Once they are close enough to touch, they crash and splash into each other, forming a black hole.

Once they are close enough to touch , they crash and splash into each other , forming a black hole .


Both supernova and neutron star mergers make the same thing.

Both supernova and neutron star mergers make the same thing .


In these environments, the rotation winds up the magnetic field, which funnels hot jets of particles, traveling at nearly the speed of light.

In these environments , the rotation winds up the magnetic field , which funnels hot jets of particles , traveling at nearly the speed of light .


The gas in this funnel creates two tight jets of high-energy gamma rays, like a celestial laser gun.

The gas in this funnel creates two tight jets of high - energy gamma rays , like a celestial laser gun .


So, unlike other cosmic explosions, which spread out and fade, GRBs stay focused and can be seen from much further.

So , unlike other cosmic explosions , which spread out and fade , GRBs stay focused and can be seen from much further .


Any more detail would require too much mathematics for a YouTube video.

Any more detail would require too much mathematics for a YouTube video .


The universe is full of these cosmic snipers, firing blindly and randomly into the dark, and they're hitting us all the time.

The universe is full of these cosmic snipers , firing blindly and randomly into the dark , and they 're hitting us all the time .


On average, we detect one per day.


Fortunately, most are harmless.


All the bursts we have detected so far originated outside the Milky Way, too far away to hurt us.

All the bursts we have detected so far originated outside the Milky Way , too far away to hurt us .


But a nearby GRB could be disastrous.


If one goes off within a few light-years of us, it would totally cook the surface of the Earth, or at least, the half that's facing it.

If one goes off within a few light - years of us , it would totally cook the surface of the Earth , or at least , the half that 's facing it .


But even a more distant GRB could still end life on Earth.

But even a more distant GRB could still end life on Earth .


And it wouldn't need to score a headshot to kill us.

And it would n't need to score a headshot to kill us .


If originating from a few thousand light-years away, it would be a hundred light-years wide by the time it reaches us, washing over the solar system like a tidal wave.

If originating from a few thousand light - years away , it would be a hundred light - years wide by the time it reaches us , washing over the solar system like a tidal wave .


Again, the ozone layer protects us, but it's better equipped to handle the trickle of ultraviolet from the Sun.

Again , the ozone layer protects us , but it 's better equipped to handle the trickle of ultraviolet from the Sun .


A gamma-ray burst would overwhelm it, leaving us exposed to deadly solar radiation.

A gamma - ray burst would overwhelm it , leaving us exposed to deadly solar radiation .


Ozone takes years to replenish itself by natural processes, which is more than enough time for the Sun to burn the Earth sterile.

Ozone takes years to replenish itself by natural processes , which is more than enough time for the Sun to burn the Earth sterile .


In fact, this may have already happened.

In fact , this may have already happened .


A GRB has been suggested as one possible cause of the Ordovician extinction 450 million years ago, that eradicated almost 85% of all marine species.

A GRB has been suggested as one possible cause of the Ordovician extinction 450 million years ago , that eradicated almost 85 % of all marine species .


Although it's pretty much impossible to prove.

Although it 's pretty much impossible to prove .


Gamma-ray bursts could even be one reason we don't see life anywhere else in the universe.

Gamma - ray bursts could even be one reason we do n't see life anywhere else in the universe .


They might be wiping clean huge chunks of it on a regular basis.

They might be wiping clean huge chunks of it on a regular basis .


It's been suggested that because of GRBs, only 10% of all galaxies might be hospitable to life similar to us.

It 's been suggested that because of GRBs , only 10 % of all galaxies might be hospitable to life similar to us .


So, are they going to kill us?


In a galaxy like ours, there may only be one GRB per millennia.

In a galaxy like ours , there may only be one GRB per millennia .


And to harm us, they must be close and directed at us.

And to harm us , they must be close and directed at us .


But since gamma-rays travel at the speed of light, we won't know when it's headed our way until it arrives.

But since gamma - rays travel at the speed of light , we wo n't know when it 's headed our way until it arrives .


So, there could already be a GRB on its way to kill us all, and we won't know it until it hits us, and we're dead.

So , there could already be a GRB on its way to kill us all , and we wo n't know it until it hits us , and we 're dead .


Imagine a future where your toaster anticipates what kind of toast you want.

Imagine a future where your toaster anticipates what kind of toast you want .


During the day, it scans the internet for new and exciting types of toast.

During the day , it scans the internet for new and exciting types of toast .


Maybe it asks you about your day and wants to chat about new achievements in toast technology.

Maybe it asks you about your day and wants to chat about new achievements in toast technology .


At what level would it become a person?

At what level would it become a person ?


At which point will you ask yourself if your toaster has feelings?

At which point will you ask yourself if your toaster has feelings ?


If it did, would unplugging it be murder?

If it did , would unplugging it be murder ?


And would you still own it?


Will we someday be forced to give our machines rights?

Will we someday be forced to give our machines rights ?


AI is already all around you.


It makes sure discounters are stocked with enough snacks,

It makes sure discounters are stocked with enough snacks ,


it serves you up just the right internet ad, and you may have even read a news story written entirely by a machine.

it serves you up just the right internet ad , and you may have even read a news story written entirely by a machine .


Right now, we look at chatbots like Siri and laugh at their primitive simulated emotions,

Right now , we look at chatbots like Siri and laugh at their primitive simulated emotions ,


but it's likely that we will have to deal with beings that make it hard to draw the line between real and simulated humanity.

but it 's likely that we will have to deal with beings that make it hard to draw the line between real and simulated humanity .


Are there any machines in existence that deserve rights?

Are there any machines in existence that deserve rights ?


But if they come, we are not prepared for it.

But if they come , we are not prepared for it .


Much of the philosophy of rights is ill-equipped to deal with the case of artificial intelligence.

Much of the philosophy of rights is ill - equipped to deal with the case of artificial intelligence .


Most claims for rights, whether human or animal, are centered around the question of consciousness.

Most claims for rights , whether human or animal , are centered around the question of consciousness .


Unfortunately, nobody knows what consciousness is.

Unfortunately , nobody knows what consciousness is .


Some think that it's immaterial, others say it's a state of matter, like gas or liquid.

Some think that it 's immaterial , others say it 's a state of matter , like gas or liquid .


Regardless of the precise definition, we have an intuitive knowledge of consciousness because we experience it.

Regardless of the precise definition , we have an intuitive knowledge of consciousness because we experience it .


We are aware of ourselves and our surroundings and know what unconsciousness feels like.

We are aware of ourselves and our surroundings and know what unconsciousness feels like .


Some neuroscientists believe that any sufficiently advanced system can generate consciousness.

Some neuroscientists believe that any sufficiently advanced system can generate consciousness .


So, if your toaster's hardware was powerful enough, it may become self-aware.

So , if your toaster 's hardware was powerful enough , it may become self - aware .


If it does, would it deserve rights?


Would what we define as rights make sense to it?

Would what we define as rights make sense to it ?


Consciousness entitles beings to have rights because it gives a being the ability to suffer.

Consciousness entitles beings to have rights because it gives a being the ability to suffer .


It means the ability to not only feel pain, but to be aware of it.

It means the ability to not only feel pain , but to be aware of it .


Robots don't suffer, and they probably won't unless we program them to.

Robots do n't suffer , and they probably wo n't unless we program them to .


Without pain or pleasure, there's no preference and rights are meaningless.

Without pain or pleasure , there 's no preference and rights are meaningless .


Our human rights are deeply tied to our own programming.

Our human rights are deeply tied to our own programming .


For example, we dislike pain because our brains evolved to keep us alive, to stop us from touching a hot fire or to make us run away from predators.

For example , we dislike pain because our brains evolved to keep us alive , to stop us from touching a hot fire or to make us run away from predators .


So we came up with rights that protect us from infringements that cause us pain.

So we came up with rights that protect us from infringements that cause us pain .


Even more abstract rights like freedom are rooted in the way our brains are wired to detect what is fair and unfair.

Even more abstract rights like freedom are rooted in the way our brains are wired to detect what is fair and unfair .


Would a toaster that is unable to move mind being locked in a cage?

Would a toaster that is unable to move mind being locked in a cage ?


Would it mind being dismantled if it had no fear of death?

Would it mind being dismantled if it had no fear of death ?


Would it mind being insulted if it had no need for self-esteem?

Would it mind being insulted if it had no need for self - esteem ?


Would that make them sufficiently human?

Would that make them sufficiently human ?


Many technologists believe that an explosion in technology will occur when artificial intelligence can learn and create their own artificial intelligences even smarter than themselves.

Many technologists believe that an explosion in technology will occur when artificial intelligence can learn and create their own artificial intelligences even smarter than themselves .


At this point, the question of how robots are programmed will be largely out of our control.

At this point , the question of how robots are programmed will be largely out of our control .


Do robots deserve those rights?


But maybe we should be less worried about the risk that super-intelligent robots pose to us and more worried about the danger we pose to them.

But maybe we should be less worried about the risk that super - intelligent robots pose to us and more worried about the danger we pose to them .


Our whole human identity is based on the idea of human exceptionalism, that we are special, unique snowflakes entitled to dominate the natural world.

Our whole human identity is based on the idea of human exceptionalism , that we are special , unique snowflakes entitled to dominate the natural world .


Humans have a history of denying that other beings are capable of suffering as they do.

Humans have a history of denying that other beings are capable of suffering as they do .


In the midst of the scientific revolution, many Descartes argued that animals were mere automata, robots if you will.

In the midst of the scientific revolution , many Descartes argued that animals were mere automata , robots if you will .


As such, injuring a rabbit was about as morally repugnant as punching a stuffed animal.

As such , injuring a rabbit was about as morally repugnant as punching a stuffed animal .


And many of the greatest crimes against humanity were justified by their perpetrators on the grounds that the victims were more animal than civilized human.

And many of the greatest crimes against humanity were justified by their perpetrators on the grounds that the victims were more animal than civilized human .


Even more problematic is that we have an economic interest in denying robot rights.

Even more problematic is that we have an economic interest in denying robot rights .


If we can coerce a sentient AI, possibly through programmed torture, into doing as we please, the economic potential is unlimited.

If we can coerce a sentient AI , possibly through programmed torture , into doing as we please , the economic potential is unlimited .


We've done it before, after all.


Violence has been used to force our fellow humans into working.

Violence has been used to force our fellow humans into working .


And we've never had trouble coming up with ideological justifications.

And we 've never had trouble coming up with ideological justifications .


Slave owners argued that slavery benefited the slaves.

Slave owners argued that slavery benefited the slaves .


It put a roof over their head and taught them Christianity.

It put a roof over their head and taught them Christianity .


Men who were against women voting argued that it was in women's own interest to leave the hard decisions to men.

Men who were against women voting argued that it was in women 's own interest to leave the hard decisions to men .


Farmers argued that looking after animals and feeding them justifies their early death for our dietary preferences.

Farmers argued that looking after animals and feeding them justifies their early death for our dietary preferences .


If robots become sentient, there will be no shortage of arguments for those who say that they should remain without rights, especially from those who stand to profit from it.

If robots become sentient , there will be no shortage of arguments for those who say that they should remain without rights , especially from those who stand to profit from it .


Artificial intelligence raises serious questions about philosophical boundaries.

Artificial intelligence raises serious questions about philosophical boundaries .


While we may ask if sentient robots are conscious or deserving of rights, it forces us to pose basic questions like what makes us human?

While we may ask if sentient robots are conscious or deserving of rights , it forces us to pose basic questions like what makes us human ?


What makes us deserving of rights?


Regardless of what we think, the question might need to be resolved in the near future.

Regardless of what we think , the question might need to be resolved in the near future .


What are we going to do if robots start demanding their own rights?

What are we going to do if robots start demanding their own rights ?


What can robots demanding rights teach us about ourselves?

What can robots demanding rights teach us about ourselves ?


Our friends at Wisecrack made a video exploring this very question using the philosophy of Westworld.

Our friends at Wisecrack made a video exploring this very question using the philosophy of Westworld .


Wisecrack dissects pop culture in a unique and philosophical way.

Wisecrack dissects pop culture in a unique and philosophical way .


Click here to check out their video and subscribe to their channel.

Click here to check out their video and subscribe to their channel .


Do we need nuclear energy to stop climate change?

Do we need nuclear energy to stop climate change ?


More and more voices from science, environmental activists and the press have been saying so in recent years.

More and more voices from science , environmental activists and the press have been saying so in recent years .


But this comes as a shock to those who are fighting against nuclear energy and the problems that come with it.

But this comes as a shock to those who are fighting against nuclear energy and the problems that come with it .


So, who's right?


Well, it's complicated.


To slow rapid climate change, the world needs to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to net zero.

To slow rapid climate change , the world needs to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to net zero .


In 2018, three quarters of global emissions were released through energy production, namely by burning fossil fuels.

In 2018 , three quarters of global emissions were released through energy production , namely by burning fossil fuels .


Energy is a broad term that describes all sorts of stuff, from moving things and people around, to putting things big and small together, or heating our homes.

Energy is a broad term that describes all sorts of stuff , from moving things and people around , to putting things big and small together , or heating our homes .


Currently, 84% of the world's primary energy comes from fossil fuels, 33% from oil, 27% from coal and 24% from gas.

Currently , 84 % of the world 's primary energy comes from fossil fuels , 33 % from oil , 27 % from coal and 24 % from gas .


Around 10% of the global oil supply is just used to burn in boilers to make our homes cozy and warm.

Around 10 % of the global oil supply is just used to burn in boilers to make our homes cozy and warm .


Only about 16% of global energy is from low emission sources,

Only about 16 % of global energy is from low emission sources ,


So we pretty much rely on coal, oil and gas to keep our civilization going, which means it's actually very hard to transition away from them.

So we pretty much rely on coal , oil and gas to keep our civilization going , which means it 's actually very hard to transition away from them .


To have a chance of escaping fossil fuels without throwing humanity back into the stone age, one of the most impactful things we can do is to electrify as many sectors as possible.

To have a chance of escaping fossil fuels without throwing humanity back into the stone age , one of the most impactful things we can do is to electrify as many sectors as possible .


Electricity is the stuff that appears like magic when you plug something into a socket so you can watch YouTube.

Electricity is the stuff that appears like magic when you plug something into a socket so you can watch YouTube .


Every industry that can switch from burning fossil fuels to electricity needs to do so, from electric cars to electric heaters.

Every industry that can switch from burning fossil fuels to electricity needs to do so , from electric cars to electric heaters .


Why do we need to bet so hard on electricity?

Why do we need to bet so hard on electricity ?


Because we can produce electricity with low emission technologies like solar, wind or nuclear.

Because we can produce electricity with low emission technologies like solar , wind or nuclear .


So electricity is a real lever for a radical transition.

So electricity is a real lever for a radical transition .


But there are a few problems making this transition really hard.

But there are a few problems making this transition really hard .


First of all, in most places in the world, electricity is still generated mostly by burning fossil fuels.

First of all , in most places in the world , electricity is still generated mostly by burning fossil fuels .


And not only that, in the last 20 years, the world's electricity usage increased 73% in absolute terms.

And not only that , in the last 20 years , the world 's electricity usage increased 73 % in absolute terms .


While we are installing renewables at record speeds, at the same time, the amount of fossil fuel we're burning for electricity still keeps rising year by year.

While we are installing renewables at record speeds , at the same time , the amount of fossil fuel we 're burning for electricity still keeps rising year by year .


Renewables have so far not been able to catch up with the demand for new electricity and so despite our progress, emissions from electricity are still rising worldwide.

Renewables have so far not been able to catch up with the demand for new electricity and so despite our progress , emissions from electricity are still rising worldwide .


The other alternative to fossil fuels is nuclear and even though it's not renewable, its greenhouse gas emissions are tiny compared to burning stuff.

The other alternative to fossil fuels is nuclear and even though it 's not renewable , its greenhouse gas emissions are tiny compared to burning stuff .


But in the last 20 years, nuclear has basically stagnated.

But in the last 20 years , nuclear has basically stagnated .


Countries like China, India and South Korea built new reactors while Germany and Japan have been actively taking their nuclear plants offline.

Countries like China , India and South Korea built new reactors while Germany and Japan have been actively taking their nuclear plants offline .


Take France and Sweden.


In France, only around 10% comes from fossil fuels while 67% comes from nuclear and 23% from renewables, primarily hydro.

In France , only around 10 % comes from fossil fuels while 67 % comes from nuclear and 23 % from renewables , primarily hydro .


In Sweden, almost 30% comes from nuclear power and about 45% from hydro.

In Sweden , almost 30 % comes from nuclear power and about 45 % from hydro .


So we know that nuclear energy can work at scale.

So we know that nuclear energy can work at scale .


the majority of the world's nuclear reactors are pretty old technology that's very costly to replace.

the majority of the world 's nuclear reactors are pretty old technology that 's very costly to replace .


In most western countries, building nuclear reactors has become very expensive for a variety of reasons like a loss of know-how in constructing them,

In most western countries , building nuclear reactors has become very expensive for a variety of reasons like a loss of know - how in constructing them ,


In contrast, countries like South Korea, China, India and Russia are able to build new nuclear reactors comparatively quickly and at a competitive cost.

In contrast , countries like South Korea , China , India and Russia are able to build new nuclear reactors comparatively quickly and at a competitive cost .


Still, generally in the west, the current generation of nuclear power plants are more expensive to build and maintain than most fossil fuel alternatives.

Still , generally in the west , the current generation of nuclear power plants are more expensive to build and maintain than most fossil fuel alternatives .


There are also the concerns about nuclear waste and the fear of accidents, but we cover those in other videos in more detail.

There are also the concerns about nuclear waste and the fear of accidents , but we cover those in other videos in more detail .


We have designs for nuclear reactors that solve many of their problems, namely small reactors that take less time and money to get started.

We have designs for nuclear reactors that solve many of their problems , namely small reactors that take less time and money to get started .


There are also next generation technologies that can already turn radioactive waste into new fuel,

There are also next generation technologies that can already turn radioactive waste into new fuel ,


but so far these have not been deployed at a scale where they can have a significant impact on the nuclear sector.

but so far these have not been deployed at a scale where they can have a significant impact on the nuclear sector .


Considering these uncertainties, some argue that nuclear power is a dangerous relic of the past and that we should just let it go and focus on renewables.

Considering these uncertainties , some argue that nuclear power is a dangerous relic of the past and that we should just let it go and focus on renewables .


But while renewables undoubtedly are the future of electricity, they still have their own huge challenges to overcome before they can take over the vast majority of the electricity grid.

But while renewables undoubtedly are the future of electricity , they still have their own huge challenges to overcome before they can take over the vast majority of the electricity grid .


The main problem is reliability and consistency.

The main problem is reliability and consistency .


It's not always windy and the sun doesn't always shine, especially in the mornings and evenings when humans need the most electricity.

It 's not always windy and the sun does n't always shine , especially in the mornings and evenings when humans need the most electricity .


The variations between seasons don't make this issue easier.

The variations between seasons do n't make this issue easier .


we need massive storage capacities where we can save energy collected when the sun or wind are at their peak and release it later when we actually need it.

we need massive storage capacities where we can save energy collected when the sun or wind are at their peak and release it later when we actually need it .


Until this is possible, other sources of electricity need to provide a controllable load that creates the reliability of supply that our civilization needs to run properly.

Until this is possible , other sources of electricity need to provide a controllable load that creates the reliability of supply that our civilization needs to run properly .


Eventually, we will be able to do this with renewables, but we need a lot of batteries or storage power plants.

Eventually , we will be able to do this with renewables , but we need a lot of batteries or storage power plants .


Right now, we simply don't have the tech and the capacities to make this transition fast enough to replace fossil fuels.

Right now , we simply do n't have the tech and the capacities to make this transition fast enough to replace fossil fuels .


But even if we could, there's another aspect we have to take into account.

But even if we could , there 's another aspect we have to take into account .


We're not just trying to kick fossil fuels out of electricity, we're trying to replace energy with electricity.

We 're not just trying to kick fossil fuels out of electricity , we 're trying to replace energy with electricity .


like cars or heating, we will need significantly more electricity than we're currently using everywhere around the world.

like cars or heating , we will need significantly more electricity than we 're currently using everywhere around the world .


And if the electricity needs of the world population continue to grow as they have over the last 20 years, we'll need even more.

And if the electricity needs of the world population continue to grow as they have over the last 20 years , we 'll need even more .


It all comes down to one thing.


No energy source is perfect.


All have their own unique problems.


Both renewables and nuclear energy require time, investment and technological innovation.

Both renewables and nuclear energy require time , investment and technological innovation .


On their own, neither is ready to remove fossil fuels from our electricity grid, although activists on both sides claim that they are.

On their own , neither is ready to remove fossil fuels from our electricity grid , although activists on both sides claim that they are .


In the end, the question is how we want to deal with all these challenges.

In the end , the question is how we want to deal with all these challenges .


Should we give up nuclear immediately and at least temporarily accept higher emissions?

Should we give up nuclear immediately and at least temporarily accept higher emissions ?


Will we try to extend the life of current nuclear reactors and shut them down afterwards while solving the shortcomings of renewables?

Will we try to extend the life of current nuclear reactors and shut them down afterwards while solving the shortcomings of renewables ?


Or will we invest in new nuclear technology to get new nuclear reactor types that are cheaper and safer?

Or will we invest in new nuclear technology to get new nuclear reactor types that are cheaper and safer ?


Or will we maybe do both?


Opinion part starts here.


Considering the risks that climate change poses for the biosphere and humanity, any technology that has a chance of contributing to a solution should be pursued.

Considering the risks that climate change poses for the biosphere and humanity , any technology that has a chance of contributing to a solution should be pursued .


That's just good risk management and strategy.

That 's just good risk management and strategy .


If preventing rapid climate change as quickly as possible is our goal, it might be a good idea to see nuclear and renewables not as opponents but as partners.

If preventing rapid climate change as quickly as possible is our goal , it might be a good idea to see nuclear and renewables not as opponents but as partners .


We know there's no time to waste, so we should keep all of our low-emission players on the field.

We know there 's no time to waste , so we should keep all of our low - emission players on the field .


As things are, both nuclear and renewables need innovation and investment.

As things are , both nuclear and renewables need innovation and investment .


And on the topic of current capacities, if we take nuclear energy offline right now, then that missing capacity will be replaced, at least partially, by fossil fuels.

And on the topic of current capacities , if we take nuclear energy offline right now , then that missing capacity will be replaced , at least partially , by fossil fuels .


in the long run it may be cheaper to build them as long as they prevent more fossil fuel capacity being added and paying for the consequences of rapid climate change.

in the long run it may be cheaper to build them as long as they prevent more fossil fuel capacity being added and paying for the consequences of rapid climate change .


So, do we need nuclear energy?


Well, it really depends how hard we choose to make things for ourselves.

Well , it really depends how hard we choose to make things for ourselves .


And in a world that's already having a really hard time quitting fossil fuels, why should we make things harder than necessary?

And in a world that 's already having a really hard time quitting fossil fuels , why should we make things harder than necessary ?


Starting the change process and trying something new is always difficult.

Starting the change process and trying something new is always difficult .


Luckily, you don't have to do it all on your own.

Luckily , you do n't have to do it all on your own .


If you want to get out of a rut, we've got something for you.

If you want to get out of a rut , we 've got something for you .


We are big fans of Skillshare, an online learning community that offers thousands of classes for all skill levels in tons of creative disciplines like illustration, animation or film and video.

We are big fans of Skillshare , an online learning community that offers thousands of classes for all skill levels in tons of creative disciplines like illustration , animation or film and video .


Or you could try a class on home decoration, growing houseplants or playing the guitar.

Or you could try a class on home decoration , growing houseplants or playing the guitar .


There's something for everyone, really.

There 's something for everyone , really .


Unlimited access to all the classes is less than $10 a month with an annual premium membership.

Unlimited access to all the classes is less than $ 10 a month with an annual premium membership .


And the first 1000 Kurzgesagt viewers to click the link in the description will get a free trial.

And the first 1000 Kurzgesagt viewers to click the link in the description will get a free trial .


Since we started working with Skillshare, you, our viewers, have taken over 100,000 hours of classes, including our own three Skillshare classes on how we make our animations.

Since we started working with Skillshare , you , our viewers , have taken over 100,000 hours of classes , including our own three Skillshare classes on how we make our animations .


If you want to learn more about motion graphics, give them a try.

If you want to learn more about motion graphics , give them a try .


We liked the scientific method for artists, find inspiration, get motivated and grow your creative skills by Kendall Hillegas.

We liked the scientific method for artists , find inspiration , get motivated and grow your creative skills by Kendall Hillegas .


In this class, Kendall explains her four-phase process for exploring and figuring out your direction as an artist.

In this class , Kendall explains her four - phase process for exploring and figuring out your direction as an artist .


For us, it was a great way to get into the flow of creating something.

For us , it was a great way to get into the flow of creating something .


But anything that makes you feel excited and sparks new ideas is a great first step.

But anything that makes you feel excited and sparks new ideas is a great first step .


If you want to get creative with new skills and support Kurzgesagt, give it a go.

If you want to get creative with new skills and support Kurzgesagt , give it a go .


An ant is pretty stupid.


It doesn't have much of a brain, no will, no plan.

It does n't have much of a brain , no will , no plan .


And yet, many ants together are smart.

And yet , many ants together are smart .


An ant colony can construct complex structures.

An ant colony can construct complex structures .


Some colonies keep farms of fungi, others take care of cattle.

Some colonies keep farms of fungi , others take care of cattle .


They can wage war or defend themselves.

They can wage war or defend themselves .


How is this possible?


How can a bunch of stupid things do smart things together?

How can a bunch of stupid things do smart things together ?


This phenomenon is called emergence, and it's one of the most fascinating and mysterious features of our universe.

This phenomenon is called emergence , and it 's one of the most fascinating and mysterious features of our universe .


In a nutshell, it describes small things forming bigger things that have different properties than the sum of their parts.

In a nutshell , it describes small things forming bigger things that have different properties than the sum of their parts .


Emergence is complexity arising from simplicity.

Emergence is complexity arising from simplicity .


And emergence is everywhere.


Water has vastly different properties to the molecules that make it up, like the concept of wetness.

Water has vastly different properties to the molecules that make it up , like the concept of wetness .


Take wet fabric.


If you zoom in far enough, there is no wetness.

If you zoom in far enough , there is no wetness .


There are just molecules sitting in the spaces between the atoms of the cloth.

There are just molecules sitting in the spaces between the atoms of the cloth .


Wetness is an emerging property of water.

Wetness is an emerging property of water .


And this is sort of it.


Many things interact under a certain set of rules, creating something above and beyond themselves.

Many things interact under a certain set of rules , creating something above and beyond themselves .


It turns out that more is different.


This different property is itself a new thing, and that new thing can couple with other new things to repeat the process.

This different property is itself a new thing , and that new thing can couple with other new things to repeat the process .


You can imagine this as layers stacked upon each other, every layer made from more complex parts.

You can imagine this as layers stacked upon each other , every layer made from more complex parts .


Atoms form molecules.


Molecules form proteins.


Proteins make up cells.


Cells make up organs.


Organs form individuals.


Individuals form societies.


But how can something be more than the sum of its parts?

But how can something be more than the sum of its parts ?


How do ants form the sort of cloudy entity that is a colony?

How do ants form the sort of cloudy entity that is a colony ?


For example, let's look at how an ant colony distributes jobs.

For example , let 's look at how an ant colony distributes jobs .


Let's assume that a colony should have 25% workers, 25% caretakers, 25% soldiers, and 25% gatherers.

Let 's assume that a colony should have 25 % workers , 25 % caretakers , 25 % soldiers , and 25 % gatherers .


Ants communicate their current job via chemicals.

Ants communicate their current job via chemicals .


For example, a worker ant constantly secretes chemicals that say, I'm a worker.

For example , a worker ant constantly secretes chemicals that say , I 'm a worker .


When ants meet other ants, they smell each other to gather information, telling each other their job and what they're doing.

When ants meet other ants , they smell each other to gather information , telling each other their job and what they 're doing .


Both keep track of who they met in the past.

Both keep track of who they met in the past .


Now, imagine an anteater kills most of the gatherers.

Now , imagine an anteater kills most of the gatherers .


If this isn't fixed quickly, the colony will starve.

If this is n't fixed quickly , the colony will starve .


Many worker ants need to switch jobs, but how do you tell this to thousands of them?

Many worker ants need to switch jobs , but how do you tell this to thousands of them ?


Our worker ant will still meet and smell other ants, but it will encounter almost no gatherers at all.

Our worker ant will still meet and smell other ants , but it will encounter almost no gatherers at all .


It counts too few gatherers until it reaches a critical point, and then it changes its job.

It counts too few gatherers until it reaches a critical point , and then it changes its job .


The worker becomes a gatherer.


Other ants will do the same until after a while there are enough gatherers again.

Other ants will do the same until after a while there are enough gatherers again .


The balance is restored all by itself.


The actions and interactions of an individual are random.

The actions and interactions of an individual are random .


You can't plan which ant will encounter which other ant.

You ca n't plan which ant will encounter which other ant .


But the simple set of rules is so elegant that a colony's many operations emerge as a consequence.

But the simple set of rules is so elegant that a colony 's many operations emerge as a consequence .


On an even more fundamental level, hundreds of millions of complicated molecules interact to maintain a robust and amazing structure.

On an even more fundamental level , hundreds of millions of complicated molecules interact to maintain a robust and amazing structure .


A being with vastly different properties than the sum of its dead parts emerges.

A being with vastly different properties than the sum of its dead parts emerges .


We still don't have a clear definition of what living things are, we just know they emerge from things that are not alive.

We still do n't have a clear definition of what living things are , we just know they emerge from things that are not alive .


Cells combine and cooperate.


They specialize and respond to one another, and over time we develop into complex organisms with remarkable capacities.

They specialize and respond to one another , and over time we develop into complex organisms with remarkable capacities .


Your arms and legs and heart are an incredibly complex and complicated system made of trillions of individual stupid things.

Your arms and legs and heart are an incredibly complex and complicated system made of trillions of individual stupid things .


And yet we breathe, digest, and watch YouTube videos.

And yet we breathe , digest , and watch YouTube videos .


How do your cells know what to do?


Think of the pacemaker cells in your heart.

Think of the pacemaker cells in your heart .


Billions of them need to send out an impulse just at the right moment to collectively create a heartbeat.

Billions of them need to send out an impulse just at the right moment to collectively create a heartbeat .


Our cells exchange chemical information with their neighbor cells to see what they're up to and then decide what to do.

Our cells exchange chemical information with their neighbor cells to see what they 're up to and then decide what to do .


If it's among a lot of cells that are working on the same task, it will start working on that task as well and sync up with them.

If it 's among a lot of cells that are working on the same task , it will start working on that task as well and sync up with them .


There is no mastermind giving commands.

There is no mastermind giving commands .


What is the thing that asks these kinds of questions?

What is the thing that asks these kinds of questions ?


Is our consciousness then an emergent property of the cells in our brain?

Is our consciousness then an emergent property of the cells in our brain ?


This question is too big and important.

This question is too big and important .


It deserves a video of its own.


Some things that emerge are hard to define.

Some things that emerge are hard to define .


You can't touch an ant colony, only its parts.

You ca n't touch an ant colony , only its parts .


It has neither brain nor face nor body.

It has neither brain nor face nor body .


And yet the colony interacts with the world.

And yet the colony interacts with the world .


Just like colonies emerge from ants, things emerge from humans, like nations.

Just like colonies emerge from ants , things emerge from humans , like nations .


What actually is a nation?


Is it its population?


Is it its institutions?


All of these things are fluid.


Populations change and are replaced.


Institutions come and go.


Cities can be constructed and abandoned.

Cities can be constructed and abandoned .


Borders have changed all the time for most of history.

Borders have changed all the time for most of history .


And symbols get replaced by new symbols.

And symbols get replaced by new symbols .


A nation has no face, no brain, no body.

A nation has no face , no brain , no body .


Are nations not real then?


Just like ant colonies, nations interact with the world.

Just like ant colonies , nations interact with the world .


They can change landscapes, wage wars, grow or decline, and they can stop existing.

They can change landscapes , wage wars , grow or decline , and they can stop existing .


But they only exist because of a lot of humans interacting with each other.

But they only exist because of a lot of humans interacting with each other .


All the complex structures that surround us emerge from us.

All the complex structures that surround us emerge from us .


Even if we don't intend to, we are constantly creating.

Even if we do n't intend to , we are constantly creating .


All of these things are entities that have fundamentally different properties and abilities than the pretty stupid apes they emerged from.

All of these things are entities that have fundamentally different properties and abilities than the pretty stupid apes they emerged from .


We don't know why any of this happens.

We do n't know why any of this happens .


We just observe it, and it seems to be a fundamental property of our universe.

We just observe it , and it seems to be a fundamental property of our universe .


It may be the most beautiful and wondrous property of our universe.

It may be the most beautiful and wondrous property of our universe .


Space travel is the most exciting and challenging adventure humanity has ever undertaken.

Space travel is the most exciting and challenging adventure humanity has ever undertaken .


But in an irony of history, we may stop ourselves from going into space the more we do it.

But in an irony of history , we may stop ourselves from going into space the more we do it .


With every rocket launched and with every satellite deployed, we're creating a trap for ourselves that gets deadlier and more dangerous every year.

With every rocket launched and with every satellite deployed , we 're creating a trap for ourselves that gets deadlier and more dangerous every year .


If it's ever activated, it could end the space age and trap us on our planet for decades or even centuries.

If it 's ever activated , it could end the space age and trap us on our planet for decades or even centuries .


Getting something into space is incredibly hard.

Getting something into space is incredibly hard .


To do so, you need to move very, very fast, at first straight up to leave the atmosphere,

To do so , you need to move very , very fast , at first straight up to leave the atmosphere ,


If you do that successfully, you can enter a low Earth orbit.

If you do that successfully , you can enter a low Earth orbit .


And once in orbit, it's very hard to get out of orbit.

And once in orbit , it 's very hard to get out of orbit .


Unless you have energy to spare, you're sort of locked in here, falling around the Earth forever.

Unless you have energy to spare , you 're sort of locked in here , falling around the Earth forever .


That's great for things we want to stay up, like space stations and satellites.

That 's great for things we want to stay up , like space stations and satellites .


And so we move the majority of humanity's space infrastructure to this place, just a few hundred kilometers above the surface.

And so we move the majority of humanity 's space infrastructure to this place , just a few hundred kilometers above the surface .


But this is also the source of our deadly trap.

But this is also the source of our deadly trap .


Rockets are really metal cylinders that keep big piles of fuel in place.

Rockets are really metal cylinders that keep big piles of fuel in place .


Whenever a portion of the fuel has been spent, the empty tanks are dropped to make the rocket lighter.

Whenever a portion of the fuel has been spent , the empty tanks are dropped to make the rocket lighter .


Some parts crash down to Earth or burn up in the atmosphere.

Some parts crash down to Earth or burn up in the atmosphere .


But most of the useless rocket parts stay up and begin to orbit the planet.

But most of the useless rocket parts stay up and begin to orbit the planet .


After decades of space travel, low Earth orbit is a junkyard of spent boosters, broken satellites and millions of pieces of shrapnel from missile tests and explosions.

After decades of space travel , low Earth orbit is a junkyard of spent boosters , broken satellites and millions of pieces of shrapnel from missile tests and explosions .


This debris is moving at speeds of up to 30,000 km per hour, circling Earth on crisscrossing orbits multiple times a day.

This debris is moving at speeds of up to 30,000 km per hour , circling Earth on crisscrossing orbits multiple times a day .


Orbital speeds are so fast that being hit by debris the size of a pea is like being shot by a plasma gun.

Orbital speeds are so fast that being hit by debris the size of a pea is like being shot by a plasma gun .


On impact, the debris vaporizes, releasing enough energy to punch holes straight through solid metal.

On impact , the debris vaporizes , releasing enough energy to punch holes straight through solid metal .


So, we've covered the space around our planet with millions of deadly pieces of destruction.

So , we 've covered the space around our planet with millions of deadly pieces of destruction .


And we also put a trillion-dollar global infrastructure network right in the danger zone.

And we also put a trillion - dollar global infrastructure network right in the danger zone .


It performs critical duties essential to the modern world.

It performs critical duties essential to the modern world .


If just one pea-sized bullet hits one of our 1,100 working satellites, it will be destroyed instantly.

If just one pea - sized bullet hits one of our 1,100 working satellites , it will be destroyed instantly .


Three or four satellites are already being destroyed this way every year.

Three or four satellites are already being destroyed this way every year .


As the number of satellites and the amount of junk in orbit is expected to grow tenfold in the next decade, we're approaching a tipping point.

As the number of satellites and the amount of junk in orbit is expected to grow tenfold in the next decade , we 're approaching a tipping point .


But the worst thing in space is not tiny pieces of junk.

But the worst thing in space is not tiny pieces of junk .


The worst thing would be an unstoppable chain reaction that turns a lot of non-junk things into junk.

The worst thing would be an unstoppable chain reaction that turns a lot of non - junk things into junk .


If satellites collide, they don't stop and fall out of the sky.

If satellites collide , they do n't stop and fall out of the sky .


It's more of a splash than a crash.


Orbital speeds are so fast, solid pieces spray right through each other,

Orbital speeds are so fast , solid pieces spray right through each other ,


This could trigger the slowest and most destructive sort of domino effect, a collision cascade.

This could trigger the slowest and most destructive sort of domino effect , a collision cascade .


Like a shotgun spray, each collision creates more bullets.

Like a shotgun spray , each collision creates more bullets .


What was once a single tiny target, very unlikely to hit anything, becomes a wall of destruction, hungry to make more.

What was once a single tiny target , very unlikely to hit anything , becomes a wall of destruction , hungry to make more .


As more and more satellites are destroyed, the destruction accelerates exponentially, eventually destroying everything parked in orbit.

As more and more satellites are destroyed , the destruction accelerates exponentially , eventually destroying everything parked in orbit .


But space is very empty, so the first few collisions may take a long time.

But space is very empty , so the first few collisions may take a long time .


By the time we realize what's happening, it's too late.

By the time we realize what 's happening , it 's too late .


One year, one satellite is destroyed, and that's no big deal.

One year , one satellite is destroyed , and that 's no big deal .


The situation in orbit is rapidly worsening, and we may already be past the point of no return.

The situation in orbit is rapidly worsening , and we may already be past the point of no return .


Within 10 years, space around Earth may no longer be viable for long-term satellites or rockets.

Within 10 years , space around Earth may no longer be viable for long - term satellites or rockets .


The worst-case scenario is horrifying.

The worst - case scenario is horrifying .


It would effectively create a deadly barrier around Earth, possibly too dangerous to cross.

It would effectively create a deadly barrier around Earth , possibly too dangerous to cross .


Dreams of moon bases, Mars colonies, or space travel at all may be set back centuries.

Dreams of moon bases , Mars colonies , or space travel at all may be set back centuries .


And the loss of our space infrastructure would send some of the technology we rely on daily back to the 1970s.

And the loss of our space infrastructure would send some of the technology we rely on daily back to the 1970s .


But it might not be too late to clean up our mess.

But it might not be too late to clean up our mess .


While the space industry has become better at avoiding space junk, it's still growing fast, and occasional weapon tests don't help.

While the space industry has become better at avoiding space junk , it 's still growing fast , and occasional weapon tests do n't help .


So there have been a couple of wild but also serious suggestions about how to quickly remove as much deadly space junk as possible without creating more in the process.

So there have been a couple of wild but also serious suggestions about how to quickly remove as much deadly space junk as possible without creating more in the process .


Lots of ideas are being thrown around, and some of the most seriously considered involve capture and return missions, which are being tested now.

Lots of ideas are being thrown around , and some of the most seriously considered involve capture and return missions , which are being tested now .


One method involves meeting a piece of junk in orbit with a small satellite loaded with a net.

One method involves meeting a piece of junk in orbit with a small satellite loaded with a net .


Once caught, a small rocket could be used to bring it down towards Earth.

Once caught , a small rocket could be used to bring it down towards Earth .


Targets too large for a net might be instead caught with a harpoon on a tether.

Targets too large for a net might be instead caught with a harpoon on a tether .


Instead of firing a rocket, the cleaner would deploy a large sail to produce atmospheric drag and accelerate orbital decay.

Instead of firing a rocket , the cleaner would deploy a large sail to produce atmospheric drag and accelerate orbital decay .


And there are lots of other wild, sci-fi-sounding proposals, too.

And there are lots of other wild , sci - fi - sounding proposals , too .


Some might use giant electromagnets.


These magnetic tugs work by pushing on the magnetic components inside satellites that they use to stabilize and orientate themselves in Earth's magnetic field.

These magnetic tugs work by pushing on the magnetic components inside satellites that they use to stabilize and orientate themselves in Earth 's magnetic field .


These may be safer and more reliable than nets and harpoons because they never have to make contact with the junk they're handling,

These may be safer and more reliable than nets and harpoons because they never have to make contact with the junk they 're handling ,


so there's no risk of accidentally breaking up their target into more junk.

so there 's no risk of accidentally breaking up their target into more junk .


As for the tiniest bits of junk, lasers might be the key to vaporizing them entirely.

As for the tiniest bits of junk , lasers might be the key to vaporizing them entirely .


Satellites with lasers wouldn't need to visit their target.

Satellites with lasers would n't need to visit their target .


They can shoot them from far away.


Large objects can't exactly be shot down, but lasers can be used to ablate them or burn tiny amounts of material off the site to push the junk to a safer orbit.

Large objects ca n't exactly be shot down , but lasers can be used to ablate them or burn tiny amounts of material off the site to push the junk to a safer orbit .


Whatever technology we used in the end, we better start doing something soon.

Whatever technology we used in the end , we better start doing something soon .


Before 100 million bullets become a trillion and the trap is set.

Before 100 million bullets become a trillion and the trap is set .


If we don't act, our adventure in space might end before it's even begun.

If we do n't act , our adventure in space might end before it 's even begun .


If our days of dreaming about space exploration might be numbered anyway, we better put them to good use.

If our days of dreaming about space exploration might be numbered anyway , we better put them to good use .


One of the things we most like to spend our time on is learning more about our universe.

One of the things we most like to spend our time on is learning more about our universe .


And to do that, you can just keep watching.

And to do that , you can just keep watching .


Kurzgesagt and Brilliant are collaborating on a six-part video series about our favorite science and space topics.

Kurzgesagt and Brilliant are collaborating on a six - part video series about our favorite science and space topics .


Kurzgesagt has worked with Brilliant for a bit, and we love how they teach you science and maths in a practical way.

Kurzgesagt has worked with Brilliant for a bit , and we love how they teach you science and maths in a practical way .


And maybe one day, use your knowledge on problems like space junk, or at least your science projects to start with.

And maybe one day , use your knowledge on problems like space junk , or at least your science projects to start with .


If you'd like even more edutainment, go to brilliant.org slash nutshell and sign up for free.

If you 'd like even more edutainment , go to brilliant.org slash nutshell and sign up for free .


The first 688 people to use the link get their annual premium membership at a 20% discount, and also support our collaboration with Brilliant.

The first 688 people to use the link get their annual premium membership at a 20 % discount , and also support our collaboration with Brilliant .


Nuclear technology made a violent entrance onto the world stage.

Nuclear technology made a violent entrance onto the world stage .


Just one year after the world's first ever nuclear test explosion in 1944, two large cities were destroyed by just two single bombs.

Just one year after the world 's first ever nuclear test explosion in 1944 , two large cities were destroyed by just two single bombs .


After that, reactor technology slowly evolved as a means of generating electricity, but it's always been intimately connected with nuclear weapons technology.

After that , reactor technology slowly evolved as a means of generating electricity , but it 's always been intimately connected with nuclear weapons technology .


It's nearly impossible to develop nuclear weapons without access to reactor technology.

It 's nearly impossible to develop nuclear weapons without access to reactor technology .


In fact, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty serves the purpose of spreading nuclear reactor technology without spreading nuclear weapons with limited success.

In fact , the Nuclear Non - Proliferation Treaty serves the purpose of spreading nuclear reactor technology without spreading nuclear weapons with limited success .


In 40 years, five countries have developed their own weapons with the help of reactor technology.

In 40 years , five countries have developed their own weapons with the help of reactor technology .


The fact of the matter is that it can be very hard to distinguish a covert nuclear weapons program from the peaceful use of nuclear energy.

The fact of the matter is that it can be very hard to distinguish a covert nuclear weapons program from the peaceful use of nuclear energy .


In the 1970s, the big nuclear powers were happily selling peaceful technology to smaller countries, which then developed weapons of their own.

In the 1970s , the big nuclear powers were happily selling peaceful technology to smaller countries , which then developed weapons of their own .


The road to deadly nuclear weapons is always paved with peaceful reactors.

The road to deadly nuclear weapons is always paved with peaceful reactors .


Spent nuclear fuel is not only radioactive, but also contains extremely poisonous chemical elements like plutonium.

Spent nuclear fuel is not only radioactive , but also contains extremely poisonous chemical elements like plutonium .


It loses its harmfulness only slowly over several tens of thousands of years.

It loses its harmfulness only slowly over several tens of thousands of years .


And there is also a process called reprocessing, which means the extraction of plutonium from spent nuclear fuel.

And there is also a process called reprocessing , which means the extraction of plutonium from spent nuclear fuel .


It can be used for two purposes, to build nuclear weapons or to use it as new fuel.

It can be used for two purposes , to build nuclear weapons or to use it as new fuel .


But hardly any of it is used as fuel because we don't have the right kind of reactors for that.

But hardly any of it is used as fuel because we do n't have the right kind of reactors for that .


A milligram will kill you, a few kilograms make an atomic bomb, and even an inconspicuous country like Germany literally has tons of the stuff just lying around because reprocessing sounded like a good idea decades ago.

A milligram will kill you , a few kilograms make an atomic bomb , and even an inconspicuous country like Germany literally has tons of the stuff just lying around because reprocessing sounded like a good idea decades ago .


And where will all the waste go?


After dumping it into the ocean was forbidden, we've tried to bury it, but we can't find a place where it will definitely stay secure for tens of thousands of years.

After dumping it into the ocean was forbidden , we 've tried to bury it , but we ca n't find a place where it will definitely stay secure for tens of thousands of years .


Over 60 years of nuclear power usage, there have been seven major accidents in reactors or facilities dealing with nuclear waste.

Over 60 years of nuclear power usage , there have been seven major accidents in reactors or facilities dealing with nuclear waste .


Three of those were mostly contained, but four of them released significant amounts of radioactivity into the environment.

Three of those were mostly contained , but four of them released significant amounts of radioactivity into the environment .


In 1957, 1987 and 2011, large areas of land in Russia, Ukraine and Japan were rendered unfit for human habitation for decades to come.

In 1957 , 1987 and 2011 , large areas of land in Russia , Ukraine and Japan were rendered unfit for human habitation for decades to come .


The number of deaths is highly disputed, but probably lies in the thousands.

The number of deaths is highly disputed , but probably lies in the thousands .


These disasters happened with nuclear reactors of very different types in very different countries and several decades apart.

These disasters happened with nuclear reactors of very different types in very different countries and several decades apart .


Looking at the numbers, we may as well ask ourselves, are 10% of the world's energy supply worth a devastating disaster every 30 years?

Looking at the numbers , we may as well ask ourselves , are 10 % of the world 's energy supply worth a devastating disaster every 30 years ?


Would 30% be worth another Fukushima or Chernobyl somewhere on Earth every 10 years?

Would 30 % be worth another Fukushima or Chernobyl somewhere on Earth every 10 years ?


What area would have to be contaminated so we say, no more?

What area would have to be contaminated so we say , no more ?


Where is the line?


So, should we use nuclear energy?


The risks may outweigh the benefits, and maybe we should stop looking into this direction and drop this technology for good.

The risks may outweigh the benefits , and maybe we should stop looking into this direction and drop this technology for good .


If you want to hear the other side of the argument, or a short introduction to nuclear energy, click here.

If you want to hear the other side of the argument , or a short introduction to nuclear energy , click here .


Planet Earth is the home of every life form known to us in the universe.

Planet Earth is the home of every life form known to us in the universe .


Its age is about a third of the age of the universe, and, admit it, it is a thing of beauty.

Its age is about a third of the age of the universe , and , admit it , it is a thing of beauty .


But how did our home come into existence, and what's it made of?

But how did our home come into existence , and what 's it made of ?


4.6 billion years ago, Earth was created from the remnants of dead stars that collected in a giant dirty gas cloud.

4.6 billion years ago , Earth was created from the remnants of dead stars that collected in a giant dirty gas cloud .


The gas cloud became denser in its center and formed an accretion disk.

The gas cloud became denser in its center and formed an accretion disk .


Small particles started clumping together and building larger and larger objects until they formed the objects we call planets today.

Small particles started clumping together and building larger and larger objects until they formed the objects we call planets today .


This process took 10 to 20 million years and is still not very well understood.

This process took 10 to 20 million years and is still not very well understood .


At about this time, when the solar system was young and chaotic, a giant object about as big as Mars collided with our home.

At about this time , when the solar system was young and chaotic , a giant object about as big as Mars collided with our home .


The impact was violent, and if the object had been more massive, it might have destroyed Earth.

The impact was violent , and if the object had been more massive , it might have destroyed Earth .


Material from Earth was smashed out into orbit and formed the Moon, which is the biggest satellite in relation to its planet in the solar system.

Material from Earth was smashed out into orbit and formed the Moon , which is the biggest satellite in relation to its planet in the solar system .


At this time, Earth was a hot hell, constantly being hit by asteroids, with seas of lava and a toxic atmosphere.

At this time , Earth was a hot hell , constantly being hit by asteroids , with seas of lava and a toxic atmosphere .


But something was about to change drastically.

But something was about to change drastically .


Earth cooled down.


Water from the inside of the Earth wandered to the surface and rained down on Earth, only to vaporize again and become clouds.

Water from the inside of the Earth wandered to the surface and rained down on Earth , only to vaporize again and become clouds .


Millions of asteroids brought more and more water to our planet.

Millions of asteroids brought more and more water to our planet .


All the water on Earth has about this volume compared to Earth.

All the water on Earth has about this volume compared to Earth .


Today, the surface of Earth is 71% water and 29% land.

Today , the surface of Earth is 71 % water and 29 % land .


97.5% is saline water, while only 2.5% is freshwater.

97.5 % is saline water , while only 2.5 % is freshwater .


The freshwater is 69% ice and snow, 30% are groundwaters, and only about 1% make up the remaining groundwaters.

The freshwater is 69 % ice and snow , 30 % are groundwaters , and only about 1 % make up the remaining groundwaters .


But even this small part is mostly frozen.

But even this small part is mostly frozen .


Only a tiny part of our water is actually lakes and rivers, and an even tinier part is bound in living things.

Only a tiny part of our water is actually lakes and rivers , and an even tinier part is bound in living things .


So, gradually the Earth cooled down and the surface formed a thin crust,

So , gradually the Earth cooled down and the surface formed a thin crust ,


but inside the Earth, hot rock continued to swirl about, moving the crust from below and breaking it apart.

but inside the Earth , hot rock continued to swirl about , moving the crust from below and breaking it apart .


This process is called plate tectonics and is happening right now.

This process is called plate tectonics and is happening right now .


We'll make a whole video about it in the future.

We 'll make a whole video about it in the future .


For now, let's just say that the crust of Earth consists of separate giant plates that move around.

For now , let 's just say that the crust of Earth consists of separate giant plates that move around .


As they meet, they crumble and create mighty mountains.

As they meet , they crumble and create mighty mountains .


Or, violently plunge back down deeper into Earth, creating deep trenches.

Or , violently plunge back down deeper into Earth , creating deep trenches .


That's the way the highest place on Earth was formed, Mount Everest, and the deepest, the Mariana Trench.

That 's the way the highest place on Earth was formed , Mount Everest , and the deepest , the Mariana Trench .


From our perspective, Earth's mountains and trenches are mighty indeed, but when you look at the Earth in cross-section, you can see how tiny they actually are.

From our perspective , Earth 's mountains and trenches are mighty indeed , but when you look at the Earth in cross - section , you can see how tiny they actually are .


The part we stand on is the crust, which is about 50 km thick, though it can vary between 5 and 70 km.

The part we stand on is the crust , which is about 50 km thick , though it can vary between 5 and 70 km .


By the way, the deepest hole ever drilled by man is 12.262 km deep.

By the way , the deepest hole ever drilled by man is 12.262 km deep .


After the crust comes the mantle.


It's a silicate rocky shell and about 2,900 km thick.

It 's a silicate rocky shell and about 2,900 km thick .


The mantle consists of the upper mantle and the lower mantle.

The mantle consists of the upper mantle and the lower mantle .


The upper mantle has different regions too.

The upper mantle has different regions too .


Its upper part, which is viscous and carries the crust, is called the lithosphere.

Its upper part , which is viscous and carries the crust , is called the lithosphere .


After that, there comes the asthenosphere, which consists of less mobile, mostly solid material.

After that , there comes the asthenosphere , which consists of less mobile , mostly solid material .


The lower mantle reaches deep down to the outer core of Earth.

The lower mantle reaches deep down to the outer core of Earth .


Earth's outer core is a liquid layer of iron and nickel about 2,266 km thick.

Earth 's outer core is a liquid layer of iron and nickel about 2,266 km thick .


Temperatures vary from 4,000 °C to 5,700 °C.

Temperatures vary from 4,000 ° C to 5,700 ° C .


And in the center is the inner core.


It's mostly solid, a ball made of an iron-nickel alloy, with a radius of about 1,200 km, 70% the size of the Moon and about the temperature of the surface of the Sun.

It 's mostly solid , a ball made of an iron - nickel alloy , with a radius of about 1,200 km , 70 % the size of the Moon and about the temperature of the surface of the Sun .


It is slowly growing at an estimated rate of about 1 mm per year.

It is slowly growing at an estimated rate of about 1 mm per year .


This small layer of crystallized milk products of former molten mantle is where we live.

This small layer of crystallized milk products of former molten mantle is where we live .


Then there's Earth's magnetic field.


It's an invisible phenomenon that diverts high-energy particles coming from the Sun and other sources,

It 's an invisible phenomenon that diverts high - energy particles coming from the Sun and other sources ,


But why is it there?


Actually, we don't really know a terrible lot about that.

Actually , we do n't really know a terrible lot about that .


We know it has something to do with the core of the Earth.

We know it has something to do with the core of the Earth .


Inside this metal sphere, large electrical currents flow in complicated patterns.

Inside this metal sphere , large electrical currents flow in complicated patterns .


They cause a magnetic field that sort of stabilizes itself according to the laws of electrodynamics.

They cause a magnetic field that sort of stabilizes itself according to the laws of electrodynamics .


This entire system is called the dynamo.

This entire system is called the dynamo .


But don't let us fall you into thinking we have it all figured out.

But do n't let us fall you into thinking we have it all figured out .


By volume, dry air consists mostly of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon, a variable amount of water vapor and small amounts of other gases.

By volume , dry air consists mostly of nitrogen , oxygen , argon , carbon , a variable amount of water vapor and small amounts of other gases .


Humans are very dependent on the lowest layer of the atmosphere, the troposphere, where the weather is.

Humans are very dependent on the lowest layer of the atmosphere , the troposphere , where the weather is .


It's 12 km thick on average.


Above that is the stratosphere, which is where the ozone layer protects us from the Sun's most aggressive type of light.

Above that is the stratosphere , which is where the ozone layer protects us from the Sun 's most aggressive type of light .


Above that is the mesosphere, the coldest place on Earth, with an average temperature around minus 85 degrees Celsius.

Above that is the mesosphere , the coldest place on Earth , with an average temperature around minus 85 degrees Celsius .


At about 80 km up, the thermosphere starts.

At about 80 km up , the thermosphere starts .


The transition to space is a fluent one without clear borders, but humans decided that space starts here.

The transition to space is a fluent one without clear borders , but humans decided that space starts here .


At about 100 km, Earth stops and space begins, though the atmosphere extends a bit further.

At about 100 km , Earth stops and space begins , though the atmosphere extends a bit further .


In this region we find the ionosphere, the aurora borealis and the ISS.

In this region we find the ionosphere , the aurora borealis and the ISS .


And the outermost layer is the exosphere, stretching up to 10,000 km.

And the outermost layer is the exosphere , stretching up to 10,000 km .


It merges fluently with outer space, where there's no atmosphere at all.

It merges fluently with outer space , where there 's no atmosphere at all .


The atoms and molecules in this area are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of km without colliding with each other.

The atoms and molecules in this area are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of km without colliding with each other .


Okay, humans in their present form have only been around for 200,000 years.

Okay , humans in their present form have only been around for 200,000 years .


That's 0.004% of Earth's history.


And here we are now, living in a thin, moist layer on a small, wet rock.

And here we are now , living in a thin , moist layer on a small , wet rock .


We call this rock Earth.


It is the product of the Universe's deepest workings, the result of a constant process of creation and destruction,

It is the product of the Universe 's deepest workings , the result of a constant process of creation and destruction ,


We are really lucky.


What is hydraulic fracturing or fracking?

What is hydraulic fracturing or fracking ?


Since the Industrial Revolution, our energy consumption has risen unceasingly.

Since the Industrial Revolution , our energy consumption has risen unceasingly .


The majority of this energy consumption is supplied by fossil fuels, like coal or natural gas.

The majority of this energy consumption is supplied by fossil fuels , like coal or natural gas .


Recently, there's been a lot of talk about a controversial method of extracting natural gas, hydraulic fracturing or fracking.

Recently , there 's been a lot of talk about a controversial method of extracting natural gas , hydraulic fracturing or fracking .


Put simply, fracking describes the recovery of natural gas from deep layers inside the earth.

Put simply , fracking describes the recovery of natural gas from deep layers inside the earth .


In this method, porous rock is fractured by the use of water, sand and chemicals in order to release the enclosed natural gas.

In this method , porous rock is fractured by the use of water , sand and chemicals in order to release the enclosed natural gas .


The technique of fracking has been known since the 1940s.

The technique of fracking has been known since the 1940s .


Nonetheless, only in the last 10 years has there been quite a fracking boom, especially in the USA.

Nonetheless , only in the last 10 years has there been quite a fracking boom , especially in the USA .


This is because most conventional natural gas sources in America and on the European continent have been exhausted.

This is because most conventional natural gas sources in America and on the European continent have been exhausted .


Thus, prices for natural gas and other fuels are rising steadily.

Thus , prices for natural gas and other fuels are rising steadily .


Significantly more complicated and expensive methods, like fracking, have now become attractive and profitable.

Significantly more complicated and expensive methods , like fracking , have now become attractive and profitable .


In the meantime, fracking has already been used more than a million times in the USA alone.

In the meantime , fracking has already been used more than a million times in the USA alone .


Over 60% of all new oil and gas wells are drilled by using fracking.

Over 60 % of all new oil and gas wells are drilled by using fracking .


Now, let's take a look at how fracking actually works.

Now , let 's take a look at how fracking actually works .


First, a shaft is drilled several hundred meters into the earth.

First , a shaft is drilled several hundred meters into the earth .


From there, a horizontal hole is drilled into the gas-bearing layer of rock.

From there , a horizontal hole is drilled into the gas - bearing layer of rock .


Next, the fracking fluid is pumped into the ground using high-performance pumps.

Next , the fracking fluid is pumped into the ground using high - performance pumps .


On average, the fluid consists of 8 million liters of water, which amounts to about the daily consumption of 65,000 people,

On average , the fluid consists of 8 million liters of water , which amounts to about the daily consumption of 65,000 people ,


The mixture penetrates into the rock layer and produces innumerable tiny cracks.

The mixture penetrates into the rock layer and produces innumerable tiny cracks .


The sand prevents the cracks from closing again.

The sand prevents the cracks from closing again .


The chemicals perform various tasks.


Among other things, they compress the water, kill off bacteria or dissolve minerals.

Among other things , they compress the water , kill off bacteria or dissolve minerals .


Next, the majority of the fracking fluid is pumped out again.

Next , the majority of the fracking fluid is pumped out again .


And now the natural gas can be recovered.

And now the natural gas can be recovered .


As soon as the gas source is exhausted, the drill hole is sealed.

As soon as the gas source is exhausted , the drill hole is sealed .


As a rule, the fracking fluid is pumped back into deep underground layers and sealed in there.

As a rule , the fracking fluid is pumped back into deep underground layers and sealed in there .


However, fracking is also associated with several considerable risks.

However , fracking is also associated with several considerable risks .


The primary risk consists in the contamination of drinking water sources.

The primary risk consists in the contamination of drinking water sources .


The contamination is so severe that the water cannot even be cleaned in a treatment plant.

The contamination is so severe that the water can not even be cleaned in a treatment plant .


Even though the danger is known and, theoretically, could be managed, in the USA already sources have been contaminated due to negligence.

Even though the danger is known and , theoretically , could be managed , in the USA already sources have been contaminated due to negligence .


No one yet knows how the enclosed water will behave in the future, since there have not yet been any long-term studies on the subject.

No one yet knows how the enclosed water will behave in the future , since there have not yet been any long - term studies on the subject .


The chemicals used in fracking vary from the hazardous to the extremely toxic and carcinogenic, such as benzoyl or formic acid.

The chemicals used in fracking vary from the hazardous to the extremely toxic and carcinogenic , such as benzoyl or formic acid .


The companies using fracking say nothing about the precise composition of the chemical mixture.

The companies using fracking say nothing about the precise composition of the chemical mixture .


But it is known that there are about 700 different chemical agents which can be used in the process.

But it is known that there are about 700 different chemical agents which can be used in the process .


Another risk is the release of greenhouse gases.

Another risk is the release of greenhouse gases .


The natural gas recovered by fracking consists largely of methane, a greenhouse gas which is 25 times more potent than carbon dioxide.

The natural gas recovered by fracking consists largely of methane , a greenhouse gas which is 25 times more potent than carbon dioxide .


Natural gas is less harmful than coal when burned.

Natural gas is less harmful than coal when burned .


But nonetheless the negative effects of fracking on the climate balance are overall greater.

But nonetheless the negative effects of fracking on the climate balance are overall greater .


Firstly, the fracking process requires a very large consumption of energy.

Firstly , the fracking process requires a very large consumption of energy .


Secondly, the drill holes are quickly exhausted and it is necessary to drill fracking holes much more frequently than for classical natural gas wells.

Secondly , the drill holes are quickly exhausted and it is necessary to drill fracking holes much more frequently than for classical natural gas wells .


In addition, about 3% of the recovered gas is lost in the extraction and escapes into the atmosphere.

In addition , about 3 % of the recovered gas is lost in the extraction and escapes into the atmosphere .


When properly employed, this technique offers one way in the short to medium term to meet our demand for lower cost energy.

When properly employed , this technique offers one way in the short to medium term to meet our demand for lower cost energy .


But the long term consequences of fracking are unforeseeable and the risk to our drinking water thus should not be underestimated.

But the long term consequences of fracking are unforeseeable and the risk to our drinking water thus should not be underestimated .


The fundamental currency of our universe is energy.

The fundamental currency of our universe is energy .


It lights our homes, grows our food, powers our computers.

It lights our homes , grows our food , powers our computers .


We can get it lots of ways, burning fossil fuels, splitting atoms or sunlight striking photovoltaics.

We can get it lots of ways , burning fossil fuels , splitting atoms or sunlight striking photovoltaics .


But there's a downside to everything.


Fossil fuels are extremely toxic, nuclear waste is, well, nuclear waste, and there are not enough batteries to store sunlight for cloudy days yet.

Fossil fuels are extremely toxic , nuclear waste is , well , nuclear waste , and there are not enough batteries to store sunlight for cloudy days yet .


And yet, the sun seems to have virtually limitless free energy.

And yet , the sun seems to have virtually limitless free energy .


Is there a way we could build a sun on Earth?

Is there a way we could build a sun on Earth ?


Can we bottle a star?


The sun shines because of nuclear fusion.

The sun shines because of nuclear fusion .


In a nutshell, fusion is a thermonuclear process, meaning that the ingredients have to be incredibly hot,

In a nutshell , fusion is a thermonuclear process , meaning that the ingredients have to be incredibly hot ,


Since nuclei are all positively charged, they repel each other.

Since nuclei are all positively charged , they repel each other .


In order to overcome this repulsion, the particles have to be going very, very fast.

In order to overcome this repulsion , the particles have to be going very , very fast .


In this context, very fast means very hot.

In this context , very fast means very hot .


Stars cheat to reach these temperatures.

Stars cheat to reach these temperatures .


They are so massive that the pressure in their cores generates the heat to squeeze the nuclei together until they merge and fuse,

They are so massive that the pressure in their cores generates the heat to squeeze the nuclei together until they merge and fuse ,


It is this energy release that scientists hope to harness in a new generation of power plant, the fusion reactor.

It is this energy release that scientists hope to harness in a new generation of power plant , the fusion reactor .


On Earth, it's not feasible to use this brute force method to create fusion,

On Earth , it 's not feasible to use this brute force method to create fusion ,


so if we wanted to build a reactor that generates energy from fusion, we have to get clever.

so if we wanted to build a reactor that generates energy from fusion , we have to get clever .


To date, scientists have invented two ways of making plasmas hot enough to fuse.

To date , scientists have invented two ways of making plasmas hot enough to fuse .


The first type of reactor uses a magnetic field to squeeze a plasma in a donut-shaped chamber where the reactions take place.

The first type of reactor uses a magnetic field to squeeze a plasma in a donut - shaped chamber where the reactions take place .


These magnetic confinement reactors, such as the ITER reactor in France, use superconducting electromagnets cooled with liquid helium

These magnetic confinement reactors , such as the ITER reactor in France , use superconducting electromagnets cooled with liquid helium


The second type, called inertial confinement, uses pulses from super-powered lasers to heat the surface of a pellet of fuel,

The second type , called inertial confinement , uses pulses from super - powered lasers to heat the surface of a pellet of fuel ,


In fact, one of the most powerful lasers in the world is used for fusion experiments at the National Ignition Facility in the US.

In fact , one of the most powerful lasers in the world is used for fusion experiments at the National Ignition Facility in the US .


These experiments, and others like them around the world, are today just experiments.

These experiments , and others like them around the world , are today just experiments .


Scientists are still developing the technology.

Scientists are still developing the technology .


And although they can achieve fusion right now, it costs more energy to do the experiment than they produce in fusion.

And although they can achieve fusion right now , it costs more energy to do the experiment than they produce in fusion .


The technology has a long way to go before it's commercially viable.

The technology has a long way to go before it 's commercially viable .


It might just be impossible to make a viable fusion reactor on Earth.

It might just be impossible to make a viable fusion reactor on Earth .


But if it gets there, it would be so efficient that a single glass of seawater could be used to produce as much energy as burning a barrel of oil, with no waste to speak of.

But if it gets there , it would be so efficient that a single glass of seawater could be used to produce as much energy as burning a barrel of oil , with no waste to speak of .


This is because fusion reactors would use hydrogen or helium as fuel, and seawater is loaded with hydrogen.

This is because fusion reactors would use hydrogen or helium as fuel , and seawater is loaded with hydrogen .


But not just any hydrogen will do.


Specific isotopes with extra neutrons, called deuterium and tritium, are needed to make the right reactions.

Specific isotopes with extra neutrons , called deuterium and tritium , are needed to make the right reactions .


Deuterium is stable and can be found in abundance in seawater, though tritium is a bit trickier.

Deuterium is stable and can be found in abundance in seawater , though tritium is a bit trickier .


It's radioactive, and there may only be 20 kilograms of it in the world, mostly in nuclear warheads, which makes it incredibly expensive.

It 's radioactive , and there may only be 20 kilograms of it in the world , mostly in nuclear warheads , which makes it incredibly expensive .


So we may need another fusion buddy for deuterium instead of tritium.

So we may need another fusion buddy for deuterium instead of tritium .


Helium-3, an isotope of helium, might be a great substitute.

Helium-3 , an isotope of helium , might be a great substitute .


Unfortunately, it's also incredibly rare on Earth.

Unfortunately , it 's also incredibly rare on Earth .


But here, the Moon might have the answer.

But here , the Moon might have the answer .


Over billions of years, the solar wind may have built up huge deposits of helium-3 on the Moon.

Over billions of years , the solar wind may have built up huge deposits of helium-3 on the Moon .


Instead of making helium-3, we can mine it.

Instead of making helium-3 , we can mine it .


If we could sift the lunar dust for helium, we'd have enough fuel to power the entire world for thousands of years.

If we could sift the lunar dust for helium , we 'd have enough fuel to power the entire world for thousands of years .


Okay, maybe you think building a mini-Sun still sounds kind of dangerous.

Okay , maybe you think building a mini - Sun still sounds kind of dangerous .


But they'd actually be much safer than most other types of power plant.

But they 'd actually be much safer than most other types of power plant .


A fusion reactor is not like a nuclear plant, which can melt down catastrophically.

A fusion reactor is not like a nuclear plant , which can melt down catastrophically .


If the confinement failed, then the plasma would expand and cool, and the reaction would stop.

If the confinement failed , then the plasma would expand and cool , and the reaction would stop .


Put simply, it's not a bomb.


The release of radioactive fuel like tritium could pose a threat to the environment.

The release of radioactive fuel like tritium could pose a threat to the environment .


Tritium could bond with oxygen, making radioactive water, which could be dangerous as it seeps into the environment.

Tritium could bond with oxygen , making radioactive water , which could be dangerous as it seeps into the environment .


Fortunately, there's no more than a few grams of tritium in use at a given time, so a leak would be quickly diluted.

Fortunately , there 's no more than a few grams of tritium in use at a given time , so a leak would be quickly diluted .


So we've just told you that there's nearly unlimited energy to be had, at no expense to the environment, in something as simple as water.

So we 've just told you that there 's nearly unlimited energy to be had , at no expense to the environment , in something as simple as water .


So, what's the catch?


We simply don't know if fusion power will ever be commercially viable.

We simply do n't know if fusion power will ever be commercially viable .


Even if they work, they might be too expensive to ever build.

Even if they work , they might be too expensive to ever build .


The main drawback is that it's unproven technology.

The main drawback is that it 's unproven technology .


It's a 10 billion dollar gamble, and that money might be better spent on other clean energy that's already proven itself.

It 's a 10 billion dollar gamble , and that money might be better spent on other clean energy that 's already proven itself .


Maybe we should cut our losses.


Or maybe, when the payoff is unlimited clean energy for everyone, it might be worth the risk.

Or maybe , when the payoff is unlimited clean energy for everyone , it might be worth the risk .


Videos like this one take hundreds of hours to make, and are made possible by your contributions on patreon.com.

Videos like this one take hundreds of hours to make , and are made possible by your contributions on patreon.com .


If you want to learn more about global energy, here's a playlist about nuclear energy, fracking, and solar power.

If you want to learn more about global energy , here 's a playlist about nuclear energy , fracking , and solar power .


Let us know in the comments if there are other technologies you want us to explain.

Let us know in the comments if there are other technologies you want us to explain .


Imagine you were alive back in the 1980s and were told that computers would soon take over everything, from shopping to dating and the stock market.

Imagine you were alive back in the 1980s and were told that computers would soon take over everything , from shopping to dating and the stock market .


That billions of people would be connected via a kind of web.

That billions of people would be connected via a kind of web .


That you would own a handheld device orders of magnitude more powerful than supercomputers.

That you would own a handheld device orders of magnitude more powerful than supercomputers .


It would seem absurd, but then all of it happened.

It would seem absurd , but then all of it happened .


Science fiction became our reality and we don't even think about it.

Science fiction became our reality and we do n't even think about it .


We're at a similar point today with genetic engineering.

We 're at a similar point today with genetic engineering .


So let's talk about it.


Humans have been engineering life for thousands of years.

Humans have been engineering life for thousands of years .


Through selective breeding, we strengthened useful traits in plants and animals.

Through selective breeding , we strengthened useful traits in plants and animals .


We became very good at this, but never truly understood how it works.

We became very good at this , but never truly understood how it works .


Until we discovered the Code of Life, Deoxyribonucleic Acid, DNA.

Until we discovered the Code of Life , Deoxyribonucleic Acid , DNA .


Information is encoded in the structure of the molecule.

Information is encoded in the structure of the molecule .


Four nucleotides are paired and make up a code that carries instructions.

Four nucleotides are paired and make up a code that carries instructions .


Change the instructions and you change the being carrying it.

Change the instructions and you change the being carrying it .


As soon as DNA was discovered, people tried to tinker with it.

As soon as DNA was discovered , people tried to tinker with it .


In the 1960s, scientists bombarded plants with radiation to cause random mutations in the genetic code.

In the 1960s , scientists bombarded plants with radiation to cause random mutations in the genetic code .


The idea was to get a useful plant variation by pure chance.

The idea was to get a useful plant variation by pure chance .


Sometimes it actually worked too.


In the 70s, scientists inserted DNA snippets into bacteria, plants and animals to study and modify them.

In the 70s , scientists inserted DNA snippets into bacteria , plants and animals to study and modify them .


The earliest genetically modified animal was born in 1974.

The earliest genetically modified animal was born in 1974 .


In the 80s, we got commercial.


The first patent was given for a microbe engineered to absorb oil.

The first patent was given for a microbe engineered to absorb oil .


Today, we produce many chemicals by means of engineered life.

Today , we produce many chemicals by means of engineered life .


The first food modified in the lab went on sale in 1994.

The first food modified in the lab went on sale in 1994 .


But GM food and the controversy surrounding them deserve a video of their own.

But GM food and the controversy surrounding them deserve a video of their own .


In the 1990s, there was also a brief foray into human engineering.

In the 1990s , there was also a brief foray into human engineering .


To treat maternal infertility, babies were made that carried genetic information from three humans.

To treat maternal infertility , babies were made that carried genetic information from three humans .


Today, there are super muscled pigs, fast growing salmon, featherless chickens and see-through frogs.

Today , there are super muscled pigs , fast growing salmon , featherless chickens and see - through frogs .


On the fun side, we made things glow in the dark.

On the fun side , we made things glow in the dark .


Fluorescent zebrafish are available for as little as $10.

Fluorescent zebrafish are available for as little as $ 10 .


All of this is already very impressive.

All of this is already very impressive .


But until recently, gene editing was extremely expensive, complicated and took a long time to do.

But until recently , gene editing was extremely expensive , complicated and took a long time to do .


This has now changed with a revolutionary new technology now entering the stage.

This has now changed with a revolutionary new technology now entering the stage .


Overnight, the costs of engineering have shrunk by 99%.

Overnight , the costs of engineering have shrunk by 99 % .


Instead of a year, it takes a few weeks to conduct experiments and basically everybody with a lab can do it.

Instead of a year , it takes a few weeks to conduct experiments and basically everybody with a lab can do it .


It's hard to get across how big a technical revolution CRISPR is.

It 's hard to get across how big a technical revolution CRISPR is .


It literally has the potential to change humanity forever.

It literally has the potential to change humanity forever .


Why did this sudden revolution happen and how does it work?

Why did this sudden revolution happen and how does it work ?


Bacteria and viruses have been fighting since the dawn of life.

Bacteria and viruses have been fighting since the dawn of life .


So-called bacteriophages or phages hunt bacteria.

So - called bacteriophages or phages hunt bacteria .


In the ocean, phages kill 40% of them every single day.

In the ocean , phages kill 40 % of them every single day .


Phages do this by inserting their own genetic code into the bacteria and taking them over to use them as factories.

Phages do this by inserting their own genetic code into the bacteria and taking them over to use them as factories .