I remember my son's face as he lifted his hand and looked absolutely shocked to see the shape of his hand still on the paper, a semi-permanent record of himself.

I remember my son 's face as he lifted his hand and looked absolutely shocked to see the shape of his hand still on the paper , a semi - permanent record of himself .


I am extremely happy that my children are no longer three, and yet to look at their little hands from those early artworks is to be inundated with a strange, soul-splitting joy.

I am extremely happy that my children are no longer three , and yet to look at their little hands from those early artworks is to be inundated with a strange , soul - splitting joy .


Those pictures remind me that they are not just growing up, but also growing away from me, running toward their own lives.

Those pictures remind me that they are not just growing up , but also growing away from me , running toward their own lives .


But of course, that's meaning I am applying to their hand stencils, and that complicated relationship between art and its viewers is never more fraught than when we are looking deeply into the past.

But of course , that 's meaning I am applying to their hand stencils , and that complicated relationship between art and its viewers is never more fraught than when we are looking deeply into the past .


In September of 1940, an 18-year-old mechanic named Marcel Ravidat was walking his dog, Robot, in the countryside of southwestern France when the dog disappeared down a hole.

In September of 1940 , an 18 - year - old mechanic named Marcel Ravidat was walking his dog , Robot , in the countryside of southwestern France when the dog disappeared down a hole .


Robot eventually returned, but the next day, Ravidat went to the spot with three friends to explore the hole.

Robot eventually returned , but the next day , Ravidat went to the spot with three friends to explore the hole .


And after quite a bit of digging, they discovered a cave with walls covered with paintings,

And after quite a bit of digging , they discovered a cave with walls covered with paintings ,


The paintings were astonishingly detailed and vivid, with red, yellow,

The paintings were astonishingly detailed and vivid , with red , yellow ,


It would eventually be established that these artworks were at least 17,000 years old.

It would eventually be established that these artworks were at least 17,000 years old .


Two of the boys who visited the cave that day were so profoundly moved by the art they saw that they camped outside the cave to protect it for over a year.

Two of the boys who visited the cave that day were so profoundly moved by the art they saw that they camped outside the cave to protect it for over a year .


After World War II, the French government took over protection of the site, and the cave was opened to the public in 1948.

After World War II , the French government took over protection of the site , and the cave was opened to the public in 1948 .


When Picasso saw the cave paintings on a visit that year, he reportedly said, We have invented nothing.

When Picasso saw the cave paintings on a visit that year , he reportedly said , We have invented nothing .


There are many mysteries at Lascaux.


Why, for instance, are there no paintings of reindeer, which we know were the primary source of food for the Paleolithic humans who lived in that cave?

Why , for instance , are there no paintings of reindeer , which we know were the primary source of food for the Paleolithic humans who lived in that cave ?


Why were they so much more focused on painting animals than painting human forms?

Why were they so much more focused on painting animals than painting human forms ?


Why are certain areas of the cave filled with images, including pictures on the ceiling that required the building of scaffolding to create,

Why are certain areas of the cave filled with images , including pictures on the ceiling that required the building of scaffolding to create ,


while other areas have only a few paintings?

while other areas have only a few paintings ?


And were the paintings spiritual?


Here are our sacred animals.


Or were they practical?


Here is a guide to some of the animals that might kill you.

Here is a guide to some of the animals that might kill you .


Aside from the animals, there are nearly a thousand abstract signs and shapes we cannot interpret, and also several negative hand stencils, as they are known by art historians.

Aside from the animals , there are nearly a thousand abstract signs and shapes we can not interpret , and also several negative hand stencils , as they are known by art historians .


These are the paintings that most interest me.

These are the paintings that most interest me .


They were created by pressing one hand with fingers splayed against the wall of the cave, and then blowing pigment, leaving the area around the hand painted.

They were created by pressing one hand with fingers splayed against the wall of the cave , and then blowing pigment , leaving the area around the hand painted .


Similar hand stencils have been found in caves around the world, from Indonesia to Spain to Australia to the Americas to Africa.

Similar hand stencils have been found in caves around the world , from Indonesia to Spain to Australia to the Americas to Africa .


We have found these memories of hands from 15 or 30 or even 40,000 years ago.

We have found these memories of hands from 15 or 30 or even 40,000 years ago .


These hand stencils remind us of how different life was in the distant past.

These hand stencils remind us of how different life was in the distant past .


Amputations, likely from frostbite, are common in Europe, and so you often see negative hand stencils with three or four fingers.

Amputations , likely from frostbite , are common in Europe , and so you often see negative hand stencils with three or four fingers .


And life was short and difficult.


As many as a quarter of women died in childbirth.

As many as a quarter of women died in childbirth .


Around 50% of children died before the age of five.

Around 50 % of children died before the age of five .


But they also remind us that the humans of the past were as human as we are.

But they also remind us that the humans of the past were as human as we are .


These communities hunted and gathered, and there were no large caloric surpluses, so every healthy person would have had to contribute to the acquisition of food and water.

These communities hunted and gathered , and there were no large caloric surpluses , so every healthy person would have had to contribute to the acquisition of food and water .


And yet somehow, they still made time to create art, almost as if art isn't optional for humans.

And yet somehow , they still made time to create art , almost as if art is n't optional for humans .


We see all kinds of hands stenciled on cave walls, children and adults, but almost always the fingers are spread, like my kids' hand stencils.

We see all kinds of hands stenciled on cave walls , children and adults , but almost always the fingers are spread , like my kids ' hand stencils .


I'm no Jungian, but it's fascinating and a little strange that so many Paleolithic humans who couldn't possibly have had any contact with each other,

I 'm no Jungian , but it 's fascinating and a little strange that so many Paleolithic humans who could n't possibly have had any contact with each other ,


But then again, what the Lascaux art means to me is likely very different from what it meant to the people who made it.

But then again , what the Lascaux art means to me is likely very different from what it meant to the people who made it .


Some academics theorize that the hand stencils were part of hunting rituals.

Some academics theorize that the hand stencils were part of hunting rituals .


Then there's always the possibility that the hand was just a convenient model situated at the end of the wrist.

Then there 's always the possibility that the hand was just a convenient model situated at the end of the wrist .


To me though, the hand stencils at Lascaux say, I was here.

To me though , the hand stencils at Lascaux say , I was here .


They say, you are not new.


And because they are negative prints surrounded by red pigment, they also look to me like something out of a horror movie.

And because they are negative prints surrounded by red pigment , they also look to me like something out of a horror movie .


They remind me that, as Alice Walker wrote, all history is current.

They remind me that , as Alice Walker wrote , all history is current .


The Lascaux cave has been closed to the public for many years now.

The Lascaux cave has been closed to the public for many years now .


Too many contemporary humans breathing inside of it led to the growth of mold and lichens, which has damaged some of the art.

Too many contemporary humans breathing inside of it led to the growth of mold and lichens , which has damaged some of the art .


Just the act of looking at something can ruin it, I guess.

Just the act of looking at something can ruin it , I guess .


But tourists can still visit an imitation cave called Lascaux 2, in which the artwork has been meticulously recreated.

But tourists can still visit an imitation cave called Lascaux 2 , in which the artwork has been meticulously recreated .


Humans making fake cave art to save real cave art may feel like peak Anthropocene behavior.

Humans making fake cave art to save real cave art may feel like peak Anthropocene behavior .


But I have to confess that even though I am a jaded and cynical semi-professional reviewer of human activity,

But I have to confess that even though I am a jaded and cynical semi - professional reviewer of human activity ,


I actually find it overwhelmingly hopeful that four teenagers and a dog named Robot discovered a cave with 17,000 year old handprints.

I actually find it overwhelmingly hopeful that four teenagers and a dog named Robot discovered a cave with 17,000 year old handprints .


That the cave was so overwhelmingly beautiful that two of those teenagers devoted themselves to its protection.

That the cave was so overwhelmingly beautiful that two of those teenagers devoted themselves to its protection .


And that when we humans became a danger to that cave's beauty, we agreed to stop going.

And that when we humans became a danger to that cave 's beauty , we agreed to stop going .


Lascaux is there.


You cannot visit.


You can go to the fake cave we've built and see nearly identical hand stencils.

You can go to the fake cave we 've built and see nearly identical hand stencils .


But you will know this is not the thing itself, but a shadow of it.

But you will know this is not the thing itself , but a shadow of it .


This is a handprint, but not a hand.


This is a memory that you cannot return to.

This is a memory that you can not return to .


All of which makes the cave very much like the past it represents.

All of which makes the cave very much like the past it represents .


We hope you enjoyed this video, even if it was different.

We hope you enjoyed this video , even if it was different .


Check out John Green's podcast, The Anthropocene Reviewed, where he poetically reviews the human world we live in.

Check out John Green 's podcast , The Anthropocene Reviewed , where he poetically reviews the human world we live in .


John is a good friend of Kurzgesagt.


In fact, without his channel Crash Course, that he and his brother Hank started years ago, Kurzgesagt would not exist,

In fact , without his channel Crash Course , that he and his brother Hank started years ago , Kurzgesagt would not exist ,


because it was the original inspiration for what we do today.

because it was the original inspiration for what we do today .


And over the years, John and Hank have helped us in a multitude of ways, from advice to just being friends.

And over the years , John and Hank have helped us in a multitude of ways , from advice to just being friends .


Also check out The Anthropocene Reviewed or any of their many channels.

Also check out The Anthropocene Reviewed or any of their many channels .


This is what happens when your body fights cancer.

This is what happens when your body fights cancer .


How does this battle for survival unfold?

How does this battle for survival unfold ?


It all begins with a single corrupted cell.

It all begins with a single corrupted cell .


At this point, things are not great, not terrible.

At this point , things are not great , not terrible .


This cell is not yet dangerous, but if nothing happens, it soon will be.

This cell is not yet dangerous , but if nothing happens , it soon will be .


Over a few weeks, the corrupted cell keeps making copies of itself.

Over a few weeks , the corrupted cell keeps making copies of itself .


One cell turns into dozens, hundreds, thousands.

One cell turns into dozens , hundreds , thousands .


Because the original was broken, its copies are breaking and mutating even more.

Because the original was broken , its copies are breaking and mutating even more .


They turn into different genetic lineages, clans that are working together and competing.

They turn into different genetic lineages , clans that are working together and competing .


Some mutate in a way that makes them weaker, others mutations don't change anything, while a few become fitter and better at survival.

Some mutate in a way that makes them weaker , others mutations do n't change anything , while a few become fitter and better at survival .


Together, they now form a tiny, tiny tumor.

Together , they now form a tiny , tiny tumor .


The growing tumor needs a lot of resources.

The growing tumor needs a lot of resources .


If the cells don't get food and oxygen, they'll die and the problem just solves itself.

If the cells do n't get food and oxygen , they 'll die and the problem just solves itself .


Unfortunately, a few corrupted cells unlock a new mutation that saves them, the ability to order the growth of new blood vessels.

Unfortunately , a few corrupted cells unlock a new mutation that saves them , the ability to order the growth of new blood vessels .


And so, your body provides the supply they need to survive.

And so , your body provides the supply they need to survive .


But as the tumor continues to grow, it starts causing damage.

But as the tumor continues to grow , it starts causing damage .


Neighboring healthy cells begin to starve and die, which attracts attention.

Neighboring healthy cells begin to starve and die , which attracts attention .


In a sense, this tiny tumor is like a rogue town.

In a sense , this tiny tumor is like a rogue town .


Imagine a group of rebels in Brooklyn decide that they're no longer part of New York and start a new settlement called Tumor Town, which happens to occupy the same space.

Imagine a group of rebels in Brooklyn decide that they 're no longer part of New York and start a new settlement called Tumor Town , which happens to occupy the same space .


The new city wants to grow, so it orders tons of steel beams, cement and drywall.

The new city wants to grow , so it orders tons of steel beams , cement and drywall .


New buildings follow no logic, are badly planned, ugly and dangerously crooked.

New buildings follow no logic , are badly planned , ugly and dangerously crooked .


They're built right in the middle of streets, on top of playgrounds and on existing infrastructure.

They 're built right in the middle of streets , on top of playgrounds and on existing infrastructure .


The old neighborhood is torn down or overbuilt to make room for new stuff.

The old neighborhood is torn down or overbuilt to make room for new stuff .


Many of the former residents are trapped in the middle of it and begin to starve.

Many of the former residents are trapped in the middle of it and begin to starve .


This goes on for a while until the smell of death finally attracts attention.

This goes on for a while until the smell of death finally attracts attention .


Building inspectors and police show up.

Building inspectors and police show up .


In your body, attracted by the stench of dead cells, your immune system is activated.

In your body , attracted by the stench of dead cells , your immune system is activated .


First responder immune cells invade the tumor.

First responder immune cells invade the tumor .


They release chemical signals that let the whole immune system know that there is cancer to be eradicated.

They release chemical signals that let the whole immune system know that there is cancer to be eradicated .


Dendritic cells, the intelligence officers of your immune system, collect samples of dead tumor cells and begin activating your heavy weapons, helper and killer T-cells.

Dendritic cells , the intelligence officers of your immune system , collect samples of dead tumor cells and begin activating your heavy weapons , helper and killer T - cells .


We explained these specialized super weapons in another video, but all you really need to know is that they have a library listing every bad thing that could come into your body.

We explained these specialized super weapons in another video , but all you really need to know is that they have a library listing every bad thing that could come into your body .


While each cancer is unique, there are genetic corruptions that they can't hide.

While each cancer is unique , there are genetic corruptions that they ca n't hide .


And your T-cells know what to look for.

And your T - cells know what to look for .


They are the deadliest cancer killers you have.

They are the deadliest cancer killers you have .


By the time they arrive, the tumor has grown to hundreds of thousands of cells, but this is about to change.

By the time they arrive , the tumor has grown to hundreds of thousands of cells , but this is about to change .


T-cells block the growth of new blood vessels, which starves thousands of tumor cells and puts an end to their growth.

T - cells block the growth of new blood vessels , which starves thousands of tumor cells and puts an end to their growth .


Imagine the building inspectors switching off electricity and water and putting up roadblocks to cancer town, so no more food or materials can be delivered.

Imagine the building inspectors switching off electricity and water and putting up roadblocks to cancer town , so no more food or materials can be delivered .


With no way to hide from the carnage unfolding, the tumor collapses as hundreds of thousands of tumor cells are massacred.

With no way to hide from the carnage unfolding , the tumor collapses as hundreds of thousands of tumor cells are massacred .


Their carcasses are cleaned up and consumed by macrophages that then order healthy tissue to regenerate.

Their carcasses are cleaned up and consumed by macrophages that then order healthy tissue to regenerate .


Your body has crushed the illegal tumor town without mercy.

Your body has crushed the illegal tumor town without mercy .


You'll never know about this fight or how many times this has happened inside your body, except in this case, something didn't go as planned.

You 'll never know about this fight or how many times this has happened inside your body , except in this case , something did n't go as planned .


Unfortunately, natural selection spores your victory.

Unfortunately , natural selection spores your victory .


By doing its best to destroy the tumor, your immune system accidentally selects the fittest tumor cells.

By doing its best to destroy the tumor , your immune system accidentally selects the fittest tumor cells .


Remember, the tumor consists of different lineages that keep growing and keep mutating.

Remember , the tumor consists of different lineages that keep growing and keep mutating .


Most of these are eradicated.


But just a few are more resilient.


One cell survives, it comes from the fittest tumor lineage and was just a bit better at surviving the massacre than anyone else.

One cell survives , it comes from the fittest tumor lineage and was just a bit better at surviving the massacre than anyone else .


It decides to do it all over again.


This tumor cell is much stronger than any of the thousands that were killed.

This tumor cell is much stronger than any of the thousands that were killed .


Maybe it's better at hiding or fighting back.

Maybe it 's better at hiding or fighting back .


Maybe it grows faster or is better at stealing resources.

Maybe it grows faster or is better at stealing resources .


Maybe it can survive with much less oxygen.

Maybe it can survive with much less oxygen .


And so it all begins again.


It's like the surviving rebels that started Tumortown have learned their lessons.

It 's like the surviving rebels that started Tumortown have learned their lessons .


And so the surviving tumor cell makes thousands of copies that mutate and form new lineages until once again, a tumor has grown made up of more resilient cells.

And so the surviving tumor cell makes thousands of copies that mutate and form new lineages until once again , a tumor has grown made up of more resilient cells .


The immune system doesn't care though, and this time it even has experience.

The immune system does n't care though , and this time it even has experience .


Instead of starting with police, SWAT teams go right in to tear Tumortown down, killing its inhabitants without mercy.

Instead of starting with police , SWAT teams go right in to tear Tumortown down , killing its inhabitants without mercy .


But once again, they don't get everyone.

But once again , they do n't get everyone .


One of them survives, a fitter tumor cell from an already fitter lineage.

One of them survives , a fitter tumor cell from an already fitter lineage .


This time it gets a cheap suit and studies the building code, pretending to be a lawyer to start Tumortown all over again.

This time it gets a cheap suit and studies the building code , pretending to be a lawyer to start Tumortown all over again .


This struggle now repeats a few times.


Each time the rebels learn a bit more about how to avoid the law.

Each time the rebels learn a bit more about how to avoid the law .


If at any point the immune system gets all of the tumor cells, the story ends.

If at any point the immune system gets all of the tumor cells , the story ends .


But in this case, it doesn't.


Finally, a tumor cell changes in a way that makes it properly dangerous cancer.

Finally , a tumor cell changes in a way that makes it properly dangerous cancer .


Immune cells have an off switch that deactivates them before they can attack, which in principle is a good idea.

Immune cells have an off switch that deactivates them before they can attack , which in principle is a good idea .


The immune system is extremely dangerous and in many cases it needs to be shut down, like around your central nervous system.

The immune system is extremely dangerous and in many cases it needs to be shut down , like around your central nervous system .


But this off switch can be exploited.


The mutated tumor cell finds a way to switch the immune system off by targeting inhibitor receptors on anti-cancer cells.

The mutated tumor cell finds a way to switch the immune system off by targeting inhibitor receptors on anti - cancer cells .


Inhibitor receptors stop immune cells from, well, killing.

Inhibitor receptors stop immune cells from , well , killing .


This cell is now the powerful founder of a new lineage of cancer cells


and mass produces thousands of new copies that once again change and mutate further, building yet another Tumortown.

and mass produces thousands of new copies that once again change and mutate further , building yet another Tumortown .


The new cancer cells have become immune to the immune system and everything is different this time.

The new cancer cells have become immune to the immune system and everything is different this time .


Tumortown has been rebuilt, even uglier and stranger than before, but now the Cancer City Council has forged all sorts of permits.

Tumortown has been rebuilt , even uglier and stranger than before , but now the Cancer City Council has forged all sorts of permits .


As building inspectors come to shut down construction, they get confused.

As building inspectors come to shut down construction , they get confused .


Stunned, they wander off, unable to order the destruction of the sprawling buildings.

Stunned , they wander off , unable to order the destruction of the sprawling buildings .


Police try to enter the illegal city to arrest the builders and execute inhabitants, but this time Tumortown has erected its own roadblocks that keep the law from entering.

Police try to enter the illegal city to arrest the builders and execute inhabitants , but this time Tumortown has erected its own roadblocks that keep the law from entering .


Confused officers stand around helplessly.

Confused officers stand around helplessly .


As Tumortown slowly envelops the former Brooklyn and more and more civilians die, T-cell SWAT teams arrive to end this travesty.

As Tumortown slowly envelops the former Brooklyn and more and more civilians die , T - cell SWAT teams arrive to end this travesty .


But things get worse.


New lineages of Tumortown officials have started to forge court documents that order police to shoot at the SWAT teams.

New lineages of Tumortown officials have started to forge court documents that order police to shoot at the SWAT teams .


What the cancer cells are doing at this point is actively shutting down immune defenses by sending corrupt signals.

What the cancer cells are doing at this point is actively shutting down immune defenses by sending corrupt signals .


The now malignant tumor is no longer a pushover and has begun creating the cancer microenvironment, a sort of borderland that's hard to cross.

The now malignant tumor is no longer a pushover and has begun creating the cancer microenvironment , a sort of borderland that 's hard to cross .


All avenues of attack have been shut down and uncontrollable growth is the consequence.

All avenues of attack have been shut down and uncontrollable growth is the consequence .


This is a dangerous tumor.


Cells that are strong and able to fight push your immune system back and expand further.

Cells that are strong and able to fight push your immune system back and expand further .


If more mutations happen, then some of the cancer cells will begin to explore the world and expand into other tissues to build new towns.

If more mutations happen , then some of the cancer cells will begin to explore the world and expand into other tissues to build new towns .


And this is exactly what makes cancer so harmful.

And this is exactly what makes cancer so harmful .


It's taking up space and stealing so many nutrients that your true self has no room to function anymore.

It 's taking up space and stealing so many nutrients that your true self has no room to function anymore .


If this goes on for too long, organs will shut down.

If this goes on for too long , organs will shut down .


But this tactic is a dead end.


The more successful cancer gets, the more damage it does to its world.

The more successful cancer gets , the more damage it does to its world .


When the body dies, the cancer dies too.

When the body dies , the cancer dies too .


It truly is a game without winners.


Except humanity is planning to win this game.

Except humanity is planning to win this game .


At this very moment, hundreds of thousands of scientists are working on new and better ways of killing cancer to destroy and burn down tumor towns for good.

At this very moment , hundreds of thousands of scientists are working on new and better ways of killing cancer to destroy and burn down tumor towns for good .


In recent years, immunotherapy has made enormous progress.

In recent years , immunotherapy has made enormous progress .


It's a relatively new therapy in which your own immune cells are modified to kill cancer better than any medicine can do.

It 's a relatively new therapy in which your own immune cells are modified to kill cancer better than any medicine can do .


It's like giving your building inspectors machine guns and flamethrowers.

It 's like giving your building inspectors machine guns and flamethrowers .


But this is a story for another time.


For now, cancer is a battleground.


But if human ingenuity is to be trusted, then one day, maybe in the not too distant future, we will eradicate it once and for all.

But if human ingenuity is to be trusted , then one day , maybe in the not too distant future , we will eradicate it once and for all .


This video was made possible in part by direct viewer support and in part through a grant by Gates Ventures.

This video was made possible in part by direct viewer support and in part through a grant by Gates Ventures .


Please check out our source document for more background and in-depth information.

Please check out our source document for more background and in - depth information .


How long do you think it will take before machines do your job better than you do?

How long do you think it will take before machines do your job better than you do ?


Automation used to mean big, stupid machines doing repetitive work in factories.

Automation used to mean big , stupid machines doing repetitive work in factories .


Today, they can land aircraft, diagnose cancer, and trade stocks.

Today , they can land aircraft , diagnose cancer , and trade stocks .


We are entering a new age of automation unlike anything that's come before.

We are entering a new age of automation unlike anything that 's come before .


According to a 2013 study, almost half of all jobs in the US could potentially be automated in the next two decades.

According to a 2013 study , almost half of all jobs in the US could potentially be automated in the next two decades .


But wait, hasn't automation been around for decades?

But wait , has n't automation been around for decades ?


What's different this time?


Things used to be simple.


Innovation made human work easier and productivity rose,

Innovation made human work easier and productivity rose ,


which means that more staff or services could be produced per hour using the same amount of human workers.

which means that more staff or services could be produced per hour using the same amount of human workers .


This eliminated many jobs but also created other jobs that were better, which was important because the growing population needed work.

This eliminated many jobs but also created other jobs that were better , which was important because the growing population needed work .


Overall, this worked well for a majority of people and living standards improved.

Overall , this worked well for a majority of people and living standards improved .


There's a clear progression in terms of what humans did for a living.

There 's a clear progression in terms of what humans did for a living .


For the longest time, we worked in agriculture.

For the longest time , we worked in agriculture .


With the Industrial Revolution, this shifted to production jobs.

With the Industrial Revolution , this shifted to production jobs .


And as automation became more widespread, humans shifted into service jobs.

And as automation became more widespread , humans shifted into service jobs .


And then, only a few moments ago in human history, the Information Age happened.

And then , only a few moments ago in human history , the Information Age happened .


Suddenly, the rules were different.


Our jobs are now being taken over by machines much faster than they were in the past.

Our jobs are now being taken over by machines much faster than they were in the past .


That's worrying, of course, but innovation will clearly save us, right?

That 's worrying , of course , but innovation will clearly save us , right ?


While new Information Age industries are booming, they are creating fewer and fewer new jobs.

While new Information Age industries are booming , they are creating fewer and fewer new jobs .


In 1979, General Motors employed more than 800,000 workers and made about 11 billion US dollars.

In 1979 , General Motors employed more than 800,000 workers and made about 11 billion US dollars .


In 2012, Google made about 14 billion US dollars while employing 58,000 people.

In 2012 , Google made about 14 billion US dollars while employing 58,000 people .


You may not like this comparison, but Google is an example of what created new jobs in the past.

You may not like this comparison , but Google is an example of what created new jobs in the past .


Old innovative industries are running out of steam.

Old innovative industries are running out of steam .


Just look at cars.


When they became a thing 100 years ago, they created huge industries.

When they became a thing 100 years ago , they created huge industries .


Cars transformed our way of life, our infrastructure, and our cities.

Cars transformed our way of life , our infrastructure , and our cities .


Millions of people found jobs, either directly or indirectly.

Millions of people found jobs , either directly or indirectly .


Decades of investment kept this momentum going.

Decades of investment kept this momentum going .


Today, this process is largely complete.

Today , this process is largely complete .


Innovation in the car industry does not create as many jobs as it used to.

Innovation in the car industry does not create as many jobs as it used to .


While electric cars are great and all, they won't create millions of new jobs.

While electric cars are great and all , they wo n't create millions of new jobs .


Some technologists argue that the Internet is an innovation on a par with the introduction of electricity.

Some technologists argue that the Internet is an innovation on a par with the introduction of electricity .


If we go with this comparison, we see how our modern innovation differs from the old one.

If we go with this comparison , we see how our modern innovation differs from the old one .


The Internet created new industries, but they're not creating enough jobs to keep up with population growth or to compensate for the industries the Internet is killing.

The Internet created new industries , but they 're not creating enough jobs to keep up with population growth or to compensate for the industries the Internet is killing .


At its peak in 2004, Blockbuster had 84,000 employees and made 6 billion US dollars in revenue.

At its peak in 2004 , Blockbuster had 84,000 employees and made 6 billion US dollars in revenue .


In 2016, Netflix had 4,500 employees and made 9 billion dollars in revenue.

In 2016 , Netflix had 4,500 employees and made 9 billion dollars in revenue .


Or take us for example.


With a full-time team of just 12 people, Kurzgesagt reaches millions of people.

With a full - time team of just 12 people , Kurzgesagt reaches millions of people .


A TV station with the same amount of viewers needs way more employees.

A TV station with the same amount of viewers needs way more employees .


Innovation in the information age doesn't equate to the creation of enough new jobs, which would be bad enough on its own,

Innovation in the information age does n't equate to the creation of enough new jobs , which would be bad enough on its own ,


but now a new wave of automation and a new generation of machines is slowly taking over.

but now a new wave of automation and a new generation of machines is slowly taking over .


To understand this, we need to understand ourselves first.

To understand this , we need to understand ourselves first .


Human progress is based on the division of labor.

Human progress is based on the division of labor .


As we advanced over thousands of years, our jobs became more and more specialized.

As we advanced over thousands of years , our jobs became more and more specialized .


While even our smartest machines are bad at doing complicated jobs, they are extremely good at doing narrowly defined and predictable tasks.

While even our smartest machines are bad at doing complicated jobs , they are extremely good at doing narrowly defined and predictable tasks .


This is what destroyed factory jobs.


But look at a complex job long and hard enough, and you'll find that it's really just many narrowly defined and predictable tasks, one after another.

But look at a complex job long and hard enough , and you 'll find that it 's really just many narrowly defined and predictable tasks , one after another .


Machines are on the brink of becoming so good at breaking down complex jobs into many predictable ones, that for a lot of people, there will be no further room to specialize.

Machines are on the brink of becoming so good at breaking down complex jobs into many predictable ones , that for a lot of people , there will be no further room to specialize .


We are on the verge of being out-competed.

We are on the verge of being out - competed .


Digital machines do this via machine learning, which enables them to acquire information and skills by analyzing data.

Digital machines do this via machine learning , which enables them to acquire information and skills by analyzing data .


This makes them become better at something through the relationships they discover.

This makes them become better at something through the relationships they discover .


Machines teach themselves.


We make this possible by giving a computer a lot of data about the thing we want it to become better at.

We make this possible by giving a computer a lot of data about the thing we want it to become better at .


Show a machine all the things you bought online, and it will slowly learn what to recommend to you, so you buy more things.

Show a machine all the things you bought online , and it will slowly learn what to recommend to you , so you buy more things .


Machine learning is now meeting more of its potential, because in recent years, humans have started to gather data about everything.

Machine learning is now meeting more of its potential , because in recent years , humans have started to gather data about everything .


What we've created by accident is a huge library machines can use to learn how humans do things, and learn to do them better.

What we 've created by accident is a huge library machines can use to learn how humans do things , and learn to do them better .


These digital machines might be the biggest job killer of all, They can be replicated instantly and for free.

These digital machines might be the biggest job killer of all , They can be replicated instantly and for free .


When they improve, you don't need to invest in big metal things, you can just use the new code.

When they improve , you do n't need to invest in big metal things , you can just use the new code .


And they have the ability to get better fast.

And they have the ability to get better fast .


If your work involves complex work on a computer today, you might be out of work even sooner than the people who still have jobs in factories.

If your work involves complex work on a computer today , you might be out of work even sooner than the people who still have jobs in factories .


There are actual real-world examples of how this transition might be happening.

There are actual real - world examples of how this transition might be happening .


A San Francisco company offers a project management software for big corporations, which is supposed to eliminate middle management positions.

A San Francisco company offers a project management software for big corporations , which is supposed to eliminate middle management positions .


When it's hired for a new project, the software first decides which jobs can be automated, and precisely where it needs actual professional humans.

When it 's hired for a new project , the software first decides which jobs can be automated , and precisely where it needs actual professional humans .


It then helps assemble a team of freelancers over the internet.

It then helps assemble a team of freelancers over the internet .


The software then distributes tasks to the humans and controls the quality of the work, tracking individual performance until the project is complete.

The software then distributes tasks to the humans and controls the quality of the work , tracking individual performance until the project is complete .


Okay, this doesn't sound too bad.


While this machine is killing one job, it creates jobs for freelancers, right?

While this machine is killing one job , it creates jobs for freelancers , right ?


Well, as the freelancers complete their tasks, learning algorithms track them and gather data about their work and which tasks it consists of.

Well , as the freelancers complete their tasks , learning algorithms track them and gather data about their work and which tasks it consists of .


So what's actually happening is that the freelancers are teaching a machine how to replace them.

So what 's actually happening is that the freelancers are teaching a machine how to replace them .


On average, this software reduces costs by about 50% in the first year and by another 25% in the second year.

On average , this software reduces costs by about 50 % in the first year and by another 25 % in the second year .


This is only one example of many.


There are machines and programs getting as good or better than humans in all kinds of fields,

There are machines and programs getting as good or better than humans in all kinds of fields ,


All of these jobs won't disappear overnight, but fewer and fewer humans will be doing them.

All of these jobs wo n't disappear overnight , but fewer and fewer humans will be doing them .


We'll discuss a few cases in a follow-up video.

We 'll discuss a few cases in a follow - up video .


But while jobs disappearing is bad, it's only half of the story.

But while jobs disappearing is bad , it 's only half of the story .


It's not enough to substitute old jobs with new ones.

It 's not enough to substitute old jobs with new ones .


We need to be generating new jobs constantly because the world population is growing.

We need to be generating new jobs constantly because the world population is growing .


In the past, we have solved this through innovation.

In the past , we have solved this through innovation .


But since 1973, the generation of new jobs in the US has begun to shrink.

But since 1973 , the generation of new jobs in the US has begun to shrink .


And the first decade of the 21st century was the first one where the total amount of jobs in the US did not grow for the first time.

And the first decade of the 21st century was the first one where the total amount of jobs in the US did not grow for the first time .


In a country that needs to create up to 150,000 new jobs per month just to keep up with population growth, this is bad news.

In a country that needs to create up to 150,000 new jobs per month just to keep up with population growth , this is bad news .


This is also starting to affect standards of living.

This is also starting to affect standards of living .


In the past, it was seen as obvious that with rising productivity, more and better jobs would be created.

In the past , it was seen as obvious that with rising productivity , more and better jobs would be created .


But the numbers tell a different story.

But the numbers tell a different story .


In 1998, US workers worked a total of 194 billion hours.

In 1998 , US workers worked a total of 194 billion hours .


Over the course of the next 15 years, their output increased by 42%.

Over the course of the next 15 years , their output increased by 42 % .


But in 2013, the amount of hours worked by US workers was still 194 billion hours.

But in 2013 , the amount of hours worked by US workers was still 194 billion hours .


What this means is that despite productivity growing drastically, thousands of new businesses opening up,

What this means is that despite productivity growing drastically , thousands of new businesses opening up ,


and the US population growing by over 40 million, there was no growth at all in the number of hours worked in 15 years.

and the US population growing by over 40 million , there was no growth at all in the number of hours worked in 15 years .


At the same time, wages for new university graduates in the US have been declining for the past decade,

At the same time , wages for new university graduates in the US have been declining for the past decade ,


while up to 40% of new graduates are forced to take on jobs that don't require a degree.

while up to 40 % of new graduates are forced to take on jobs that do n't require a degree .


Productivity is separating from human labor.

Productivity is separating from human labor .


The nature of innovation in the information age is different from everything we encountered before.

The nature of innovation in the information age is different from everything we encountered before .


This process started years ago and is already well underway.

This process started years ago and is already well underway .


Even without new disruptions like self-driving cars or robot accountants, it looks like automation is different this time.

Even without new disruptions like self - driving cars or robot accountants , it looks like automation is different this time .


This time, the machines might really take our jobs.

This time , the machines might really take our jobs .


Our economies are based on the premise that people consume.

Our economies are based on the premise that people consume .


But if fewer and fewer people have decent work, who will be doing all the consuming?

But if fewer and fewer people have decent work , who will be doing all the consuming ?


Are we producing ever more cheaply only to arrive at a point where too few people can actually buy all our stuff and services?

Are we producing ever more cheaply only to arrive at a point where too few people can actually buy all our stuff and services ?


Or will the future see a tiny minority of the super-rich who own the machines dominating the rest of us?

Or will the future see a tiny minority of the super - rich who own the machines dominating the rest of us ?


And does our future really have to be that grim?

And does our future really have to be that grim ?


While we were fairly dark in this video, it's far from certain that things will turn out negatively.

While we were fairly dark in this video , it 's far from certain that things will turn out negatively .


The information age and modern automation could be a huge opportunity to change human society and reduce poverty and inequality drastically.

The information age and modern automation could be a huge opportunity to change human society and reduce poverty and inequality drastically .


It could be a seminal moment in human history.

It could be a seminal moment in human history .


We'll talk about this potential and possible solutions like a universal basic income in part 2 of this video series.

We 'll talk about this potential and possible solutions like a universal basic income in part 2 of this video series .


We need to think big and fast.


Because one thing's for sure, the machines are not coming.

Because one thing 's for sure , the machines are not coming .


They are already here.


This video took us about 900 hours to make and we've been working on it for over 9 months.

This video took us about 900 hours to make and we 've been working on it for over 9 months .


Projects like this one would not be possible without your support on Patreon.com.

Projects like this one would not be possible without your support on Patreon.com .


If you want to help us out and get a personal Kurzgesagt bird in return, that would be really useful.

If you want to help us out and get a personal Kurzgesagt bird in return , that would be really useful .


We based much of this video on two very good books.

We based much of this video on two very good books .


You can find links to both of them in the video description.

You can find links to both of them in the video description .


Highly recommend it.


Also, we made a little robot poster.


You can buy it and a lot of other stuff in our DFTBA shop.

You can buy it and a lot of other stuff in our DFTBA shop .


This video is part of a larger series about how technology is already changing and will change human life forever.

This video is part of a larger series about how technology is already changing and will change human life forever .


If you want to continue watching, we have a few playlists.

If you want to continue watching , we have a few playlists .


A three-story building is about 10 meters tall, six times bigger than you.

A three - story building is about 10 meters tall , six times bigger than you .


In the opposite direction, six times smaller than you, you get things like a cute squirrel, about 27 centimeters small.

In the opposite direction , six times smaller than you , you get things like a cute squirrel , about 27 centimeters small .


So the building is just as big relative to you as you are to a squirrel.

So the building is just as big relative to you as you are to a squirrel .


You're in the middle.


It's easy to understand.


In fact, you are in the middle of everything in the universe.

In fact , you are in the middle of everything in the universe .


Let's go on a fantastical journey together to the small and the large and see if it's really true.

Let 's go on a fantastical journey together to the small and the large and see if it 's really true .


An A320 is 37 meters long.


The rufous hummingbird is around 7 centimeters.

The rufous hummingbird is around 7 centimeters .


Both of these flies are 23 times bigger or smaller than you, and both fly intercontinental distances.

Both of these flies are 23 times bigger or smaller than you , and both fly intercontinental distances .


The tiny bird migrates between Alaska and Mexico.

The tiny bird migrates between Alaska and Mexico .


If the hummingbird were the same size as the jet, it would circle the Earth 85 times every year.

If the hummingbird were the same size as the jet , it would circle the Earth 85 times every year .


Dinoponera, the largest ant in the world, is about 55 times smaller than you.

Dinoponera , the largest ant in the world , is about 55 times smaller than you .


Their small colonies have around 100 individuals but no queens.

Their small colonies have around 100 individuals but no queens .


Instead, they ruthlessly compete for status within the nest, which can reach 1.2 meters deep.

Instead , they ruthlessly compete for status within the nest , which can reach 1.2 meters deep .


If humans lived like Dinoponera, we'd be building towers of over 25 stories filled with officers and ruthlessly competing for status and weight.

If humans lived like Dinoponera , we 'd be building towers of over 25 stories filled with officers and ruthlessly competing for status and weight .


The deadliest and most annoying insect in the world is the mosquito.

The deadliest and most annoying insect in the world is the mosquito .


235 times smaller than you, while on the other end, the Empire State Building is about that much larger than you.

235 times smaller than you , while on the other end , the Empire State Building is about that much larger than you .


Kind of unimaginable how something this small creates so much devastation for something that big.

Kind of unimaginable how something this small creates so much devastation for something that big .


We're getting to the borders of human perception now.

We 're getting to the borders of human perception now .


You can feel their shape and roughness between your fingers, and if you focus, see them individually.

You can feel their shape and roughness between your fingers , and if you focus , see them individually .


We mix them into concrete that can hold up the tallest towers ever built, like the 828 meter tall Burj Khalifa that's 500 times larger than you.

We mix them into concrete that can hold up the tallest towers ever built , like the 828 meter tall Burj Khalifa that 's 500 times larger than you .


If you were that tall, people would be as small to you as grains of sand in your hand.

If you were that tall , people would be as small to you as grains of sand in your hand .


Hey, be gentle.


Anything smaller or bigger and it becomes hard to grasp.

Anything smaller or bigger and it becomes hard to grasp .


A medium-sized city like Lisbon is about 6,000 times larger than yourself and permeated by a network of highways, roads and alleys.

A medium - sized city like Lisbon is about 6,000 times larger than yourself and permeated by a network of highways , roads and alleys .


On the other end, about 6,000 times smaller than you, are your small arteries permeating your whole body.

On the other end , about 6,000 times smaller than you , are your small arteries permeating your whole body .


Actually, you're in the middle between your network of blood vessels and the network of a city like Lisbon.

Actually , you 're in the middle between your network of blood vessels and the network of a city like Lisbon .


If you think of a city as a living being, you find more and more parallels.

If you think of a city as a living being , you find more and more parallels .


A small alley is as small to the city as an arterial, 0.1 millimeters wide, is to you.

A small alley is as small to the city as an arterial , 0.1 millimeters wide , is to you .


Your tiniest capillaries are to you what the pipes bringing water to homes are to Lisbon.

Your tiniest capillaries are to you what the pipes bringing water to homes are to Lisbon .


Going further, 100,000 times smaller than you, we reach a typical skin cell about 30 micrometers in diameter.

Going further , 100,000 times smaller than you , we reach a typical skin cell about 30 micrometers in diameter .


A neutrophil is half as big and one of your red blood cells is merely 7 micrometers.

A neutrophil is half as big and one of your red blood cells is merely 7 micrometers .


They are as small to you as you are to the entire Tokyo metropolitan area, the largest urban area in the world spanning over 160 kilometers.

They are as small to you as you are to the entire Tokyo metropolitan area , the largest urban area in the world spanning over 160 kilometers .


You are so incredibly big, filled with so much complexity, so many different moving parts.

You are so incredibly big , filled with so much complexity , so many different moving parts .


Or are you just a cell in the human civilization's superstructure?

Or are you just a cell in the human civilization 's superstructure ?


Are you both?


Our steps are getting larger and larger now.

Our steps are getting larger and larger now .


Germany is around 875 kilometers from north to south and the fourth biggest agricultural exporter in the world.

Germany is around 875 kilometers from north to south and the fourth biggest agricultural exporter in the world .


Rhizobia is a nitrogen-fixing bacteria up to 3 micrometers long and without it, that sort of agricultural production is impossible.

Rhizobia is a nitrogen - fixing bacteria up to 3 micrometers long and without it , that sort of agricultural production is impossible .


So we have a country and a bacterium depending on each other and you are in the middle, both being roughly 550,000 times larger or smaller than you.

So we have a country and a bacterium depending on each other and you are in the middle , both being roughly 550,000 times larger or smaller than you .


It's about 12,700 kilometers in diameter, about 7.7 billion times larger than you.

It 's about 12,700 kilometers in diameter , about 7.7 billion times larger than you .


On the other side of the scale is cornebacterium, as little as 0.3 micrometers across, living on your skin and eyes along with 100 billion other bacteria, more than 10 times more than there are humans on Earth.

On the other side of the scale is cornebacterium , as little as 0.3 micrometers across , living on your skin and eyes along with 100 billion other bacteria , more than 10 times more than there are humans on Earth .


Again, you are in the center, right in the middle of something so large that our civilization is a mere scratch on its surface and something so small and numerous you never notice its presence even as it touches you.

Again , you are in the center , right in the middle of something so large that our civilization is a mere scratch on its surface and something so small and numerous you never notice its presence even as it touches you .


Does that make you feel small or big?


From here on out, your brain is breaking a bit.

From here on out , your brain is breaking a bit .


Four times wider than Earth is Neptune, a cold blue gas giant 49,500 kilometers wide.

Four times wider than Earth is Neptune , a cold blue gas giant 49,500 kilometers wide .


The largest planet though is Jupiter, 140,000 kilometers in diameter, a titanic abyss shrouded in terrible winds.

The largest planet though is Jupiter , 140,000 kilometers in diameter , a titanic abyss shrouded in terrible winds .


You could drop Earth whole into its depths and it would simply vanish.

You could drop Earth whole into its depths and it would simply vanish .


On the opposite scale, we find the deadly West Nile virus, 50 nanometers in diameter.

On the opposite scale , we find the deadly West Nile virus , 50 nanometers in diameter .


They are as small to you as you are to the planet Jupiter.

They are as small to you as you are to the planet Jupiter .


You are in the middle between gigantic planets and the world of viruses.

You are in the middle between gigantic planets and the world of viruses .


Let that sink in.


A tiny virus is taking over and killing lung cells up to 500 times larger than itself with the help of a tiny protein weapon.

A tiny virus is taking over and killing lung cells up to 500 times larger than itself with the help of a tiny protein weapon .


That's like you trying to kill a giant the size of the Burj Khalifa with a screwdriver.

That 's like you trying to kill a giant the size of the Burj Khalifa with a screwdriver .


But the real boss of the solar system is the Sun.

But the real boss of the solar system is the Sun .


A billion times smaller than you, clearly the boss of our body, is a DNA strand containing all the information making your life possible.

A billion times smaller than you , clearly the boss of our body , is a DNA strand containing all the information making your life possible .


You're right in the middle between the most important factors keeping everything alive.

You 're right in the middle between the most important factors keeping everything alive .


From here on, things just kind of stop making sense.

From here on , things just kind of stop making sense .


A billion is already too much, but now everything just seems to mean a lot.

A billion is already too much , but now everything just seems to mean a lot .


The supermassive black hole at the center of our galaxy, Sagittarius A-star, is 14.5 billion times bigger than you.

The supermassive black hole at the center of our galaxy , Sagittarius A - star , is 14.5 billion times bigger than you .


A hydrogen atom is 15.5 billion times smaller than you.

A hydrogen atom is 15.5 billion times smaller than you .


But the thing is, we're not even close to being done, and it's not impossible to get at least a sense of how these scale.

But the thing is , we 're not even close to being done , and it 's not impossible to get at least a sense of how these scale .


The solar system is 22 trillion times larger than you.

The solar system is 22 trillion times larger than you .


On the other end of the scale is the wavelength of low-energy neutrinos released from fusion reactions in our Sun.

On the other end of the scale is the wavelength of low - energy neutrinos released from fusion reactions in our Sun .


About 100 trillion of them are passing through you every single second, like ghosts a trillion times smaller than you, basically never hitting any of the particles inside you.

About 100 trillion of them are passing through you every single second , like ghosts a trillion times smaller than you , basically never hitting any of the particles inside you .


If you moved through the solar system in a straight line, you probably wouldn't hit anything either.

If you moved through the solar system in a straight line , you probably would n't hit anything either .


Although things are beginning to get really weird now.

Although things are beginning to get really weird now .


A single proton at the heart of the hydrogen atom is almost exactly one quadrillion times smaller than you.

A single proton at the heart of the hydrogen atom is almost exactly one quadrillion times smaller than you .


If the proton were as big as you, the hydrogen atoms would be taller than 12 Mount Everest's.

If the proton were as big as you , the hydrogen atoms would be taller than 12 Mount Everest 's .


On the other end, we meet something that just breaks human brains, the incredible vastness of space.

On the other end , we meet something that just breaks human brains , the incredible vastness of space .


We just have no reference for these distances at all.

We just have no reference for these distances at all .


The distance to the closest star to Earth, Alpha Centauri, is not one quadrillion times in the other direction from the tiny proton, but 24 quadrillion.

The distance to the closest star to Earth , Alpha Centauri , is not one quadrillion times in the other direction from the tiny proton , but 24 quadrillion .


Space is just so large, it's kind of mean.

Space is just so large , it 's kind of mean .


And it goes on like this.


A quintillion times smaller than you is the strange world of the quarks.

A quintillion times smaller than you is the strange world of the quarks .


The proton is not actually like a tiny ball, but kind of just a ripple on the surface of the ocean of quarks.

The proton is not actually like a tiny ball , but kind of just a ripple on the surface of the ocean of quarks .


Every moment, countless quarks pop into existence, along with their antiparticle enemies, before doing furious battle and annihilating each other in an instant.

Every moment , countless quarks pop into existence , along with their antiparticle enemies , before doing furious battle and annihilating each other in an instant .


Because the harder you look for them, the more quarks seem to appear.

Because the harder you look for them , the more quarks seem to appear .


We're simplifying so much, it's like a lie anyway.

We 're simplifying so much , it 's like a lie anyway .


However we choose to illustrate this, it's wrong.

However we choose to illustrate this , it 's wrong .


What actually is a quark?


What does it look like to human minds?


Nobody knows.


As you sit here confused, let's look up again.

As you sit here confused , let 's look up again .


The ocean of quarks in a proton, inside a single atom of a single cell of your body, is as small to you as you are compared to a sphere around 174 light years across, containing about 16,000 stars.

The ocean of quarks in a proton , inside a single atom of a single cell of your body , is as small to you as you are compared to a sphere around 174 light years across , containing about 16,000 stars .


And this is just a tiny speck of dust to our galaxy.

And this is just a tiny speck of dust to our galaxy .


The Milky Way is close to one sextillion times larger than you.

The Milky Way is close to one sextillion times larger than you .


At the opposite end, we have particles a sextillion times smaller than yourself.

At the opposite end , we have particles a sextillion times smaller than yourself .


We're getting to the end.


The observable universe is 93 billion light years in diameter.

The observable universe is 93 billion light years in diameter .


But it's still finite.


It's only 465,000 Milky Ways side by side.

It 's only 465,000 Milky Ways side by side .


If you were the size of our galaxy, the observable universe would only be a day's drive across.

If you were the size of our galaxy , the observable universe would only be a day 's drive across .


On the other end of that scale, we have the tiniest particle ever detected.

On the other end of that scale , we have the tiniest particle ever detected .


A proton traveling so close to the speed of light, it got squished into a pancake.

A proton traveling so close to the speed of light , it got squished into a pancake .


We're at the border of things that we have evidence for.

We 're at the border of things that we have evidence for .


Are you truly in the middle of everything?

Are you truly in the middle of everything ?


The theoretical smallest physical distance is the Planck length, a hundred million times smaller than even the pancake proton.

The theoretical smallest physical distance is the Planck length , a hundred million times smaller than even the pancake proton .


But we don't know if it's real, only that our theories of the universe break down here.

But we do n't know if it 's real , only that our theories of the universe break down here .


Likewise, on the other end, does the bigness of the universe match the smallness of the Planck length?

Likewise , on the other end , does the bigness of the universe match the smallness of the Planck length ?


Well, actually, the universe could be considerably larger than that.

Well , actually , the universe could be considerably larger than that .


But we will never know.


Let's go back and look at the dimensions again.

Let 's go back and look at the dimensions again .


There are so many big things, so many small things wrapped up in them.

There are so many big things , so many small things wrapped up in them .


The universe seems to be exactly the right size, with you in the middle.

The universe seems to be exactly the right size , with you in the middle .


How do you try to get it exactly right, say, when you have to make a big choice, like buying a new mattress?

How do you try to get it exactly right , say , when you have to make a big choice , like buying a new mattress ?


You probably compare trustworthy reviews and test out a few models.

You probably compare trustworthy reviews and test out a few models .


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We wish you a peaceful and cozy turn of the year.

We wish you a peaceful and cozy turn of the year .


See you back at full throttle in January.

See you back at full throttle in January .


When we think about alien civilizations, we tend to look into the vastness of space, to faraway planets.

When we think about alien civilizations , we tend to look into the vastness of space , to faraway planets .


But there is another incredibly vast dimension that we might be giving too little thought to.

But there is another incredibly vast dimension that we might be giving too little thought to .


Could it be that over the last hundreds of millions of years, other civilizations existed on Earth?

Could it be that over the last hundreds of millions of years , other civilizations existed on Earth ?


What does science have to say about this and what are the implications for us?

What does science have to say about this and what are the implications for us ?


Life on Earth has existed for 4 billion years, mostly as single-celled organisms, until some 540 million years ago, the Cambrian explosion heralded the age of animals.

Life on Earth has existed for 4 billion years , mostly as single - celled organisms , until some 540 million years ago , the Cambrian explosion heralded the age of animals .


Where would we look for them and what could we hope to find?

Where would we look for them and what could we hope to find ?


Sadly, we have only one civilization to look at, ourselves.

Sadly , we have only one civilization to look at , ourselves .


Anatomically modern humans emerged around 300,000 years ago and probably lived in small groups of hunter-gatherers, slowly spreading around the world.

Anatomically modern humans emerged around 300,000 years ago and probably lived in small groups of hunter - gatherers , slowly spreading around the world .


Progress was slow and our lifestyle didn't change much, although there may have been local bursts of complexity.

Progress was slow and our lifestyle did n't change much , although there may have been local bursts of complexity .


we changed the face of the planet, cleared forests and constructed cities and temples for our gods at breathtaking speeds and scales.

we changed the face of the planet , cleared forests and constructed cities and temples for our gods at breathtaking speeds and scales .


Until about 300 years ago, we became an industrial species and yet again our numbers grew exponentially, as did our impact on the planet.

Until about 300 years ago , we became an industrial species and yet again our numbers grew exponentially , as did our impact on the planet .


We could say that our 300,000 year long history has three phases.

We could say that our 300,000 year long history has three phases .


We were hunter-gatherers for 97%, farmers for 2.9% and industrialists for 0.1% of our history.

We were hunter - gatherers for 97 % , farmers for 2.9 % and industrialists for 0.1 % of our history .


And yet, we are super new on Earth.


On geological timescales, even the sturdiest things lose their durability.

On geological timescales , even the sturdiest things lose their durability .


The oldest large-scale surface is the Negev Desert, a meager 1.8 million years old.

The oldest large - scale surface is the Negev Desert , a meager 1.8 million years old .


Everything older has been crushed to dust or turned over and it's either below the ground or covered by ice or ocean.

Everything older has been crushed to dust or turned over and it 's either below the ground or covered by ice or ocean .


Our age, the Anthropocene, will be a layer only a few centimeters thick in a few million years.

Our age , the Anthropocene , will be a layer only a few centimeters thick in a few million years .


If there were aliens before us and they too went through these three phases, what would remain of them?

If there were aliens before us and they too went through these three phases , what would remain of them ?


What can we learn about indigenous aliens by looking at ourselves?

What can we learn about indigenous aliens by looking at ourselves ?


We actually know that in the last few million years there were hunter-gatherer aliens.

We actually know that in the last few million years there were hunter - gatherer aliens .


They left fragments of their bodies, of weapons and tools and even art.

They left fragments of their bodies , of weapons and tools and even art .


Considering how long they existed and how little remains of them, although they live not that far from our present, it's easy to think there have been others.

Considering how long they existed and how little remains of them , although they live not that far from our present , it 's easy to think there have been others .


For the last two million years, most hominins lived as hunter-gatherers.

For the last two million years , most hominins lived as hunter - gatherers .


So if these aliens never moved up higher on the tech tree, hundreds of different species and cultures could have existed without leaving any traces.

So if these aliens never moved up higher on the tech tree , hundreds of different species and cultures could have existed without leaving any traces .


Their artifacts lost to biological and then geological processes.

Their artifacts lost to biological and then geological processes .


At worst, they would leave absolutely nothing to be found after thousands of years.

At worst , they would leave absolutely nothing to be found after thousands of years .


We talked about how unlikely the process of fossilization is in more detail in our dinosaur video.

We talked about how unlikely the process of fossilization is in more detail in our dinosaur video .


But in a nutshell, per 100,000 years of Earth's history, we only get a handful of good fossils.

But in a nutshell , per 100,000 years of Earth 's history , we only get a handful of good fossils .


So we might easily just miss fossils of such people, but even if we had any, we wouldn't necessarily be able to identify them as hunter-gatherers.

So we might easily just miss fossils of such people , but even if we had any , we would n't necessarily be able to identify them as hunter - gatherers .


Looking at humans again, agricultural societies left much more to be dug up and found

Looking at humans again , agricultural societies left much more to be dug up and found


because they used more sophisticated tools made from sturdier materials and had to feed millions, leaving many more artifacts.

because they used more sophisticated tools made from sturdier materials and had to feed millions , leaving many more artifacts .


Farming allowed them to specialize and develop tech from writing to navigation, architecture, and government.

Farming allowed them to specialize and develop tech from writing to navigation , architecture , and government .


Over thousands of years, city-states became kingdoms and empires, some existing for millennia before they fell.

Over thousands of years , city - states became kingdoms and empires , some existing for millennia before they fell .


Many of the buildings or monuments they constructed are still around, and traces of them will exist for a few thousand more years.

Many of the buildings or monuments they constructed are still around , and traces of them will exist for a few thousand more years .


The pyramids are piles of limestone so massive that they will probably be around for hundreds of thousands of years.

The pyramids are piles of limestone so massive that they will probably be around for hundreds of thousands of years .


we can expect way more fossils and artifacts to be detectable, maybe for a few million years before they vanish.

we can expect way more fossils and artifacts to be detectable , maybe for a few million years before they vanish .


So we can say with confidence that no such indigenous alien civilization existed in the last few million years,

So we can say with confidence that no such indigenous alien civilization existed in the last few million years ,


because otherwise we would have found something that they left.

because otherwise we would have found something that they left .


This still leaves a window of hundreds of millions of years, back to the emergence of complex life where we wouldn't be able to tell.

This still leaves a window of hundreds of millions of years , back to the emergence of complex life where we would n't be able to tell .


If there were alien pre-industrial societies and empires on the level of the ancient Romans or Chinese, they would have likely disappeared without a trace.

If there were alien pre - industrial societies and empires on the level of the ancient Romans or Chinese , they would have likely disappeared without a trace .


Their tools, even advanced metals, would have rotted away.

Their tools , even advanced metals , would have rotted away .


If they dug up canals, cleared forests, and built cities, their traces would be very hard to distinguish from nature.

If they dug up canals , cleared forests , and built cities , their traces would be very hard to distinguish from nature .


Maybe there was once an empire of cephalopods occupying impressive cities in swamps and lakes made from wood and stone.

Maybe there was once an empire of cephalopods occupying impressive cities in swamps and lakes made from wood and stone .


Maybe they never industrialized.


Maybe their society was too stable or not inventive enough, or they never got a chance.

Maybe their society was too stable or not inventive enough , or they never got a chance .


A single event like an asteroid, an epidemic, or an ice age could just have deleted their civilization, ground up their temples, as their soft bodies rotted away.

A single event like an asteroid , an epidemic , or an ice age could just have deleted their civilization , ground up their temples , as their soft bodies rotted away .


Sadly, we don't have the tiniest amount of evidence for any such civilization.

Sadly , we do n't have the tiniest amount of evidence for any such civilization .


After a few million years at best, their achievements would have dissolved into nothing.

After a few million years at best , their achievements would have dissolved into nothing .


Imagine humans died out suddenly through a pandemic or cosmic rays or something like that.

Imagine humans died out suddenly through a pandemic or cosmic rays or something like that .


What would remain?


Our impact on the planet is orders of magnitude greater than that of our ancestors.

Our impact on the planet is orders of magnitude greater than that of our ancestors .


The fossil record will show a great extinction of wildlife and an explosion of fossils from human associated animals like rats, cows, pigs, and chickens.

The fossil record will show a great extinction of wildlife and an explosion of fossils from human associated animals like rats , cows , pigs , and chickens .


Like the structures of our ancestors, skyscrapers and streets and hard drives will basically crumble into nothingness in a few millennia.

Like the structures of our ancestors , skyscrapers and streets and hard drives will basically crumble into nothingness in a few millennia .


But because there were so many humans everywhere, for a few million years after our sudden end, there would be clear hints of our existence.

But because there were so many humans everywhere , for a few million years after our sudden end , there would be clear hints of our existence .


The byproducts of our industrial lifestyle might actually give us away for some hundreds of millions of years.

The byproducts of our industrial lifestyle might actually give us away for some hundreds of millions of years .


We use massive amounts of artificial fertilizer which redirects Earth's flow of nitrogen that is being deposited in the soil.

We use massive amounts of artificial fertilizer which redirects Earth 's flow of nitrogen that is being deposited in the soil .


Mining metals and rare earth elements leaves long-term scars and depletes natural resources.

Mining metals and rare earth elements leaves long - term scars and depletes natural resources .


We saturate our oceans with plastics that find their way to the ocean floor and may persist for hundreds of millions of years.

We saturate our oceans with plastics that find their way to the ocean floor and may persist for hundreds of millions of years .


There are radioactive elements and their decay, unnatural accumulations of elements that don't exist outside labs or weapons.

There are radioactive elements and their decay , unnatural accumulations of elements that do n't exist outside labs or weapons .


And of course, in our short industrial history, we have changed the proportion of CO2 in the air by burning massive amounts of fossil fuels, increasing the acidity of the oceans, and so on.

And of course , in our short industrial history , we have changed the proportion of CO2 in the air by burning massive amounts of fossil fuels , increasing the acidity of the oceans , and so on .


We may already have left a mark in the geological record.

We may already have left a mark in the geological record .


So far, we have found no traces of an industrial alien civilization.

So far , we have found no traces of an industrial alien civilization .


We do see mass extinctions and massive shifts in the fossil records, but no evidence that they did not occur naturally.

We do see mass extinctions and massive shifts in the fossil records , but no evidence that they did not occur naturally .


And, ironically, we've hit upon an interesting problem here.

And , ironically , we 've hit upon an interesting problem here .


If industrial societies stress the ecosystem enough to cause their own extinction, they won't be around that long.

If industrial societies stress the ecosystem enough to cause their own extinction , they wo n't be around that long .


But if they become sustainable, their imprint on the geological record may be tiny.

But if they become sustainable , their imprint on the geological record may be tiny .


If past industrial civilizations were sustainable before they died out, we may have little to no chance of ever knowing about them.

If past industrial civilizations were sustainable before they died out , we may have little to no chance of ever knowing about them .


In any case, over hundreds of millions of years, these signatures may become very subtle and get overlooked or interpreted as natural.

In any case , over hundreds of millions of years , these signatures may become very subtle and get overlooked or interpreted as natural .


Even if an industrialized alien society existed 200 million years ago and lasted for 100,000 years, 300 times longer than industrial humanity,

Even if an industrialized alien society existed 200 million years ago and lasted for 100,000 years , 300 times longer than industrial humanity ,


it still might be easy to miss it in the geological record.

it still might be easy to miss it in the geological record .


In any case, all of this is speculation.

In any case , all of this is speculation .


In the end, we shouldn't use our imagination to trick ourselves into thinking we know anything about our blind spots.

In the end , we should n't use our imagination to trick ourselves into thinking we know anything about our blind spots .


Just assuming a thing happened because we don't have evidence against it is a trap we should avoid.

Just assuming a thing happened because we do n't have evidence against it is a trap we should avoid .


So, for now, if we look at the vastness of time, it seems as devoid of aliens as the vastness of space.

So , for now , if we look at the vastness of time , it seems as devoid of aliens as the vastness of space .


Maybe we are alone in this universe, and always were.

Maybe we are alone in this universe , and always were .


Maybe we'll find traces of others eventually, we don't know.

Maybe we 'll find traces of others eventually , we do n't know .


But there is one important takeaway.


The continuation of our civilization is not guaranteed, and if we're not careful, we may disappear forever.

The continuation of our civilization is not guaranteed , and if we 're not careful , we may disappear forever .


Let's hope that in a few million years, there isn't another civilization studying our layer in the fossil record.

Let 's hope that in a few million years , there is n't another civilization studying our layer in the fossil record .


It's frustrating to know there are so many things in our past we can't access.

It 's frustrating to know there are so many things in our past we ca n't access .


At least you can avoid that annoying feeling when it comes to other stuff you're interested in, like your favorite TV shows or movies.

At least you can avoid that annoying feeling when it comes to other stuff you 're interested in , like your favorite TV shows or movies .


You can make this possible by going to nordvpn.com/kurzgesagt.

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Vaccines are celebrated for their part in fighting disease.

Vaccines are celebrated for their part in fighting disease .


But a growing group of people seem to believe that they endanger our health instead of protecting it.

But a growing group of people seem to believe that they endanger our health instead of protecting it .


The internet is full of stories about allergic reactions, the onset of disabilities, and even death following vaccination appointments.

The internet is full of stories about allergic reactions , the onset of disabilities , and even death following vaccination appointments .


And it's true, vaccines can have side effects.

And it 's true , vaccines can have side effects .


Let's look at how they work, and how dangerous they really are

Let 's look at how they work , and how dangerous they really are


Your immune system is a complex army of billions of cells, soldiers, intelligence cells, and weapons factories.

Your immune system is a complex army of billions of cells , soldiers , intelligence cells , and weapons factories .


Every day you're attacked countless times, but your immune soldiers alone usually deal with that, so you don't even notice.

Every day you 're attacked countless times , but your immune soldiers alone usually deal with that , so you do n't even notice .


If an infection becomes serious though, our intelligence cells gather intel about the attackers and activate our weapons factories.

If an infection becomes serious though , our intelligence cells gather intel about the attackers and activate our weapons factories .


You know the weapon, antibodies.


They're like targeted missiles, produced specifically to combat the invader.

They 're like targeted missiles , produced specifically to combat the invader .


Unfortunately, this process takes several days to complete.

Unfortunately , this process takes several days to complete .


That gives intruders a lot of time to do damage.

That gives intruders a lot of time to do damage .


Contrary to popular wisdom, what doesn't kill you doesn't make you stronger.

Contrary to popular wisdom , what does n't kill you does n't make you stronger .


Our bodies really don't want to fight serious wars over and over, so our immune system came up with an ingenious way to get stronger and stronger over time.

Our bodies really do n't want to fight serious wars over and over , so our immune system came up with an ingenious way to get stronger and stronger over time .


If we fight an enemy that is dangerous enough to trigger our heavy weapons, our immune system automatically creates memory cells.

If we fight an enemy that is dangerous enough to trigger our heavy weapons , our immune system automatically creates memory cells .


Memory cells remain in our body for years in a deep sleep.

Memory cells remain in our body for years in a deep sleep .


They do nothing but remember.


When an enemy attacks for a second time, the slumbering memory cells awaken and order coordinated attacks and the production of antibodies.

When an enemy attacks for a second time , the slumbering memory cells awaken and order coordinated attacks and the production of antibodies .


This is so fast and effective that many infections you beat once will never make you sick again.

This is so fast and effective that many infections you beat once will never make you sick again .


You might even be immune against them forever, which is also why little kids are constantly ill.

You might even be immune against them forever , which is also why little kids are constantly ill .


They don't have enough memory cells yet.

They do n't have enough memory cells yet .


And this beautiful natural mechanism is what we build on when we use vaccines.

And this beautiful natural mechanism is what we build on when we use vaccines .


How vaccines work


As great as memory cells are, obtaining them through an infection is unpleasant and sometimes dangerous.

As great as memory cells are , obtaining them through an infection is unpleasant and sometimes dangerous .


Vaccines are a way of tricking our bodies into making memory cells and becoming immune to a disease.

Vaccines are a way of tricking our bodies into making memory cells and becoming immune to a disease .


They pretend to be a dangerous infection.

They pretend to be a dangerous infection .


One way of doing this is to inject invaders that can't do harm.

One way of doing this is to inject invaders that ca n't do harm .


Our immune systems deal with these kinds of vaccines pretty easily.

Our immune systems deal with these kinds of vaccines pretty easily .


Sometimes it's necessary to make our immune system work harder though to produce even more memory cells.

Sometimes it 's necessary to make our immune system work harder though to produce even more memory cells .


Live vaccines are the real deal.


An enemy that can punch back is a bigger challenge than a dead one.

An enemy that can punch back is a bigger challenge than a dead one .


But this also sounds like a sort of horrible idea.

But this also sounds like a sort of horrible idea .


To avoid that, we breed a sort of weak cousin of the real germ in the lab.

To avoid that , we breed a sort of weak cousin of the real germ in the lab .


Okay, so these are the basic principles of vaccine use.

Okay , so these are the basic principles of vaccine use .


They provoke a natural reaction in our bodies that makes us become immune against very dangerous diseases.

They provoke a natural reaction in our bodies that makes us become immune against very dangerous diseases .


Some, like the flu virus, mutate so often that we need a new vaccine every year.

Some , like the flu virus , mutate so often that we need a new vaccine every year .


But most vaccines protect us for years or even a lifetime.

But most vaccines protect us for years or even a lifetime .


But there's a catch.


Like everything in life, vaccines have another side.

Like everything in life , vaccines have another side .


What are they and what happens if your child develops one?

What are they and what happens if your child develops one ?


It's complicated to directly compare the side effects of vaccines with the effects of diseases.

It 's complicated to directly compare the side effects of vaccines with the effects of diseases .


For example, hundreds of millions of people are vaccinated against measles in the West, but there were only 83,000 cases in Europe in 2018.

For example , hundreds of millions of people are vaccinated against measles in the West , but there were only 83,000 cases in Europe in 2018 .


So with numbers that different, even mild side effects can seem scary compared to the bad effects of a disease that we don't see as much anymore.

So with numbers that different , even mild side effects can seem scary compared to the bad effects of a disease that we do n't see as much anymore .


Before the measles vaccine became available in 1963, virtually every single child on Earth contracted measles at some point.

Before the measles vaccine became available in 1963 , virtually every single child on Earth contracted measles at some point .


But are measles really that dangerous in the year 2019, with our advanced healthcare and new technologies?

But are measles really that dangerous in the year 2019 , with our advanced healthcare and new technologies ?


Are they worth the risk of vaccine side effects?

Are they worth the risk of vaccine side effects ?


Let's do a thought experiment based on real numbers.

Let 's do a thought experiment based on real numbers .


Imagine a developed country in a parallel world.

Imagine a developed country in a parallel world .


It has good healthcare, but people stop vaccinating.

It has good healthcare , but people stop vaccinating .


In this scenario, let's say 10 million children caught measles.

In this scenario , let 's say 10 million children caught measles .


What happens?


9,800,000 or 98% will get a high fever and a very unpleasant rash.

9,800,000 or 98 % will get a high fever and a very unpleasant rash .


Up to 800,000 of them or 8% will suffer from dangerous diarrhea.

Up to 800,000 of them or 8 % will suffer from dangerous diarrhea .


700,000 or 7% will suffer from an ear infection, which can lead to permanent hearing loss.

700,000 or 7 % will suffer from an ear infection , which can lead to permanent hearing loss .


600,000 kids or 6% will suffer from pneumonia, the most dangerous effect of measles.

600,000 kids or 6 % will suffer from pneumonia , the most dangerous effect of measles .


It alone will kill 12,000 children.


Up to 10,000 children or 0.1% will get encephalitis.

Up to 10,000 children or 0.1 % will get encephalitis .


2,500 kids or 0.025% will contract SSPE, a disease where the measles virus lingers in their brain and kills them a few years later.

2,500 kids or 0.025 % will contract SSPE , a disease where the measles virus lingers in their brain and kills them a few years later .


Taken together, around 2.5 million children will suffer from somewhat serious effects from measles.

Taken together , around 2.5 million children will suffer from somewhat serious effects from measles .


And about 20,000 children will be killed by measles.

And about 20,000 children will be killed by measles .


It doesn't stop here, though.


The kids who beat measles are left with a severely damaged immune system that needs a lot of time to regenerate.

The kids who beat measles are left with a severely damaged immune system that needs a lot of time to regenerate .


Aside from that, what's almost guaranteed is that your kids will have a really bad time for about two weeks.

Aside from that , what 's almost guaranteed is that your kids will have a really bad time for about two weeks .


It's only fair to look at these risks, too.

It 's only fair to look at these risks , too .


So let's repeat our thought experiment, but this time we vaccinate 10 million children with MMR.

So let 's repeat our thought experiment , but this time we vaccinate 10 million children with MMR .


What would theoretically happen here?


After being vaccinated, of our 10 million kids, around 10% get a fever.

After being vaccinated , of our 10 million kids , around 10 % get a fever .


500,000 or 5% will get a mild rash.


Up to 100 or 0.001% might have a serious allergic reaction and will have to be treated.

Up to 100 or 0.001 % might have a serious allergic reaction and will have to be treated .


Up to 10 boys or 0.0001% might get inflammation of the genitalia.

Up to 10 boys or 0.0001 % might get inflammation of the genitalia .


And up to 10 kids in total or 0.0001% might get the most serious side effect, encephalitis.

And up to 10 kids in total or 0.0001 % might get the most serious side effect , encephalitis .


So we vaccinated 10 million kids.


In total, around 120 had side effects that were somewhat serious.

In total , around 120 had side effects that were somewhat serious .


Thanks to good medical treatment in developed regions, almost all of them will be fine.

Thanks to good medical treatment in developed regions , almost all of them will be fine .


The connection of autism and vaccines stems from one source that has been disproven countless times.

The connection of autism and vaccines stems from one source that has been disproven countless times .


We'll link to further reading and videos in the description.

We 'll link to further reading and videos in the description .