The bacteria try to resist but fail most of the time because their protection tools are too weak.

The bacteria try to resist but fail most of the time because their protection tools are too weak .


But sometimes, bacteria survive an attack.

But sometimes , bacteria survive an attack .


Only if they do so can they activate their most effective antivirus system.

Only if they do so can they activate their most effective antivirus system .


They save a part of the virus DNA in their own genetic code in a DNA archive called CRISPR.

They save a part of the virus DNA in their own genetic code in a DNA archive called CRISPR .


Here, it's stored safely until it's needed.

Here , it 's stored safely until it 's needed .


When the virus attacks again, the bacterium quickly makes an RNA copy from the DNA archive and arms a secret weapon, a protein called Cas9.

When the virus attacks again , the bacterium quickly makes an RNA copy from the DNA archive and arms a secret weapon , a protein called Cas9 .


The protein now scans the bacterium's insides for signs of the virus invader by comparing every bit of DNA it finds to the sample from the archive.

The protein now scans the bacterium 's insides for signs of the virus invader by comparing every bit of DNA it finds to the sample from the archive .


When it finds a 100% perfect match, it's activated and cuts out the virus DNA, making it useless, protecting the bacterium against the attack.

When it finds a 100 % perfect match , it 's activated and cuts out the virus DNA , making it useless , protecting the bacterium against the attack .


What's special is that Cas9 is very precise, almost like a DNA surgeon.

What 's special is that Cas9 is very precise , almost like a DNA surgeon .


The revolution began when scientists figured out that the CRISPR system is programmable.

The revolution began when scientists figured out that the CRISPR system is programmable .


You can just give it a copy of DNA you want to modify and put the system into a living cell.

You can just give it a copy of DNA you want to modify and put the system into a living cell .


If the old techniques of genetic manipulation were like a map, CRISPR is like a GPS system.

If the old techniques of genetic manipulation were like a map , CRISPR is like a GPS system .


Aside from being precise, cheap and easy, CRISPR offers the ability to edit live cells, to switch genes on and off and target and study particular DNA sequences.

Aside from being precise , cheap and easy , CRISPR offers the ability to edit live cells , to switch genes on and off and target and study particular DNA sequences .


It also works for every type of cell, microorganisms, plants, animals or humans.

It also works for every type of cell , microorganisms , plants , animals or humans .


But despite the revolution CRISPR is for science, it's still just a first-generation tool.

But despite the revolution CRISPR is for science , it 's still just a first - generation tool .


More precise tools are already being created and used as we speak.

More precise tools are already being created and used as we speak .


In 2015, scientists used CRISPR to cut the HIV virus out of living cells from patients in the lab, proving that it was possible.

In 2015 , scientists used CRISPR to cut the HIV virus out of living cells from patients in the lab , proving that it was possible .


Only about a year later, they carried out a larger scale project with rats that had the HIV virus in basically all of their body cells.

Only about a year later , they carried out a larger scale project with rats that had the HIV virus in basically all of their body cells .


By simply injecting CRISPR into the rats' tails, they were able to remove more than 50% of the virus from cells all over the body.

By simply injecting CRISPR into the rats ' tails , they were able to remove more than 50 % of the virus from cells all over the body .


In a few decades, a CRISPR therapy might cure HIV.

In a few decades , a CRISPR therapy might cure HIV .


And other retroviruses, viruses that hide inside human DNA like herpes, could be eradicated this way.

And other retroviruses , viruses that hide inside human DNA like herpes , could be eradicated this way .


CRISPR could also defeat one of our worst enemies, cancer.

CRISPR could also defeat one of our worst enemies , cancer .


Cancer occurs when cells refuse to die and keep multiplying while concealing themselves from the immune system.

Cancer occurs when cells refuse to die and keep multiplying while concealing themselves from the immune system .


CRISPR gives us the means to edit your immune cells and make them better cancer hunters.

CRISPR gives us the means to edit your immune cells and make them better cancer hunters .


Getting rid of cancer might eventually mean getting just a couple of injections of a few thousand of your own cells that have been engineered in the lab to heal you for good.

Getting rid of cancer might eventually mean getting just a couple of injections of a few thousand of your own cells that have been engineered in the lab to heal you for good .


The first clinical trial for a CRISPR cancer treatment on human patients was approved in early 2016 in the US.

The first clinical trial for a CRISPR cancer treatment on human patients was approved in early 2016 in the US .


Not even a month later, Chinese scientists announced that they would treat lung cancer patients with immune cells modified with CRISPR in August 2016.

Not even a month later , Chinese scientists announced that they would treat lung cancer patients with immune cells modified with CRISPR in August 2016 .


Things are picking up pace quickly.


And then there are genetic diseases.


There are thousands of them and they range from mildly annoying to deadly or entail decades of suffering.

There are thousands of them and they range from mildly annoying to deadly or entail decades of suffering .


With a powerful tool like CRISPR, we may be able to end this.

With a powerful tool like CRISPR , we may be able to end this .


Over 3,000 genetic diseases are caused by a single incorrect letter in your DNA.

Over 3,000 genetic diseases are caused by a single incorrect letter in your DNA .


We are already building a modified version of Cas9 that is made to change just a single letter, fixing the disease in the cell.

We are already building a modified version of Cas9 that is made to change just a single letter , fixing the disease in the cell .


In a decade or two, we could possibly cure thousands of diseases forever.

In a decade or two , we could possibly cure thousands of diseases forever .


But all of these medical applications have one thing in common.

But all of these medical applications have one thing in common .


They are limited to the individual and die with them, except if you use them on reproductive cells or very early embryos.

They are limited to the individual and die with them , except if you use them on reproductive cells or very early embryos .


The means to edit the genome of a human embryo already exists, though the technology is still in its early stages.

The means to edit the genome of a human embryo already exists , though the technology is still in its early stages .


But it has already been attempted twice.

But it has already been attempted twice .


In 2015 and 2016, Chinese scientists experimented with human embryos and were partially successful on their second attempt.

In 2015 and 2016 , Chinese scientists experimented with human embryos and were partially successful on their second attempt .


They showed the enormous challenges we still face in gene editing embryos, but also that scientists are working on solving them.

They showed the enormous challenges we still face in gene editing embryos , but also that scientists are working on solving them .


This is like the computer in the 70s.


There will be better computers.


Regardless of your personal take on genetic engineering, it will affect you.

Regardless of your personal take on genetic engineering , it will affect you .


Modified humans could alter the genome of our entire species because their engineered traits will be passed on to their children


It will start slowly.


The first designer babies will not be overly designed.

The first designer babies will not be overly designed .


It's most likely that they will be created to eliminate a deadly genetic disease running in a family.

It 's most likely that they will be created to eliminate a deadly genetic disease running in a family .


As the technology progresses and gets more refined, more and more people may argue that not using genetic modification is unethical

As the technology progresses and gets more refined , more and more people may argue that not using genetic modification is unethical


because it condemns children to preventable suffering and death and denies them the cure.

because it condemns children to preventable suffering and death and denies them the cure .


But as soon as the first engineered kid is born, a door is opened that can't be closed anymore.

But as soon as the first engineered kid is born , a door is opened that ca n't be closed anymore .


Early on, vanity traits will mostly be left alone.

Early on , vanity traits will mostly be left alone .


But as genetic modification becomes more accepted and our knowledge of our genetic code enhances, the temptation will grow.

But as genetic modification becomes more accepted and our knowledge of our genetic code enhances , the temptation will grow .


Huge changes are made as a result of the personal decisions of millions of individuals that accumulate.

Huge changes are made as a result of the personal decisions of millions of individuals that accumulate .


This is a slippery slope.


Modified humans could become the new standard.

Modified humans could become the new standard .


But as engineering becomes more normal and our knowledge improves, we could solve the single biggest mortality risk factor, aging.

But as engineering becomes more normal and our knowledge improves , we could solve the single biggest mortality risk factor , aging .


Two-thirds of the 150,000 people who die today will die of age-related causes.

Two - thirds of the 150,000 people who die today will die of age - related causes .


Currently, we think aging is caused by the accumulation of damage to our cells, like DNA breaks and the systems responsible for fixing those wearing off over time.

Currently , we think aging is caused by the accumulation of damage to our cells , like DNA breaks and the systems responsible for fixing those wearing off over time .


But there are also genes that directly affect aging.

But there are also genes that directly affect aging .


A combination of genetic engineering and other therapy could stop or slow down aging, maybe even reverse it.

A combination of genetic engineering and other therapy could stop or slow down aging , maybe even reverse it .


We know from nature that there are animals immune to aging.

We know from nature that there are animals immune to aging .


Maybe we could even borrow a few genes for ourselves.

Maybe we could even borrow a few genes for ourselves .


Some scientists even think biological aging could be something that eventually just stops being a thing.

Some scientists even think biological aging could be something that eventually just stops being a thing .


We would still die at some point, but instead of doing so in hospitals at age 90, we might be able to spend a few thousand years with our loved ones.

We would still die at some point , but instead of doing so in hospitals at age 90 , we might be able to spend a few thousand years with our loved ones .


Research into this is in its infancy.


And many scientists are rightly skeptical about the end of aging.

And many scientists are rightly skeptical about the end of aging .


The challenges are enormous and maybe it is unachievable.

The challenges are enormous and maybe it is unachievable .


But it is conceivable that people alive today might be the first to profit from effective anti-aging therapy.

But it is conceivable that people alive today might be the first to profit from effective anti - aging therapy .


All we might need is for someone to convince a smart billionaire to make it their next problem to solve.

All we might need is for someone to convince a smart billionaire to make it their next problem to solve .


On a bigger scale, we certainly could solve many problems by having a modified population.

On a bigger scale , we certainly could solve many problems by having a modified population .


Engineered humans might be better equipped to cope with high-energy food, eliminating many diseases of civilization like obesity.

Engineered humans might be better equipped to cope with high - energy food , eliminating many diseases of civilization like obesity .


In possession of a modified immune system with a library of potential threats, we might become immune to most diseases that haunt us today.

In possession of a modified immune system with a library of potential threats , we might become immune to most diseases that haunt us today .


Even further into the future, we could engineer humans to be equipped for extended space travel and to cope with different conditions on other planets.

Even further into the future , we could engineer humans to be equipped for extended space travel and to cope with different conditions on other planets .


Still, a few major challenges await us.

Still , a few major challenges await us .


Many of you watching will feel uncomfortable and fear that we will create a world in which we will reject non-perfect humans and pre-select features and qualities based on our idea of what's healthy.

Many of you watching will feel uncomfortable and fear that we will create a world in which we will reject non - perfect humans and pre - select features and qualities based on our idea of what 's healthy .


The thing is, we are already living in this world.

The thing is , we are already living in this world .


Tests for dozens of genetic diseases or complications have become standard for pregnant women in much of the world.

Tests for dozens of genetic diseases or complications have become standard for pregnant women in much of the world .


Often the mere suspicion of a genetic defect can lead to the end of a pregnancy.

Often the mere suspicion of a genetic defect can lead to the end of a pregnancy .


Take Down syndrome for example, one of the most common genetic defects.

Take Down syndrome for example , one of the most common genetic defects .


In Europe, about 92% of all pregnancies where it's detected are terminated.

In Europe , about 92 % of all pregnancies where it 's detected are terminated .


The decision to terminate a pregnancy is incredibly personal, but it's important to acknowledge the reality that we are pre-selecting humans based on medical conditions.

The decision to terminate a pregnancy is incredibly personal , but it 's important to acknowledge the reality that we are pre - selecting humans based on medical conditions .


There is also no use in pretending this will change, so we have to act carefully and respectfully as we advance the technology and can make more and more selections.

There is also no use in pretending this will change , so we have to act carefully and respectfully as we advance the technology and can make more and more selections .


But none of this will happen soon.


As powerful as CRISPR is, and it is, it's not infallible yet.

As powerful as CRISPR is , and it is , it 's not infallible yet .


Wrong edits still happen, as well as unknown errors that can occur anywhere in the DNA and might go unnoticed.

Wrong edits still happen , as well as unknown errors that can occur anywhere in the DNA and might go unnoticed .


The gene edit might achieve the desired result, disabling a disease, but also might accidentally trigger unwanted changes.

The gene edit might achieve the desired result , disabling a disease , but also might accidentally trigger unwanted changes .


We just don't know enough yet about the complex interplay of our genes to avoid unpredictable consequences.

We just do n't know enough yet about the complex interplay of our genes to avoid unpredictable consequences .


Working on accuracy and monitoring methods is a major concern as the first human trials begin.

Working on accuracy and monitoring methods is a major concern as the first human trials begin .


And since we've discussed a possible positive future, there are darker visions too.

And since we 've discussed a possible positive future , there are darker visions too .


Imagine what a state like North Korea could do if they embraced genetic engineering.

Imagine what a state like North Korea could do if they embraced genetic engineering .


Could a state cement its rule forever by forcing gene editing on their subjects?

Could a state cement its rule forever by forcing gene editing on their subjects ?


What would stop a totalitarian regime from engineering an army of modified super soldiers?

What would stop a totalitarian regime from engineering an army of modified super soldiers ?


It is doable in theory.


Scenarios like this one are far, far off into the future, if they ever become possible at all.

Scenarios like this one are far , far off into the future , if they ever become possible at all .


The basic proof of concept for genetic engineering like this already exists today.

The basic proof of concept for genetic engineering like this already exists today .


The technology really is that powerful.

The technology really is that powerful .


While this might be a tempting reason to ban genetic editing and related research, that would certainly be a mistake.

While this might be a tempting reason to ban genetic editing and related research , that would certainly be a mistake .


Banning human genetic engineering would only lead to the science wandering off to a place with jurisdiction and rules that we're uncomfortable with.

Banning human genetic engineering would only lead to the science wandering off to a place with jurisdiction and rules that we 're uncomfortable with .


Only by participating can we make sure that further research is guided by caution, reason, oversight and transparency.

Only by participating can we make sure that further research is guided by caution , reason , oversight and transparency .


Do you feel uncomfortable now?


Most of us have something wrong with them.

Most of us have something wrong with them .


In the future that lies ahead of us, would we have been allowed to exist?

In the future that lies ahead of us , would we have been allowed to exist ?


The technology is certainly a bit scary, but we have a lot to gain and genetic engineering might just be a step in the natural evolution of intelligent species in the universe.

The technology is certainly a bit scary , but we have a lot to gain and genetic engineering might just be a step in the natural evolution of intelligent species in the universe .


We might end disease.


We could extend our life expectancy by centuries and travel to the stars.

We could extend our life expectancy by centuries and travel to the stars .


There's no need to think small when it comes to this topic.

There 's no need to think small when it comes to this topic .


Whatever your opinion on genetic engineering, the future is approaching no matter what.

Whatever your opinion on genetic engineering , the future is approaching no matter what .


What has been insane science fiction is about to become our new reality.

What has been insane science fiction is about to become our new reality .


Videos like this would not be possible without viewer donations on patreon.com.

Videos like this would not be possible without viewer donations on patreon.com .


If you want to support us explaining complicated stuff and maybe get your own bird in return, you can do so here.

If you want to support us explaining complicated stuff and maybe get your own bird in return , you can do so here .


If you want to learn more about CRISPR, we put the sources and further reading in the description.

If you want to learn more about CRISPR , we put the sources and further reading in the description .


More videos about the whole topic area will follow.

More videos about the whole topic area will follow .


If you want to be notified when it happens, you can follow us here.

If you want to be notified when it happens , you can follow us here .


Along with other diseases, it plays host to malaria, one of the cruelest parasites on Earth.

Along with other diseases , it plays host to malaria , one of the cruelest parasites on Earth .


In 2015 alone, hundreds of millions were infected and almost half a million people died.

In 2015 alone , hundreds of millions were infected and almost half a million people died .


A new technology could help us eradicate malaria forever.

A new technology could help us eradicate malaria forever .


But to do so, we need to engineer a whole animal population.

But to do so , we need to engineer a whole animal population .


This is not a hypothetical problem, the modified mosquitoes already exist in a lab.

This is not a hypothetical problem , the modified mosquitoes already exist in a lab .


Should we use the technology and is malaria bad enough to risk it?

Should we use the technology and is malaria bad enough to risk it ?


Malaria is caused by a group of microorganisms, Plasmodia.

Malaria is caused by a group of microorganisms , Plasmodia .


They're parasites that completely rely on mosquitoes.

They 're parasites that completely rely on mosquitoes .


Malaria always starts with an insect bite.

Malaria always starts with an insect bite .


In its salivary glands, thousands of sporozoites wait until the insect penetrates your skin.

In its salivary glands , thousands of sporozoites wait until the insect penetrates your skin .


Immediately after invading you, they head for the liver, where they quietly enter big cells and hide from the immune system.

Immediately after invading you , they head for the liver , where they quietly enter big cells and hide from the immune system .


For up to a month, they stay here in stealth mode, consuming the cells alive and changing into their next form, small, drop-like mirrozoites.

For up to a month , they stay here in stealth mode , consuming the cells alive and changing into their next form , small , drop - like mirrozoites .


They multiply, generating thousands of themselves and then burst out of the cells.

They multiply , generating thousands of themselves and then burst out of the cells .


So thousands of parasites head into the bloodstream to look for their next victims, red blood cells.

So thousands of parasites head into the bloodstream to look for their next victims , red blood cells .


To stay unnoticed, they wrap themselves in the membranes of the cells they killed.

To stay unnoticed , they wrap themselves in the membranes of the cells they killed .


Imagine that, killing someone from the inside and then taking their skin as camouflage.

Imagine that , killing someone from the inside and then taking their skin as camouflage .


They now violently attack red blood cells, multiplying inside them until they burst, then finding more red blood cells, and this cycle repeats over and over.

They now violently attack red blood cells , multiplying inside them until they burst , then finding more red blood cells , and this cycle repeats over and over .


Pieces of dead cells spread lots of toxic waste material, which activates a powerful immune response, causing flu-like symptoms.

Pieces of dead cells spread lots of toxic waste material , which activates a powerful immune response , causing flu - like symptoms .


Among the symptoms are high fever, sweats and chills, convulsions, headaches and sometimes vomiting and diarrhea.

Among the symptoms are high fever , sweats and chills , convulsions , headaches and sometimes vomiting and diarrhea .


If malaria breaches the blood-brain barrier, it can cause coma, neurological damage or death.

If malaria breaches the blood - brain barrier , it can cause coma , neurological damage or death .


The parasites are ready for evacuation now.

The parasites are ready for evacuation now .


When another mosquito bites the infected human, they get a ride.

When another mosquito bites the infected human , they get a ride .


The cycle can start over.


In 2015, the Zika virus, which causes horrible birth defects if it infects pregnant women, spread rapidly into new areas around the globe.

In 2015 , the Zika virus , which causes horrible birth defects if it infects pregnant women , spread rapidly into new areas around the globe .


It, too, is carried by a mosquito.


The mosquito is the perfect carrier for human diseases.

The mosquito is the perfect carrier for human diseases .


They've been around for at least 200 million years.

They 've been around for at least 200 million years .


There are trillions of them, and a single one can lay up to 300 eggs at a time.

There are trillions of them , and a single one can lay up to 300 eggs at a time .


They are practically impossible to eradicate and the perfect parasite taxi.

They are practically impossible to eradicate and the perfect parasite taxi .


But today we have new revolutionary technology that could enable us to finally win the war against them.

But today we have new revolutionary technology that could enable us to finally win the war against them .


For the first time in human history, we have the tools to make fast, large-scale changes to entire species, changing their genetic information as we please.

For the first time in human history , we have the tools to make fast , large - scale changes to entire species , changing their genetic information as we please .


Using genetic engineering, scientists successfully created a strain of mosquitoes that are immune to the malaria parasite by adding a new antibody gene that specifically targets plasmodium.

Using genetic engineering , scientists successfully created a strain of mosquitoes that are immune to the malaria parasite by adding a new antibody gene that specifically targets plasmodium .


These mosquitoes will never spread malaria.

These mosquitoes will never spread malaria .


But just changing genetic information is not enough.

But just changing genetic information is not enough .


The edits would only be inherited by half the offspring, because most genes have two versions inside the genome as a fail-safe.

The edits would only be inherited by half the offspring , because most genes have two versions inside the genome as a fail - safe .


So, after just two generations, at most only half of the offspring would carry the engineered gene.

So , after just two generations , at most only half of the offspring would carry the engineered gene .


In a population of billions of mosquitoes, they would hardly make a difference.

In a population of billions of mosquitoes , they would hardly make a difference .


A genetic engineering method called the gene drive solves this problem.

A genetic engineering method called the gene drive solves this problem .


It forces the new gene to become dominant in the following generations, overpowering the old gene almost completely.

It forces the new gene to become dominant in the following generations , overpowering the old gene almost completely .


Thanks to this twist, 99.5% of all the engineered mosquitoes' offspring will carry the anti-malaria edit.

Thanks to this twist , 99.5 % of all the engineered mosquitoes ' offspring will carry the anti - malaria edit .


If we were to release enough engineered mosquitoes into the wild to mate with normal mosquitoes, the malaria-blocking genes would spread extremely quickly.

If we were to release enough engineered mosquitoes into the wild to mate with normal mosquitoes , the malaria - blocking genes would spread extremely quickly .


As the new gene becomes a permanent feature of the mosquito population, plasmodium would lose its home base.

As the new gene becomes a permanent feature of the mosquito population , plasmodium would lose its home base .


Scientists hoped that the change would be so fast that they could not adapt to it quickly enough.

Scientists hoped that the change would be so fast that they could not adapt to it quickly enough .


Malaria could virtually disappear.


If you take into account that nearly half a million children are killed by it every year, about five have died since this video started.

If you take into account that nearly half a million children are killed by it every year , about five have died since this video started .


Some scientists argue that we should use the technology sooner rather than later.

Some scientists argue that we should use the technology sooner rather than later .


The mosquitoes themselves would probably only profit from this.

The mosquitoes themselves would probably only profit from this .


They don't have anything to gain from carrying parasites.

They do n't have anything to gain from carrying parasites .


And this might only be the first step.


Malaria might just be the beginning.


Different mosquitoes also carry dengue fever and Zika.

Different mosquitoes also carry dengue fever and Zika .


Ticks transmit Lyme disease.


Flies transmit sleeping sickness.


Fleas transmit the plague.


We could save millions of lives and prevent suffering on an unbelievable scale.

We could save millions of lives and prevent suffering on an unbelievable scale .


So, why haven't we done this yet?


For one, CRISPR editing is barely four years old, so until very recently, we just couldn't do it as fast and easily.

For one , CRISPR editing is barely four years old , so until very recently , we just could n't do it as fast and easily .


And there are valid concerns.


Never before have humans consciously changed the genetic code of a free living organism on this scale.

Never before have humans consciously changed the genetic code of a free living organism on this scale .


Once we do it, there is no going back.

Once we do it , there is no going back .


So it has to be done right, because there could be unwanted consequences if we set out to edit nature.

So it has to be done right , because there could be unwanted consequences if we set out to edit nature .


In the specific case of malaria, though, the risk might be acceptable, since the genetic modification doesn't make a big change in the overall genome.

In the specific case of malaria , though , the risk might be acceptable , since the genetic modification does n't make a big change in the overall genome .


It only changes a very specific part.


The worst case scenario here is probably that it might not work or that the parasite adapts in a negative way.

The worst case scenario here is probably that it might not work or that the parasite adapts in a negative way .


There is still much debate.


Technology as powerful as gene drive needs to be handled with a lot of care.

Technology as powerful as gene drive needs to be handled with a lot of care .


But at some point, we have to ask ourselves, is it unethical to not use this technology when every day, 1,000 children die?

But at some point , we have to ask ourselves , is it unethical to not use this technology when every day , 1,000 children die ?


Humanity has to decide how to act on this in the next few years.

Humanity has to decide how to act on this in the next few years .


The public discussion is way behind the technology in this case.

The public discussion is way behind the technology in this case .


What do you think?


By the end of the 21st century, humanity is becoming desperate.

By the end of the 21st century , humanity is becoming desperate .


Decades of heat waves and droughts have led to unusually poor harvests, while the warming oceans yield fewer fish each year.

Decades of heat waves and droughts have led to unusually poor harvests , while the warming oceans yield fewer fish each year .


In the tropical zones, millions suffer from famines, and resource wars have made millions more flee to the north.

In the tropical zones , millions suffer from famines , and resource wars have made millions more flee to the north .


As things quickly get worse, in an act of desperation, the world's governments decide to enact an emergency plan.

As things quickly get worse , in an act of desperation , the world 's governments decide to enact an emergency plan .


It's far from certain that a grim scenario like this will play out, but the failure of world leaders to effectively address climate change makes it far from impossible.

It 's far from certain that a grim scenario like this will play out , but the failure of world leaders to effectively address climate change makes it far from impossible .


So, in the near future, it might become necessary to try something radical to slow down rapid climate change.

So , in the near future , it might become necessary to try something radical to slow down rapid climate change .


What is geoengineering? Is it really an option? And what if it goes wrong?

What is geoengineering ? Is it really an option ? And what if it goes wrong ?


Geoengineering methods vary from fantastic ones, like constructing giant light sails in space, to seeding clouds with salt,

Geoengineering methods vary from fantastic ones , like constructing giant light sails in space , to seeding clouds with salt ,


In this video, we'll focus on an intervention we could see during our lifetimes.

In this video , we 'll focus on an intervention we could see during our lifetimes .


CO2 doesn't heat up the planet on its own.

CO2 does n't heat up the planet on its own .


Almost all of the energy on Earth comes from the sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation.

Almost all of the energy on Earth comes from the sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation .


About 71% of this energy is absorbed by the Earth's surface and atmosphere.

About 71 % of this energy is absorbed by the Earth 's surface and atmosphere .


This absorbed energy is emitted again as infrared radiation.

This absorbed energy is emitted again as infrared radiation .


And CO2 is able to trap this infrared radiation and keep it in the atmosphere for a while.

And CO2 is able to trap this infrared radiation and keep it in the atmosphere for a while .


You can compare this effect with snuggling under a blanket in the morning.

You can compare this effect with snuggling under a blanket in the morning .


Even in a really cold room, your body emits infrared radiation, and the air between your body and the blanket traps it and creates a warm and comfy feeling.

Even in a really cold room , your body emits infrared radiation , and the air between your body and the blanket traps it and creates a warm and comfy feeling .


So one way to cool down the planet would be to prevent energy from getting trapped under our planet blanket.

So one way to cool down the planet would be to prevent energy from getting trapped under our planet blanket .


About 29% of the solar radiation hitting Earth is reflected back to space by bright surfaces like ice, deserts, snow, or clouds.

About 29 % of the solar radiation hitting Earth is reflected back to space by bright surfaces like ice , deserts , snow , or clouds .


We can look at nature for inspiration.


Aside from massive devastation and almost 900 dead, scientists noted its strong impact on the global climate.

Aside from massive devastation and almost 900 dead , scientists noted its strong impact on the global climate .


The explosion ejected millions of tons of particles and gas as high as the stratosphere, which hung around there for a while.

The explosion ejected millions of tons of particles and gas as high as the stratosphere , which hung around there for a while .


The stuff that's interesting for geoengineering is sulfur dioxide, a nasty smelling and invisible gas.

The stuff that 's interesting for geoengineering is sulfur dioxide , a nasty smelling and invisible gas .


High in the atmosphere, it produced a haze of sulfuric acid droplets that mixed with water and created giant veils.

High in the atmosphere , it produced a haze of sulfuric acid droplets that mixed with water and created giant veils .


These veils reduced the sunlight reaching Earth's surface by roughly 1%.

These veils reduced the sunlight reaching Earth 's surface by roughly 1 % .


Global average temperatures dropped by 0.5°C.

Global average temperatures dropped by 0.5 ° C .


It took three years until this cooling effect had stopped.

It took three years until this cooling effect had stopped .


Humans could imitate this process by injecting sulfur particles directly into the stratosphere.

Humans could imitate this process by injecting sulfur particles directly into the stratosphere .


According to some scientists, this might be surprisingly easy to do, and we don't even need a lot of new technology for it.

According to some scientists , this might be surprisingly easy to do , and we do n't even need a lot of new technology for it .


According to one study, it also might be pretty cheap compared with the costs of rapid climate change.

According to one study , it also might be pretty cheap compared with the costs of rapid climate change .


A small fleet of specialized aircraft could ascend once a year and distribute aerosols along the equator from where they would be spread around the world.

A small fleet of specialized aircraft could ascend once a year and distribute aerosols along the equator from where they would be spread around the world .


Projections assumed that injecting between 5 and 8 megatons of material per year would reflect enough sunlight to slow down or even stop global warming,

Projections assumed that injecting between 5 and 8 megatons of material per year would reflect enough sunlight to slow down or even stop global warming ,


Unfortunately, there might be a few unhappy side effects.

Unfortunately , there might be a few unhappy side effects .


There are a number of potential issues with aerosol injections.

There are a number of potential issues with aerosol injections .


Rainfall patterns could change, which could negatively affect agriculture and cause famine.

Rainfall patterns could change , which could negatively affect agriculture and cause famine .


Billions of people could be affected in the worst case.

Billions of people could be affected in the worst case .


Also, after the 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption, the acid water veils not only cooled down the surface, they also heated up the stratosphere.

Also , after the 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption , the acid water veils not only cooled down the surface , they also heated up the stratosphere .


As it turns out, acid is bad for the ozone layer, and the ozone hole over Antarctica was the largest it has ever been.

As it turns out , acid is bad for the ozone layer , and the ozone hole over Antarctica was the largest it has ever been .


Injecting sulfur particles over decades could have a similar effect.

Injecting sulfur particles over decades could have a similar effect .


Scientists have already suggested using a combination of different minerals that might have much less harmful effects on the ozone layer,

Scientists have already suggested using a combination of different minerals that might have much less harmful effects on the ozone layer ,


but more research and experiments need to be done to make sure this could work.

but more research and experiments need to be done to make sure this could work .


But even if we don't damage the ozone layer, there are other risks.

But even if we do n't damage the ozone layer , there are other risks .


Politicians and industry might use the cooling effect as an excuse to delay the switch to a carbon neutral economy.

Politicians and industry might use the cooling effect as an excuse to delay the switch to a carbon neutral economy .


Even if geoengineering slows down global warming, humanity is still adding extra CO2 to the atmosphere.

Even if geoengineering slows down global warming , humanity is still adding extra CO2 to the atmosphere .


More CO2 in the air means that the oceans absorb more CO2, which makes them more acidic.

More CO2 in the air means that the oceans absorb more CO2 , which makes them more acidic .


This is already beginning to be deadly to huge ecosystems like coral reefs, and the longer this continues, the more severe the effects will be.

This is already beginning to be deadly to huge ecosystems like coral reefs , and the longer this continues , the more severe the effects will be .


But it gets worse.


Once we start pumping particles into the atmosphere on a massive scale, we might be forced to do so for a long time, or we could risk a termination shock.

Once we start pumping particles into the atmosphere on a massive scale , we might be forced to do so for a long time , or we could risk a termination shock .


What that means is that if humanity continues to enrich the atmosphere with CO2,

What that means is that if humanity continues to enrich the atmosphere with CO2 ,


but at the same time prevents the planet from heating up by blocking solar radiation, we're sitting on a time bomb.

but at the same time prevents the planet from heating up by blocking solar radiation , we 're sitting on a time bomb .


Once we stop geoengineering, the natural cycle will take over again, and Earth would heat up.

Once we stop geoengineering , the natural cycle will take over again , and Earth would heat up .


But after a few decades of keeping the planet artificially cold, while still releasing massive amounts of CO2, it would heat up much, much quicker.

But after a few decades of keeping the planet artificially cold , while still releasing massive amounts of CO2 , it would heat up much , much quicker .


An increase in temperature that would take 50 years today could happen in just 10 years.

An increase in temperature that would take 50 years today could happen in just 10 years .


Such a temperature shock in such a short time would disrupt every major system on Earth so much that it would be impossible to adapt in time.

Such a temperature shock in such a short time would disrupt every major system on Earth so much that it would be impossible to adapt in time .


The worst case scenario could be dramatic famines and the rapid destruction of ecosystems.

The worst case scenario could be dramatic famines and the rapid destruction of ecosystems .


Humanity might survive, but the survivors would inhabit an unfamiliar and hostile world.

Humanity might survive , but the survivors would inhabit an unfamiliar and hostile world .


The best case scenario is that once the world has finally fully understood the existential danger of rapid climate change, geoengineering can buy us a crucial decade or two.

The best case scenario is that once the world has finally fully understood the existential danger of rapid climate change , geoengineering can buy us a crucial decade or two .


Geoengineering is a scary concept.


It's not a solution to climate change, and it might even be a welcome excuse for the fossil fuel industry to delay the end of the fossil fuel age.

It 's not a solution to climate change , and it might even be a welcome excuse for the fossil fuel industry to delay the end of the fossil fuel age .


Over the last few decades, geoengineering has been so controversial that it's stopped many scientists from doing the experiments necessary to understand it better.

Over the last few decades , geoengineering has been so controversial that it 's stopped many scientists from doing the experiments necessary to understand it better .


But blankly opposing geoengineering is short-sighted.

But blankly opposing geoengineering is short - sighted .


The sad truth is we are already running a geoengineering experiment.

The sad truth is we are already running a geoengineering experiment .


We're testing how fast the world changes if we add about 40 billion tons of CO2 each year.

We 're testing how fast the world changes if we add about 40 billion tons of CO2 each year .


This experiment is about to get really exciting.

This experiment is about to get really exciting .


Hopefully, we'll never have to use geoengineering.

Hopefully , we 'll never have to use geoengineering .


But if we need to in the future, we better have done the science.

But if we need to in the future , we better have done the science .


We better be prepared.


Or a panicking humanity might accidentally press the self-destruct button.

Or a panicking humanity might accidentally press the self - destruct button .


You probably won't have to do any of that yourself, but who knows?

You probably wo n't have to do any of that yourself , but who knows ?


Better brush up on your science knowledge just in case.

Better brush up on your science knowledge just in case .


And our friends at Brilliant can help you with that.

And our friends at Brilliant can help you with that .


Brilliant is a problem-solving website and app that makes science accessible in a practical way.

Brilliant is a problem - solving website and app that makes science accessible in a practical way .


More than 60 interactive courses give you the tools to crack problems in maths, logic and engineering all by yourself.

More than 60 interactive courses give you the tools to crack problems in maths , logic and engineering all by yourself .


Instead of a classic lecture format, Brilliant uses storytelling, code-writing and hands-on problems to keep you entertained and engaged.

Instead of a classic lecture format , Brilliant uses storytelling , code - writing and hands - on problems to keep you entertained and engaged .


This way, a small daily challenge can build up to real long-term understanding of science and achieving your STEM goals.

This way , a small daily challenge can build up to real long - term understanding of science and achieving your STEM goals .


In a nutshell, Brilliant surprises you and keeps you on your toes, all while sneaking some knowledge into your head without you really noticing.

In a nutshell , Brilliant surprises you and keeps you on your toes , all while sneaking some knowledge into your head without you really noticing .


To get a fresh perspective on science, go to brilliant.org/nutshell and sign up for free.

To get a fresh perspective on science , go to brilliant.org/nutshell and sign up for free .


And there's an extra perk for Kurzgesagt viewers.

And there 's an extra perk for Kurzgesagt viewers .


The first 200 people to use the link get 20% off their annual membership, which lets you view all the daily problems in the archives and unlock every course.

The first 200 people to use the link get 20 % off their annual membership , which lets you view all the daily problems in the archives and unlock every course .


Brilliant helps you end your day a little smarter.

Brilliant helps you end your day a little smarter .


And it's still the best preparation for the future we can think of.

And it 's still the best preparation for the future we can think of .


Homeopathy may be the most controversial but also the most popular alternative medicine.

Homeopathy may be the most controversial but also the most popular alternative medicine .


While some argue against it, others swear by its great power and effectiveness.

While some argue against it , others swear by its great power and effectiveness .


How does homeopathy work?


How did it become what it is today and what can modern medicine learn from it?

How did it become what it is today and what can modern medicine learn from it ?


The first principle of homeopathy is like cures like.

The first principle of homeopathy is like cures like .


Remedies use ingredients that cause the symptoms you want to cure.

Remedies use ingredients that cause the symptoms you want to cure .


In practice, that means that remedies against fever could for example be made from belladonna, which also causes fever.

In practice , that means that remedies against fever could for example be made from belladonna , which also causes fever .


A mixture based from bee venom is used to treat itchy swellings, and so on.

A mixture based from bee venom is used to treat itchy swellings , and so on .


The second principle is a special method of preparation called potentization.

The second principle is a special method of preparation called potentization .


The idea is that diluting and agitating the ingredients activates their curative powers and enhances their effect.

The idea is that diluting and agitating the ingredients activates their curative powers and enhances their effect .


To do this, the ingredient is dissolved in alcohol or distilled water.

To do this , the ingredient is dissolved in alcohol or distilled water .


Homeopaths take one part of the solution and mix it with nine parts of water, diluting it down to one tenth of its original concentration and shaking it.

Homeopaths take one part of the solution and mix it with nine parts of water , diluting it down to one tenth of its original concentration and shaking it .


What you have now is a 1X potency, one part ingredient and nine parts solvent, named after the Roman numeral X for ten.

What you have now is a 1X potency , one part ingredient and nine parts solvent , named after the Roman numeral X for ten .


Now this process is repeated.


Take one part, mix it with nine parts of pure water and shake it vigorously.

Take one part , mix it with nine parts of pure water and shake it vigorously .


Now you have 2X.


You do this again and again until you reach the desired grade of potency.

You do this again and again until you reach the desired grade of potency .


The finished remedy is then taken orally or sometimes it's applied as little sugar pellets that are sold as globuli.

The finished remedy is then taken orally or sometimes it 's applied as little sugar pellets that are sold as globuli .


A 20X potency for example is like dissolving one aspirin pill in the water volume of the whole Atlantic.

A 20X potency for example is like dissolving one aspirin pill in the water volume of the whole Atlantic .


But many are much more extreme, like 30C for example.

But many are much more extreme , like 30C for example .


30C means that the mixture has one part ingredient and 99 parts water.

30C means that the mixture has one part ingredient and 99 parts water .


So the commonly sold 30C mixture means one part ingredient and one million billion billion billion billion billion billion parts of water.

So the commonly sold 30C mixture means one part ingredient and one million billion billion billion billion billion billion parts of water .


If we wanted a globuli pill with a single atom of the original ingredient, then our pill would be the diameter of the distance between the Earth and the Sun.

If we wanted a globuli pill with a single atom of the original ingredient , then our pill would be the diameter of the distance between the Earth and the Sun .


Because of this, potentization is one of the biggest criticisms of homeopathy.

Because of this , potentization is one of the biggest criticisms of homeopathy .


The extreme dilution is supposed to make the ingredients more potent.

The extreme dilution is supposed to make the ingredients more potent .


But on a physical level, this doesn't really make sense.

But on a physical level , this does n't really make sense .


Most homeopathic remedies are diluted so much that not a single atom of the active ingredient is left in them.

Most homeopathic remedies are diluted so much that not a single atom of the active ingredient is left in them .


The explanation of why the mixtures still work is that shaking the mixture after every dilution leaves behind a spirit-like essence of the ingredient.

The explanation of why the mixtures still work is that shaking the mixture after every dilution leaves behind a spirit - like essence of the ingredient .


Basically, the idea is that water remembers what was put into it.

Basically , the idea is that water remembers what was put into it .


But if this were true, then every substance that ever met a drop of water would leave an essence behind and lead to unpredictable effects when it was accidentally ingested.

But if this were true , then every substance that ever met a drop of water would leave an essence behind and lead to unpredictable effects when it was accidentally ingested .


Think of all the stuff that lives and floats in the oceans.

Think of all the stuff that lives and floats in the oceans .


Every sip of water would be a supercharged homeopathic cocktail.

Every sip of water would be a supercharged homeopathic cocktail .


So how did homeopathy become the most successful alternative medicine?

So how did homeopathy become the most successful alternative medicine ?


In the 18th century, medicine was very different from today.

In the 18th century , medicine was very different from today .


Treatments like bloodletting left the patient worse off than before.

Treatments like bloodletting left the patient worse off than before .


So German physician Samuel Hahnemann wanted a non-invasive, natural way of healing and developed homeopathy.

So German physician Samuel Hahnemann wanted a non - invasive , natural way of healing and developed homeopathy .


And in fact, homeopathic hospitals were soon successful because doing no harm beats doing harm.

And in fact , homeopathic hospitals were soon successful because doing no harm beats doing harm .


Hahnemann imposed very strict rules on his patients.

Hahnemann imposed very strict rules on his patients .


First you had to avoid coffee, tea, alcohol, spicy food, sweet food.

First you had to avoid coffee , tea , alcohol , spicy food , sweet food .


Then and only then would his remedies work according to the inventor of homeopathy.

Then and only then would his remedies work according to the inventor of homeopathy .


Of course, all of these instructions are ignored and not talked about today.

Of course , all of these instructions are ignored and not talked about today .


Medicine has changed a lot in the last 150 years.

Medicine has changed a lot in the last 150 years .


Never before in human history have we enjoyed a comparable level of health.

Never before in human history have we enjoyed a comparable level of health .


Never have we lived as long.


And this is largely due to the new tools we've developed.

And this is largely due to the new tools we 've developed .


Thanks to these tools, after countless studies and reviews, we know beyond a shadow of a doubt that homeopathy does not have any effect beyond placebo.

Thanks to these tools , after countless studies and reviews , we know beyond a shadow of a doubt that homeopathy does not have any effect beyond placebo .


But even so, who cares why it works if it helps people?

But even so , who cares why it works if it helps people ?


Maybe you tried it and felt better.


Or you know someone that got over a horrible disease while using homeopathic remedies.

Or you know someone that got over a horrible disease while using homeopathic remedies .


And there are plenty of reports of it working for children and animals.

And there are plenty of reports of it working for children and animals .


What do we make of these experiences?


The placebo effect is very real and not imaginary.

The placebo effect is very real and not imaginary .


No matter how smart you are, you're not immune to it.

No matter how smart you are , you 're not immune to it .


If people believe that something will help them feel better, their trust alone has the desired effect.

If people believe that something will help them feel better , their trust alone has the desired effect .


And it's been proven that the placebo effect can be transferred.

And it 's been proven that the placebo effect can be transferred .


Children and animals rely on their parents or keepers and are in tune to their emotions.

Children and animals rely on their parents or keepers and are in tune to their emotions .


If a parent has a lot of trust in a treatment and eases up, this can help a child relax and help relieve symptoms.

If a parent has a lot of trust in a treatment and eases up , this can help a child relax and help relieve symptoms .


This can also be observed with animals, who react strongly to the body language cues of the people caring for them.

This can also be observed with animals , who react strongly to the body language cues of the people caring for them .


But the most powerful tool of homeopathy is time.

But the most powerful tool of homeopathy is time .


Our bodies are survival machines.


Infections pass on their own after a few days.

Infections pass on their own after a few days .


But if you take some remedy when you already feel sick and then start getting better, it feels like it did indeed cure you, while actually it would have happened anyway.

But if you take some remedy when you already feel sick and then start getting better , it feels like it did indeed cure you , while actually it would have happened anyway .


The homeopathy industry likes to play the gentle alternative to Big Pharma.

The homeopathy industry likes to play the gentle alternative to Big Pharma .


But the homeopathic industry is Big Pharma.

But the homeopathic industry is Big Pharma .


Billions of dollars are made with extreme profit margins.

Billions of dollars are made with extreme profit margins .


The homeopathy industry has its own lobby organizations and fights its enemies as hard as it can.

The homeopathy industry has its own lobby organizations and fights its enemies as hard as it can .


A lot of money is on the line.


Globally, the market is expected to reach over 17 billion by 2024.

Globally , the market is expected to reach over 17 billion by 2024 .


Some critics even argue that the homeopathic industry is bad for public health because it creates distrust in proven medicine.

Some critics even argue that the homeopathic industry is bad for public health because it creates distrust in proven medicine .


The belief in homeopathy correlates with skepticism about vaccinations.

The belief in homeopathy correlates with skepticism about vaccinations .


This can discourage people to seek the help they need when their lives or the lives of their children are on the line.

This can discourage people to seek the help they need when their lives or the lives of their children are on the line .


But there is actually a key to the success of homeopathy that we could and should copy.

But there is actually a key to the success of homeopathy that we could and should copy .


The first consultation with a homeopath can take hours and is very personal.

The first consultation with a homeopath can take hours and is very personal .


this level of attention and empathy can make a huge difference to their well-being even if the conversation was not the point of the therapy.

this level of attention and empathy can make a huge difference to their well - being even if the conversation was not the point of the therapy .


Modern medicine is efficient.


It saves millions of lives each year.


But it's also a strictly organized system.

But it 's also a strictly organized system .


Tight budgets force doctors and nurses to deal with lots of patients.

Tight budgets force doctors and nurses to deal with lots of patients .


Consultations need to be time efficient, diagnoses made quickly, treatments fast, which can leave patients feeling invisible, scared, and left behind.

Consultations need to be time efficient , diagnoses made quickly , treatments fast , which can leave patients feeling invisible , scared , and left behind .


This is what modern medicine can learn from homeopathy.

This is what modern medicine can learn from homeopathy .


It meets a human need that has been left unfulfilled.

It meets a human need that has been left unfulfilled .


We need to make time for the individual again, see people, not numbers.

We need to make time for the individual again , see people , not numbers .


But as important as empathy is, it's not a substitute for actual treatment.

But as important as empathy is , it 's not a substitute for actual treatment .


Faith can move mountains, but sugar water can't cure cancer.

Faith can move mountains , but sugar water ca n't cure cancer .


After a short break of a few years, Kurzgesagt is back in German.

After a short break of a few years , Kurzgesagt is back in German .


Thanks to the support of Funk, we have relaunched the German channel and are beginning to upload a video every one to two weeks.

Thanks to the support of Funk , we have relaunched the German channel and are beginning to upload a video every one to two weeks .


Besides redoing our favorite videos, there'll be a number of videos that will not exist in English for a while.

Besides redoing our favorite videos , there 'll be a number of videos that will not exist in English for a while .


Check out the channel here, tell us what you think, and subscribe and watch a few.

Check out the channel here , tell us what you think , and subscribe and watch a few .


If the channel goes well, the German videos might become a regular thing for years, and we might even do more languages.

If the channel goes well , the German videos might become a regular thing for years , and we might even do more languages .


Mr. President, nuclear missiles will strike our country in 14 minutes.

Mr. President , nuclear missiles will strike our country in 14 minutes .


I know it's your first day in office, so I'm going to walk you through it,

I know it 's your first day in office , so I 'm going to walk you through it ,


but you're the only one who can authorize our nuclear retaliation in response, and you've only got a few minutes to make a decision.

but you 're the only one who can authorize our nuclear retaliation in response , and you 've only got a few minutes to make a decision .


As you know, tensions have escalated rapidly in the past few days.

As you know , tensions have escalated rapidly in the past few days .


Today's joint Allied aerial defense exercise began just minutes before we detected the launch.

Today 's joint Allied aerial defense exercise began just minutes before we detected the launch .


We assume the sudden attack is meant to neutralize as many of our nuclear forces as possible.

We assume the sudden attack is meant to neutralize as many of our nuclear forces as possible .


But that doesn't matter now.


Missiles are in the air, and we can't shoot all of them down.

Missiles are in the air , and we ca n't shoot all of them down .


Because intercontinental ballistic missiles are basically rockets launched into space


We need to get you to the bunker.


Here is what we know.


Four minutes ago, our new infrared monitoring satellites detected 112 bursts consistent with ICBM launches from the enemy's inner territories.

Four minutes ago , our new infrared monitoring satellites detected 112 bursts consistent with ICBM launches from the enemy 's inner territories .


For some reason, only 20 of their 80 underground nuclear silos seem to have fired, so we suspect most of them were transporter erector launches.

For some reason , only 20 of their 80 underground nuclear silos seem to have fired , so we suspect most of them were transporter erector launches .


It's unclear why they didn't use all their silos.

It 's unclear why they did n't use all their silos .


They might just not work after more than 30 years, or they might be keeping them in reserve.

They might just not work after more than 30 years , or they might be keeping them in reserve .


The fog of war is keeping many things unclear.

The fog of war is keeping many things unclear .


Aerospace Command thinks the ICBMs are targeting our nuclear command centers, silos, and major air force and navy bases, ending this war before we have a chance to act.

Aerospace Command thinks the ICBMs are targeting our nuclear command centers , silos , and major air force and navy bases , ending this war before we have a chance to act .


The enemy's strategic doctrine prioritizes military targets and our nuclear weapons systems,

The enemy 's strategic doctrine prioritizes military targets and our nuclear weapons systems ,


but their secondary targets are our industry and infrastructure, all refineries, power stations and deepwater ports, all located near or in major population centers.

but their secondary targets are our industry and infrastructure , all refineries , power stations and deepwater ports , all located near or in major population centers .


We won't know the exact casualty count for a few weeks.

We wo n't know the exact casualty count for a few weeks .


Deaths from the blast and burns may be a few million today.

Deaths from the blast and burns may be a few million today .


It's morning rush hour, and there's not much to be done for people stuck in traffic.

It 's morning rush hour , and there 's not much to be done for people stuck in traffic .


People in major metro areas can't really evacuate, but emergency broadcasts are being sent out to shelter in place and away from windows.

People in major metro areas ca n't really evacuate , but emergency broadcasts are being sent out to shelter in place and away from windows .


Radiation exposure for intact population centers is highly dependent on the weather over the next week.

Radiation exposure for intact population centers is highly dependent on the weather over the next week .


We might be looking at dozens of millions of deaths by the end of the month.

We might be looking at dozens of millions of deaths by the end of the month .


For the next few minutes, we can still respond.

For the next few minutes , we can still respond .


But you need to decide.


We've got 1,500 warheads across our silos, bombers, and submarines.

We 've got 1,500 warheads across our silos , bombers , and submarines .


The 400 in silos need to be launched now before they get taken out.

The 400 in silos need to be launched now before they get taken out .


46 nuclear-capable bombers on high alert can be ready to take off in two minutes,

46 nuclear - capable bombers on high alert can be ready to take off in two minutes ,


though we need to transmit the order right away to get them out of the blast radius if you want to consider using them.

though we need to transmit the order right away to get them out of the blast radius if you want to consider using them .


Of our 40 nuclear submarines, five are presently at sea.

Of our 40 nuclear submarines , five are presently at sea .


While they're submerged, they're undetectable, so that's our backup for a nuclear retaliation if we lose our silos and bombers.

While they 're submerged , they 're undetectable , so that 's our backup for a nuclear retaliation if we lose our silos and bombers .


We could try to use them to bomb out their remaining siloed fields before they can launch them.

We could try to use them to bomb out their remaining siloed fields before they can launch them .


Updates We have radar confirmation that the enemy ICBMs have completed their burn and deployed their warheads.

Updates We have radar confirmation that the enemy ICBMs have completed their burn and deployed their warheads .


Our best guess is that each missile will deploy at least six re-entry vehicles, about 600 in total,

Our best guess is that each missile will deploy at least six re - entry vehicles , about 600 in total ,


and with many more decoys on top of that, inflatable balloons meant to waste any anti-missiles.

and with many more decoys on top of that , inflatable balloons meant to waste any anti - missiles .


We're now tracking nearly 4,000 potential targets.

We 're now tracking nearly 4,000 potential targets .


Our anti-ballistic missiles have been launched and will begin their intercept in another minute.

Our anti - ballistic missiles have been launched and will begin their intercept in another minute .


We'll do our best to protect the capital, although there really is no defense.

We 'll do our best to protect the capital , although there really is no defense .


Our systems seem to be glitchy.


The enemy must have anticipated we'd launch our interceptors and pre-detonated a few warheads at high altitude.

The enemy must have anticipated we 'd launch our interceptors and pre - detonated a few warheads at high altitude .


That ionizes the atmosphere and creates radar interference.

That ionizes the atmosphere and creates radar interference .


Our interceptors should still operate okay, they've had a 55% success rate in tests, but never with this many decoys or with radar interference this intense.

Our interceptors should still operate okay , they 've had a 55 % success rate in tests , but never with this many decoys or with radar interference this intense .


We might shoot down 50 objects, but there's no guarantee they're warheads.

We might shoot down 50 objects , but there 's no guarantee they 're warheads .


It looks like most bombs are going to get through.

It looks like most bombs are going to get through .


This is our last chance to counterattack.

This is our last chance to counterattack .


We're out of time.


Our silent launch sequence takes five minutes.

Our silent launch sequence takes five minutes .


We have to transmit and confirm a launch order, and the missile needs time to clear the blast radius of the incoming bomb.

We have to transmit and confirm a launch order , and the missile needs time to clear the blast radius of the incoming bomb .


This is a lot to take in, but the war plan is made.

This is a lot to take in , but the war plan is made .


You just need to enter the launch authorization codes and push this button to transmit them.

You just need to enter the launch authorization codes and push this button to transmit them .


You can't do anything else to save more of our people.

You ca n't do anything else to save more of our people .


If you don't launch now, then this war will be over before it even begins.

If you do n't launch now , then this war will be over before it even begins .


You understand, this is our one chance, right?

You understand , this is our one chance , right ?


Enemy civilian casualties are hard to estimate, but should be similar to ours.

Enemy civilian casualties are hard to estimate , but should be similar to ours .


The total fallout from their attacks and ours might trigger a nuclear winter, potentially killing billions around the world, but that might happen even if we don't retaliate.

The total fallout from their attacks and ours might trigger a nuclear winter , potentially killing billions around the world , but that might happen even if we do n't retaliate .


With an attack of this scale, there's no guarantee communications or assets will be intact in a few minutes.

With an attack of this scale , there 's no guarantee communications or assets will be intact in a few minutes .


We need a decision, sir.


Can we launch?


Nuclear wars aren't regular wars.


They only last minutes, and in times of crisis, small conflicts can rapidly spiral out of control.

They only last minutes , and in times of crisis , small conflicts can rapidly spiral out of control .


Anything from small communication lags to sensor errors to just uncertainty in the fog of war mean that no leader will ever have a complete idea of what's happening as a crisis unfolds.

Anything from small communication lags to sensor errors to just uncertainty in the fog of war mean that no leader will ever have a complete idea of what 's happening as a crisis unfolds .


When tensions are high, accidents or misunderstandings can steer leaders, even those with good intentions, to launch a nuclear attack.

When tensions are high , accidents or misunderstandings can steer leaders , even those with good intentions , to launch a nuclear attack .


it's really just one single person who decides, can literally make civilization-ending decisions, killing hundreds of millions of people in the time it takes to watch a YouTube video.

it 's really just one single person who decides , can literally make civilization - ending decisions , killing hundreds of millions of people in the time it takes to watch a YouTube video .


This story is fiction, but the world came very close to this several times.

This story is fiction , but the world came very close to this several times .


In 1995, Russian radar detected a submarine-launched missile, and their nuclear forces went on full alert, except it was actually a scientific rocket to study auroras.

In 1995 , Russian radar detected a submarine - launched missile , and their nuclear forces went on full alert , except it was actually a scientific rocket to study auroras .


In 1979, US computers reported a full-scale Soviet attack with only minutes to respond, except it was a training tape being incorrectly loaded into a computer.

In 1979 , US computers reported a full - scale Soviet attack with only minutes to respond , except it was a training tape being incorrectly loaded into a computer .


In 1983, the Soviet satellite alert system showed five ICBMs launched from the US, but it was a false alarm, caused by sunlight reflected on clouds.

In 1983 , the Soviet satellite alert system showed five ICBMs launched from the US , but it was a false alarm , caused by sunlight reflected on clouds .


During the Cuban Missile Crisis, a Soviet submarine with no contact to Moscow for several days concluded that nuclear war had begun and decided to launch a nuclear torpedo.

During the Cuban Missile Crisis , a Soviet submarine with no contact to Moscow for several days concluded that nuclear war had begun and decided to launch a nuclear torpedo .


Luckily, the authorization of three officers was required.

Luckily , the authorization of three officers was required .


One of them, Vasily Ashipov, opposed it.

One of them , Vasily Ashipov , opposed it .


Any safeguard can fail, no matter how carefully designed it might be.

Any safeguard can fail , no matter how carefully designed it might be .


And decisions are being made right now to build new weapons and missile systems that commit the world to another century of nuclear stalemate,

And decisions are being made right now to build new weapons and missile systems that commit the world to another century of nuclear stalemate ,


Simply accepting that the existence of nuclear weapons is inevitable might mean their use is inevitable.

Simply accepting that the existence of nuclear weapons is inevitable might mean their use is inevitable .


But the world doesn't have to be this way.

But the world does n't have to be this way .


Even incremental steps, taking apart one bomb at a time, will eventually result in a world with none.

Even incremental steps , taking apart one bomb at a time , will eventually result in a world with none .


During the Cold War, the world had over 70,000 nuclear weapons.

During the Cold War , the world had over 70,000 nuclear weapons .


Through arms reduction treaties, that number is now about 12,500.

Through arms reduction treaties , that number is now about 12,500 .


Progress is not guaranteed, but it's also not impossible.

Progress is not guaranteed , but it 's also not impossible .


Governments and militaries are not separate from their nations, they're part of them, just like you.

Governments and militaries are not separate from their nations , they 're part of them , just like you .


You have the power to make demands of your leaders, and often this begins with just being aware of an issue.

You have the power to make demands of your leaders , and often this begins with just being aware of an issue .


If you want to learn more, we've compiled a number of resources for you in the video description and our sources.

If you want to learn more , we 've compiled a number of resources for you in the video description and our sources .


This video was supported by Open Philanthropy.

This video was supported by Open Philanthropy .


Did you know that there are countless more Kurzgesagt videos that we upload on TikTok, YouTube Shorts, and Instagram Reels?

Did you know that there are countless more Kurzgesagt videos that we upload on TikTok , YouTube Shorts , and Instagram Reels ?


After all, you also need videos you can watch quickly in a bathroom break.

After all , you also need videos you can watch quickly in a bathroom break .


Our longer, more in-depth videos are happening here on YouTube.

Our longer , more in - depth videos are happening here on YouTube .


Short form is a completely different challenge that we're trying to do as well as possible.

Short form is a completely different challenge that we 're trying to do as well as possible .


Check them out if you're curious.


And if you want to discuss and share your thoughts about science with other like-minded people, why don't you check out our Discord community with over 80,000 birbs?

And if you want to discuss and share your thoughts about science with other like - minded people , why do n't you check out our Discord community with over 80,000 birbs ?


We have channels where you can chat about STEM topics, participate in events, and the academic question of the week.

We have channels where you can chat about STEM topics , participate in events , and the academic question of the week .


And we have the best emotes.


After all, we want to spark your curiosity, but it's always more fun to be curious together.

After all , we want to spark your curiosity , but it 's always more fun to be curious together .


See you over there!


Microbes are everywhere.


Microbes are omnipresent at any moment and there is nothing we can do about it.

Microbes are omnipresent at any moment and there is nothing we can do about it .


So millions of years ago, we made a pact.

So millions of years ago , we made a pact .


We give them shelter and food, and in turn, they work for us.

We give them shelter and food , and in turn , they work for us .


But the more we learn about this partnership, the more it looks like a cold war.

But the more we learn about this partnership , the more it looks like a cold war .


Inside our mother's womb, humans start out sterile.

Inside our mother 's womb , humans start out sterile .


When we are born and travelling through the birth canal, billions of our mother's bacteria cover every single part of our bodies.

When we are born and travelling through the birth canal , billions of our mother 's bacteria cover every single part of our bodies .


This is an essential part of human health.

This is an essential part of human health .


Children born via C-section have a higher rate of asthma, immune diseases and even leukemia.

Children born via C - section have a higher rate of asthma , immune diseases and even leukemia .


Over millions of years, we co-evolved to make the best of our relationship.

Over millions of years , we co - evolved to make the best of our relationship .


Mother's milk, for example, contains special sugars that are meant to feed and support certain groups of microbes, work as a decoy for others and help to modulate the immune system.

Mother 's milk , for example , contains special sugars that are meant to feed and support certain groups of microbes , work as a decoy for others and help to modulate the immune system .


It takes up to two years until a healthy microbe community has formed.

It takes up to two years until a healthy microbe community has formed .


Every human has their own unique microbiome, made up of bacteria, viruses, fungi and other organisms.

Every human has their own unique microbiome , made up of bacteria , viruses , fungi and other organisms .


We have three categories of guests on and in our bodies.

We have three categories of guests on and in our bodies .


By being there, they take up space and keep more aggressive intruders in check.

By being there , they take up space and keep more aggressive intruders in check .


They want to take up as much space as they can and we don't want them to.

They want to take up as much space as they can and we do n't want them to .


But we can't get rid of them entirely.

But we ca n't get rid of them entirely .


Most of them are a community of 380,000 billion bacteria from up to 5,000 different species that live in our gut.

Most of them are a community of 380,000 billion bacteria from up to 5,000 different species that live in our gut .


These gut microorganisms help us digest food and pull additional calories from things we can't digest ourselves.

These gut microorganisms help us digest food and pull additional calories from things we ca n't digest ourselves .


Unfortunately, our gut is also the perfect point of attack for intruders, so it's guarded by an aggressive army, our immune system.

Unfortunately , our gut is also the perfect point of attack for intruders , so it 's guarded by an aggressive army , our immune system .


To survive here, our microbiome co-evolved with us to be able to communicate with our body.

To survive here , our microbiome co - evolved with us to be able to communicate with our body .


The most important part of that is to ask the immune system to not kill them.

The most important part of that is to ask the immune system to not kill them .


But they also have a real motivation to keep our gut healthy,

But they also have a real motivation to keep our gut healthy ,


so some of them produce messenger substances that help to educate the immune system and others stimulate the gut cells to regenerate faster.

so some of them produce messenger substances that help to educate the immune system and others stimulate the gut cells to regenerate faster .


But over the last few years, evidence has emerged that the influence of our gut microbiome goes much, much further.

But over the last few years , evidence has emerged that the influence of our gut microbiome goes much , much further .


It might even talk directly to our brain.

It might even talk directly to our brain .


We've observed a few curious things.


90% of our body's serotonin, an important messenger substance for nerve cells, is produced in the gut.

90 % of our body 's serotonin , an important messenger substance for nerve cells , is produced in the gut .


Some scientists think the microbiome does this to communicate with the vagus nerve, the information highway of our nervous system.

Some scientists think the microbiome does this to communicate with the vagus nerve , the information highway of our nervous system .


Other examples are bacteria that stimulate immune cells in the gut, so they send a kind of alarm signal to the brain.

Other examples are bacteria that stimulate immune cells in the gut , so they send a kind of alarm signal to the brain .


Here it activates immune cells that help the brain recover from injuries.

Here it activates immune cells that help the brain recover from injuries .


Since the brain decides when we eat, the microbiome is interested in a healthy brain.

Since the brain decides when we eat , the microbiome is interested in a healthy brain .


A new field of science is opening up here, and we're just on the verge of understanding how these complex systems inside our bodies interact.

A new field of science is opening up here , and we 're just on the verge of understanding how these complex systems inside our bodies interact .


But we are starting to see how much our microbiome actually influences us and our behavior.

But we are starting to see how much our microbiome actually influences us and our behavior .


Take depression, for example.


Healthy rats fed microbes from the guts of depressed people began showing anxiety-like behavior and symptoms that look like depression.

Healthy rats fed microbes from the guts of depressed people began showing anxiety - like behavior and symptoms that look like depression .


And in early 2017, a study linked the microbiome to intelligence by connecting a certain setup of bacteria in newborns with better motor and language skills.

And in early 2017 , a study linked the microbiome to intelligence by connecting a certain setup of bacteria in newborns with better motor and language skills .


But it might also influence our daily lives.

But it might also influence our daily lives .


Tests with fruit flies showed that their microbiome influenced what kinds of food they craved.

Tests with fruit flies showed that their microbiome influenced what kinds of food they craved .


This could mean your microbes are able to tell your brain which food it should get them, although this is not a one-way street.

This could mean your microbes are able to tell your brain which food it should get them , although this is not a one - way street .


The seed for our microbiome comes from our mother, but how it develops and changes is determined by what we eat.

The seed for our microbiome comes from our mother , but how it develops and changes is determined by what we eat .


The organisms in our gut feed on different things.

The organisms in our gut feed on different things .


Some like fibers and leafy greens, others go for sugars and starches, and some love greasy fries and butter.

Some like fibers and leafy greens , others go for sugars and starches , and some love greasy fries and butter .


Our gut is like a garden in which we constantly decide what will grow and blottom.

Our gut is like a garden in which we constantly decide what will grow and blottom .


If we eat healthily, we breed bacteria that like healthy food.

If we eat healthily , we breed bacteria that like healthy food .


If we eat a lot of fast food, then we breed fast-food-loving bacteria.

If we eat a lot of fast food , then we breed fast - food - loving bacteria .


Life is hard, so we can get trapped in a vicious circle.

Life is hard , so we can get trapped in a vicious circle .


You have a stressful time and eat lots of burgers and fries and pizza.

You have a stressful time and eat lots of burgers and fries and pizza .


This is awesome for fast-food bacteria.

This is awesome for fast - food bacteria .


They multiply and multiply and take up space from vegetable-loving bacteria.

They multiply and multiply and take up space from vegetable - loving bacteria .


But even worse, they send signals to the brain to continue what it's doing.

But even worse , they send signals to the brain to continue what it 's doing .


This makes you want more fast food, which breeds more fast-food bacteria, which makes you crave fast food, and so on.

This makes you want more fast food , which breeds more fast - food bacteria , which makes you crave fast food , and so on .


This kind of self-reinforcing cycle could play a huge role in obesity.

This kind of self - reinforcing cycle could play a huge role in obesity .


But it's important to stress that you can fight this process and reverse it by eating healthily and breeding more good bacteria.

But it 's important to stress that you can fight this process and reverse it by eating healthily and breeding more good bacteria .


Beyond weight gain, our microbiome has also been linked to other serious diseases like autism, schizophrenia, and cancer.

Beyond weight gain , our microbiome has also been linked to other serious diseases like autism , schizophrenia , and cancer .


One of the earliest symptoms of Parkinson's is actually gut problems.

One of the earliest symptoms of Parkinson 's is actually gut problems .


If your body is overrun with bacteria that harm you, there is often only one solution.

If your body is overrun with bacteria that harm you , there is often only one solution .


You bring in an army of good guys.


That's very easy.


You just transplant some healthy poop.


You do that by literally transferring poop from a healthy person into your gut.

You do that by literally transferring poop from a healthy person into your gut .


This method is already used to cure diarrhea that's caused when C. difficile bacteria take over a gut microbiome.

This method is already used to cure diarrhea that 's caused when C. difficile bacteria take over a gut microbiome .


But we just don't know enough about the complex interplay at work here yet.

But we just do n't know enough about the complex interplay at work here yet .


For example, a transplant from an overweight donor cured a woman's diarrhea, but contributed to her obesity down the line.

For example , a transplant from an overweight donor cured a woman 's diarrhea , but contributed to her obesity down the line .


This caused some waves, and another study tried to reverse the effect.

This caused some waves , and another study tried to reverse the effect .


Poop transplants from slim people to obese ones gave them a more diverse microbiome and made them less sensitive to insulin.

Poop transplants from slim people to obese ones gave them a more diverse microbiome and made them less sensitive to insulin .


We need to do a lot more science to really understand how our microbes make us healthy or sick.

We need to do a lot more science to really understand how our microbes make us healthy or sick .


But whether we like it or not, we need our microbiome, and it needs us.

But whether we like it or not , we need our microbiome , and it needs us .


We'll never have our bodies to ourselves, but we have gained a powerful ally.

We 'll never have our bodies to ourselves , but we have gained a powerful ally .


How big is the Moon?


In the night sky, the Moon seems rather small.

In the night sky , the Moon seems rather small .


Central Europe would easily fit under it.

Central Europe would easily fit under it .


The surface area of the Moon is huge.


To give you some perspective, it's as big as the whole European continent, China, the USA, Brazil, and South Africa together.

To give you some perspective , it 's as big as the whole European continent , China , the USA , Brazil , and South Africa together .


Weight-wise, the Moon is only about 1 81th of the mass of Earth.

Weight - wise , the Moon is only about 1 81th of the mass of Earth .


But how big is it in relation to Earth?

But how big is it in relation to Earth ?


Our Moon is the biggest in the Solar System in relation to its planet.

Our Moon is the biggest in the Solar System in relation to its planet .


And it's the fifth largest Moon in the Solar System.

And it 's the fifth largest Moon in the Solar System .


Now, if the Moon is really that huge, how far away is it from us to seem this small in the night sky?

Now , if the Moon is really that huge , how far away is it from us to seem this small in the night sky ?


No, at that distance, gravitational forces would rip the Moon apart.

No , at that distance , gravitational forces would rip the Moon apart .


At 36,000 kilometers, it would be as far away as our most distant satellite.

At 36,000 kilometers , it would be as far away as our most distant satellite .


Let's adjust the distance to reality.


A 747 would need 28 straight days to fly to the Moon, and even with our current technology, we'd need two full days.

A 747 would need 28 straight days to fly to the Moon , and even with our current technology , we 'd need two full days .


So, how big is the Moon?


Well, it kind of depends how you define big.

Well , it kind of depends how you define big .


But seriously, though, it's pretty big.

But seriously , though , it 's pretty big .


Hey, YouTube, we'll try something new this month.

Hey , YouTube , we 'll try something new this month .


So, see you next week.


It's time!


Let's reveal the 12,024 Human Era Calendar with a big bang!

Let 's reveal the 12,024 Human Era Calendar with a big bang !


The Kurzgesagt calendar is special because we're adding 10,000 years to include all of humanity no matter their culture or origin.

The Kurzgesagt calendar is special because we 're adding 10,000 years to include all of humanity no matter their culture or origin .


12,000 years ago humans first started working together on a larger scale, laying the foundation for civilization and the future of us all.

12,000 years ago humans first started working together on a larger scale , laying the foundation for civilization and the future of us all .


This year we're looking at the cosmos and all the possible life that could be thriving on myriads of worlds, hosting radically different animals and beings from the ones on Earth.

This year we 're looking at the cosmos and all the possible life that could be thriving on myriads of worlds , hosting radically different animals and beings from the ones on Earth .


Where in the universe might life exist?

Where in the universe might life exist ?


And how would different cosmic environments affect the basic rules of life?

And how would different cosmic environments affect the basic rules of life ?


Join us in 12,024 and find out!


Explore strange cosmic habitats and extraterrestrial life forms on 12 awe-inspiring pages.

Explore strange cosmic habitats and extraterrestrial life forms on 12 awe - inspiring pages .


There's also lots of room for you to keep track of your life here on Earth.

There 's also lots of room for you to keep track of your life here on Earth .


Add some serious space magnificence to your home, but be careful, the extremely radiant cover may blind you.

Add some serious space magnificence to your home , but be careful , the extremely radiant cover may blind you .


Get the calendar now before it sells out.

Get the calendar now before it sells out .


We also have bundles and special calendar deals with some of your favorite products.

We also have bundles and special calendar deals with some of your favorite products .


Thank you so much to all of the thousands of birbs who get the calendar every year.

Thank you so much to all of the thousands of birbs who get the calendar every year .


With every purchase you support the Kurzgesagt division of sparking curiosity and inspiring people all around the world.

With every purchase you support the Kurzgesagt division of sparking curiosity and inspiring people all around the world .


We wish you an epic year 12,024.


What is evolution?


Evolution is the development of life on Earth.

Evolution is the development of life on Earth .


This is a process that began billions of years ago and is still continuing to this day.

This is a process that began billions of years ago and is still continuing to this day .


Evolution tells us how it was possible for the enormous diversity of life to develop.

Evolution tells us how it was possible for the enormous diversity of life to develop .


It shows us how primitive protozoa could become the millions of different species that we see today.

It shows us how primitive protozoa could become the millions of different species that we see today .


Evolution, then, is the answer to the question that we have all asked on seeing a Daxun and a Great Dane together.

Evolution , then , is the answer to the question that we have all asked on seeing a Daxun and a Great Dane together .


How is it possible for ancestors to have descendants that look so very different to them?

How is it possible for ancestors to have descendants that look so very different to them ?


In answering this question, we want to focus on animals, excluding other forms of life such as fungi and plants.

In answering this question , we want to focus on animals , excluding other forms of life such as fungi and plants .


The first question to ask is therefore, how can one animal develop into a whole new species of animal?

The first question to ask is therefore , how can one animal develop into a whole new species of animal ?


What exactly is a species?


A species is a community of animals that is capable of producing offspring with one another, with those offspring also being capable of reproducing in turn.

A species is a community of animals that is capable of producing offspring with one another , with those offspring also being capable of reproducing in turn .


To understand this answer better, we need to take a closer look at the following points.

To understand this answer better , we need to take a closer look at the following points .


Let's begin with uniqueness.


Every creature that exists is unique, and this is essential for evolution.

Every creature that exists is unique , and this is essential for evolution .


The members of a species may strongly resemble each other in appearance, however, they all have slightly different traits and characteristics.

The members of a species may strongly resemble each other in appearance , however , they all have slightly different traits and characteristics .


They may be a bit bigger, fatter, stronger or bolder than their fellow animals.

They may be a bit bigger , fatter , stronger or bolder than their fellow animals .


So, what is the reason for these differences?

So , what is the reason for these differences ?


Let's take a closer look at a creature.

Let 's take a closer look at a creature .


Every creature is made up of cells.


These cells have a nucleus.


The nucleus contains the chromosomes, and the chromosomes hold the DNA.

The nucleus contains the chromosomes , and the chromosomes hold the DNA .


DNA consists of different genes, and it's these genes that are life's information carriers.

DNA consists of different genes , and it 's these genes that are life 's information carriers .


They contain instructions and orders for the cells, and determine the characteristics and traits that living creatures have.

They contain instructions and orders for the cells , and determine the characteristics and traits that living creatures have .


And it's precisely this DNA that is unique to every creature.

And it 's precisely this DNA that is unique to every creature .


It's slightly different from individual to individual, which is why each has slightly different characteristics.

It 's slightly different from individual to individual , which is why each has slightly different characteristics .


But how is the enormous range of DNA created?

But how is the enormous range of DNA created ?


One key factor is the excess production of offspring.

One key factor is the excess production of offspring .


In nature, we can observe that creatures generally produce far more offspring than is necessary for the survival of their species,

In nature , we can observe that creatures generally produce far more offspring than is necessary for the survival of their species ,


Often, there are even more offspring than the environment in which they live is able to support.

Often , there are even more offspring than the environment in which they live is able to support .