We discussed vaccine side effects in detail in another video if you want to learn more.

We discussed vaccine side effects in detail in another video if you want to learn more .


On the other hand, getting a disease to become immune means going to a Nature Dojo.

On the other hand , getting a disease to become immune means going to a Nature Dojo .


In Nature Dojo you train with real weapons, sharp knives and swords.

In Nature Dojo you train with real weapons , sharp knives and swords .


Things might still work out, but with way more cuts and wounds.

Things might still work out , but with way more cuts and wounds .


But from time to time someone will die, be it a kid from measles or an adult from influenza.

But from time to time someone will die , be it a kid from measles or an adult from influenza .


Nature Dojo is just way more risky.


On top of that, the immunity you get from a vaccine is often better than the natural resistance

On top of that , the immunity you get from a vaccine is often better than the natural resistance


because they're engineered to engage your immune system in a more productive way.

because they 're engineered to engage your immune system in a more productive way .


Of course, vaccines are not magic and sometimes they don't protect us as well as we'd like them to.

Of course , vaccines are not magic and sometimes they do n't protect us as well as we 'd like them to .


Still, being vaccinated is one of the best tools to train your natural defenses.

Still , being vaccinated is one of the best tools to train your natural defenses .


In the end, if we look at the stunning progress humanity has made in the last century, eventually we may overcome disease for good.

In the end , if we look at the stunning progress humanity has made in the last century , eventually we may overcome disease for good .


But until then we can do our best to take care of ourselves and others.

But until then we can do our best to take care of ourselves and others .


Your body and your older self will be grateful to you.

Your body and your older self will be grateful to you .


Diseases are not the only problem humanity can address if we work together.

Diseases are not the only problem humanity can address if we work together .


We believe the same is true for climate change, one of the main challenges of our generation.

We believe the same is true for climate change , one of the main challenges of our generation .


We're very passionate about this topic and we've covered it extensively in previous videos.

We 're very passionate about this topic and we 've covered it extensively in previous videos .


Humanity needs to tackle this problem on different levels of society, from governments and economies down to the individual.

Humanity needs to tackle this problem on different levels of society , from governments and economies down to the individual .


And there's one way you can take action now, by working with our friends from WREN, who help you offset your carbon emissions.

And there 's one way you can take action now , by working with our friends from WREN , who help you offset your carbon emissions .


By visiting wren.co and answering a few questions, you can find out what your personal carbon footprint is.

By visiting wren.co and answering a few questions , you can find out what your personal carbon footprint is .


Your first step should be reducing your footprint, but there are limits to that.

Your first step should be reducing your footprint , but there are limits to that .


WREN lets you offset the rest of your carbon footprint with a monthly subscription that supports projects that plant trees,

WREN lets you offset the rest of your carbon footprint with a monthly subscription that supports projects that plant trees ,


We think it's one of many puzzle pieces that can make a real difference in the climate crisis.

We think it 's one of many puzzle pieces that can make a real difference in the climate crisis .


Once you sign up to make a monthly contribution, you'll get pictures and updates from the projects you support,

Once you sign up to make a monthly contribution , you 'll get pictures and updates from the projects you support ,


so you can directly see the impact you're making.

so you can directly see the impact you 're making .


We appreciate WREN's focus on transparency and impact, so you can always retrace how your money is spent.

We appreciate WREN 's focus on transparency and impact , so you can always retrace how your money is spent .


One project we find especially interesting is refrigerant destruction.

One project we find especially interesting is refrigerant destruction .


Old refrigerators use harmful gases as a coolant.

Old refrigerators use harmful gases as a coolant .


These gases, once released into the atmosphere, cause global warming thousands of times faster than CO2.

These gases , once released into the atmosphere , cause global warming thousands of times faster than CO2 .


WREN's project permanently destroys containers filled with these gases, proving with high certainty that they'll never leak and contribute to global warming.

WREN 's project permanently destroys containers filled with these gases , proving with high certainty that they 'll never leak and contribute to global warming .


Sign up through wren.co/kurzgesagt to start helping the planet.

Sign up through wren.co/kurzgesagt to start helping the planet .


As climate change is close to our hearts, we will personally pay for the first month of subscription for the first 200 people to sign up.

As climate change is close to our hearts , we will personally pay for the first month of subscription for the first 200 people to sign up .


Continue your kurzgesagt journey into the fascinating world of the immune system and check out these products in our shop.

Continue your kurzgesagt journey into the fascinating world of the immune system and check out these products in our shop .


Learn more about immune cells and marvel at battles that are fought in your body every day.

Learn more about immune cells and marvel at battles that are fought in your body every day .


All of our products are designed with love and produced with care by us here at kurzgesagt.

All of our products are designed with love and produced with care by us here at kurzgesagt .


Are you your body?


But is there a line where this stops being true?

But is there a line where this stops being true ?


How much of yourself can you remove before you stop being you?

How much of yourself can you remove before you stop being you ?


And does the question even make sense?


Your physical existence is cells.


A cell is a living being.


It has no consciousness, no will, no purpose.

It has no consciousness , no will , no purpose .


But it is still an individual.


Together, your cells form huge structures for jobs like preparing food, gathering resources, transporting stuff around, scanning the environment, and so on.

Together , your cells form huge structures for jobs like preparing food , gathering resources , transporting stuff around , scanning the environment , and so on .


If you extract cells from your body and put them in the right environment, they will continue to stay alive for a while.

If you extract cells from your body and put them in the right environment , they will continue to stay alive for a while .


So, your cells can exist without you.


But you can't exist without them.


If we take all the cells away, there is no you anymore.

If we take all the cells away , there is no you anymore .


Is there a line where a pile of your cells stops being you?

Is there a line where a pile of your cells stops being you ?


For example, if you donate an organ, billions of your cells will continue to live on inside someone else.

For example , if you donate an organ , billions of your cells will continue to live on inside someone else .


Does this mean that a part of you became a part of another person?

Does this mean that a part of you became a part of another person ?


Or is this other body keeping a part of you alive?

Or is this other body keeping a part of you alive ?


Or let us imagine an experiment.


You and a random person from the street exchange cells.

You and a random person from the street exchange cells .


One at a time, your body gets one of their cells, their body gets one of your cells.

One at a time , your body gets one of their cells , their body gets one of your cells .


At which point would they become you?


Or is this just a very slow and gross way to teleport you?

Or is this just a very slow and gross way to teleport you ?


Let's make this more complicated.


The image of ourselves as a static thing is untenable.

The image of ourselves as a static thing is untenable .


Almost all of your cells have to die during your lifetime.

Almost all of your cells have to die during your lifetime .


250 million have died since the beginning of this video alone.

250 million have died since the beginning of this video alone .


In a 7-year period, most of your cells are replaced at least once.

In a 7 - year period , most of your cells are replaced at least once .


Every time your cell setup changes, you are slightly different than before.

Every time your cell setup changes , you are slightly different than before .


So a part of you is dying constantly.


If you are lucky enough to become old, you would have cycled through roughly a million billion cells.

If you are lucky enough to become old , you would have cycled through roughly a million billion cells .


So what you consider yourself is really just a snapshot.

So what you consider yourself is really just a snapshot .


But sometimes, cells are broken and don't want to die, questioning the very nature of the unity of our bodies.

But sometimes , cells are broken and do n't want to die , questioning the very nature of the unity of our bodies .


We call them cancer.


They cancel the biological social contract and become basically immortal.

They cancel the biological social contract and become basically immortal .


Cancer is not an outside invader, it's a part of you that puts its own survival over yours.

Cancer is not an outside invader , it 's a part of you that puts its own survival over yours .


But you could also argue that a cancer cell becomes another entity inside us, another being that just wants to thrive and survive.

But you could also argue that a cancer cell becomes another entity inside us , another being that just wants to thrive and survive .


Can we blame it for that?


A chilling cell story is that of Henrietta Lacks, a young cancer patient who died in 1951.

A chilling cell story is that of Henrietta Lacks , a young cancer patient who died in 1951 .


Usually, cells only survived for a few days in the lab, making research very hard.

Usually , cells only survived for a few days in the lab , making research very hard .


Henrietta's cancer cells were immortal.

Henrietta 's cancer cells were immortal .


Over the decades, they were multiplied over and over again and used for countless research projects, saving countless lives.

Over the decades , they were multiplied over and over again and used for countless research projects , saving countless lives .


Henrietta's cells are still alive and overall have been grown to at least 20 tons of biomass.

Henrietta 's cells are still alive and overall have been grown to at least 20 tons of biomass .


So there are living parts around the world from someone who has been considered dead for decades.

So there are living parts around the world from someone who has been considered dead for decades .


How much of Henrietta is in these cells?

How much of Henrietta is in these cells ?


What makes one of your cells you anyway?

What makes one of your cells you anyway ?


Until recently, it was believed that all the cells in your body had basically the same genetic code.

Until recently , it was believed that all the cells in your body had basically the same genetic code .


But it turns out this is wrong.


Your genome is mobile, changing over time through mutations and environmental influences.

Your genome is mobile , changing over time through mutations and environmental influences .


This is especially the case in your brain.

This is especially the case in your brain .


According to recent discoveries, a single neuron in an adult brain has more than 1,000 mutations in its genetic code that are not present in the cells surrounding it.

According to recent discoveries , a single neuron in an adult brain has more than 1,000 mutations in its genetic code that are not present in the cells surrounding it .


But how much you is your DNA really?


About 8% of the human genome is made up of viruses that once infected our ancestors and merged with us.

About 8 % of the human genome is made up of viruses that once infected our ancestors and merged with us .


Mitochondria, power plants of the cell, once were bacteria that merged with the ancestors of your cells.

Mitochondria , power plants of the cell , once were bacteria that merged with the ancestors of your cells .


They still have their own DNA.


An average cell has hundreds of them.


It is confusing.


Let's backtrack a bit.


We know that you're made up of trillions of little things, made from more little things that are constantly changing.

We know that you 're made up of trillions of little things , made from more little things that are constantly changing .


Together, all those little things are not static, but dynamic.

Together , all those little things are not static , but dynamic .


Their composition and condition is changing constantly.

Their composition and condition is changing constantly .


So we might just be a self-sustaining pattern without clear borders that gained self-awareness at some point

So we might just be a self - sustaining pattern without clear borders that gained self - awareness at some point


Where did this pattern start?


When the first human arose?


When life first began conquering our small planet?

When life first began conquering our small planet ?


Or when the elements that make up your body were forged in a star?

Or when the elements that make up your body were forged in a star ?


Our human brains evolved to deal with absolutes.

Our human brains evolved to deal with absolutes .


The fuzzy borders that make up reality are hard to grasp.

The fuzzy borders that make up reality are hard to grasp .


Maybe ideas like beginning and end, life and death, you and me, are really not absolutes, but ideas belonging to a fluent pattern.

Maybe ideas like beginning and end , life and death , you and me , are really not absolutes , but ideas belonging to a fluent pattern .


The problem of who we are isn't just a question of our cells, but it's also a question of our minds.

The problem of who we are is n't just a question of our cells , but it 's also a question of our minds .


Just as our cells can be divided and separated from us, so can our very brains be divided and separated from us, while still in the skull.

Just as our cells can be divided and separated from us , so can our very brains be divided and separated from us , while still in the skull .


Click here to go to my channel and watch the next part.

Click here to go to my channel and watch the next part .


If you're not yet subscribed to his channel, you should really change that now.

If you 're not yet subscribed to his channel , you should really change that now .


Wrapping your mind around your life is pretty hard because you're up to your neck in it.

Wrapping your mind around your life is pretty hard because you 're up to your neck in it .


It's like trying to understand the ocean while learning how to swim.

It 's like trying to understand the ocean while learning how to swim .


On most days, you're busy just keeping your head above water, so it's not easy to figure out what to do with your life and how to spend your time.

On most days , you 're busy just keeping your head above water , so it 's not easy to figure out what to do with your life and how to spend your time .


There are a million distractions.


And then there's your couch that somebody needs to lie on.

And then there 's your couch that somebody needs to lie on .


It's easy to get lost.


So let's take a step back and look at your life from the outside.

So let 's take a step back and look at your life from the outside .


The insecurities of the teenage years have begun to recede.

The insecurities of the teenage years have begun to recede .


Maybe you find yourself in a job or a long-term relationship.

Maybe you find yourself in a job or a long - term relationship .


Maybe you've started a family or are working on an advanced degree.

Maybe you 've started a family or are working on an advanced degree .


Maybe you're not doing any of that and still want to enjoy life, whatever that means to you.

Maybe you 're not doing any of that and still want to enjoy life , whatever that means to you .


Or maybe you feel stuck and don't know where to go yet.

Or maybe you feel stuck and do n't know where to go yet .


About 1 in 20 people watching this video will get to live to 100.

About 1 in 20 people watching this video will get to live to 100 .


Let's assume you are one of the lucky ones, which means you had a total of 5,200 weeks of life at your disposal when you were born.

Let 's assume you are one of the lucky ones , which means you had a total of 5,200 weeks of life at your disposal when you were born .


You spent the first 600 weeks of your life being a kid and 400 being a teenager.

You spent the first 600 weeks of your life being a kid and 400 being a teenager .


During this time, you were pretty useless for society and also not very free to make your own decisions.

During this time , you were pretty useless for society and also not very free to make your own decisions .


As a payoff, you were somewhat spared from the consequences and responsibilities of adulthood.

As a payoff , you were somewhat spared from the consequences and responsibilities of adulthood .


Mostly because well-meaning adults protected you by cleaning up your mess and giving you time to find yourself.

Mostly because well - meaning adults protected you by cleaning up your mess and giving you time to find yourself .


Although most people probably don't feel like that after puberty.

Although most people probably do n't feel like that after puberty .


In any case, by the time you're 20, over 1,000 of your 5,200 weeks have passed.

In any case , by the time you 're 20 , over 1,000 of your 5,200 weeks have passed .


Depending on what you aspire to, at this point you're either working already or have entered further education.

Depending on what you aspire to , at this point you 're either working already or have entered further education .


The amount of fun you can have in this phase of your life varies a lot.

The amount of fun you can have in this phase of your life varies a lot .


If you pick up a trade or need to work to support yourself or others, the serious side of life begins earlier.

If you pick up a trade or need to work to support yourself or others , the serious side of life begins earlier .


If you go to university, you get to push back work life a bit longer.

If you go to university , you get to push back work life a bit longer .


People tend to work until the age of 65, which means that you'll spend at least 2,000 weeks of your life with serious adult work,

People tend to work until the age of 65 , which means that you 'll spend at least 2,000 weeks of your life with serious adult work ,


This is such an important thing that we'll look at work and how you can try to find a satisfying career in another video.

This is such an important thing that we 'll look at work and how you can try to find a satisfying career in another video .


This is the main block of life for most people, the time when you might have kids and travel a bit and climb the career ladder and build a house, may get divorced and fall in love again.

This is the main block of life for most people , the time when you might have kids and travel a bit and climb the career ladder and build a house , may get divorced and fall in love again .


In this phase, you transition from being young to middle-aged to old, not old old, but the young old of your 60s.

In this phase , you transition from being young to middle - aged to old , not old old , but the young old of your 60s .


At 65, you've used up 3,400 of your 5,200 weeks.

At 65 , you 've used up 3,400 of your 5,200 weeks .


The last phase of your life begins.


If you've managed to acquire enough wealth to retire, in theory, you're now free to do whatever you like for up to 1,800 weeks.

If you 've managed to acquire enough wealth to retire , in theory , you 're now free to do whatever you like for up to 1,800 weeks .


But of course, this is not how it works for the majority of you watching this video.

But of course , this is not how it works for the majority of you watching this video .


19 out of 20 people will not live to 100.

19 out of 20 people will not live to 100 .


The average lifespan in the US is 79.


In Germany, it's 81.


In Brazil, it's 75.


If you die at age 80, which is still not bad, you only have 780 weeks of freedom after you retire.

If you die at age 80 , which is still not bad , you only have 780 weeks of freedom after you retire .


That's roughly as many weeks of freedom as an old person as you spent as a child.

That 's roughly as many weeks of freedom as an old person as you spent as a child .


Unfortunately, disease and the tiredness of age trip you up here, because with old age, the human body begins to decline sharply.

Unfortunately , disease and the tiredness of age trip you up here , because with old age , the human body begins to decline sharply .


For example, the vast majority of cancer-related deaths occur in people over 70.

For example , the vast majority of cancer - related deaths occur in people over 70 .


If you bet all your fun cards on being free and happy in your retirement, you might be bitterly disappointed.

If you bet all your fun cards on being free and happy in your retirement , you might be bitterly disappointed .


And all of this is still assuming things work out, and you even get to grow old.

And all of this is still assuming things work out , and you even get to grow old .


You can drown in a pool at age 7, get cancer at age 32, die in a car crash at age 48, you can fall from a ladder at age 60.

You can drown in a pool at age 7 , get cancer at age 32 , die in a car crash at age 48 , you can fall from a ladder at age 60 .


Every day, the universe rolls a bunch of dice for every human, and every day, someone somewhere on this planet rolls a critical failure, and their life ends that day.

Every day , the universe rolls a bunch of dice for every human , and every day , someone somewhere on this planet rolls a critical failure , and their life ends that day .


The older you get, the more dice are rolled for you.

The older you get , the more dice are rolled for you .


Usually, when you swim through the ocean that is your life, you don't think about all of this too much, and that's fine.

Usually , when you swim through the ocean that is your life , you do n't think about all of this too much , and that 's fine .


Life is engaging enough by itself, and the future is this undefined weird thing.

Life is engaging enough by itself , and the future is this undefined weird thing .


But thinking about it from time to time is helpful in refocusing on what you want to do, and to minimize regrets you will have when you look back.

But thinking about it from time to time is helpful in refocusing on what you want to do , and to minimize regrets you will have when you look back .


Life is complicated, and it's hard to make decisions between all the things and people that are important to you.

Life is complicated , and it 's hard to make decisions between all the things and people that are important to you .


This has become painfully obvious to billions of people during the coronavirus pandemic.

This has become painfully obvious to billions of people during the coronavirus pandemic .


If you respected social distancing, so many things that we took for granted were not available anymore.

If you respected social distancing , so many things that we took for granted were not available anymore .


Spending time together became limited and precious.

Spending time together became limited and precious .


But actually, the time you have with the people you love is already precious.

But actually , the time you have with the people you love is already precious .


Think of your parents.


As a child, you spend basically every day with them.

As a child , you spend basically every day with them .


Your time spent together begins to decline as you transition and become a teenager, and fight to develop your own identity.

Your time spent together begins to decline as you transition and become a teenager , and fight to develop your own identity .


But as teenagers, you probably still see them regularly, which changes as you enter your twenties, but most people move out.

But as teenagers , you probably still see them regularly , which changes as you enter your twenties , but most people move out .


you still have already spent more than 90% of the time you will ever spend with them, even if they grow pretty old.

you still have already spent more than 90 % of the time you will ever spend with them , even if they grow pretty old .


If they die earlier, or if you see them only a few days each year, this number shrinks even more.

If they die earlier , or if you see them only a few days each year , this number shrinks even more .


So, in all likelihood, the vast majority of time you will ever spend with your parents has passed.

So , in all likelihood , the vast majority of time you will ever spend with your parents has passed .


The same holds true for your siblings or old friends that moved to the other side of the country.

The same holds true for your siblings or old friends that moved to the other side of the country .


You're at the tail end of the time with some of the most important people in your life.

You 're at the tail end of the time with some of the most important people in your life .


One day, you will see them for the last time.

One day , you will see them for the last time .


And it's actually the same with everything else.

And it 's actually the same with everything else .


The concept of doing something for the last time feels eerie, like something that you should only experience when you're on death row,

The concept of doing something for the last time feels eerie , like something that you should only experience when you 're on death row ,


But it happens all the time.


Is there a hobby you've been lazy about for a long time?

Is there a hobby you 've been lazy about for a long time ?


Maybe you still have those Warhammer minis that you wanted to paint.

Maybe you still have those Warhammer minis that you wanted to paint .


Did you always want to revisit that place where you had an amazing time a decade ago?

Did you always want to revisit that place where you had an amazing time a decade ago ?


Is there someone you wanted to reach out to for a long time, but haven't yet?

Is there someone you wanted to reach out to for a long time , but have n't yet ?


Or pick up that sport again to meet new friends?

Or pick up that sport again to meet new friends ?


Maybe you will never do any of these things again, because life gets in the way, and at some point, it's too late.

Maybe you will never do any of these things again , because life gets in the way , and at some point , it 's too late .


As the global pandemic begins to wind down, we will all soon be able to be with each other again and do fun things together.

As the global pandemic begins to wind down , we will all soon be able to be with each other again and do fun things together .


It's never a bad time to reach out to a friend or a potential friend and let them know that you're looking forward to hanging out.

It 's never a bad time to reach out to a friend or a potential friend and let them know that you 're looking forward to hanging out .


But no matter when you're watching this, our life is an incredible gift, and there are so many fun, engaging, and fulfilling things to do.

But no matter when you 're watching this , our life is an incredible gift , and there are so many fun , engaging , and fulfilling things to do .


And you get to decide what and who matters to you.

And you get to decide what and who matters to you .


But what matters the most is that you actually make decisions from time to time.

But what matters the most is that you actually make decisions from time to time .


This video was based on and inspired by an article by our friend Tim Urban of WaitButWhy, the best blog on the internet.

This video was based on and inspired by an article by our friend Tim Urban of WaitButWhy , the best blog on the internet .


Be sure to check it out to get more new perspectives on things.

Be sure to check it out to get more new perspectives on things .


we created a Kurzgesagt version of the calendar of your life that lets you track how many weeks of your life you've spent already and how many you have left.

we created a Kurzgesagt version of the calendar of your life that lets you track how many weeks of your life you 've spent already and how many you have left .


You can also color in the weeks to keep track of exactly how you're spending them.

You can also color in the weeks to keep track of exactly how you 're spending them .


If you're just looking for a visual reminder to put things in perspective, we've made a timeline of your life.

If you 're just looking for a visual reminder to put things in perspective , we 've made a timeline of your life .


It's printed in vibrant neon colors on high-quality paper and will look great as an art piece on your wall.

It 's printed in vibrant neon colors on high - quality paper and will look great as an art piece on your wall .


Like all of our products, these posters were designed with love and produced with care by us here at Kurzgesagt.

Like all of our products , these posters were designed with love and produced with care by us here at Kurzgesagt .


Getting something from our shop is the best way to support our channel while getting something beautiful in return.

Getting something from our shop is the best way to support our channel while getting something beautiful in return .


Because of you, we can keep making elaborate videos like the one you just watched and release them for free for everyone.

Because of you , we can keep making elaborate videos like the one you just watched and release them for free for everyone .


Thank you so much for your support.


The past is a vast and mysterious land that begins at the Big Bang and ends in the present, expanding with each passing moment.

The past is a vast and mysterious land that begins at the Big Bang and ends in the present , expanding with each passing moment .


It's the home of everything that came before, the key to understanding our present.

It 's the home of everything that came before , the key to understanding our present .


Here we find the most amazing creatures to ever roam our planet, hundreds of millions of species so diverse that our imagination cannot do them justice.

Here we find the most amazing creatures to ever roam our planet , hundreds of millions of species so diverse that our imagination can not do them justice .


Unfortunately, the past carefully guards its secrets.

Unfortunately , the past carefully guards its secrets .


While there are a lot of things about the past we know, there are way more things we know we don't know.

While there are a lot of things about the past we know , there are way more things we know we do n't know .


And worse, there are probably even more things we don't even know that we don't know about.

And worse , there are probably even more things we do n't even know that we do n't know about .


Think of the wonder of life.


We now recognize about 1.5 million eukaryotic species, but there may be as many as 10 million alive today.

We now recognize about 1.5 million eukaryotic species , but there may be as many as 10 million alive today .


And although we are adding some 15,000 new species to our collective knowledge each year, the vast majority of life on Earth is still undiscovered.

And although we are adding some 15,000 new species to our collective knowledge each year , the vast majority of life on Earth is still undiscovered .


This is just what is around today.


An estimated 4 billion species emerged on our planet in past eons.

An estimated 4 billion species emerged on our planet in past eons .


But at least 99% of them died out way before humans spoke the first words.

But at least 99 % of them died out way before humans spoke the first words .


The vast majority of all the different species that ever existed are so utterly deleted that they have become part of the unknown unknown part of the past, lost to us forever.

The vast majority of all the different species that ever existed are so utterly deleted that they have become part of the unknown unknown part of the past , lost to us forever .


Could we use science and imagination to glimpse a shadow of the unreachable past?

Could we use science and imagination to glimpse a shadow of the unreachable past ?


Let's start with what we do know.


To learn about creatures of the past we need fossils.

To learn about creatures of the past we need fossils .


The totality of all fossils on Earth is called the fossil record, and it's the most important window on the past we'll ever have.

The totality of all fossils on Earth is called the fossil record , and it 's the most important window on the past we 'll ever have .


For a dead animal to fossilize, a number of things must go just right.

For a dead animal to fossilize , a number of things must go just right .


And then the fossil needs to survive for millions or hundreds of millions of years and then get back to the surface and then be discovered before natural processes dissolve it.

And then the fossil needs to survive for millions or hundreds of millions of years and then get back to the surface and then be discovered before natural processes dissolve it .


So it is kind of a miracle that we have what we have and know what we know.

So it is kind of a miracle that we have what we have and know what we know .


Take the dinosaurs, since they were one of the largest and most successful groups of animals for some 165 million years and are also a lot of fun to animate.

Take the dinosaurs , since they were one of the largest and most successful groups of animals for some 165 million years and are also a lot of fun to animate .


What were they really like and what are we missing?

What were they really like and what are we missing ?


In the last 200 years we've found tens of thousands of fossils from over 1,000 dinosaur species.

In the last 200 years we 've found tens of thousands of fossils from over 1,000 dinosaur species .


Lately we've entered a golden era of discovery and about 50 new dinosaur species are discovered each year,

Lately we 've entered a golden era of discovery and about 50 new dinosaur species are discovered each year ,


But it also makes us aware of all the things lost to the past forever.

But it also makes us aware of all the things lost to the past forever .


Imagine if we took all the animals that lived in the last 50 million years and randomly chose 10,000 individuals from 1,000 species to fossilize.

Imagine if we took all the animals that lived in the last 50 million years and randomly chose 10,000 individuals from 1,000 species to fossilize .


Think about all the things that would be missed or that seemed too weird to be true.

Think about all the things that would be missed or that seemed too weird to be true .


Like the giraffe, a yellow animal with brown patterns that looks like a horse and an antelope had a baby with a long neck and two tiny hairy horns.

Like the giraffe , a yellow animal with brown patterns that looks like a horse and an antelope had a baby with a long neck and two tiny hairy horns .


How many dinosaur giraffes were there?


We've found animals so weird and selected for ecological niches so specific that evolution molded their bodies very absurdly.

We 've found animals so weird and selected for ecological niches so specific that evolution molded their bodies very absurdly .


Today they might seem made up to us.


We know a lot of species are lost forever just because of the environment they lived in.

We know a lot of species are lost forever just because of the environment they lived in .


For example, lush jungles basically prevent fossilization as the chances that an animal will be buried here are low.

For example , lush jungles basically prevent fossilization as the chances that an animal will be buried here are low .


Countless scavengers of all sizes break down freshly deceased animals extremely quickly and the soil is often so acidic that bones are dissolved.

Countless scavengers of all sizes break down freshly deceased animals extremely quickly and the soil is often so acidic that bones are dissolved .


And so fossils of dinosaurs from jungles are practically non-existent.

And so fossils of dinosaurs from jungles are practically non - existent .


Today, half of all known species live in the few remaining rainforests that only cover 2% of Earth's landmass.

Today , half of all known species live in the few remaining rainforests that only cover 2 % of Earth 's landmass .


Millions of years ago, when dinosaurs roamed Earth, jungles covered much more of the planet.

Millions of years ago , when dinosaurs roamed Earth , jungles covered much more of the planet .


So, besides some insects and other small animals trapped in amber, there should be millions of species that emerged and vanished without leaving any trace.

So , besides some insects and other small animals trapped in amber , there should be millions of species that emerged and vanished without leaving any trace .


But just in general, biology trips us up.

But just in general , biology trips us up .


Look at your body.


It's mainly squishy, gooey, soft stuff, which does not preserve well.

It 's mainly squishy , gooey , soft stuff , which does not preserve well .


What remains the longest are the crystallized parts of your bones and so most dinosaur fossils are bones or teeth, usually fragments, not entire skeletons.

What remains the longest are the crystallized parts of your bones and so most dinosaur fossils are bones or teeth , usually fragments , not entire skeletons .


This means that almost all boneless or shell-less animals are practically wiped from the fossil record.

This means that almost all boneless or shell - less animals are practically wiped from the fossil record .


If we take a look at the stunning diversity of weird animals like worms, jellyfish and slugs alive today, we can only speculate what we are missing.

If we take a look at the stunning diversity of weird animals like worms , jellyfish and slugs alive today , we can only speculate what we are missing .


Although thankfully, many mostly soft and gooey species also left us an incredible diversity of shells that tell us an amazing amount about our past, so at least we have that.

Although thankfully , many mostly soft and gooey species also left us an incredible diversity of shells that tell us an amazing amount about our past , so at least we have that .


Still, when we think about all the boneless species that may have existed in the last half billion years, even our best attempt at imagining them falls short.

Still , when we think about all the boneless species that may have existed in the last half billion years , even our best attempt at imagining them falls short .


But it's not like reimagining something based on its bones is straightforward and so the way we envisage what dinosaurs actually looked like has changed a lot in the last few years.

But it 's not like reimagining something based on its bones is straightforward and so the way we envisage what dinosaurs actually looked like has changed a lot in the last few years .


In the past, many illustrations had a bony, minimalistic look with a toothy grin to signify fierceness and danger.

In the past , many illustrations had a bony , minimalistic look with a toothy grin to signify fierceness and danger .


But if we draw today's animals in a similar way based on their skeletons, just for the fun of it, we get the most bizarre creatures.

But if we draw today 's animals in a similar way based on their skeletons , just for the fun of it , we get the most bizarre creatures .


So, similar to animals today, we should imagine dinosaurs with much more soft tissue,

So , similar to animals today , we should imagine dinosaurs with much more soft tissue ,


Some soft features actually leave distinctive traces on bones that we can look for in the skeletons of extinct animals,

Some soft features actually leave distinctive traces on bones that we can look for in the skeletons of extinct animals ,


It's a similar story with colors.


Because we know what the feathers of living birds look like,

Because we know what the feathers of living birds look like ,


modern technology combined with the exceedingly rare fossils with preserved remains of fuzzy feathers give us a glimpse of the real colors of extinct dinosaurs.

modern technology combined with the exceedingly rare fossils with preserved remains of fuzzy feathers give us a glimpse of the real colors of extinct dinosaurs .


We know that tiny Cynosauropteryx had a striped tail, and its tiny dino buddy Ancheionis huxleyi was white and black with gorgeous red feathers around its head.

We know that tiny Cynosauropteryx had a striped tail , and its tiny dino buddy Ancheionis huxleyi was white and black with gorgeous red feathers around its head .


Still, for the vast majority of really any ancient extinct species, we have no real clue what color they were.

Still , for the vast majority of really any ancient extinct species , we have no real clue what color they were .


But we know what modern dinosaurs, birds, look like, and here we find the most amazing variety.

But we know what modern dinosaurs , birds , look like , and here we find the most amazing variety .


So some dinosaurs will have tried to blend into the background, while others might have fielded aggressive color schemes to attract mates or to appear dangerous.

So some dinosaurs will have tried to blend into the background , while others might have fielded aggressive color schemes to attract mates or to appear dangerous .


Some might have had impressive decorations or colorful beaks.

Some might have had impressive decorations or colorful beaks .


Some may have been striped or patent.


Similarly, we don't know that much about dinosaur behavior, although once again we can draw conclusions from existing animals.

Similarly , we do n't know that much about dinosaur behavior , although once again we can draw conclusions from existing animals .


For example, even apex predators like lions spend a lot of their time lying around and cuddling and licking each other and playing.

For example , even apex predators like lions spend a lot of their time lying around and cuddling and licking each other and playing .


Why would dinosaurs be so different?


When we first found the skull of T. rex with its mighty teeth, and probably the strongest bite of any land animal ever, we imagined a fierce and stupid beast.

When we first found the skull of T. rex with its mighty teeth , and probably the strongest bite of any land animal ever , we imagined a fierce and stupid beast .


But modern scanning technology has revealed that T. rex had a larger brain-to-body ratio than some earlier giant meat-eaters,

But modern scanning technology has revealed that T. rex had a larger brain - to - body ratio than some earlier giant meat - eaters ,


and it probably had very sharp hearing, vision, and a sense of smell, and was in all likelihood not a stupid animal.

and it probably had very sharp hearing , vision , and a sense of smell , and was in all likelihood not a stupid animal .


So maybe T. rex was a cuddly fellow that spent a lot of time playing around or impressing potential mates when it was not hungry.

So maybe T. rex was a cuddly fellow that spent a lot of time playing around or impressing potential mates when it was not hungry .


Likewise, while their horns and shields might have made ceratopsids appear to be natural-born fighters, they were probably much more than that.

Likewise , while their horns and shields might have made ceratopsids appear to be natural - born fighters , they were probably much more than that .


maybe their shields were amazingly colorful, maybe it danced for its mates like many birds do today.

maybe their shields were amazingly colorful , maybe it danced for its mates like many birds do today .


How intensely amazing these creatures must have been.

How intensely amazing these creatures must have been .


And what a loss it is to us that we don't get to experience them firsthand.

And what a loss it is to us that we do n't get to experience them firsthand .


But such is life.


Time marches on without any concern for our feelings, and the past expands with every moment that passes.

Time marches on without any concern for our feelings , and the past expands with every moment that passes .


Most wild animals alive today will in all likelihood not leave fossils behind, and also just disappear forever.

Most wild animals alive today will in all likelihood not leave fossils behind , and also just disappear forever .


We can do something about that, though.

We can do something about that , though .


Instead of accelerating the extinction we are witnessing, we could become the guardians of life and preserve it where we find it.

Instead of accelerating the extinction we are witnessing , we could become the guardians of life and preserve it where we find it .


Because as amazing as our imagination is, and as fascinating to think about the animals that are part of the unknown unknown, it is even better to witness them in the present.

Because as amazing as our imagination is , and as fascinating to think about the animals that are part of the unknown unknown , it is even better to witness them in the present .


There is one more exciting way to experience dinosaurs, though, this year.

There is one more exciting way to experience dinosaurs , though , this year .


As always, we're adding 10,000 years to the regular calendar to represent the Human Era and include all cultures around the world.

As always , we 're adding 10,000 years to the regular calendar to represent the Human Era and include all cultures around the world .


But this year, we're expanding the scope beyond humanity to showcase forgotten animals and plants from all across the Phanerozoic Eon,

But this year , we 're expanding the scope beyond humanity to showcase forgotten animals and plants from all across the Phanerozoic Eon ,


Witness how multicellular life has persisted for over half a billion years, surviving asteroid impacts, volcanoes, and frozen oceans.

Witness how multicellular life has persisted for over half a billion years , surviving asteroid impacts , volcanoes , and frozen oceans .


In the end, life, uh, finds a way.


And we want to celebrate that.


You can get the very shiny, high-quality, limited edition now until we sell out, and then never again.

You can get the very shiny , high - quality , limited edition now until we sell out , and then never again .


As every year, we also have bundles and special calendar deals with some of your favorite products.

As every year , we also have bundles and special calendar deals with some of your favorite products .


Thank you so much to all of the thousands of birbs who get the calendar every year.

Thank you so much to all of the thousands of birbs who get the calendar every year .


You enable us to create videos and to publish them for free for everyone.

You enable us to create videos and to publish them for free for everyone .


We wish you a happy year 12,022.


The observable universe is a big place that's been around for more than 13 billion years.

The observable universe is a big place that 's been around for more than 13 billion years .


Up to 2 trillion galaxies, made up of something like 20,000 billion billion stars, surround our home galaxy.

Up to 2 trillion galaxies , made up of something like 20,000 billion billion stars , surround our home galaxy .


In the Milky Way alone, scientists assume there are some 40 billion Earth-like planets in the habitable zone of their stars.

In the Milky Way alone , scientists assume there are some 40 billion Earth - like planets in the habitable zone of their stars .


When we look at these numbers, it's hard to imagine that there is nobody else out there.

When we look at these numbers , it 's hard to imagine that there is nobody else out there .


It would change our perception of ourselves forever if we found others.

It would change our perception of ourselves forever if we found others .


Just knowing that this vast place is not dead would shift our perspective outwards and could help us get over our irrelevant quarrels.

Just knowing that this vast place is not dead would shift our perspective outwards and could help us get over our irrelevant quarrels .


But before looking for our new best friends or worst enemies, we have a problem to solve.

But before looking for our new best friends or worst enemies , we have a problem to solve .


What are we actually looking for?


In a universe that big and old, we have to assume that civilizations start millions of years apart from each other and develop in different directions and speeds.

In a universe that big and old , we have to assume that civilizations start millions of years apart from each other and develop in different directions and speeds .


So not only are we looking over distances of dozens to hundreds of thousands of light years, we're looking for a civilization ranging from cavemen to super-advanced.

So not only are we looking over distances of dozens to hundreds of thousands of light years , we 're looking for a civilization ranging from cavemen to super - advanced .


So we need a conceptual framework to enable us to think better thoughts that make us able to search better.

So we need a conceptual framework to enable us to think better thoughts that make us able to search better .


Are there universal rules that intelligent species follow?

Are there universal rules that intelligent species follow ?


Currently, our civilization sample size is only one, so we may make incorrect assumptions based solely on ourselves.

Currently , our civilization sample size is only one , so we may make incorrect assumptions based solely on ourselves .


We know that humans started out with nothing but minds and hands that could build tools.

We know that humans started out with nothing but minds and hands that could build tools .


We know that humans are curious, competitive, greedy for resources, and expansionist.

We know that humans are curious , competitive , greedy for resources , and expansionist .


The more of these qualities our ancestors had, the more successful they were in the civilization-building game.

The more of these qualities our ancestors had , the more successful they were in the civilization - building game .


Being one with nature is nice, but it's not the path to irrigation systems or gunpowder or cities.

Being one with nature is nice , but it 's not the path to irrigation systems or gunpowder or cities .


So it's reasonable to assume that aliens able to take over their home planet also have these qualities.

So it 's reasonable to assume that aliens able to take over their home planet also have these qualities .


And if aliens have to follow the same laws of physics, then there is a measurable metric for progress.

And if aliens have to follow the same laws of physics , then there is a measurable metric for progress .


Human progress can be measured very precisely by how much energy we extracted from our environment and how we made it usable to do things.

Human progress can be measured very precisely by how much energy we extracted from our environment and how we made it usable to do things .


We started with muscles until we learned to control fire.

We started with muscles until we learned to control fire .


Then we made machines that used kinetic energy from water and wind.

Then we made machines that used kinetic energy from water and wind .


As our machines got better and our knowledge of materials expanded, we began to harness the concentrated energy from dead plants we dug up from the ground.

As our machines got better and our knowledge of materials expanded , we began to harness the concentrated energy from dead plants we dug up from the ground .


As our energy consumption grew exponentially, so did the abilities of our civilization.

As our energy consumption grew exponentially , so did the abilities of our civilization .


Between 1800 and 2015, population size had increased sevenfold while humanity was consuming 25 times more energy.

Between 1800 and 2015 , population size had increased sevenfold while humanity was consuming 25 times more energy .


It's likely that this process will continue into the far future.

It 's likely that this process will continue into the far future .


Based on these facts, scientist Nikolai Kardashev developed a method of categorizing civilizations from cave dwellers to gods ruling over galaxies.

Based on these facts , scientist Nikolai Kardashev developed a method of categorizing civilizations from cave dwellers to gods ruling over galaxies .


The scale has been refined and expanded on over the decades, but in general it puts civilizations into four different categories.

The scale has been refined and expanded on over the decades , but in general it puts civilizations into four different categories .


A type 1 civilization is able to use the available energy of their home planet.

A type 1 civilization is able to use the available energy of their home planet .


A type 2 civilization is able to use the available energy of their star and planetary system.

A type 2 civilization is able to use the available energy of their star and planetary system .


A type 3 civilization is able to use the available energy of their galaxy.

A type 3 civilization is able to use the available energy of their galaxy .


A type 4 civilization is able to use the available energy of multiple galaxies.

A type 4 civilization is able to use the available energy of multiple galaxies .


These levels differ by orders of magnitude.

These levels differ by orders of magnitude .


It's like comparing an ant colony to a human metropolitan area.

It 's like comparing an ant colony to a human metropolitan area .


To ants, we are so complex and powerful, we might as well be gods.

To ants , we are so complex and powerful , we might as well be gods .


So to make the scale more useful, we need subcategories.

So to make the scale more useful , we need subcategories .


On the lower end of the spectrum, there are type 0 to type 1 civilizations.

On the lower end of the spectrum , there are type 0 to type 1 civilizations .


These might actually be abundant in the Milky Way.

These might actually be abundant in the Milky Way .


But a civilization that is not actively transmitting radio signals into space might be as close as our nearest stellar neighbor,

But a civilization that is not actively transmitting radio signals into space might be as close as our nearest stellar neighbor ,


But even if they transmitted radio signals like we do, it might not be very helpful.

But even if they transmitted radio signals like we do , it might not be very helpful .


On an interstellar scale, humanity is practically invisible.

On an interstellar scale , humanity is practically invisible .


Our signals may extend over an impressive 200 light years, but this is only a tiny fraction of the Milky Way.

Our signals may extend over an impressive 200 light years , but this is only a tiny fraction of the Milky Way .


And even if someone were listening, after a few light years, our signals decay into noise, impossible to identify as the source of an intelligent species.

And even if someone were listening , after a few light years , our signals decay into noise , impossible to identify as the source of an intelligent species .


Today, humanity ranks at about level 0.75.

Today , humanity ranks at about level 0.75 .


We have altered our planet.


We've created huge structures, mined and stripped mountains, removed rainforests and drained swamps.

We 've created huge structures , mined and stripped mountains , removed rainforests and drained swamps .


We've created rivers and lakes and changed the composition and temperature of the atmosphere.

We 've created rivers and lakes and changed the composition and temperature of the atmosphere .


If progress continues, and we don't make Earth uninhabitable, we will become a full type 1 civilization in the next few hundred years.

If progress continues , and we do n't make Earth uninhabitable , we will become a full type 1 civilization in the next few hundred years .


Any civilization that becomes a type 1 is bound to look outside because it's likely that it's still curious, competitive, greedy and expansionist.

Any civilization that becomes a type 1 is bound to look outside because it 's likely that it 's still curious , competitive , greedy and expansionist .


The next reasonable step towards transitioning to type 2 is trying to alter and mine other planets and bodies.

The next reasonable step towards transitioning to type 2 is trying to alter and mine other planets and bodies .


This might start with outposts in space, transition to infrastructure and industries near the home planet,

This might start with outposts in space , transition to infrastructure and industries near the home planet ,


As a civilization expands and uses more and more stuff and space, its energy consumption scales with them.

As a civilization expands and uses more and more stuff and space , its energy consumption scales with them .


So, at some point, they may embark on the largest project a lower type 2 civilization can take on, harnessing the energy of their star by building a Dyson swarm.

So , at some point , they may embark on the largest project a lower type 2 civilization can take on , harnessing the energy of their star by building a Dyson swarm .


Once this megastructure is finished, energy has become practically unlimited for molding the home system however they see fit.

Once this megastructure is finished , energy has become practically unlimited for molding the home system however they see fit .


If they are still curious, competitive, greedy and expansionist,

If they are still curious , competitive , greedy and expansionist ,


the next frontier moves to other stars light years away.

the next frontier moves to other stars light years away .


For a type 2 civilization, the distance to other stars might feel like the distance between Earth and Pluto does to us today.

For a type 2 civilization , the distance to other stars might feel like the distance between Earth and Pluto does to us today .


This begins their transition towards type 3.

This begins their transition towards type 3 .


This step is so far beyond us that it becomes hard to imagine what exactly these challenges will look like and how they'll be solved.

This step is so far beyond us that it becomes hard to imagine what exactly these challenges will look like and how they 'll be solved .


Will they be able to find a solution to the vast distances and travel times of hundreds or thousands of years?

Will they be able to find a solution to the vast distances and travel times of hundreds or thousands of years ?


Will they be able to communicate and keep a shared culture and biology between colonies light years apart?

Will they be able to communicate and keep a shared culture and biology between colonies light years apart ?


Or will they split into separate type 2 civilizations?

Or will they split into separate type 2 civilizations ?


Are there deadly challenges between the stars?

Are there deadly challenges between the stars ?


So the closer a species gets to type 3, the harder it becomes to fathom what it might actually look like.

So the closer a species gets to type 3 , the harder it becomes to fathom what it might actually look like .


They might discover new physics, may understand and control dark matter and energy, or be able to travel faster than light.

They might discover new physics , may understand and control dark matter and energy , or be able to travel faster than light .


We might be unable to grasp their motives, technology and actions.

We might be unable to grasp their motives , technology and actions .


Humans are the ants, trying to understand the galactic metropolitan area.

Humans are the ants , trying to understand the galactic metropolitan area .


A high type 2 civilization might already consider humanity too primitive to even talk to.

A high type 2 civilization might already consider humanity too primitive to even talk to .


A type 3 civilization might feel about us like we feel about the bacteria living on the ant hill.

A type 3 civilization might feel about us like we feel about the bacteria living on the ant hill .


Maybe they wouldn't even consider us conscious or our survival relevant.

Maybe they would n't even consider us conscious or our survival relevant .


We could only pray that they're nice gods.

We could only pray that they 're nice gods .


But the scale doesn't necessarily end here.

But the scale does n't necessarily end here .


Some scientists suggest there might be type 4 and type 5 civilizations whose influence stretches over galaxy clusters or superclusters,

Some scientists suggest there might be type 4 and type 5 civilizations whose influence stretches over galaxy clusters or superclusters ,


Ultimately, there might be a type omega civilization, able to manipulate the entire universe and possibly others.

Ultimately , there might be a type omega civilization , able to manipulate the entire universe and possibly others .


Type omega civilizations might be the actual creators of our universe for reasons beyond our comprehension.

Type omega civilizations might be the actual creators of our universe for reasons beyond our comprehension .


Maybe they were just bored.


As flawed as this classification may be, this thought experiment is already telling us interesting things.

As flawed as this classification may be , this thought experiment is already telling us interesting things .


then we can be pretty sure that there are no civilizations of type 3 and beyond near the Milky Way.

then we can be pretty sure that there are no civilizations of type 3 and beyond near the Milky Way .


Their influence would in all likelihood be so all-encompassing and their technology so far above our own that we couldn't miss them.

Their influence would in all likelihood be so all - encompassing and their technology so far above our own that we could n't miss them .


The galaxies should flash with their activity in thousands of star systems.

The galaxies should flash with their activity in thousands of star systems .


We should be able to see or detect their artifacts or movements between different parts of their empire.

We should be able to see or detect their artifacts or movements between different parts of their empire .


Even if a type 3 civilization did exist in the past and died a mysterious death, we should be able to detect some of the remnants of their empire.

Even if a type 3 civilization did exist in the past and died a mysterious death , we should be able to detect some of the remnants of their empire .


But when scientists looked, they didn't find remnants of harvested stars, decaying megastructures or scars of great interstellar wars.

But when scientists looked , they did n't find remnants of harvested stars , decaying megastructures or scars of great interstellar wars .


So they're very likely not out there and never were.

So they 're very likely not out there and never were .


In a sense, this is very sad but also very reassuring.

In a sense , this is very sad but also very reassuring .


It leaves the galaxy to us and others similar to us.

It leaves the galaxy to us and others similar to us .


So the most promising civilizations to look for may be somewhere in the spectrum from type 1.5 to type 2.5.

So the most promising civilizations to look for may be somewhere in the spectrum from type 1.5 to type 2.5 .


They wouldn't be too advanced to understand them and their motives.

They would n't be too advanced to understand them and their motives .


They may have finished their first megastructures and they might be in the process of moving stuff


They would probably also look to the stars and look for others.

They would probably also look to the stars and look for others .


Then again, maybe we've got it all wrong.

Then again , maybe we 've got it all wrong .


Maybe progress to type 2 does not mean expanding outwards and humanity is still too immature to imagine otherwise.

Maybe progress to type 2 does not mean expanding outwards and humanity is still too immature to imagine otherwise .


For now, all we really know is that we haven't seen anybody yet.

For now , all we really know is that we have n't seen anybody yet .


But we've only just started looking.


or if you're just entering a new phase in your life, our shop is stocked and ready for all your back to school needs.

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We have new shirts and, for the first time, a Kurzgesagt earth sweater.

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Our merch is the easiest way to support what we do and keep our videos free for everyone.

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The world we live in feels normal, ordinary.

The world we live in feels normal , ordinary .


It feels like this is just how humans exist and always existed.

It feels like this is just how humans exist and always existed .


Never before have we humans lived in a world as sophisticated and engineered to our needs as today, giving us the luxury to forget about ourselves and not worry about survival.

Never before have we humans lived in a world as sophisticated and engineered to our needs as today , giving us the luxury to forget about ourselves and not worry about survival .


Food, shelter, security, all of this is more or less taken for granted.

Food , shelter , security , all of this is more or less taken for granted .


But we're a special few.


For more than 99.99% of human history, life was completely different.

For more than 99.99 % of human history , life was completely different .


And there's no such thing as just one human history.

And there 's no such thing as just one human history .


Our story begins 6 million years ago, when the tribe of Hominini split and our relationship with the apes ended.

Our story begins 6 million years ago , when the tribe of Hominini split and our relationship with the apes ended .


2.8 million years ago, the genus of Homo, the first humans, emerged.

2.8 million years ago , the genus of Homo , the first humans , emerged .


We like to think of ourselves as the only humans, but this is far from the truth.

We like to think of ourselves as the only humans , but this is far from the truth .


When we, Homo sapiens sapiens, came into existence 200,000 years ago, there were at least 6 other human species around.

When we , Homo sapiens sapiens , came into existence 200,000 years ago , there were at least 6 other human species around .


Some of them were very successful.


Homo erectus, for example, survived for 2 million years, 10 times longer than modern humans have existed.

Homo erectus , for example , survived for 2 million years , 10 times longer than modern humans have existed .


The last of the other humans disappeared around 10,000 years ago.

The last of the other humans disappeared around 10,000 years ago .


We don't know what caused them to die out.

We do n't know what caused them to die out .


Modern humans have at least a few percent of Neanderthal and other human DNA, so there was some mixing, but certainly not enough to be a merger between species.

Modern humans have at least a few percent of Neanderthal and other human DNA , so there was some mixing , but certainly not enough to be a merger between species .


So we don't know if our cousins went away because they lost the battle over resources, or because of a series of minor genocides.

So we do n't know if our cousins went away because they lost the battle over resources , or because of a series of minor genocides .


Either way, only we remain.


2.8 million years ago, early humans used tools, but did not make a lot of progress for nearly 2 million years.

2.8 million years ago , early humans used tools , but did not make a lot of progress for nearly 2 million years .


Until they learned to control fire.


Fire meant cooking, which made food more nutritious, which contributed to the development of our brain.

Fire meant cooking , which made food more nutritious , which contributed to the development of our brain .


It also produced light and warmth, which made days longer and winters less gruesome.

It also produced light and warmth , which made days longer and winters less gruesome .


On top of that, it not only scared predators away, it could also be used for hunting.

On top of that , it not only scared predators away , it could also be used for hunting .


A torched wood or grassland provided small animals, nuts and tubers that were pre-roasted.

A torched wood or grassland provided small animals , nuts and tubers that were pre - roasted .


From 300,000 years ago, most of the different human species lived in small hunter-gatherer societies.

From 300,000 years ago , most of the different human species lived in small hunter - gatherer societies .


They had fire, wood and stone tools, planned for the future, buried their dead, and had cultures of their own.

They had fire , wood and stone tools , planned for the future , buried their dead , and had cultures of their own .


But most importantly, they spoke to each other.

But most importantly , they spoke to each other .


If we had a time machine, how far would we be able to go back, steal a few babies, and raise them today without anyone noticing that they're a bit different?

If we had a time machine , how far would we be able to go back , steal a few babies , and raise them today without anyone noticing that they 're a bit different ?


There is much debate.


Anatomically modern humans emerged 200,000 years ago, but probably 70,000 years is as far as we could travel back and still snatch a behaviorally modern human.

Anatomically modern humans emerged 200,000 years ago , but probably 70,000 years is as far as we could travel back and still snatch a behaviorally modern human .


Before that, the babies would probably lack a few crucial gene mutations necessary to build a brain with modern language and abstract thinking abilities.

Before that , the babies would probably lack a few crucial gene mutations necessary to build a brain with modern language and abstract thinking abilities .


At some point around 50,000 years ago, there was an explosion in innovation.

At some point around 50,000 years ago , there was an explosion in innovation .


Tools and weapons became more sophisticated, and culture became more complex.

Tools and weapons became more sophisticated , and culture became more complex .


Because at this point, humans had a multi-purpose brain and a more advanced language to communicate information with each other effectively and down to the last detail.

Because at this point , humans had a multi - purpose brain and a more advanced language to communicate information with each other effectively and down to the last detail .


This allowed much closer cooperation and is what really makes us different from any other creature on Earth.

This allowed much closer cooperation and is what really makes us different from any other creature on Earth .


As our brain evolved, we became able to do something life had been unable to do up to this point.

As our brain evolved , we became able to do something life had been unable to do up to this point .


1. Expand knowledge quickly.


2. Preserve knowledge gained over generations.

2 . Preserve knowledge gained over generations .


3. Build on passed knowledge to gain even deeper insight.

3 . Build on passed knowledge to gain even deeper insight .


This seemed daft, but until then, information had to be passed on from generation to generation, mostly through genetics, which is not efficient.

This seemed daft , but until then , information had to be passed on from generation to generation , mostly through genetics , which is not efficient .


Still, for the next 40,000 years, human life remained more or less the same.

Still , for the next 40,000 years , human life remained more or less the same .


There was little to build upon.


Our ancestors were only one animal among many.

Our ancestors were only one animal among many .


Building a skyscraper without knowing what a house is, is hard.

Building a skyscraper without knowing what a house is , is hard .


But while it's easy to be arrogant in our attitude to our ancestors, this would be ignorant.

But while it 's easy to be arrogant in our attitude to our ancestors , this would be ignorant .


Humans 50,000 years ago were survival specialists.

Humans 50,000 years ago were survival specialists .


They had a detailed mental map of their territory, their senses were fine-tuned to the environment, they knew and memorized a great amount of information about plants and animals.

They had a detailed mental map of their territory , their senses were fine - tuned to the environment , they knew and memorized a great amount of information about plants and animals .


They could make complicated tools that required years of careful training and very fine motor skills.

They could make complicated tools that required years of careful training and very fine motor skills .


Their bodies compare to our athletes today, just because of their daily routines, and they lived a rich social life within their tribe.

Their bodies compare to our athletes today , just because of their daily routines , and they lived a rich social life within their tribe .


Survival required so many skills that the average brain volume of early modern humans might even have been bigger than it is today.

Survival required so many skills that the average brain volume of early modern humans might even have been bigger than it is today .


As a group, we know more today, but as individuals, our ancestors were superior to us.

As a group , we know more today , but as individuals , our ancestors were superior to us .


But then, around 12,000 years ago in multiple locations, humans developed agriculture.

But then , around 12,000 years ago in multiple locations , humans developed agriculture .


Everything changed very quickly.


Before, survival as a hunter and forager required superb physical and mental abilities in all fields, from everybody.

Before , survival as a hunter and forager required superb physical and mental abilities in all fields , from everybody .


With the rise of the agricultural age, individuals could increasingly rely on the skills of others for survival.

With the rise of the agricultural age , individuals could increasingly rely on the skills of others for survival .


This meant that some of them could specialize.

This meant that some of them could specialize .


Maybe they worked on better tools.


Maybe they took time to breed more resistant crops or better livestock.

Maybe they took time to breed more resistant crops or better livestock .


Maybe they started inventing things.


As farming got more and more efficient, what we call civilization began.

As farming got more and more efficient , what we call civilization began .


Agriculture gave us a reliable and predictable food source, which allowed humans to hoard food on a large scale for the first time, which is much easier to do with grains than meat.

Agriculture gave us a reliable and predictable food source , which allowed humans to hoard food on a large scale for the first time , which is much easier to do with grains than meat .


The food stock required protection, which led to communities living together in tighter spaces.

The food stock required protection , which led to communities living together in tighter spaces .


First, early defense structures were built.

First , early defense structures were built .


The need for organization grew.


The more organized we got, the faster things became efficient.

The more organized we got , the faster things became efficient .


Villages became cities.


Cities became kingdoms.


Kingdoms became empires.


Connections between humans exploded, which led to opportunities to exchange knowledge.

Connections between humans exploded , which led to opportunities to exchange knowledge .


Progress became exponential.


About 500 years ago, the scientific revolution began.

About 500 years ago , the scientific revolution began .


Mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry transformed everything we thought we knew.

Mathematics , physics , astronomy , biology , and chemistry transformed everything we thought we knew .


The industrial revolution followed soon after, laying the foundation for the modern world.

The industrial revolution followed soon after , laying the foundation for the modern world .


As our overall efficiency grew exponentially, more people could spend their lifetime contributing to the progress of humanity.

As our overall efficiency grew exponentially , more people could spend their lifetime contributing to the progress of humanity .


Revolutions kept happening.


The invention of the computer, its evolution into a medium we all use on a daily basis, and the rise of the Internet shaped our world.

The invention of the computer , its evolution into a medium we all use on a daily basis , and the rise of the Internet shaped our world .


It's hard to grasp how fast all of that happened.

It 's hard to grasp how fast all of that happened .


It's been about 125,000 generations since the emergence of the first human species.

It 's been about 125,000 generations since the emergence of the first human species .


500 generations ago, what we call civilization began.

500 generations ago , what we call civilization began .


20 generations ago, we learned how to do science.

20 generations ago , we learned how to do science .


And the Internet became available to most people only one generation ago.

And the Internet became available to most people only one generation ago .


Today, we live in the most prosperous age humanity has ever experienced.

Today , we live in the most prosperous age humanity has ever experienced .


We have transformed this planet, from the composition of its atmosphere to large-scale changes in its landscape, and also in terms of the other animals in existence.

We have transformed this planet , from the composition of its atmosphere to large - scale changes in its landscape , and also in terms of the other animals in existence .


We light up the night with artificial stars and put people in a metal box in the sky.

We light up the night with artificial stars and put people in a metal box in the sky .


Some have even walked on our moon.


We put robots on other planets.


We've looked deep into the past of the universe with mechanical eyes.

We 've looked deep into the past of the universe with mechanical eyes .


Our knowledge and our way of acquiring and storing more of it has exploded.

Our knowledge and our way of acquiring and storing more of it has exploded .


The average high school student today knows more about the universe than a scholar a few centuries ago.

The average high school student today knows more about the universe than a scholar a few centuries ago .


Humans dominate this planet, even if our rule is very fragile.

Humans dominate this planet , even if our rule is very fragile .


We are still not that different from our ancestors 70,000 years ago, but your lifestyle has existed for less than 0.001% of human history.

We are still not that different from our ancestors 70,000 years ago , but your lifestyle has existed for less than 0.001 % of human history .


From here on, there's no saying what the future holds for us.

From here on , there 's no saying what the future holds for us .


We're building a skyscraper, but we're not sure if it's standing on a solid foundation or if we're building it on quicksand.

We 're building a skyscraper , but we 're not sure if it 's standing on a solid foundation or if we 're building it on quicksand .


Let's leave it with that for now.


The next time you miss your train, your burger is not hot enough, or someone cuts in line, remember how special this made-up human world is.

The next time you miss your train , your burger is not hot enough , or someone cuts in line , remember how special this made - up human world is .


Maybe it's not worth being upset about all those little things.

Maybe it 's not worth being upset about all those little things .


Okay, this was our first take on making a history-related video.

Okay , this was our first take on making a history - related video .


We'd love to make much more of them, but they take even more time than our average video, so we might do three or four a year.

We 'd love to make much more of them , but they take even more time than our average video , so we might do three or four a year .


Your feedback's very welcome here.


Thank you so much for watching, and if you want to support us directly, you can do so on Patreon.

Thank you so much for watching , and if you want to support us directly , you can do so on Patreon .


It really helps us out.


While you think about it, here are more videos if you need more distraction.

While you think about it , here are more videos if you need more distraction .


What would happen if you were to bring a tiny piece of the Sun to Earth?

What would happen if you were to bring a tiny piece of the Sun to Earth ?


Like most of the matter in the universe, our Sun is neither solid, liquid, or gas, but plasma.

Like most of the matter in the universe , our Sun is neither solid , liquid , or gas , but plasma .


Plasma is when stuff is so hot that the nuclei and electrons can separate and flow around freely, which creates a goo-like substance.

Plasma is when stuff is so hot that the nuclei and electrons can separate and flow around freely , which creates a goo - like substance .


So you can imagine our Sun as an extremely big, spherical ocean of very hot goo.

So you can imagine our Sun as an extremely big , spherical ocean of very hot goo .


The deeper you go, the denser and weirder the goo becomes.

The deeper you go , the denser and weirder the goo becomes .


So let's bring three samples, each the size of a house, to our lab here on Earth and see what happens.

So let 's bring three samples , each the size of a house , to our lab here on Earth and see what happens .


The chromosphere is the atmosphere of the Sun, a layer of sparse gas up to 5,000 km deep that's covered in a forest of plasma spikes that can be almost as big as Earth.

The chromosphere is the atmosphere of the Sun , a layer of sparse gas up to 5,000 km deep that 's covered in a forest of plasma spikes that can be almost as big as Earth .


It's pretty hot here, between 6,000 and 20,000 degrees Celsius, but if we brought a sample of it to Earth, we're not really getting our money's worth.

It 's pretty hot here , between 6,000 and 20,000 degrees Celsius , but if we brought a sample of it to Earth , we 're not really getting our money 's worth .


In the area where we take our sample, the chromosphere is over a million times less dense than air,

In the area where we take our sample , the chromosphere is over a million times less dense than air ,


so compared to our atmosphere at sea level, it's basically the same as bringing the vacuum of space down to Earth.

so compared to our atmosphere at sea level , it 's basically the same as bringing the vacuum of space down to Earth .


The moment our sample arrives, it would immediately be crushed by Earth's atmospheric pressure and implode.

The moment our sample arrives , it would immediately be crushed by Earth 's atmospheric pressure and implode .


Air would rush to fill the vacuum and use as much energy as 12 kg of TNT in the process.

Air would rush to fill the vacuum and use as much energy as 12 kg of TNT in the process .


This creates a high-pressure shockwave which shatters glass, ruptures eardrums and maybe some internal organs.

This creates a high - pressure shockwave which shatters glass , ruptures eardrums and maybe some internal organs .


If you're standing too close, it could kill you, so you'd better keep your distance.

If you 're standing too close , it could kill you , so you 'd better keep your distance .


Let's go deeper.


Beneath the chromosphere is the glowing surface of the Sun, the photosphere, which produces the light we see.

Beneath the chromosphere is the glowing surface of the Sun , the photosphere , which produces the light we see .


It's covered in a grid of a million hotspots called granules, each of them about as big as the United States and over 5,000 degrees Celsius.

It 's covered in a grid of a million hotspots called granules , each of them about as big as the United States and over 5,000 degrees Celsius .


These granules are the tops of convective columns, churning gas that brings the heat up from the center of the Sun to its surface.

These granules are the tops of convective columns , churning gas that brings the heat up from the center of the Sun to its surface .


In these columns, a few hundred kilometers down, we take our second plasma sample.

In these columns , a few hundred kilometers down , we take our second plasma sample .


It has about the same pressure as our atmosphere on Earth.

It has about the same pressure as our atmosphere on Earth .


Though still much less dense than air, its heat supports it, so it won't implode.

Though still much less dense than air , its heat supports it , so it wo n't implode .


Our sphere now carries twice as much energy, as much as 25 kg of TNT, but this time as heat.

Our sphere now carries twice as much energy , as much as 25 kg of TNT , but this time as heat .


For a dazzling instant, this plasma would glow with a million times the brightness of the Sun seen from Earth, instantly lighting fires throughout our lab.

For a dazzling instant , this plasma would glow with a million times the brightness of the Sun seen from Earth , instantly lighting fires throughout our lab .


But a few milliseconds later, those fires are all that's left.

But a few milliseconds later , those fires are all that 's left .


The plasma has cooled to harmless gas, floating up from the flaming ruins.

The plasma has cooled to harmless gas , floating up from the flaming ruins .


Here, the plasma is about 2 million degrees Celsius, and so dense and tightly packed that it creates a sort of maze for itself.

Here , the plasma is about 2 million degrees Celsius , and so dense and tightly packed that it creates a sort of maze for itself .


Energy in the form of photons tries to escape, but has to wander for hundreds of thousands of years, bouncing endlessly from particle to particle until it eventually finds an exit.

Energy in the form of photons tries to escape , but has to wander for hundreds of thousands of years , bouncing endlessly from particle to particle until it eventually finds an exit .


Bringing matter from here to our lab is what experts call a very bad idea.

Bringing matter from here to our lab is what experts call a very bad idea .


As soon as it arrives in our lab, the extreme pressure that holds the plasma tightly together is gone, and the material explodes with the power of a thermonuclear weapon.

As soon as it arrives in our lab , the extreme pressure that holds the plasma tightly together is gone , and the material explodes with the power of a thermonuclear weapon .


Our lab, as well as the city around it, will be destroyed in an instant.

Our lab , as well as the city around it , will be destroyed in an instant .


On the bright side, there won't be any radioactive fallout.

On the bright side , there wo n't be any radioactive fallout .


With our lab destroyed, we can abandon the illusion that we're trying to do any science today.

With our lab destroyed , we can abandon the illusion that we 're trying to do any science today .


Here, in the central 1% of the star, we find a third of the Sun's mass.

Here , in the central 1 % of the star , we find a third of the Sun 's mass .


The matter here is compressed by the weight of the entire star above it.

The matter here is compressed by the weight of the entire star above it .


In the center of the core, the temperature is 15 million degrees, hot enough to make helium by smashing together hydrogen, powering the Sun by nuclear fusion.

In the center of the core , the temperature is 15 million degrees , hot enough to make helium by smashing together hydrogen , powering the Sun by nuclear fusion .


In billions of years after the death of the Sun, this core will remain as a white dwarf.

In billions of years after the death of the Sun , this core will remain as a white dwarf .


If we brought a sample of it to Earth, it would cause a lot of inconvenience.

If we brought a sample of it to Earth , it would cause a lot of inconvenience .


The biggest nuclear weapon ever detonated had an energy of 40 megatons of TNT, or a cube the size of the Empire State Building.

The biggest nuclear weapon ever detonated had an energy of 40 megatons of TNT , or a cube the size of the Empire State Building .


Our sample has the equivalent of 4,000 megatons.

Our sample has the equivalent of 4,000 megatons .


This is 4 billion tons of TNT, or a cube 1.3 kilometers high.

This is 4 billion tons of TNT , or a cube 1.3 kilometers high .


To give you a sense of scale, this is the cube inside Manhattan.

To give you a sense of scale , this is the cube inside Manhattan .


Once the sphere arrives on Earth, this super-dense matter expands instantly and creates an explosion with the force of, well, the Sun.

Once the sphere arrives on Earth , this super - dense matter expands instantly and creates an explosion with the force of , well , the Sun .


If we get the sample in Paris in the morning, the citizens of London would see what looks like a second sunrise.

If we get the sample in Paris in the morning , the citizens of London would see what looks like a second sunrise .


In a radius of about 300 kilometers around the blast, everything would be burned.

In a radius of about 300 kilometers around the blast , everything would be burned .


The shockwave would travel around the Earth multiple times.

The shockwave would travel around the Earth multiple times .


Most buildings in Central Europe would be flattened, eardrums would rupture, and windows break across the continent.

Most buildings in Central Europe would be flattened , eardrums would rupture , and windows break across the continent .


The explosion would be apocalyptic, possibly human civilization ending.

The explosion would be apocalyptic , possibly human civilization ending .


If humans did survive, we could count on the dust blown into the atmosphere to create a smaller ice age.

If humans did survive , we could count on the dust blown into the atmosphere to create a smaller ice age .


So, if there is one tiny bright side, it would be that the explosion might be an effective way to control human-caused climate change for a few decades.

So , if there is one tiny bright side , it would be that the explosion might be an effective way to control human - caused climate change for a few decades .


While this is definitely a good thing, all in all, we conclude that we should not try to bring the Sun to Earth.

While this is definitely a good thing , all in all , we conclude that we should not try to bring the Sun to Earth .


Neutron stars are one of the most extreme things in the universe.

Neutron stars are one of the most extreme things in the universe .


They're like giant atom cores, kilometers in diameter, unbelievably dense and violent.

They 're like giant atom cores , kilometers in diameter , unbelievably dense and violent .


But how can something like this even exist?

But how can something like this even exist ?


The life of a star is dominated by two forces being in balance.

The life of a star is dominated by two forces being in balance .


In the core of stars, hydrogen is fused into helium.

In the core of stars , hydrogen is fused into helium .


Eventually, the hydrogen in the core is exhausted.

Eventually , the hydrogen in the core is exhausted .


If the star is massive enough, helium is now fused into carbon.

If the star is massive enough , helium is now fused into carbon .


The cores of these massive stars become layered like onions, as heavier and heavier atomic nuclei build up at the center.

The cores of these massive stars become layered like onions , as heavier and heavier atomic nuclei build up at the center .


Carbon is fused into neon, which leads to oxygen, which leads to silicon.

Carbon is fused into neon , which leads to oxygen , which leads to silicon .


Eventually, the fusion reaction hits iron, which cannot fuse into another element.

Eventually , the fusion reaction hits iron , which can not fuse into another element .


When the fusion stops, the radiation pressure drops rapidly.

When the fusion stops , the radiation pressure drops rapidly .


The star is no longer in balance.


And if its core mass exceeds about 1.4 solar masses, a catastrophic collapse takes place.

And if its core mass exceeds about 1.4 solar masses , a catastrophic collapse takes place .


The outer part of the core reaches velocities of up to 70,000 km a second as it collapses towards the center of the star.

The outer part of the core reaches velocities of up to 70,000 km a second as it collapses towards the center of the star .


Now, only the fundamental forces inside an atom are left to fight the gravitational collapse.

Now , only the fundamental forces inside an atom are left to fight the gravitational collapse .


The quantum mechanical repulsion of electrons is overcome, and electrons and protons fuse into neutrons packed as densely as an atomic nucleus.

The quantum mechanical repulsion of electrons is overcome , and electrons and protons fuse into neutrons packed as densely as an atomic nucleus .


The outer layers of the star are catapulted into space in a violent supernova explosion.

The outer layers of the star are catapulted into space in a violent supernova explosion .


So, now we have a neutron star.


Its mass is between 1 and 3 suns, but compressed to an object about 25 km wide,

Its mass is between 1 and 3 suns , but compressed to an object about 25 km wide ,


It's so dense that 1 cubic centimeter of neutron star contains the same mass as an iron cube 700 meters across.

It 's so dense that 1 cubic centimeter of neutron star contains the same mass as an iron cube 700 meters across .


That's roughly 1 billion tons, as massive as Mount Everest, in a space the size of a sugar cube.

That 's roughly 1 billion tons , as massive as Mount Everest , in a space the size of a sugar cube .


Neutron star gravity is pretty impressive too.

Neutron star gravity is pretty impressive too .


If you were to drop an object from 1 meter over the surface, it would hit the star in 1 microsecond and accelerate up to 7.2 million kilometers per hour.

If you were to drop an object from 1 meter over the surface , it would hit the star in 1 microsecond and accelerate up to 7.2 million kilometers per hour .


The surface is super flat, with irregularities of 5 millimeters maximum, with a super thin atmosphere of hot plasma.

The surface is super flat , with irregularities of 5 millimeters maximum , with a super thin atmosphere of hot plasma .


The surface temperature is about 1 million Kelvin, compared to 5,800 Kelvin for our Sun.

The surface temperature is about 1 million Kelvin , compared to 5,800 Kelvin for our Sun .


Let's look inside the neutron star.


The crust is extremely hard, and is most likely made of an iron atom nuclei lattice with a sea of electrons flowing through them.

The crust is extremely hard , and is most likely made of an iron atom nuclei lattice with a sea of electrons flowing through them .


The closer we get to the core, the more neutrons and fewer protons we see, until there's just an incredibly dense soup of indistinguishable neutrons.

The closer we get to the core , the more neutrons and fewer protons we see , until there 's just an incredibly dense soup of indistinguishable neutrons .


The cores of neutron stars are very, very weird.

The cores of neutron stars are very , very weird .


We're not sure what their properties are, but our closest guess is superfluid neutron degenerate matter or some kind of ultra-dense quark matter,

We 're not sure what their properties are , but our closest guess is superfluid neutron degenerate matter or some kind of ultra - dense quark matter ,


In many ways, a neutron star is similar to a giant atom core.

In many ways , a neutron star is similar to a giant atom core .


The most important difference is that atom cores are held together by strong interaction, and neutron stars by gravity.

The most important difference is that atom cores are held together by strong interaction , and neutron stars by gravity .


As if all this wasn't extreme enough, let's take a look at a few other properties.

As if all this was n't extreme enough , let 's take a look at a few other properties .