , and nitrogen dioxide are released into the atmosphere .


Breathing in these gases disrupts lung function, which aggravates chronic conditions like asthma and bronchitis, and causes a wide range of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.

Breathing in these gases disrupts lung function , which aggravates chronic conditions like asthma and bronchitis , and causes a wide range of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases .


But even more dangerous is the fine particle pollution burning fossil fuels causes.

But even more dangerous is the fine particle pollution burning fossil fuels causes .


They easily find their way deep into your lungs and increase the risk of deadly diseases like lung cancer, stroke, and heart disease.

They easily find their way deep into your lungs and increase the risk of deadly diseases like lung cancer , stroke , and heart disease .


Fossil fuel-related air pollution is the number one cause of environmental-related deaths in the world.

Fossil fuel - related air pollution is the number one cause of environmental - related deaths in the world .


According to the WHO, it accounts for 29% of all cases of lung cancer, 17% of deaths from acute lower respiratory infection, 24% from stroke, 25% from ischemic heart disease, and 43% from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

According to the WHO , it accounts for 29 % of all cases of lung cancer , 17 % of deaths from acute lower respiratory infection , 24 % from stroke , 25 % from ischemic heart disease , and 43 % from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease .


All in all, outside air pollution adds up to the deaths of 4 million people each year.

All in all , outside air pollution adds up to the deaths of 4 million people each year .


What makes air pollution especially problematic and sinister is the fact that the damage it causes happens very gradually,

What makes air pollution especially problematic and sinister is the fact that the damage it causes happens very gradually ,


Collectively, air pollution from fossil fuels is estimated to have killed around 100 million people in the past 50 years.

Collectively , air pollution from fossil fuels is estimated to have killed around 100 million people in the past 50 years .


But wait, is that really fair?


Fossil fuels also provide over 80% of global energy, so it makes sense that they cause the most deaths.

Fossil fuels also provide over 80 % of global energy , so it makes sense that they cause the most deaths .


So let's compare deaths per energy unit.

So let 's compare deaths per energy unit .


A few studies have compared the death rates from different energy sources per 1 terawatt hour.

A few studies have compared the death rates from different energy sources per 1 terawatt hour .


That's about the annual energy consumption of 27,000 EU citizens, or 12,600 US citizens.

That 's about the annual energy consumption of 27,000 EU citizens , or 12,600 US citizens .


To produce that much energy for one year, coal causes 25 deaths, oil causes 18, and natural gas, 3.

To produce that much energy for one year , coal causes 25 deaths , oil causes 18 , and natural gas , 3 .


Renewable energy causes 1 death every few decades.

Renewable energy causes 1 death every few decades .


And nuclear, in the worst case, nuclear energy would cause 1 death every 14 years.

And nuclear , in the worst case , nuclear energy would cause 1 death every 14 years .


One study even found that nuclear energy actually saved 2 million lives between 1971 and 2009 by displacing fossil fuels from the global energy mix.

One study even found that nuclear energy actually saved 2 million lives between 1971 and 2009 by displacing fossil fuels from the global energy mix .


The numbers are clear.


Even when using wildly pessimistic numbers, nuclear energy is among the safest forms of energy generation,

Even when using wildly pessimistic numbers , nuclear energy is among the safest forms of energy generation ,


and at a time when we're struggling to slow down rapid climate change, it's a really valuable low-carbon option.

and at a time when we 're struggling to slow down rapid climate change , it 's a really valuable low - carbon option .


However, all these facts still leave one major argument that is fielded against nuclear power.

However , all these facts still leave one major argument that is fielded against nuclear power .


Opponents of nuclear energy argue that nuclear waste and its lack of long-term storage solutions is an unacceptable problem and risk,

Opponents of nuclear energy argue that nuclear waste and its lack of long - term storage solutions is an unacceptable problem and risk ,


while proponents of nuclear energy say that until renewable energies are able to cover the complete energy demands of mankind,

while proponents of nuclear energy say that until renewable energies are able to cover the complete energy demands of mankind ,


it's arguably safer to store nuclear waste for the time being than to inhale poisonous gases and promote rapid climate change.

it 's arguably safer to store nuclear waste for the time being than to inhale poisonous gases and promote rapid climate change .


But a detailed discussion about nuclear waste would go too far here.

But a detailed discussion about nuclear waste would go too far here .


Let us know if you'd like a whole video about it.

Let us know if you 'd like a whole video about it .


So looking at the comparative death rates, it's a bit concerning that some countries are replacing nuclear energy with fossil fuels, mostly coal.

So looking at the comparative death rates , it 's a bit concerning that some countries are replacing nuclear energy with fossil fuels , mostly coal .


Especially Germany and Japan have been the most active in dismantling their nuclear fleet.

Especially Germany and Japan have been the most active in dismantling their nuclear fleet .


In a ploy to appease the public, the German government shut down 11 of its 17 nuclear facilities and plans to close the remaining reactors in 2022.

In a ploy to appease the public , the German government shut down 11 of its 17 nuclear facilities and plans to close the remaining reactors in 2022 .


The immediate gap in energy production was filled by temporarily increasing coal production, the energy source with the largest health impacts and the worst consequences for climate change.

The immediate gap in energy production was filled by temporarily increasing coal production , the energy source with the largest health impacts and the worst consequences for climate change .


A 2019 analysis concluded that as a consequence, the nuclear phase-out has led to 1,100 avoidable deaths per year in Germany due to the increased air pollution in the years after 2010.

A 2019 analysis concluded that as a consequence , the nuclear phase - out has led to 1,100 avoidable deaths per year in Germany due to the increased air pollution in the years after 2010 .


So in conclusion, nuclear energy feels way more dangerous than it actually is.

So in conclusion , nuclear energy feels way more dangerous than it actually is .


No matter how you look at it, the one thing we should strive to get rid of as quickly as possible are fossil fuels to prevent the deaths they cause each year and to slow down climate change.

No matter how you look at it , the one thing we should strive to get rid of as quickly as possible are fossil fuels to prevent the deaths they cause each year and to slow down climate change .


Regardless of how much you personally care about climate change issues or which energy source you favor, saving millions of lives should be something we can all agree on.

Regardless of how much you personally care about climate change issues or which energy source you favor , saving millions of lives should be something we can all agree on .


Maybe you've actually made some kind of resolution to try and be more sustainable this year.

Maybe you 've actually made some kind of resolution to try and be more sustainable this year .


Or maybe your goals are more about you as a person and you'd like to pick up some new skills.

Or maybe your goals are more about you as a person and you 'd like to pick up some new skills .


Still being stuck mostly inside is the perfect time to work on that plan.

Still being stuck mostly inside is the perfect time to work on that plan .


We've partnered with Skillshare, an online learning community that offers thousands of classes for all skill levels in tons of creative skills like illustration, animation or film and video.

We 've partnered with Skillshare , an online learning community that offers thousands of classes for all skill levels in tons of creative skills like illustration , animation or film and video .


But you could also dive into classes about productivity, growing houseplants or interior design, all perfect for making your time at home more enjoyable and learning something new.

But you could also dive into classes about productivity , growing houseplants or interior design , all perfect for making your time at home more enjoyable and learning something new .


You get unlimited access to all classes for less than $10 a month with an annual premium membership.

You get unlimited access to all classes for less than $ 10 a month with an annual premium membership .


And the first 1,000 Kurzgesagt viewers to click the link in the description will get a free trial.

And the first 1,000 Kurzgesagt viewers to click the link in the description will get a free trial .


And if you can't decide which class to take, maybe get started with something super practical like learning how to best approach your creative process.

And if you ca n't decide which class to take , maybe get started with something super practical like learning how to best approach your creative process .


We liked Productivity for Creatives – Build a system that brings out your best by Thomas Frank.

We liked Productivity for Creatives – Build a system that brings out your best by Thomas Frank .


But whatever makes you feel good and gives you new ideas is worth a try.

But whatever makes you feel good and gives you new ideas is worth a try .


If you want to get creative with new skills and support Kurzgesagt, give it a go.

If you want to get creative with new skills and support Kurzgesagt , give it a go .


You're not a person.


You're a planet, made of roughly 40 trillion cells.

You 're a planet , made of roughly 40 trillion cells .


There is so much of you, that if your cells were human-sized, you'd be as big as 20 Mount Everests.

There is so much of you , that if your cells were human - sized , you 'd be as big as 20 Mount Everests .


For your creepy-crawly inhabitants, this makes your body an ecosystem, rich in resources and warmth and space.

For your creepy - crawly inhabitants , this makes your body an ecosystem , rich in resources and warmth and space .


Your immune system is the guardian of this planet, the force tasked with protecting yourself against the constant danger of invasion.

Your immune system is the guardian of this planet , the force tasked with protecting yourself against the constant danger of invasion .


Unfortunately, your enemies in the tiny world have a huge advantage.

Unfortunately , your enemies in the tiny world have a huge advantage .


Consider the effort it takes to make a single copy of yourself and your trillions of cells.

Consider the effort it takes to make a single copy of yourself and your trillions of cells .


First, you need to find someone who thinks you're cute.

First , you need to find someone who thinks you 're cute .


Date and be awkward, and if things work out in a complicated dance, two of your cells merge together.

Date and be awkward , and if things work out in a complicated dance , two of your cells merge together .


Then you need to wait for months, while the cell multiplies over and over until it's released into the world as a human being.

Then you need to wait for months , while the cell multiplies over and over until it 's released into the world as a human being .