GM plants that are destined to be eaten are checked for possible dangers and the results are evaluated by multiple agencies.

GM plants that are destined to be eaten are checked for possible dangers and the results are evaluated by multiple agencies .


After more than 30 years and thousands of studies, the science is in.

After more than 30 years and thousands of studies , the science is in .


Eating GMO plants is no more risky than their non-GMO equivalent.

Eating GMO plants is no more risky than their non - GMO equivalent .


But don't just take our word for it.


Sources for this and other claims are in the video description.

Sources for this and other claims are in the video description .


A gene borrowed from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis lets engineered plants produce a protein that destroys the digestive system of specific insect pests.

A gene borrowed from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis lets engineered plants produce a protein that destroys the digestive system of specific insect pests .


The plant makes its own pesticide.


Insects that eat it die.


That sounds alarming.


Pesticide sprays can be washed off,


while the poison in Bt crops is inside the plant.

while the poison in Bt crops is inside the plant .


But actually, it's not a big deal.


Poison is really just a question of different perspectives.

Poison is really just a question of different perspectives .


What's harmless to one species might kill another.

What 's harmless to one species might kill another .


Coffee, for example, is a poison that kills insects but is harmless to us.

Coffee , for example , is a poison that kills insects but is harmless to us .


It's dangerous for dogs but a pleasure for humans.

It 's dangerous for dogs but a pleasure for humans .


Bt crops produce a protein that is tailored to the specific design of the digestive tract of certain insects.

Bt crops produce a protein that is tailored to the specific design of the digestive tract of certain insects .


It's completely harmless for us.


There's also the opposite approach.


This way, farmers can use them widely,

This way , farmers can use them widely ,


Here we get to the dark underbelly of GMOs.

Here we get to the dark underbelly of GMOs .


For the pesticide industry, they are big business.

For the pesticide industry , they are big business .


Over 90% of all cash crops in the US are herbicide resistant, mostly to glyphosate.

Over 90 % of all cash crops in the US are herbicide resistant , mostly to glyphosate .


As a result, the use of glyphosate has increased greatly.

As a result , the use of glyphosate has increased greatly .


That isn't only bad.


Glyphosate is much less harmful to humans than many other herbicides.

Glyphosate is much less harmful to humans than many other herbicides .


Still, this means farmers have a strong incentive to rely on this one method only,

Still , this means farmers have a strong incentive to rely on this one method only ,


That's one of the most fundamental problems with the GMO debate.

That 's one of the most fundamental problems with the GMO debate .


Much of the criticism of this technology is actually criticism of modern agriculture and the business practice of the huge corporations that control our food supply.

Much of the criticism of this technology is actually criticism of modern agriculture and the business practice of the huge corporations that control our food supply .


We need to change agriculture to a more sustainable model.

We need to change agriculture to a more sustainable model .


GMOs as a technology are actually an ally and not an enemy in that fight, helping to save and protect nature and minimize our impact on the environment.

GMOs as a technology are actually an ally and not an enemy in that fight , helping to save and protect nature and minimize our impact on the environment .


Let's look at some positive examples.


Eggplant is an important crop in Bangladesh, but often whole harvests are destroyed by pests.

Eggplant is an important crop in Bangladesh , but often whole harvests are destroyed by pests .


Farmers had to rely heavily on pesticides.

Farmers had to rely heavily on pesticides .


Not only was this very expensive, farmers also frequently got sick.

Not only was this very expensive , farmers also frequently got sick .


The introduction of a new GM eggplant in 2013 stopped this.

The introduction of a new GM eggplant in 2013 stopped this .


The same Bt protein we talked about before, an effective killer of insects, but harmless to humans, was engineered into them.

The same Bt protein we talked about before , an effective killer of insects , but harmless to humans , was engineered into them .


This reduced insecticide use on eggplants by more than 80%.

This reduced insecticide use on eggplants by more than 80 % .


The health of farmers improved and their income rose dramatically.

The health of farmers improved and their income rose dramatically .


And sometimes a GM approach is the only option.

And sometimes a GM approach is the only option .


In the 1990s, the papaya industry in Hawaii was under attack from the ring spot virus, which threatened to wipe out Hawaiian papaya.

In the 1990s , the papaya industry in Hawaii was under attack from the ring spot virus , which threatened to wipe out Hawaiian papaya .


The solution was a papaya genetically modified to be vaccinated against the virus.

The solution was a papaya genetically modified to be vaccinated against the virus .


Without it, the state's papaya industry would have collapsed.

Without it , the state 's papaya industry would have collapsed .


All these stories show a very narrow application.

All these stories show a very narrow application .


99% of all GMOs we use right now produce pesticides or are resistant against them.

99 % of all GMOs we use right now produce pesticides or are resistant against them .


There is so much more we could do.


Scientists are working on GMOs that could improve our diet.

Scientists are working on GMOs that could improve our diet .


On a larger scale, we're trying to engineer plants that are more resilient to climate change.

On a larger scale , we 're trying to engineer plants that are more resilient to climate change .


GMOs could also not only reduce agriculture's impact on the environment, but actively help to protect it.

GMOs could also not only reduce agriculture 's impact on the environment , but actively help to protect it .


Scientists are working on crops that can draw nitrogen from the air like microbes.

Scientists are working on crops that can draw nitrogen from the air like microbes .


Nitrogen is a common fertilizer, but its buildup pollutes the groundwater and speeds up climate change.

Nitrogen is a common fertilizer , but its buildup pollutes the groundwater and speeds up climate change .


Plants that collect their own nitrogen could fix two problems at once.

Plants that collect their own nitrogen could fix two problems at once .


We could even modify plants to become super effective carbon collectors like the American chestnut tree, to mitigate and actually reverse climate change.

We could even modify plants to become super effective carbon collectors like the American chestnut tree , to mitigate and actually reverse climate change .


With the tools we have today, our imagination is the limit.

With the tools we have today , our imagination is the limit .


The world eats 11 million pounds of food every day.

The world eats 11 million pounds of food every day .


A UN estimate suggests we'll need 70% more by 2050.

A UN estimate suggests we 'll need 70 % more by 2050 .


We could grow that food by clearing more and more forests to create fields and pastures, and by using more pesticides.

We could grow that food by clearing more and more forests to create fields and pastures , and by using more pesticides .


Or we find a way to do it on the land we've got right now, with more effective methods like GM crops.

Or we find a way to do it on the land we 've got right now , with more effective methods like GM crops .


Intensifying farming instead of expanding it, means GMOs could become the new organic.

Intensifying farming instead of expanding it , means GMOs could become the new organic .


In a nutshell, GMOs have the potential to not only drastically change agriculture, but to also dampen the effects of our own irresponsible behavior.

In a nutshell , GMOs have the potential to not only drastically change agriculture , but to also dampen the effects of our own irresponsible behavior .


GMOs could be our most powerful weapon to save our biosphere.

GMOs could be our most powerful weapon to save our biosphere .


This video took more than 600 hours to make, which would be impossible without viewer support on Patreon.com.

This video took more than 600 hours to make , which would be impossible without viewer support on Patreon.com .


If you'd like to support carefully researched content made with love, it's really very helpful, and you can get your own bird as a reward.

If you 'd like to support carefully researched content made with love , it 's really very helpful , and you can get your own bird as a reward .


If you want to learn more about genetic modification, we have more videos explaining the opportunities and risks of the technology, and how it could impact our future.

If you want to learn more about genetic modification , we have more videos explaining the opportunities and risks of the technology , and how it could impact our future .


A breathtaking scientific revolution is taking place.

A breathtaking scientific revolution is taking place .


Biotechnology has been progressing at stunning speed, giving us the tools to eventually gain control over biology.

Biotechnology has been progressing at stunning speed , giving us the tools to eventually gain control over biology .


What's going on?


Biotechnology is increasingly everywhere.

Biotechnology is increasingly everywhere .


Humans manipulate living things.


We use bacteria to produce insulin, connect prosthetics directly with our brains, and make industrial enzymes to produce paper.

We use bacteria to produce insulin , connect prosthetics directly with our brains , and make industrial enzymes to produce paper .


Gene therapy creates cures to previously untreatable diseases, while we're working on food crops resistant to climate change.

Gene therapy creates cures to previously untreatable diseases , while we 're working on food crops resistant to climate change .


Our mastery over biology has been speeding up so much that within weeks of the first COVID-19 case, the unknown coronavirus was broken down in laboratories and analyzed.

Our mastery over biology has been speeding up so much that within weeks of the first COVID-19 case , the unknown coronavirus was broken down in laboratories and analyzed .


Scientists generated a copy of its genetic material to create a vaccine that was ready for testing months after the pandemic began.

Scientists generated a copy of its genetic material to create a vaccine that was ready for testing months after the pandemic began .


Where is all this sudden progress coming from?

Where is all this sudden progress coming from ?


Well, it's complicated.


But in a nutshell, really expensive things got cheap, and knowledge of how to do impressive things spread freely.

But in a nutshell , really expensive things got cheap , and knowledge of how to do impressive things spread freely .


The Human Genome Project, starting in 1990, was the first major attempt to read human DNA in its entirety.

The Human Genome Project , starting in 1990 , was the first major attempt to read human DNA in its entirety .


Thirteen years and three billion dollars later, it was complete.

Thirteen years and three billion dollars later , it was complete .


By then, the cost of decoding a human genome had fallen to about 100 million dollars.

By then , the cost of decoding a human genome had fallen to about 100 million dollars .


Today, it's 100,000 times cheaper, costing only about a thousand dollars.

Today , it 's 100,000 times cheaper , costing only about a thousand dollars .


How is that possible?


Converting DNA into computer data and then studying it used to be a super tedious process, taking expert humans around three years of manual work.

Converting DNA into computer data and then studying it used to be a super tedious process , taking expert humans around three years of manual work .


Today, it takes about two weeks and is almost completely automated.

Today , it takes about two weeks and is almost completely automated .


Biotechnology has gone from something restricted to the best and well-funded laboratories, staffed by the world's top experts,

Biotechnology has gone from something restricted to the best and well - funded laboratories , staffed by the world 's top experts ,


What sped up the process even more is that information in the field is shared widely and freely.

What sped up the process even more is that information in the field is shared widely and freely .


Cutting-edge discoveries now take just about a year to be copied in laboratories around the world,

Cutting - edge discoveries now take just about a year to be copied in laboratories around the world ,


Imagine that your local computer repair shop could build a pristine iPhone 11 with just the parts lying around, and that teenagers are asked to build a new iPhone 5 for homework.

Imagine that your local computer repair shop could build a pristine iPhone 11 with just the parts lying around , and that teenagers are asked to build a new iPhone 5 for homework .


This is what's going on right now in biotechnology, a true revolution.

This is what 's going on right now in biotechnology , a true revolution .


We are adding knowledge at unprecedented rates, while things get ever faster and cheaper to do.

We are adding knowledge at unprecedented rates , while things get ever faster and cheaper to do .


This speed means we can expect even more wonderful things for humanity.

This speed means we can expect even more wonderful things for humanity .


But, unfortunately, progress cuts both ways.

But , unfortunately , progress cuts both ways .


What can be used for good can also be used for bad, by accident or on purpose.

What can be used for good can also be used for bad , by accident or on purpose .


For all the good biotech will do for us, in the near future it also could easily kill many millions of people, in the worst case, hundreds of millions.

For all the good biotech will do for us , in the near future it also could easily kill many millions of people , in the worst case , hundreds of millions .


The world just witnessed how fast the novel coronavirus spread.

The world just witnessed how fast the novel coronavirus spread .


We still don't know for sure if it came from nature, or was the result of an accidental leak from a lab working with coronaviruses.

We still do n't know for sure if it came from nature , or was the result of an accidental leak from a lab working with coronaviruses .


That's still subject to scientific debate.

That 's still subject to scientific debate .


In the end, at least 7 million people died.

In the end , at least 7 million people died .


And this was still a relatively mild virus that didn't cause serious disease in most of those infected.

And this was still a relatively mild virus that did n't cause serious disease in most of those infected .


But that might change in the future.


Wherever the last pandemic came from, the next one might very well be our own fault.

Wherever the last pandemic came from , the next one might very well be our own fault .


In a sense, many things going on in biotechnology could lead to this.

In a sense , many things going on in biotechnology could lead to this .


Most of all, how easy it is to work with dangerous viruses.

Most of all , how easy it is to work with dangerous viruses .


Thousands of scientists can simply order the genetic data of infectious virus samples online to experiment with them.

Thousands of scientists can simply order the genetic data of infectious virus samples online to experiment with them .


Assembling these into an artificial virus in 2023 costs about as much as a new car, including all the lab equipment.

Assembling these into an artificial virus in 2023 costs about as much as a new car , including all the lab equipment .


At the same time, other scientists are trying to find viruses that hide in nature, like in wild bats or monkeys.

At the same time , other scientists are trying to find viruses that hide in nature , like in wild bats or monkeys .


There are probably plenty of potentially deadly pandemics out there.

There are probably plenty of potentially deadly pandemics out there .


Virus hunters take samples back to the lab to learn whether the newly discovered viruses are likely to spread in humans, and catalogue the danger.

Virus hunters take samples back to the lab to learn whether the newly discovered viruses are likely to spread in humans , and catalogue the danger .


When a biologist discovers a new virus, they usually publish its genetic data to the public.

When a biologist discovers a new virus , they usually publish its genetic data to the public .


Journals are eager to share descriptions of potentially dangerous viruses.

Journals are eager to share descriptions of potentially dangerous viruses .


Other labs go further and make viruses more dangerous.

Other labs go further and make viruses more dangerous .


They combine and mutate different viruses to understand which mutations make them more likely to spread between humans or make them deadlier than their original forms.

They combine and mutate different viruses to understand which mutations make them more likely to spread between humans or make them deadlier than their original forms .


And again, these results are shared freely.

And again , these results are shared freely .


All while synthetic DNA and equipment to rebuild these viruses are sold online to anyone without any or very little tracking.

All while synthetic DNA and equipment to rebuild these viruses are sold online to anyone without any or very little tracking .


As the tools of biotechnology get ever cheaper and easy to use, and the data on dangerous viruses keeps multiplying,

As the tools of biotechnology get ever cheaper and easy to use , and the data on dangerous viruses keeps multiplying ,


it's only a matter of time before a well-meaning scientist shares blueprints for the equivalent nuclear bomb of viruses, a superbug that will cause millions of deaths.

it 's only a matter of time before a well - meaning scientist shares blueprints for the equivalent nuclear bomb of viruses , a superbug that will cause millions of deaths .


And someone uses it.


We're creating an environment in which it's increasingly easy for anyone to create a weaponised virus in their backyard.

We 're creating an environment in which it 's increasingly easy for anyone to create a weaponised virus in their backyard .


This is scary.


The world would be plunged into an unending crisis as new pandemics pop up year after year or all at once,

The world would be plunged into an unending crisis as new pandemics pop up year after year or all at once ,


What can we do?


It's not the first time we've faced a challenge like this, and we are not helpless.

It 's not the first time we 've faced a challenge like this , and we are not helpless .


Think of nuclear technology.


Nuclear energy was born from weapon programmes, so its creators were always aware of the potential for their knowledge to be abused.

Nuclear energy was born from weapon programmes , so its creators were always aware of the potential for their knowledge to be abused .


From the very beginning, it was clear that knowledge in this field and access to the technology needed to be handled with utmost care.

From the very beginning , it was clear that knowledge in this field and access to the technology needed to be handled with utmost care .


So a lot of effort has gone into making sure no radioactive material disappears from sight, or that countries don't try to hide weapons development behind energy programmes.

So a lot of effort has gone into making sure no radioactive material disappears from sight , or that countries do n't try to hide weapons development behind energy programmes .


The result hasn't been perfect, but considering the 411 nuclear power stations running today, we've been very successful.

The result has n't been perfect , but considering the 411 nuclear power stations running today , we 've been very successful .


There's no reason we couldn't handle the really dangerous aspects of biotechnology in a similar way.

There 's no reason we could n't handle the really dangerous aspects of biotechnology in a similar way .


Experts have come up with three sort of bullet points.

Experts have come up with three sort of bullet points .


First, we need to delay the next deadly pandemic by getting a grip on how we treat dangerous viruses.

First , we need to delay the next deadly pandemic by getting a grip on how we treat dangerous viruses .


Their genetic data should be treated as an info hazard, information that poses a danger to society if it's shared without care.

Their genetic data should be treated as an info hazard , information that poses a danger to society if it 's shared without care .


Likewise, no researcher would think to share data on how to turn common laboratory equipment into bomb-making machines on the internet.

Likewise , no researcher would think to share data on how to turn common laboratory equipment into bomb - making machines on the internet .


In other words, not just anyone should be able to order dangerous DNA online.

In other words , not just anyone should be able to order dangerous DNA online .


And if you do, you should be tracked, so it becomes much harder for the wrong people to access the really spicy stuff.

And if you do , you should be tracked , so it becomes much harder for the wrong people to access the really spicy stuff .


The next step is detecting the danger by becoming aware which viruses are present among us and are spreading explosively between humans.

The next step is detecting the danger by becoming aware which viruses are present among us and are spreading explosively between humans .


This could be as easy as having labs in population centres maintain virus detectors that monitor what's going on in the micro-world.

This could be as easy as having labs in population centres maintain virus detectors that monitor what 's going on in the micro - world .


If we suddenly see certain microorganisms show up a lot in a short time, we can react quickly and start countermeasures.

If we suddenly see certain microorganisms show up a lot in a short time , we can react quickly and start countermeasures .


Which is the final step, destroy.


We basically need to build a machine that's ready to destroy any pandemic threat before it has a chance to take over.

We basically need to build a machine that 's ready to destroy any pandemic threat before it has a chance to take over .


We can do this with new tools that are being developed right now,

We can do this with new tools that are being developed right now ,


And of course, we need to get better at getting new vaccines faster than ever before in history.

And of course , we need to get better at getting new vaccines faster than ever before in history .


If we do these three things, the chances are really good that we can avoid a catastrophic pandemic in the future.

If we do these three things , the chances are really good that we can avoid a catastrophic pandemic in the future .


Biotechnology, like any exciting and powerful technology, is neither inherently good or bad.

Biotechnology , like any exciting and powerful technology , is neither inherently good or bad .


It has the potential to be both in breathtaking ways.

It has the potential to be both in breathtaking ways .


We have the chance to have a future where we get to truly control biology.

We have the chance to have a future where we get to truly control biology .


So let's use it to create a future where we triumph over pandemics and diseases for good.

So let 's use it to create a future where we triumph over pandemics and diseases for good .


This video was supported by Open Philanthropy.

This video was supported by Open Philanthropy .


If you want to help and want to have a high impact on the world, check out the BioRisk career guide from 80,000 Hours,

If you want to help and want to have a high impact on the world , check out the BioRisk career guide from 80,000 Hours ,


We put a link and further reading in the description and sources.

We put a link and further reading in the description and sources .


Aside from BioRisk, there are more guides to check out too.

Aside from BioRisk , there are more guides to check out too .


Let's tell you about one of the most embarrassing moments in Kurzgesagt history.

Let 's tell you about one of the most embarrassing moments in Kurzgesagt history .


It's a pretty great story.


A few years ago, we posted an image of a fake evolutionary tree on social media.

A few years ago , we posted an image of a fake evolutionary tree on social media .


But we messed with the wrong verbs.


Immediately, we got thousands of messages from you telling us how wrong it was.

Immediately , we got thousands of messages from you telling us how wrong it was .


We underestimated that you take everything that we put out into the world seriously and you set high standards for our research and fact-checking process.

We underestimated that you take everything that we put out into the world seriously and you set high standards for our research and fact - checking process .


This hurt.


We wanted to be better than that.


So we deleted it and contacted experts and spent hundreds of hours on research and illustration


Expert approved.


We were extremely proud of the result and since we'd spent so much time on it, we turned it into a poster.

We were extremely proud of the result and since we 'd spent so much time on it , we turned it into a poster .


And from that, a new vision was born.


We wanted to become the best infographic and science poster shop in the world.

We wanted to become the best infographic and science poster shop in the world .


Today, we've designed almost 100 posters and sold over half a million copies.

Today , we 've designed almost 100 posters and sold over half a million copies .


All because you guys challenged us.


Thank you so much for that and for supporting our weird ideas and our sometimes weird merch.

Thank you so much for that and for supporting our weird ideas and our sometimes weird merch .


Because of you, we can continue to release our videos for free for everyone and drop hundreds of hours into new concepts to spark curiosity in people all around the world.

Because of you , we can continue to release our videos for free for everyone and drop hundreds of hours into new concepts to spark curiosity in people all around the world .


Thank you so, so much for being part of our vision.

Thank you so , so much for being part of our vision .


We literally couldn't do it without you.

We literally could n't do it without you .


that every single physical thing would just stop existing and life would be impossible forever?

that every single physical thing would just stop existing and life would be impossible forever ?


To explain how our universe could destroy itself, we need to understand two principles.

To explain how our universe could destroy itself , we need to understand two principles .


A core idea in physics is that everything has an energy level.

A core idea in physics is that everything has an energy level .


The higher the level, the more energy is in the system, which for example has a high level.

The higher the level , the more energy is in the system , which for example has a high level .


They tell particles how to behave and interact.

They tell particles how to behave and interact .


Like everything in the universe, they want to be in the lowest energy level possible, which is called a vacuum state.

Like everything in the universe , they want to be in the lowest energy level possible , which is called a vacuum state .


This has nothing to do with vacuum in space.

This has nothing to do with vacuum in space .


It's just called this way because scientists are bad at naming things.

It 's just called this way because scientists are bad at naming things .


We think all the fields reached their vacuum state, except maybe one.

We think all the fields reached their vacuum state , except maybe one .


It's possible that the Higgs field is not stable, but metastable, which is a fancy way of saying that it pretends to be stable, but really is not.

It 's possible that the Higgs field is not stable , but metastable , which is a fancy way of saying that it pretends to be stable , but really is not .


It would be a false vacuum.


The Higgs field is responsible for giving particles their mass, which rules how almost everything in the universe interacts.

The Higgs field is responsible for giving particles their mass , which rules how almost everything in the universe interacts .


What would happen if the Higgs field is in a false vacuum?

What would happen if the Higgs field is in a false vacuum ?


Think of our ball in the valley.


The ball is the Higgs field.


The valley might not be the lowest energy state for the Higgs field.

The valley might not be the lowest energy state for the Higgs field .


There might be an even deeper valley that it wants to get to.

There might be an even deeper valley that it wants to get to .


This would mean that the Higgs field has a lot of potential energy waiting to be released.

This would mean that the Higgs field has a lot of potential energy waiting to be released .


The Higgs field could be like a piece of wood, but drenched in gasoline, waiting to set the universe on fire.

The Higgs field could be like a piece of wood , but drenched in gasoline , waiting to set the universe on fire .


A random spark, like quantum tunneling, could release the potential energy of the Higgs field.

A random spark , like quantum tunneling , could release the potential energy of the Higgs field .


This could happen at any time and without warning.

This could happen at any time and without warning .


If at any point in space this so-called vacuum decay starts, there is no turning back.

If at any point in space this so - called vacuum decay starts , there is no turning back .


As the Higgs field crashes into the lower energy state, it releases a massive amount of potential energy.

As the Higgs field crashes into the lower energy state , it releases a massive amount of potential energy .


This energy pushes the space around it over the barrier, which releases more potential energy.

This energy pushes the space around it over the barrier , which releases more potential energy .


A sphere of the new stable Higgs field or true vacuum grows at the speed of light in all directions.

A sphere of the new stable Higgs field or true vacuum grows at the speed of light in all directions .


Imagine it like setting a sea of gasoline the size of the universe on fire.

Imagine it like setting a sea of gasoline the size of the universe on fire .


The sphere is surrounded by a shell of energy that devours everything it comes into contact with.

The sphere is surrounded by a shell of energy that devours everything it comes into contact with .


Whatever it touches is eliminated from existence.

Whatever it touches is eliminated from existence .


The bubble will continue to grow forever, deleting the universe on its way.

The bubble will continue to grow forever , deleting the universe on its way .


There is no way to be warned, since it's so fast, but there's nothing we could do anyway.

There is no way to be warned , since it 's so fast , but there 's nothing we could do anyway .


Our destruction would be instant.


In a fraction of a second, Earth would be gone.

In a fraction of a second , Earth would be gone .


But it actually gets worse.


If the energy level of the Higgs field changes, it changes all of physics.

If the energy level of the Higgs field changes , it changes all of physics .


In the true vacuum of the sphere, the standard model will be overthrown, superseded by different physics that we don't know.

In the true vacuum of the sphere , the standard model will be overthrown , superseded by different physics that we do n't know .


How fundamental particles behave, how atoms hold together, how chemicals react.

How fundamental particles behave , how atoms hold together , how chemicals react .


Vacuum decay won't just destroy life.


It will destroy chemistry itself, making life as we know it impossible.

It will destroy chemistry itself , making life as we know it impossible .


We simply have no idea what it would be like inside.

We simply have no idea what it would be like inside .


It might be a shadow of what it is now.

It might be a shadow of what it is now .


We don't know.


If vacuum decay happens, the outlook is indeed grim.

If vacuum decay happens , the outlook is indeed grim .


If you feel slightly worried now, don't be.

If you feel slightly worried now , do n't be .


At this point, false vacuum is speculation based on our current understanding of particle physics, which might be wrong.

At this point , false vacuum is speculation based on our current understanding of particle physics , which might be wrong .


It's kind of like using a ruler to measure a continent.

It 's kind of like using a ruler to measure a continent .


Sure, you can do it, but you might be off by quite a bit at the end.

Sure , you can do it , but you might be off by quite a bit at the end .


Right now, no one can say if vacuum decay is a thing that's real, or just a scary idea.

Right now , no one can say if vacuum decay is a thing that 's real , or just a scary idea .


But even if one or multiple spheres of death have already started expanding, the universe is so big that they might not reach us for billions of years.

But even if one or multiple spheres of death have already started expanding , the universe is so big that they might not reach us for billions of years .


If they're far enough away, they might not ever be able to reach us because of the expansion of the universe.

If they 're far enough away , they might not ever be able to reach us because of the expansion of the universe .


The speed of light is not that fast on the scale of the universe.

The speed of light is not that fast on the scale of the universe .


So while vacuum decay is fascinatingly scary, right now there are other things we should be more afraid of.

So while vacuum decay is fascinatingly scary , right now there are other things we should be more afraid of .


In contrast to vacuum decay, we have the power to prepare for most of them.

In contrast to vacuum decay , we have the power to prepare for most of them .


Supernovae are the most powerful explosions in the universe, unleashing enough energy to outshine galaxies.

Supernovae are the most powerful explosions in the universe , unleashing enough energy to outshine galaxies .


We have no real metaphor for their power.

We have no real metaphor for their power .


If the Sun were to magically go supernova, it would feel like you were being hit by the energy of a nuclear explosion every second for weeks.

If the Sun were to magically go supernova , it would feel like you were being hit by the energy of a nuclear explosion every second for weeks .


While supernovae are the engines of creation, forging the elements that enable life, they also burn sterile whole regions of galaxies.

While supernovae are the engines of creation , forging the elements that enable life , they also burn sterile whole regions of galaxies .


So what would happen if one hit Earth?


There are, roughly speaking, two ways to make a supernova.

There are , roughly speaking , two ways to make a supernova .


Either the core of a massive star implodes, or, less common, a white dwarf gains mass to the point where it ignites explosive nuclear fusion.

Either the core of a massive star implodes , or , less common , a white dwarf gains mass to the point where it ignites explosive nuclear fusion .


The outcome is the same – a supernova explosion.

The outcome is the same – a supernova explosion .


When we think of an explosion on Earth, we think of something that happens fast and ends.

When we think of an explosion on Earth , we think of something that happens fast and ends .


But a supernova is more like a volcanic eruption followed by a tsunami.

But a supernova is more like a volcanic eruption followed by a tsunami .


At first, there's a colourful ball of hot, expanding gas, creating a spectacular cloud that will shine for about a month.

At first , there 's a colourful ball of hot , expanding gas , creating a spectacular cloud that will shine for about a month .


But then, it doesn't stop.


Hot and dangerous gas rushes outwards at speeds of 10,000 km per second through the near vacuum of space, sweeping up the sparse gas of the galaxy.

Hot and dangerous gas rushes outwards at speeds of 10,000 km per second through the near vacuum of space , sweeping up the sparse gas of the galaxy .


This wall of gas expands for tens of thousands of years and will eventually span up to dozens of light-years until it finally cools off and disperses its substance back into the galaxy.

This wall of gas expands for tens of thousands of years and will eventually span up to dozens of light - years until it finally cools off and disperses its substance back into the galaxy .


Well, the damage depends on how far away it is.

Well , the damage depends on how far away it is .


Humans have witnessed dozens of supernovae, but all of them were thousands of light-years away.

Humans have witnessed dozens of supernovae , but all of them were thousands of light - years away .


They appeared as new stars, some outshining the Moon, twinkling for a few weeks and disappearing.

They appeared as new stars , some outshining the Moon , twinkling for a few weeks and disappearing .


Aside from looking very pretty at this distance, they don't do much to us.

Aside from looking very pretty at this distance , they do n't do much to us .


Things begin to get a bit icky once a supernova occurs around 300 light-years away.

Things begin to get a bit icky once a supernova occurs around 300 light - years away .


We can expect one this close to us every few million years.

We can expect one this close to us every few million years .


And while this is far enough away and dim enough to not do harm to us, they can affect the Earth.

And while this is far enough away and dim enough to not do harm to us , they can affect the Earth .


At these distances, it's like being hit by the last weak waves of the star tsunami.

At these distances , it 's like being hit by the last weak waves of the star tsunami .


In fact, we know that over the past 10 million years, multiple supernovae have struck Earth from these distances because we can find radioactive isotopes of iron deep in the rocks and sediments at the bottom of the ocean.

In fact , we know that over the past 10 million years , multiple supernovae have struck Earth from these distances because we can find radioactive isotopes of iron deep in the rocks and sediments at the bottom of the ocean .


Amazingly, these supernovae around the solar system have cleared a 1,000 light-year wide pocket of space that's called the local bubble.

Amazingly , these supernovae around the solar system have cleared a 1,000 light - year wide pocket of space that 's called the local bubble .


They blew away the interstellar gas and dust, creating a lumpy wall of gas that's now a cradle for star formation.

They blew away the interstellar gas and dust , creating a lumpy wall of gas that 's now a cradle for star formation .


Once a supernova happens much closer than 300 light-years, we're approaching the zone where it does real damage.

Once a supernova happens much closer than 300 light - years , we 're approaching the zone where it does real damage .


Stars have extremely powerful magnetic fields.

Stars have extremely powerful magnetic fields .


When they die, the tsunami of dead star actually retains a lot of this magnetic energy woven through the shockwave that expands outwards.

When they die , the tsunami of dead star actually retains a lot of this magnetic energy woven through the shockwave that expands outwards .


In this highly magnetized cloud, we get conditions like in a huge particle accelerator that's accelerating charged particles like protons, nuclei, and electrons to immense speeds.

In this highly magnetized cloud , we get conditions like in a huge particle accelerator that 's accelerating charged particles like protons , nuclei , and electrons to immense speeds .


Which means we have an expanding cloud that is shooting deadly radiation in all directions long after the bright light from the initial explosion has faded away.

Which means we have an expanding cloud that is shooting deadly radiation in all directions long after the bright light from the initial explosion has faded away .


If a supernova happens too close by, waves of these cosmic rays will wash over the solar system for thousands of years.

If a supernova happens too close by , waves of these cosmic rays will wash over the solar system for thousands of years .


While we're mostly protected on Earth's surface by the atmosphere and ozone layer, the influx of extra radiation will still increase cancer and mutation rates.

While we 're mostly protected on Earth 's surface by the atmosphere and ozone layer , the influx of extra radiation will still increase cancer and mutation rates .


Spaceflight would become impossible in the solar system as astronauts wouldn't survive the waves of radiation for long.

Spaceflight would become impossible in the solar system as astronauts would n't survive the waves of radiation for long .


We don't know exactly how bad this would be, but a supernova that is close enough may trap our species on Earth for generations, maybe thousands of years.

We do n't know exactly how bad this would be , but a supernova that is close enough may trap our species on Earth for generations , maybe thousands of years .


It only gets worse from here.


Within 100 light-years, things get bad as a supernova disrupts our climate in ways that we don't fully understand yet.

Within 100 light - years , things get bad as a supernova disrupts our climate in ways that we do n't fully understand yet .


There are a few unpleasant things happening all one after another.

There are a few unpleasant things happening all one after another .


First, the high-energy photons arrive from the explosion, followed by many decades of radiation from the radioactive tsunami, both of which seriously damage the ozone layer, Earth's shield against harmful radiation.

First , the high - energy photons arrive from the explosion , followed by many decades of radiation from the radioactive tsunami , both of which seriously damage the ozone layer , Earth 's shield against harmful radiation .


The ozone layer absorbs ultraviolet radiation by breaking apart ozone, O3, into O2 and a free oxygen atom, which later reforms back into another ozone molecule.

The ozone layer absorbs ultraviolet radiation by breaking apart ozone , O3 , into O2 and a free oxygen atom , which later reforms back into another ozone molecule .


But the supernova radiation breaks up nitrogen molecules that gobble up the free oxygen, breaking the cycle and depleting the ozone layer quickly.

But the supernova radiation breaks up nitrogen molecules that gobble up the free oxygen , breaking the cycle and depleting the ozone layer quickly .


Without a radiation shield, everybody living on the surface is exposed to very high levels of UV radiation from our sun.

Without a radiation shield , everybody living on the surface is exposed to very high levels of UV radiation from our sun .


Cancer rates would skyrocket, and just going outside during the day could be life-threatening.

Cancer rates would skyrocket , and just going outside during the day could be life - threatening .


The extra radiation would also kill a lot, if not most, of the plankton in the oceans that live near the surface and are the basis for the marine food chains, leading to a mass extinction.

The extra radiation would also kill a lot , if not most , of the plankton in the oceans that live near the surface and are the basis for the marine food chains , leading to a mass extinction .


Worse still, supernova radiation would ionize gas in the atmosphere, which means that it would punch through molecules and knock electrons off nuclei, leaving them charged.

Worse still , supernova radiation would ionize gas in the atmosphere , which means that it would punch through molecules and knock electrons off nuclei , leaving them charged .


These charged nuclei then act as seeds for water vapor to gather and form massive global clouds.

These charged nuclei then act as seeds for water vapor to gather and form massive global clouds .


In the worst case, they would reflect enough sunlight to trigger an ice age.

In the worst case , they would reflect enough sunlight to trigger an ice age .


In fact, it's thought that the ice age 2.5 million years ago was caused by a supernova.

In fact , it 's thought that the ice age 2.5 million years ago was caused by a supernova .


Some scientists even think that a supernova about 60 light-years away might have been the cause of the Devonian mass extinction 350 million years ago.

Some scientists even think that a supernova about 60 light - years away might have been the cause of the Devonian mass extinction 350 million years ago .


But wait, there's more.


The electrons punched free by the radiation form enormous electric avalanches, or in other words, lightning.

The electrons punched free by the radiation form enormous electric avalanches , or in other words , lightning .


Earth is hit by some of the worst thunderstorms in millions of years.

Earth is hit by some of the worst thunderstorms in millions of years .


The intense lightning causes global wildfires that consume forests and crops, devastate cities, disrupt our electrical grids and global supply chains.

The intense lightning causes global wildfires that consume forests and crops , devastate cities , disrupt our electrical grids and global supply chains .


All while a decimated ozone layer leaks deadly radiation.

All while a decimated ozone layer leaks deadly radiation .


While in the past the ecosystem may have bounced back from a nearby supernova after a few thousand or million years, there's no guarantee modern civilization can take a hit of this magnitude.

While in the past the ecosystem may have bounced back from a nearby supernova after a few thousand or million years , there 's no guarantee modern civilization can take a hit of this magnitude .


We would face food shortages, skyrocketing prices and wars as nations struggle to not be consumed by chaos.

We would face food shortages , skyrocketing prices and wars as nations struggle to not be consumed by chaos .


So a supernova this close would at the very least do significant damage for hundreds or thousands of years if not end our modern civilization and with it millions or even billions of lives.

So a supernova this close would at the very least do significant damage for hundreds or thousands of years if not end our modern civilization and with it millions or even billions of lives .


Still, humanity would likely survive and could recover.

Still , humanity would likely survive and could recover .


A supernova closer than 25 light years means that we're in its kill radius where a mass extinction is all but guaranteed.

A supernova closer than 25 light years means that we 're in its kill radius where a mass extinction is all but guaranteed .


Probably about half of the ozone layer would be destroyed and massive climactic disruption on a scale we've never witnessed would ravage Earth.

Probably about half of the ozone layer would be destroyed and massive climactic disruption on a scale we 've never witnessed would ravage Earth .


Entire ecosystems would swiftly be wiped out by radiation as global wildfires envelop the planet.

Entire ecosystems would swiftly be wiped out by radiation as global wildfires envelop the planet .


All the things described before happen but way more intensely and much faster.

All the things described before happen but way more intensely and much faster .


A few people might survive for years in bunkers if they have food supplies but the world they return to will be devastated and hostile to life for hundreds of thousands of years.

A few people might survive for years in bunkers if they have food supplies but the world they return to will be devastated and hostile to life for hundreds of thousands of years .


Human extinction is extremely likely.


Being any closer to a supernova is very unlikely because space is big but the effects would be extreme.

Being any closer to a supernova is very unlikely because space is big but the effects would be extreme .


Even from 4 light years away, the distance to Alpha Centauri, a supernova would be almost as bright as the sun in the sky.

Even from 4 light years away , the distance to Alpha Centauri , a supernova would be almost as bright as the sun in the sky .


While casting two shadows could be fun for a few hours, within days the Earth's surface gets as hot as a sauna, baking the surface for weeks until the explosion fades.

While casting two shadows could be fun for a few hours , within days the Earth 's surface gets as hot as a sauna , baking the surface for weeks until the explosion fades .


The surface of Earth burns, scoured of life.

The surface of Earth burns , scoured of life .


Even the oceans aren't safe.


The massive amount of radiation that follows burns away the ozone layer, killing everything that sees sunlight.

The massive amount of radiation that follows burns away the ozone layer , killing everything that sees sunlight .


It would be the largest extinction event in history, reducing life to a few survivors in the deep sea and critters in the deep soil.

It would be the largest extinction event in history , reducing life to a few survivors in the deep sea and critters in the deep soil .


Life basically has to start over.


So, should you worry?


Fortunately, there are only a handful of stars that may explode within 1,000 light years of Earth and none are close enough to be a serious threat.

Fortunately , there are only a handful of stars that may explode within 1,000 light years of Earth and none are close enough to be a serious threat .


Even better, these stars will probably not go supernova for many millions of years.

Even better , these stars will probably not go supernova for many millions of years .


So you are safe.


But there's no guarantee for the far future.

But there 's no guarantee for the far future .


As stars orbit the galaxy, our descendants may find themselves dangerously close to a supernova.

As stars orbit the galaxy , our descendants may find themselves dangerously close to a supernova .


But by then, a far more advanced and wiser humanity will hopefully be able to just move out of the way.

But by then , a far more advanced and wiser humanity will hopefully be able to just move out of the way .


In any case, you can sleep well tonight, under the beautiful night sky.

In any case , you can sleep well tonight , under the beautiful night sky .


And if you dream about understanding the physics behind this video and others, we've created a series of lessons to build your understanding of fundamental science.

And if you dream about understanding the physics behind this video and others , we 've created a series of lessons to build your understanding of fundamental science .


Made in collaboration with our friends at Brilliant, these lessons dive deeper into topics from our most popular videos, including things like cosmology, biology and even climate science.

Made in collaboration with our friends at Brilliant , these lessons dive deeper into topics from our most popular videos , including things like cosmology , biology and even climate science .


Brilliant is an interactive learning tool that makes science accessible with a hands-on approach.

Brilliant is an interactive learning tool that makes science accessible with a hands - on approach .


Because we know that to really learn something, you've got to do it.

Because we know that to really learn something , you 've got to do it .


Think of each lesson as a one-on-one tutoring version of a Kurzgesagt video.

Think of each lesson as a one - on - one tutoring version of a Kurzgesagt video .


In our latest lesson, you'll journey further into the conditions that can trigger a supernova and how to determine the impact of one on a planet like ours.

In our latest lesson , you 'll journey further into the conditions that can trigger a supernova and how to determine the impact of one on a planet like ours .


Brilliant has thousands of lessons to explore, from maths-based topics like algebra and probability to the concepts behind machine learning and quantum computing.

Brilliant has thousands of lessons to explore , from maths - based topics like algebra and probability to the concepts behind machine learning and quantum computing .


And with new lessons added each month, including ones from Kurzgesagt, you'll always find something fascinating to learn.

And with new lessons added each month , including ones from Kurzgesagt , you 'll always find something fascinating to learn .


To get hands-on with Kurzgesagt lessons now, go to brilliant.org/nutshell and sign up for free.

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And with a free trial of Brilliant Premium, you can explore everything Brilliant has to offer.

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The first 200 people to use the link get 20% off their annual membership, which unlocks all of Brilliant's courses in maths, science and computer science.

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We love to go above and beyond with our research.

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Brilliant will be the catalyst to expand the limits of your knowledge.

Brilliant will be the catalyst to expand the limits of your knowledge .


There are still a few copies left of our 12,023-human calendar.

There are still a few copies left of our 12,023 - human calendar .


Get it now for a whole year of joy.


In the year 1014, Byzantine Emperor Basil II defeated the Bulgarian army and captured 15,000 prisoners.

In the year 1014 , Byzantine Emperor Basil II defeated the Bulgarian army and captured 15,000 prisoners .


He could have killed them, but he had a different idea.

He could have killed them , but he had a different idea .


He wanted to weaken his opponents for decades to come.

He wanted to weaken his opponents for decades to come .


Today, humans are subject to an attack just as cynical as this by a league of supervillains called NTDs.

Today , humans are subject to an attack just as cynical as this by a league of supervillains called NTDs .


One in seven humans on the planet suffers from one or more NTDs, more than the entire population of Europe.

One in seven humans on the planet suffers from one or more NTDs , more than the entire population of Europe .


They do unimaginable damage.


By crippling countless people, they destroy billions of dollars in income each year, weaken communities and slow progress.

By crippling countless people , they destroy billions of dollars in income each year , weaken communities and slow progress .


But what are these monsters straight out of a horror movie, seeking to wreak havoc on our species?

But what are these monsters straight out of a horror movie , seeking to wreak havoc on our species ?


NTDs are caused by a vast range of different parasites such as worms, amoeba, bacteria or viruses.

NTDs are caused by a vast range of different parasites such as worms , amoeba , bacteria or viruses .


The symptoms they cause are just as diverse and truly the stuff of nightmares.

The symptoms they cause are just as diverse and truly the stuff of nightmares .


Some like hookworms compete with children's brains and bodies for nutrition, stunting growth and impairing intelligence.

Some like hookworms compete with children 's brains and bodies for nutrition , stunting growth and impairing intelligence .


Some NTDs cause blindness as a result of awful eye infections.

Some NTDs cause blindness as a result of awful eye infections .


Other parasites confine patients to bed for months and damage internal organs, often shortening lifespans drastically.

Other parasites confine patients to bed for months and damage internal organs , often shortening lifespans drastically .


Yet others cause horrible disfigurements that lead to social stigma, a life lived in shame and unemployment.

Yet others cause horrible disfigurements that lead to social stigma , a life lived in shame and unemployment .


There are also a few that are incredibly agonizing.

There are also a few that are incredibly agonizing .


They cause continuous itching or horrible pain.

They cause continuous itching or horrible pain .


In fact, let's introduce you to one of them, Draconcholiasis.

In fact , let 's introduce you to one of them , Draconcholiasis .


If you accidentally drink water infected by it, you won't notice anything for a year.

If you accidentally drink water infected by it , you wo n't notice anything for a year .


Until one day, you suddenly see a blister on your leg.

Until one day , you suddenly see a blister on your leg .


The worm breaks out of the skin to release new larvae.

The worm breaks out of the skin to release new larvae .


The only way to remove it is to slowly put it out of your leg, centimeter by centimeter, over the course of several weeks, because Draconcholiasis is now up to a meter long.

The only way to remove it is to slowly put it out of your leg , centimeter by centimeter , over the course of several weeks , because Draconcholiasis is now up to a meter long .


We can all agree that we should kill such parasites with fire.

We can all agree that we should kill such parasites with fire .


That's why we declared war on them, pleading to eradicate most of them by 2020, and we tried doing that very hard.

That 's why we declared war on them , pleading to eradicate most of them by 2020 , and we tried doing that very hard .


In 1985, there were 3.5 million cases of Draconcholiasis all over the world.

In 1985 , there were 3.5 million cases of Draconcholiasis all over the world .


In 2015, there were 22.


We killed 99.999% of these little monsters.

We killed 99.999 % of these little monsters .


It will be the first parasite we eradicate for good very soon.

It will be the first parasite we eradicate for good very soon .


So even if they don't generate big headlines like Ebola did, actually, amazing things have happened when it comes to NTDs.

So even if they do n't generate big headlines like Ebola did , actually , amazing things have happened when it comes to NTDs .


All NTDs have one thing in common.


They preferably attack humans who live in the most isolated communities and who are least able to defend themselves.

They preferably attack humans who live in the most isolated communities and who are least able to defend themselves .


There are villages that are 500 kilometers from the nearest health facility with no roads anywhere.

There are villages that are 500 kilometers from the nearest health facility with no roads anywhere .


This called for an attack using brute force.

This called for an attack using brute force .


To stamp out NTDs once and for all, what's possibly the biggest medical program in human history was launched, unmatched in scale.

To stamp out NTDs once and for all , what 's possibly the biggest medical program in human history was launched , unmatched in scale .


Organizations from all fields are working together right now to eliminate 10 of these NTDs forever.

Organizations from all fields are working together right now to eliminate 10 of these NTDs forever .


Ironically, every NTD is in fact preventable or treatable.

Ironically , every NTD is in fact preventable or treatable .


But most of them can only be controlled by giving medicine to every person in all high-risk areas.

But most of them can only be controlled by giving medicine to every person in all high - risk areas .


That means millions and millions of doses of medicine, often for several NTDs at a time over the course of years, in countries where there is no infrastructure.

That means millions and millions of doses of medicine , often for several NTDs at a time over the course of years , in countries where there is no infrastructure .


Governments and health organizations just couldn't do that by themselves.

Governments and health organizations just could n't do that by themselves .


Here, humanity got an opportunity to show off what the industrialized production of medicine can achieve.

Here , humanity got an opportunity to show off what the industrialized production of medicine can achieve .


The pharma industry stepped in to distribute the necessary drugs for free and promised to keep doing it until those 10 diseases are gone.

The pharma industry stepped in to distribute the necessary drugs for free and promised to keep doing it until those 10 diseases are gone .


By 2020, nearly 18 billion dollars worth of drugs will have been distributed, the largest drug donation the world has ever seen.

By 2020 , nearly 18 billion dollars worth of drugs will have been distributed , the largest drug donation the world has ever seen .


They also helped make sure the drugs actually get to where they're needed.

They also helped make sure the drugs actually get to where they 're needed .


In 2015 alone, these treatments reached over 815 million people, more than the population of the EU and the US combined.

In 2015 alone , these treatments reached over 815 million people , more than the population of the EU and the US combined .


Bad things happening generates headlines.

Bad things happening generates headlines .


Stories like this one are not told often enough.

Stories like this one are not told often enough .


Good things happen all the time.


So if you or one of your friends are in need of uplifting news, share this video with them.

So if you or one of your friends are in need of uplifting news , share this video with them .


We as a species really can do great things with no other motivation than to help each other.

We as a species really can do great things with no other motivation than to help each other .


It's good to remember that from time to time.

It 's good to remember that from time to time .


This video was made possible in part by a grant from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and your support on Patreon.com.

This video was made possible in part by a grant from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and your support on Patreon.com .


If you want to help us make more videos, you can do so here.

If you want to help us make more videos , you can do so here .


If you're disappointed by the lack of disturbing facts in this video, here's a playlist about the end of everything.

If you 're disappointed by the lack of disturbing facts in this video , here 's a playlist about the end of everything .


A war has been going on for billions of years that breeds well-armed monsters who struggle with other monsters for survival.

A war has been going on for billions of years that breeds well - armed monsters who struggle with other monsters for survival .


Having no particular interest in us, most of them are relatively harmless, as our immune systems deal with their weapons easily.

Having no particular interest in us , most of them are relatively harmless , as our immune systems deal with their weapons easily .


But there are exceptions.


Nagleria fowleri is an amoeba that has not only developed a deadly taste for human brains, but is also a match for our defenses and stars in dramatic headlines.

Nagleria fowleri is an amoeba that has not only developed a deadly taste for human brains , but is also a match for our defenses and stars in dramatic headlines .


What happens when this monster enters your body?

What happens when this monster enters your body ?


Nagleria fowleri is an amoeba, a microbe with a nucleus, one of the smallest life forms on Earth.

Nagleria fowleri is an amoeba , a microbe with a nucleus , one of the smallest life forms on Earth .


It is a voracious hunter of bacteria and other critters that it devours whole and rips into pieces.

It is a voracious hunter of bacteria and other critters that it devours whole and rips into pieces .


Like many amoebae, it is able to transform into different stages that help it survive.

Like many amoebae , it is able to transform into different stages that help it survive .


But most of the time, Nagleria fowleri is in its trophozoite stage, during which it looks like a squishy blob with tiny arms, and hunts, divides, and thrives.

But most of the time , Nagleria fowleri is in its trophozoite stage , during which it looks like a squishy blob with tiny arms , and hunts , divides , and thrives .


Its natural home is in fresh water, ponds, rivers, lakes, and hot springs.

Its natural home is in fresh water , ponds , rivers , lakes , and hot springs .


But unfortunately, it also feels happy in pipes, swimming pools, fountains, or spas when they're not properly treated.

But unfortunately , it also feels happy in pipes , swimming pools , fountains , or spas when they 're not properly treated .


The warmer the water, the more it thrives and multiplies.

The warmer the water , the more it thrives and multiplies .


So in the summer, when humans seek to cool off and enjoy themselves, the chances are highest that both species will interact.

So in the summer , when humans seek to cool off and enjoy themselves , the chances are highest that both species will interact .


Because this makes it hard to avoid, millions of people regularly have contact with the amoeba, especially in warmer climates, and many people even seem to have antibodies against it.

Because this makes it hard to avoid , millions of people regularly have contact with the amoeba , especially in warmer climates , and many people even seem to have antibodies against it .


And this is mostly okay, you can even swallow it without consequences.

And this is mostly okay , you can even swallow it without consequences .


Things turn bad when people dive or swim in water contaminated with the amoeba, and water splashes high up into their noses.

Things turn bad when people dive or swim in water contaminated with the amoeba , and water splashes high up into their noses .


In a single drop of lake water, there are millions of viruses, bacteria, and amoebae, and that isn't really a big deal.

In a single drop of lake water , there are millions of viruses , bacteria , and amoebae , and that is n't really a big deal .


But Nagleria fowleri is different.


Let's zoom into the nose of an unsuspecting victim enjoying a great summer day, and see what happens.

Let 's zoom into the nose of an unsuspecting victim enjoying a great summer day , and see what happens .


First of all, the amoeba doesn't really want to be inside your nose, as it's not really looking for trouble, it just wants to eat a few bacteria.

First of all , the amoeba does n't really want to be inside your nose , as it 's not really looking for trouble , it just wants to eat a few bacteria .


Instead, it's greeted by your natural defences.

Instead , it 's greeted by your natural defences .


Unfortunately for humans, Nagleria fowleri happens to be exceptionally good at generally flying under the radar of your immune system.

Unfortunately for humans , Nagleria fowleri happens to be exceptionally good at generally flying under the radar of your immune system .


For example, the inside of your nose is covered by mucosa, a slime filled with chemicals that kill or stun possible invaders, or alert immune cells.

For example , the inside of your nose is covered by mucosa , a slime filled with chemicals that kill or stun possible invaders , or alert immune cells .


But Nagleria fowleri is not particularly bothered by them, and instead calmly checks out the scenery, mildly annoyed about the whole ordeal.

But Nagleria fowleri is not particularly bothered by them , and instead calmly checks out the scenery , mildly annoyed about the whole ordeal .


Now, if you are unlucky, the tiny critter stumbles over something that actually sparks its interest.

Now , if you are unlucky , the tiny critter stumbles over something that actually sparks its interest .


Your nose is filled with a large network of olfactory nerve cells that pick up molecules from the outside and transmit their information to your olfactory bulb, the centre of smell in your brain.

Your nose is filled with a large network of olfactory nerve cells that pick up molecules from the outside and transmit their information to your olfactory bulb , the centre of smell in your brain .


To do their job, these cells talk to each other by releasing various messenger chemicals and recognising them via specific receptors.

To do their job , these cells talk to each other by releasing various messenger chemicals and recognising them via specific receptors .


One of the most important of these chemicals is acetylcholine.

One of the most important of these chemicals is acetylcholine .


Through sheer evolutionary bad luck, Nagleria fowleri happens to have receptors that recognise acetylcholine, and it seems to attract them irresistibly, a little like moths that are attracted by light.

Through sheer evolutionary bad luck , Nagleria fowleri happens to have receptors that recognise acetylcholine , and it seems to attract them irresistibly , a little like moths that are attracted by light .


So as your olfactory nerve cells do their job, using plenty of acetylcholine to talk to the brain, Nagleria fowleri enters your tissue.

So as your olfactory nerve cells do their job , using plenty of acetylcholine to talk to the brain , Nagleria fowleri enters your tissue .


It seems to follow the chemical signals upstream.

It seems to follow the chemical signals upstream .


Neutrophils, crazy suicide warriors, begin to attack the amoebae.

Neutrophils , crazy suicide warriors , begin to attack the amoebae .


Individually they have no chance against them, as the invaders are large and pretty buff fighters used to dealing with tough enemies.

Individually they have no chance against them , as the invaders are large and pretty buff fighters used to dealing with tough enemies .


So the defenders swarm the intruders and kill them either by vomiting chemicals that punch holes into them, or by literally ripping parts of them off and devouring them.

So the defenders swarm the intruders and kill them either by vomiting chemicals that punch holes into them , or by literally ripping parts of them off and devouring them .


The Nagleria fowleri train is still on track, and while the neutrophil attacks slow them down, they continue to follow the olfactory nerves to their final destination, your brain.

The Nagleria fowleri train is still on track , and while the neutrophil attacks slow them down , they continue to follow the olfactory nerves to their final destination , your brain .


This process can take between 1 and 9 days, and you'll probably not notice anything during that time.

This process can take between 1 and 9 days , and you 'll probably not notice anything during that time .


Until the amoebae reach the olfactory bulb, the centre of smell and entrance to your brain

Until the amoebae reach the olfactory bulb , the centre of smell and entrance to your brain


Your brain cells are nothing more than helpless victims, and they all release that wonderful acetylcholine.

Your brain cells are nothing more than helpless victims , and they all release that wonderful acetylcholine .


Nagleria fowleri initiates a massacre and releases an onslaught of various attack molecules.

Nagleria fowleri initiates a massacre and releases an onslaught of various attack molecules .


Some of them are basically little bombs that rip holes into your cells on contact so their pieces can be eagerly consumed.

Some of them are basically little bombs that rip holes into your cells on contact so their pieces can be eagerly consumed .


But Nagleria fowleri is now multiplying, and it's also becoming really creepy.

But Nagleria fowleri is now multiplying , and it 's also becoming really creepy .


In a feeding frenzy, it can develop up to a dozen suckers called food cups that look like giant eerie mouths.

In a feeding frenzy , it can develop up to a dozen suckers called food cups that look like giant eerie mouths .


The amoebae engage your brain cells, suck them in, and rip large bites out of them while they're still alive.

The amoebae engage your brain cells , suck them in , and rip large bites out of them while they 're still alive .


Now things escalate quickly, and the disease that will kill you sets in.

Now things escalate quickly , and the disease that will kill you sets in .


Alerted by the massacre, millions of immune cells, neutrophils, eosinophils, and microglia invade the infected tissue.

Alerted by the massacre , millions of immune cells , neutrophils , eosinophils , and microglia invade the infected tissue .


Your immune system is dangerous, and not exactly a careful fighter.

Your immune system is dangerous , and not exactly a careful fighter .


It's like burning down a forest to kill the wolves inside it.

It 's like burning down a forest to kill the wolves inside it .


They waste no time and attack the amoeba, using all the weapons available to them, from chemicals to trying to eat them alive.

They waste no time and attack the amoeba , using all the weapons available to them , from chemicals to trying to eat them alive .


Neutrophils explode themselves to erect barriers spiked with deadly chemicals.

Neutrophils explode themselves to erect barriers spiked with deadly chemicals .


A fierce battle ensues.


Nagleria fowleri can actually fight back, itself attacking and killing many immune cells.

Nagleria fowleri can actually fight back , itself attacking and killing many immune cells .


The immune system now throws everything it has at the invader, but in vain.

The immune system now throws everything it has at the invader , but in vain .


The complement system, tiny protein bombs that can kill intruders on their own, are easily disabled.

The complement system , tiny protein bombs that can kill intruders on their own , are easily disabled .


Antibodies, usually one of your superweapons, are just destroyed or swallowed.

Antibodies , usually one of your superweapons , are just destroyed or swallowed .


A high fever that usually slows enemies down does nothing, as the amoeba actually thrives in the heat.

A high fever that usually slows enemies down does nothing , as the amoeba actually thrives in the heat .


All the while, the amoebae continue to multiply, fight, and devour your brain cells.

All the while , the amoebae continue to multiply , fight , and devour your brain cells .


A disastrous chain reaction is taking place.

A disastrous chain reaction is taking place .


One major thing your immune cells do when they fight is to cause inflammation, which directs large amounts of fluid from your bloodstream into the site of an infection.

One major thing your immune cells do when they fight is to cause inflammation , which directs large amounts of fluid from your bloodstream into the site of an infection .


So as the battle rages on without a clear winner, more and more fluid enters the brain.

So as the battle rages on without a clear winner , more and more fluid enters the brain .


At this point, the human will feel symptoms that quickly escalate.

At this point , the human will feel symptoms that quickly escalate .


It all begins pretty vaguely, a headache, fever, nausea, and vomiting.

It all begins pretty vaguely , a headache , fever , nausea , and vomiting .


As the battle spreads rapidly through the brain, serious symptoms appear, from confusion, inability to concentrate, to fatigue, seizures, and hallucinations.

As the battle spreads rapidly through the brain , serious symptoms appear , from confusion , inability to concentrate , to fatigue , seizures , and hallucinations .


The brain swells up massively, but can't expand due to the bones surrounding it.

The brain swells up massively , but ca n't expand due to the bones surrounding it .


So it compresses and disables the brainstem that controls things like breathing.

So it compresses and disables the brainstem that controls things like breathing .


Usually within a week, the patient dies.

Usually within a week , the patient dies .


Up to 97% of the patients infected by the amoeba share this fate.

Up to 97 % of the patients infected by the amoeba share this fate .


In almost all cases, by the time an infection by Naegleria Fowleri is recognized, the disastrous battle for the brain is already so far along that there is almost nothing to be done.

In almost all cases , by the time an infection by Naegleria Fowleri is recognized , the disastrous battle for the brain is already so far along that there is almost nothing to be done .


Not only do we currently not have effective treatments, there are also an abundance of open questions about how an amoeba that usually enjoys its life in open water is able to overcome our immune system so effectively.

Not only do we currently not have effective treatments , there are also an abundance of open questions about how an amoeba that usually enjoys its life in open water is able to overcome our immune system so effectively .


While the Naegleria Fowleri is clearly extremely deadly, and the infection truly horrible, there have only been a few hundred cases in the last few decades.

While the Naegleria Fowleri is clearly extremely deadly , and the infection truly horrible , there have only been a few hundred cases in the last few decades .


You are way more likely to drown in a pool than to get infected.

You are way more likely to drown in a pool than to get infected .


Not only does the amoeba need to be flushed high up your nose, it also needs to get a good grip, and it also has to make its way through the first lines of your defenses.

Not only does the amoeba need to be flushed high up your nose , it also needs to get a good grip , and it also has to make its way through the first lines of your defenses .


Ultimately, Naegleria Fowleri is neither evil nor a huge public health risk.

Ultimately , Naegleria Fowleri is neither evil nor a huge public health risk .


And every year, some unlucky people have to deal with it.

And every year , some unlucky people have to deal with it .


We still have so much to learn about it, and until we find a way to treat it, Naegleria Fowleri will continue to be this vague and horrifying thing, hunting in puddles and lakes, and sometimes pools.

We still have so much to learn about it , and until we find a way to treat it , Naegleria Fowleri will continue to be this vague and horrifying thing , hunting in puddles and lakes , and sometimes pools .


Who are you?


It's me, your existential dread.


I'm here to make you question your own existence and everything you hold dear in life.

I 'm here to make you question your own existence and everything you hold dear in life .


Could you not please?


Just look at all these amazing posters full of humbling visualizations, like the scale of the universe.

Just look at all these amazing posters full of humbling visualizations , like the scale of the universe .


Look how huge it is, and how small you are.

Look how huge it is , and how small you are .


Look at the education edition, how it dives deep into the history of evolution or all the other scientific fields to make you feel bad for all the stuff you don't know.

Look at the education edition , how it dives deep into the history of evolution or all the other scientific fields to make you feel bad for all the stuff you do n't know .


Or look at this one, it glows in the dark.

Or look at this one , it glows in the dark .


But dread, these do make me feel good, actually.

But dread , these do make me feel good , actually .


They do fill me with excitement and awe about how amazing our universe is, and I love learning.

They do fill me with excitement and awe about how amazing our universe is , and I love learning .


And look how pretty they are.


I can't persist in the presence of awe!

I ca n't persist in the presence of awe !


you can get these and many, many more amazing posters or shirts, or so many more things, in our shop.

you can get these and many , many more amazing posters or shirts , or so many more things , in our shop .


We put as much care into our products as into our videos, trying to find something clever or a new angle that will challenge your perspective while still teaching you the core aspects.

We put as much care into our products as into our videos , trying to find something clever or a new angle that will challenge your perspective while still teaching you the core aspects .


It's the best way to support what we do on this channel.

It 's the best way to support what we do on this channel .


Consciousness is perhaps the biggest riddle in nature.

Consciousness is perhaps the biggest riddle in nature .


Stripped to its core meaning, consciousness is what allows us to be aware both of our surroundings and of our own inner state.

Stripped to its core meaning , consciousness is what allows us to be aware both of our surroundings and of our own inner state .


But thinking about consciousness has this habit of taking us round in circles.

But thinking about consciousness has this habit of taking us round in circles .


We all intuitively know what consciousness is.

We all intuitively know what consciousness is .


It's this.


It's what you're experiencing here, right now.

It 's what you 're experiencing here , right now .


But once we try to pinpoint just what exactly it is, it leaves us grasping at thin air.

But once we try to pinpoint just what exactly it is , it leaves us grasping at thin air .


Philosophers and scientists struggle to define consciousness.

Philosophers and scientists struggle to define consciousness .


Different schools and ideas compete with one another, but no one has come close to figuring it out.

Different schools and ideas compete with one another , but no one has come close to figuring it out .


It's unsettling to realize that we don't understand what makes us aware of ourselves and the world.

It 's unsettling to realize that we do n't understand what makes us aware of ourselves and the world .


In this fuzzy area, consciousness and intelligence are also related, although they are not the same.

In this fuzzy area , consciousness and intelligence are also related , although they are not the same .


We'll talk in greater depth about theories of consciousness and intelligence in other videos.

We 'll talk in greater depth about theories of consciousness and intelligence in other videos .


Like much of what makes us human, our consciousness is likely to have evolved from less complex forms as a product of evolution by natural selection.

Like much of what makes us human , our consciousness is likely to have evolved from less complex forms as a product of evolution by natural selection .


It has probably emerged from an immense, several hundred million year sequence of countless microsteps that together make up a sort of gradient of consciousness.

It has probably emerged from an immense , several hundred million year sequence of countless microsteps that together make up a sort of gradient of consciousness .


What was the first step on this path from the non-conscious to the basic consciousness that ultimately led to the convoluted consciousness we humans enjoy today?

What was the first step on this path from the non - conscious to the basic consciousness that ultimately led to the convoluted consciousness we humans enjoy today ?


Take a stone.


The consensus is that a stone is not conscious, though not everyone agrees even on this.

The consensus is that a stone is not conscious , though not everyone agrees even on this .


Some panpsychists claim that a lump of rock may have an inner life.

Some panpsychists claim that a lump of rock may have an inner life .


However, there are no real grounds for any such assumption, since stones never show behavior.

However , there are no real grounds for any such assumption , since stones never show behavior .


Their inner life can neither be proven nor disproven.

Their inner life can neither be proven nor disproven .


A more common starting point is with living things.

A more common starting point is with living things .


A living thing or a self is a part of the universe that sustains itself and makes more of its kind.

A living thing or a self is a part of the universe that sustains itself and makes more of its kind .


To do so, it needs energy.


And this is where an awareness of the world comes in handy.

And this is where an awareness of the world comes in handy .


The original function of consciousness was probably to direct a mobile self that was short of energy to a fresh supply of food.

The original function of consciousness was probably to direct a mobile self that was short of energy to a fresh supply of food .


On the smaller scales of life, you don't need to be aware to find food.

On the smaller scales of life , you do n't need to be aware to find food .


Tricoplax adherens, one of the simplest of all animals, moves around haphazardly.

Tricoplax adherens , one of the simplest of all animals , moves around haphazardly .


It slows down in the presence of food and speeds up in its absence.

It slows down in the presence of food and speeds up in its absence .


This is highly effective and makes the tiny creature spend more time where there is food than where there is not.

This is highly effective and makes the tiny creature spend more time where there is food than where there is not .


But it never moves in a particular direction towards a particular target, and there's no need for it to be conscious of its environment.

But it never moves in a particular direction towards a particular target , and there 's no need for it to be conscious of its environment .


The first major step towards consciousness was probably taken when mobile selves started to move themselves directionally.

The first major step towards consciousness was probably taken when mobile selves started to move themselves directionally .


Moving towards what was good for them, say food, and away from what was less good, say someone else who thought that they were food.

Moving towards what was good for them , say food , and away from what was less good , say someone else who thought that they were food .


Take Degysia tigrina, a tiny worm known for its funny face.

Take Degysia tigrina , a tiny worm known for its funny face .


Sometimes the worm is hungry and sometimes not.

Sometimes the worm is hungry and sometimes not .


This means that when it moves, the worm self is not simply producing an automatic response to an external stimulus,

This means that when it moves , the worm self is not simply producing an automatic response to an external stimulus ,


but that its actions depend upon its inner physiological state, whether it's hungry or sated.

but that its actions depend upon its inner physiological state , whether it 's hungry or sated .


When it's just eaten, the worm is less energetic, but when starved for a while, it will move itself in the direction of tasty things.

When it 's just eaten , the worm is less energetic , but when starved for a while , it will move itself in the direction of tasty things .


It uses chemoreceptors on its head to smell its environment and guide it in the direction where the scent of food is strongest.

It uses chemoreceptors on its head to smell its environment and guide it in the direction where the scent of food is strongest .


After finding and eating a meal, our worm buddy heads back to a dark, sheltered spot to digest it in safety, until it's hungry again.

After finding and eating a meal , our worm buddy heads back to a dark , sheltered spot to digest it in safety , until it 's hungry again .


But animals that blindly follow their sense of smell don't have a concrete objective in view.

But animals that blindly follow their sense of smell do n't have a concrete objective in view .


They still lack any sense of where they are heading.

They still lack any sense of where they are heading .


So the next step on the ladder of consciousness is to add some perception at a distance, like vision.

So the next step on the ladder of consciousness is to add some perception at a distance , like vision .


Vision adds context and depth to our world.

Vision adds context and depth to our world .


With vision comes a sense of the space we and our food exist in.

With vision comes a sense of the space we and our food exist in .


It adds a whole new dimension to awareness and is a huge step towards more familiar consciousness.

It adds a whole new dimension to awareness and is a huge step towards more familiar consciousness .


An optical apparatus like an eye enables us to visualize our goal and lock onto it.

An optical apparatus like an eye enables us to visualize our goal and lock onto it .


But even at this stage, a self is only able to pursue its food as long as it sees it.

But even at this stage , a self is only able to pursue its food as long as it sees it .


So the next logical step needs to happen on the inside.

So the next logical step needs to happen on the inside .


To visualize food in its absence, for example, a self needs to create some sort of inner representation of the world.

To visualize food in its absence , for example , a self needs to create some sort of inner representation of the world .


Now an animal can continue looking for food even when it escapes its sensory range.

Now an animal can continue looking for food even when it escapes its sensory range .


Because of this inner representation of what is relevant in the world, it can remain focused on its food and its desire to get it.

Because of this inner representation of what is relevant in the world , it can remain focused on its food and its desire to get it .


Our self now exists in a world it can get familiar with.

Our self now exists in a world it can get familiar with .


The ability to remember things has emerged.

The ability to remember things has emerged .


Thanks to memory, animals can be distracted from a pursuit for a few seconds, but quickly continue their path afterwards.

Thanks to memory , animals can be distracted from a pursuit for a few seconds , but quickly continue their path afterwards .


A related phenomenon is called object permanence.

A related phenomenon is called object permanence .


This describes our awareness that things continue to exist even when we can't see them.

This describes our awareness that things continue to exist even when we ca n't see them .


This cognitive skill is enjoyed by some mammals and birds, and perhaps other animals too.

This cognitive skill is enjoyed by some mammals and birds , and perhaps other animals too .


Human babies tend to develop this ability around the time they turn eight months, while baby chickens show this ability within a day or two of being born.

Human babies tend to develop this ability around the time they turn eight months , while baby chickens show this ability within a day or two of being born .


The capacity to remember a thing in its absence suggests at least a basic sense of time.

The capacity to remember a thing in its absence suggests at least a basic sense of time .


A sense of time is a big step on the ladder of consciousness.

A sense of time is a big step on the ladder of consciousness .


It may also enable a self to look forward from the present moment and anticipate the future.

It may also enable a self to look forward from the present moment and anticipate the future .


Adult chickens, for example, are able to resist a meal put in front of them if they expect to receive a bigger meal as a prize for holding back for a while.

Adult chickens , for example , are able to resist a meal put in front of them if they expect to receive a bigger meal as a prize for holding back for a while .


This sort of delayed gratification means there is an ability to visualize a reward that only exists in the future, which can be quite a challenge even for adult humans.

This sort of delayed gratification means there is an ability to visualize a reward that only exists in the future , which can be quite a challenge even for adult humans .


Western scrub jays are experts in delayed gratification.

Western scrub jays are experts in delayed gratification .


They show an even more elaborate sense of the future when they hide food in a cache to retrieve it at a later date.

They show an even more elaborate sense of the future when they hide food in a cache to retrieve it at a later date .


This means that they know that there are other hungry selves out there who are aware and see the world from their own, different perspective.

This means that they know that there are other hungry selves out there who are aware and see the world from their own , different perspective .


Crafty scrub jays can sort of read the mind of their fellow birds.

Crafty scrub jays can sort of read the mind of their fellow birds .


This ability to mind-read is crucial for complex levels of consciousness.

This ability to mind - read is crucial for complex levels of consciousness .


By putting yourself in the position of others, you can outsmart a rich competitor or empathize with a hungry friend.

By putting yourself in the position of others , you can outsmart a rich competitor or empathize with a hungry friend .


Language takes the ability to read minds and represent what is absent to a whole new level.

Language takes the ability to read minds and represent what is absent to a whole new level .


Words enable us to construct hypotheses about the world, make detailed plans and to communicate them with others.

Words enable us to construct hypotheses about the world , make detailed plans and to communicate them with others .


Words enable us to think about ourselves and our place in the universe, and even about our own consciousness, which is something we'll be doing more in future videos.

Words enable us to think about ourselves and our place in the universe , and even about our own consciousness , which is something we 'll be doing more in future videos .


So what is the origin of our consciousness?

So what is the origin of our consciousness ?


It probably began as the directed motion of a hungry self towards a source of food, with the survival benefits this gave it over competitors that moved at random or not at all.

It probably began as the directed motion of a hungry self towards a source of food , with the survival benefits this gave it over competitors that moved at random or not at all .


It probably all started with the urge for more food.

It probably all started with the urge for more food .


it's not surprising that we can't stop thinking about where we'll get our next meal.

it 's not surprising that we ca n't stop thinking about where we 'll get our next meal .


Collectively, we've put so much thought and ingenuity into getting food, that we can now just get our food to come to us, with little conscious effort.

Collectively , we 've put so much thought and ingenuity into getting food , that we can now just get our food to come to us , with little conscious effort .


This video is part one of a three-part video series relating to big questions of life and the universe, made possible by a grant from the Templeton World Charity Foundation.

This video is part one of a three - part video series relating to big questions of life and the universe , made possible by a grant from the Templeton World Charity Foundation .


You can find our sources and further reading in the video description or get The Consciousness Book by Rupert Glasgow for free, link down below.

You can find our sources and further reading in the video description or get The Consciousness Book by Rupert Glasgow for free , link down below .


If you want to help us make more videos, you can do so on patreon.com or get one of our posters from our shop.

If you want to help us make more videos , you can do so on patreon.com or get one of our posters from our shop .


Today, we're doing something different.

Today , we 're doing something different .


Our friend John Green will read a story from his podcast, The Anthropocene Reviewed.

Our friend John Green will read a story from his podcast , The Anthropocene Reviewed .


We hope you enjoy it, and we'll be back with a regular video soon.

We hope you enjoy it , and we 'll be back with a regular video soon .


So if you've ever been or had a child, you will likely already be familiar with hand stencils.

So if you 've ever been or had a child , you will likely already be familiar with hand stencils .


They were the first figurative art made by both our kids.

They were the first figurative art made by both our kids .


Somewhere between the ages of two and three, my children spread the fingers of one hand out across a piece of paper and then, with the help of a parent, traced their five fingers.

Somewhere between the ages of two and three , my children spread the fingers of one hand out across a piece of paper and then , with the help of a parent , traced their five fingers .