And if there's a poor star nearby to feed the neutron star, it can rotate up to several hundred times per second.

And if there 's a poor star nearby to feed the neutron star , it can rotate up to several hundred times per second .


It spins at approximately 252 million kilometers per hour.

It spins at approximately 252 million kilometers per hour .


This is so fast that the star has a rather strange shape.

This is so fast that the star has a rather strange shape .


We call these objects pulsars because they emit a strong radio signal.

We call these objects pulsars because they emit a strong radio signal .


And the magnetic field of a neutron star is roughly a trillion times stronger than the magnetic field of Earth.

And the magnetic field of a neutron star is roughly a trillion times stronger than the magnetic field of Earth .


Okay, I think we got the point across.

Okay , I think we got the point across .


Neutron stars are some of the most extreme, but also some of the coolest objects in the universe.

Neutron stars are some of the most extreme , but also some of the coolest objects in the universe .


Hopefully, we'll one day send spaceships to learn more about them and take some neat pictures.

Hopefully , we 'll one day send spaceships to learn more about them and take some neat pictures .


But we shouldn't get too close.


Let's start this video by throwing a mouse, a dog and an elephant from a skyscraper onto something soft, let's say, a stack of mattresses.

Let 's start this video by throwing a mouse , a dog and an elephant from a skyscraper onto something soft , let 's say , a stack of mattresses .


The mouse lands and is stunned for a moment before it shakes itself off and walks away pretty annoyed, because that's a very rude thing to do.

The mouse lands and is stunned for a moment before it shakes itself off and walks away pretty annoyed , because that 's a very rude thing to do .


The dog breaks all of its bones and dies in an unspectacular way, and the elephant explodes into a red puddle of bones and insides and has no chance to be annoyed.

The dog breaks all of its bones and dies in an unspectacular way , and the elephant explodes into a red puddle of bones and insides and has no chance to be annoyed .


Why does the mouse survive, but the elephant and dog don't?

Why does the mouse survive , but the elephant and dog do n't ?


The answer is size.


Size is the most underappreciated regulator of living things.

Size is the most underappreciated regulator of living things .


Size determines everything about our biology, how we are built, how we experience the world, how we live and die.

Size determines everything about our biology , how we are built , how we experience the world , how we live and die .


It does so because the physical laws are different for different sized animals.

It does so because the physical laws are different for different sized animals .


Life spans seven orders of magnitude, from invisible bacteria to mites, ants, mice, dogs, humans, elephants and blue whales.

Life spans seven orders of magnitude , from invisible bacteria to mites , ants , mice , dogs , humans , elephants and blue whales .


Every size lives in its own unique universe right next to each other, each with its own rules, upsides and downsides.

Every size lives in its own unique universe right next to each other , each with its own rules , upsides and downsides .


We'll explore these different worlds in a series of videos.

We 'll explore these different worlds in a series of videos .


Let's get back to the initial question.

Let 's get back to the initial question .


Why did our mouse survive the fall?


Very small things, for example, are practically immune to falling from great heights, because the smaller you are, the less you care about the effect of gravity.

Very small things , for example , are practically immune to falling from great heights , because the smaller you are , the less you care about the effect of gravity .


Imagine a theoretical spherical animal the size of a marble.

Imagine a theoretical spherical animal the size of a marble .


It has three features, its length, its surface area, which is covered in skin, and its volume, or all the stuff inside it like organs, muscles, hopes and dreams.

It has three features , its length , its surface area , which is covered in skin , and its volume , or all the stuff inside it like organs , muscles , hopes and dreams .


If we make it ten times longer, say the size of a basketball, the rest of its features don't just grow ten times.

If we make it ten times longer , say the size of a basketball , the rest of its features do n't just grow ten times .


Its skin will grow 100 times, and its insides, or its volume, grows by 1000 times.

Its skin will grow 100 times , and its insides , or its volume , grows by 1000 times .


The volume determines the weight, or more accurately, mass of the animal.

The volume determines the weight , or more accurately , mass of the animal .


An elephant is so big that it has extremely little surface area in ratio to its volume,

An elephant is so big that it has extremely little surface area in ratio to its volume ,


so a lot of kinetic energy gets distributed over a small space, and the air doesn't slow it down much at all.

so a lot of kinetic energy gets distributed over a small space , and the air does n't slow it down much at all .


That's why it's completely destroyed in an impressive explosion of goo when it hits the ground.

That 's why it 's completely destroyed in an impressive explosion of goo when it hits the ground .


The other extreme, insects, have a huge surface area in relation to their tiny mass, so you can literally throw an ant from an aeroplane and it will not be seriously harmed.

The other extreme , insects , have a huge surface area in relation to their tiny mass , so you can literally throw an ant from an aeroplane and it will not be seriously harmed .


But while falling is irrelevant in the small world, there are other forces that are harmless for us, but extremely dangerous for small beings.

But while falling is irrelevant in the small world , there are other forces that are harmless for us , but extremely dangerous for small beings .


How does it work?


Water has the tendency to stick to itself.

Water has the tendency to stick to itself .


Its molecules are attracted to each other through a force called cohesion, which creates a tension on its surface that you can imagine as a sort of invisible skin.

Its molecules are attracted to each other through a force called cohesion , which creates a tension on its surface that you can imagine as a sort of invisible skin .


For us, this skin is so weak that we don't even notice it normally.

For us , this skin is so weak that we do n't even notice it normally .


If you get wet, about 800 grams of water, or about 1% of your body weight, sticks to you.

If you get wet , about 800 grams of water , or about 1 % of your body weight , sticks to you .


A wet mouse has about 3 grams of water sticking to it, which is more than 10% of its body weight.

A wet mouse has about 3 grams of water sticking to it , which is more than 10 % of its body weight .


Imagine having 8 full water bottles sticking to you when you leave the shower.

Imagine having 8 full water bottles sticking to you when you leave the shower .


But for an insect, the force of water's surface tension is so strong that getting wet is a question of life and death.

But for an insect , the force of water 's surface tension is so strong that getting wet is a question of life and death .


If we were to shrink you to the size of an ant and you touch water, it would be like you were reaching into glue.

If we were to shrink you to the size of an ant and you touch water , it would be like you were reaching into glue .


It would quickly engulf you, its surface tension too hard for you to break, and you'd drown.

It would quickly engulf you , its surface tension too hard for you to break , and you 'd drown .


So insects evolved to be water-repellent.

So insects evolved to be water - repellent .


For one, their exoskeleton is covered with a thin layer of wax, just like a car.

For one , their exoskeleton is covered with a thin layer of wax , just like a car .


This makes their surface at least partly water-repellent because it can't stick to it very well.

This makes their surface at least partly water - repellent because it ca n't stick to it very well .


Many insects are also covered with tiny hairs that serve as a barrier.

Many insects are also covered with tiny hairs that serve as a barrier .


They vastly increase their surface area and prevent the droplets from touching their exoskeleton and make it easier to get rid of droplets.

They vastly increase their surface area and prevent the droplets from touching their exoskeleton and make it easier to get rid of droplets .


To make use of surface tension, evolution cracked nanotechnology billions of years before us.

To make use of surface tension , evolution cracked nanotechnology billions of years before us .


Some insects have evolved a surface covered by a short and extremely dense coat of water-repelling hair.

Some insects have evolved a surface covered by a short and extremely dense coat of water - repelling hair .


Some have more than a million hairs per square millimeter.

Some have more than a million hairs per square millimeter .


When the insect dives underwater, air stays inside their fur and forms a coat of air.

When the insect dives underwater , air stays inside their fur and forms a coat of air .


Water can't enter because the hairs are too tiny to break its surface tension.

Water ca n't enter because the hairs are too tiny to break its surface tension .


But it gets even better.


As the oxygen of the air bubble runs out, new oxygen diffuses into the bubble from the water around it, while the carbon dioxide diffuses outwards into the water.

As the oxygen of the air bubble runs out , new oxygen diffuses into the bubble from the water around it , while the carbon dioxide diffuses outwards into the water .


And so the insect carries its own outside lung around and can basically breathe underwater thanks to surface tension.

And so the insect carries its own outside lung around and can basically breathe underwater thanks to surface tension .


This is the same principle that enables pond skaters to walk on water, by the way.

This is the same principle that enables pond skaters to walk on water , by the way .


The smaller you get, the weirder the environment becomes.

The smaller you get , the weirder the environment becomes .


At some point, even air becomes more and more solid.

At some point , even air becomes more and more solid .


Let's now zoom down to the smallest insects known, about half the size of a grain of salt.

Let 's now zoom down to the smallest insects known , about half the size of a grain of salt .


They live in a world even weirder than other insects.

They live in a world even weirder than other insects .


For them, air itself is like thin jello, a syrup-like mass surrounding them at all times.

For them , air itself is like thin jello , a syrup - like mass surrounding them at all times .


Movement through it is not easy.


Flying on this level is not like elegant gliding.

Flying on this level is not like elegant gliding .


They have to kind of grab and hold on to air.

They have to kind of grab and hold on to air .


So their wings look like big hairy arms rather than proper insect wings.

So their wings look like big hairy arms rather than proper insect wings .


They literally swim through the air like a tiny gross alien through syrup.

They literally swim through the air like a tiny gross alien through syrup .


Things only become stranger from here on as we explore more universes of different sizes.

Things only become stranger from here on as we explore more universes of different sizes .


The physical rules are so different for each size that evolution had to engineer around them over and over as life grew in size in the last billion years.

The physical rules are so different for each size that evolution had to engineer around them over and over as life grew in size in the last billion years .


So, why are there no ants the size of horses?

So , why are there no ants the size of horses ?


We'll discuss this in the next part.


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Black holes can destroy everything.


But can they be destroyed?


What happens if we push physics to the absolute limit, maybe even breaking it and the universe in the process?

What happens if we push physics to the absolute limit , maybe even breaking it and the universe in the process ?


Let's create a tiny black hole about the mass of our moon in the Kurzgesagt labs and try to rip it apart.

Let 's create a tiny black hole about the mass of our moon in the Kurzgesagt labs and try to rip it apart .


Experiment 1 Nuke it.


Big booms break things, so to set the mood, let's explode the world's entire nuclear arsenal around our black hole.

Big booms break things , so to set the mood , let 's explode the world 's entire nuclear arsenal around our black hole .


Black holes swallow whatever crosses their event horizon, matter and energy.

Black holes swallow whatever crosses their event horizon , matter and energy .


And since E equals mc squared, all the energy that enters a black hole increases its mass.

And since E equals mc squared , all the energy that enters a black hole increases its mass .


The mass of a black hole is proportional to its size, so as we nuke our tiny black hole, it just gets bigger and more massive.

The mass of a black hole is proportional to its size , so as we nuke our tiny black hole , it just gets bigger and more massive .


Matter and antimatter annihilate each other.

Matter and antimatter annihilate each other .


What will happen if we throw a moon's massive antimatter at it?

What will happen if we throw a moon 's massive antimatter at it ?


Unfortunately, when an object enters a black hole, the black hole will completely delete its past identity, whether it's made of matter or of antimatter.

Unfortunately , when an object enters a black hole , the black hole will completely delete its past identity , whether it 's made of matter or of antimatter .


Black holes only care about gravity, which only depends on the total mass-energy of an object.

Black holes only care about gravity , which only depends on the total mass - energy of an object .


And the mass of a particle is the same as its corresponding antiparticle, so throwing an antimoon has the same effect as throwing a moon.

And the mass of a particle is the same as its corresponding antiparticle , so throwing an antimoon has the same effect as throwing a moon .


The black hole just gets more massive.


This deleting ability of black holes is pretty interesting.

This deleting ability of black holes is pretty interesting .


It means that despite their size and power, black holes are, in a way, similar to elementary particles.

It means that despite their size and power , black holes are , in a way , similar to elementary particles .


An elementary particle like an electron is an extremely simple object, fully specified by just three numbers, its mass, spin and charge.

An elementary particle like an electron is an extremely simple object , fully specified by just three numbers , its mass , spin and charge .


And, amazingly, the same is true for black holes.

And , amazingly , the same is true for black holes .


They have a mass, they can rotate and carry an electric charge.

They have a mass , they can rotate and carry an electric charge .


Once a black hole forms, it doesn't matter if it comes from a collapsed star, an anti-star or a banana, it will always be fully described by those three numbers, nothing else.

Once a black hole forms , it does n't matter if it comes from a collapsed star , an anti - star or a banana , it will always be fully described by those three numbers , nothing else .


But if a black hole is basically a weird particle, could we destroy it with an anti-black hole?

But if a black hole is basically a weird particle , could we destroy it with an anti - black hole ?


A particle has the same mass as its corresponding antiparticle, but opposite charge.

A particle has the same mass as its corresponding antiparticle , but opposite charge .


Since a black hole has mass and electric charge, its corresponding anti-black hole should have the same mass and opposite electric charge.

Since a black hole has mass and electric charge , its corresponding anti - black hole should have the same mass and opposite electric charge .


Sadly, the charge will just add up and cancel out.

Sadly , the charge will just add up and cancel out .


So, after the collision, we'll just get a new black hole twice as massive with no charge.

So , after the collision , we 'll just get a new black hole twice as massive with no charge .


Okay, we need to think bigger and stretch physics harder.

Okay , we need to think bigger and stretch physics harder .


Experiment 4, Destory the event horizon.

Experiment 4 , Destory the event horizon .


It's true that a black hole can carry spin and charge, but even for these crazy objects, there are limits.

It 's true that a black hole can carry spin and charge , but even for these crazy objects , there are limits .


If the spin or the charge of a black hole becomes too large, something really weird will happen.

If the spin or the charge of a black hole becomes too large , something really weird will happen .


The event horizon will dissolve.


In a simplified way, we think of black holes as hiding a singularity inside,

In a simplified way , we think of black holes as hiding a singularity inside ,


This is why a black hole looks like a black sphere of nothingness.

This is why a black hole looks like a black sphere of nothingness .


The event horizon is the outer edge of this ultimate prison.

The event horizon is the outer edge of this ultimate prison .


Cross it, and you'll never be able to come back.

Cross it , and you 'll never be able to come back .


But when a black hole rotates, it works a bit like a spinning washing machine.

But when a black hole rotates , it works a bit like a spinning washing machine .


It's as if the rotation wants to repel nearby objects and push them out of the black hole, which doesn't happen because its gravity is so strong.

It 's as if the rotation wants to repel nearby objects and push them out of the black hole , which does n't happen because its gravity is so strong .


But if the rotation gets too fast, this effect will win and the event horizon will disappear.

But if the rotation gets too fast , this effect will win and the event horizon will disappear .


Nearby objects won't be imprisoned forever anymore.

Nearby objects wo n't be imprisoned forever anymore .


The same thing happens with the electric charge.

The same thing happens with the electric charge .


Make it too large, and our ironclad jail will break open.

Make it too large , and our ironclad jail will break open .


If we manage to destroy the event horizon, the singularity would still be there, and objects would still naturally fall towards it.

If we manage to destroy the event horizon , the singularity would still be there , and objects would still naturally fall towards it .


If you hit it, you would still die horribly and quickly.

If you hit it , you would still die horribly and quickly .


But the vicinity of the singularity won't be an inescapable prison anymore.

But the vicinity of the singularity wo n't be an inescapable prison anymore .


You could get as close as you want and come back.

You could get as close as you want and come back .


This should count as destroying the black hole.

This should count as destroying the black hole .


Can we do it?


All we have to do is to overcharge or overspin the black hole.

All we have to do is to overcharge or overspin the black hole .


We could do this by throwing objects with a small mass and a lot of charge or angular momentum so that the charge or spin increases faster than the mass.

We could do this by throwing objects with a small mass and a lot of charge or angular momentum so that the charge or spin increases faster than the mass .


We have to overfeed the black hole until it reaches the point where it breaks open.

We have to overfeed the black hole until it reaches the point where it breaks open .


However, whether you can actually do this is the subject of passionate argument among physicists.

However , whether you can actually do this is the subject of passionate argument among physicists .


Think of a charged black hole.


Equal charges repel each other, and the more of the same charges you squish together, the more they push back.

Equal charges repel each other , and the more of the same charges you squish together , the more they push back .


So let's say that we have a negatively charged black hole and we want to overfeed it with electrons, for example, whose charge is far larger than its mass.

So let 's say that we have a negatively charged black hole and we want to overfeed it with electrons , for example , whose charge is far larger than its mass .


The electrons will feel an electrostatic repulsion, and the more electrons we throw, the larger the negative charge of the black hole will be and the stronger the repulsion.

The electrons will feel an electrostatic repulsion , and the more electrons we throw , the larger the negative charge of the black hole will be and the stronger the repulsion .


But once we reach the upper limit, the electrostatic repulsion will be so strong that it won't allow any more electrons to come in.

But once we reach the upper limit , the electrostatic repulsion will be so strong that it wo n't allow any more electrons to come in .


At this point, the black hole will refuse to be overfed.

At this point , the black hole will refuse to be overfed .


With the spin, it's similar.


Once the black hole reaches its upper limit, it won't gobble more spin.

Once the black hole reaches its upper limit , it wo n't gobble more spin .


But some scientists have discovered what looks like a loophole.

But some scientists have discovered what looks like a loophole .


If an instant before the black hole reaches the limit, we throw the right amount of matter in in just the right way, it looks like we could actually overfeed it.

If an instant before the black hole reaches the limit , we throw the right amount of matter in in just the right way , it looks like we could actually overfeed it .


Most scientists are skeptical, but let's give it a try anyway.

Most scientists are skeptical , but let 's give it a try anyway .


There is a catch, though.


The horizon of a black hole hides the singularity.

The horizon of a black hole hides the singularity .


So destroying the horizon would leave us with a naked singularity, one that is not hidden by an event horizon.

So destroying the horizon would leave us with a naked singularity , one that is not hidden by an event horizon .


And this poses a problem.


It could mean the end of physics as we know it.

It could mean the end of physics as we know it .


There's a big dirty secret about black holes.

There 's a big dirty secret about black holes .


Contrary to widespread belief, the singularity of a black hole is not really at its center.

Contrary to widespread belief , the singularity of a black hole is not really at its center .


It's in the future of whatever crosses the horizon.

It 's in the future of whatever crosses the horizon .


Black holes warp the universe so drastically that at the event horizon, space and time switch their roles.

Black holes warp the universe so drastically that at the event horizon , space and time switch their roles .


Once you cross it, falling towards the center means going towards the future.

Once you cross it , falling towards the center means going towards the future .


That's why you can't escape.


Stopping your fall and turning back would be just as impossible as stopping time and traveling to the past.

Stopping your fall and turning back would be just as impossible as stopping time and traveling to the past .


So the singularity is actually in your future, not in front of you.

So the singularity is actually in your future , not in front of you .


And just like you can't see your own future, you won't see the singularity until you hit it.

And just like you ca n't see your own future , you wo n't see the singularity until you hit it .


But you also can't hit something that's in your future, you only sort of experience it, like you'll experience your next birthday when it happens.

But you also ca n't hit something that 's in your future , you only sort of experience it , like you 'll experience your next birthday when it happens .


Singularities that are in the future are not a problem because we can't see them or interact with them.

Singularities that are in the future are not a problem because we ca n't see them or interact with them .


But a naked singularity would be in front of us for all of us to see.

But a naked singularity would be in front of us for all of us to see .


What would we see?


Well, the whole point is that it's impossible to know.

Well , the whole point is that it 's impossible to know .


A singularity is a region of infinite gravity, and gravity is the bending of space-time.

A singularity is a region of infinite gravity , and gravity is the bending of space - time .


At a singularity, the bending is so radical that the fabric of space-time is literally broken.

At a singularity , the bending is so radical that the fabric of space - time is literally broken .


Space and time don't exist anymore.


This means that you can't predict anything, since predicting means making a forecast about where and when something will happen.

This means that you ca n't predict anything , since predicting means making a forecast about where and when something will happen .


So we have an unpredictable thing with infinite gravity and therefore infinite energy.

So we have an unpredictable thing with infinite gravity and therefore infinite energy .


This means that anything could come out of it for no reason, from a pile of bananas to lost socks or a solar system.

This means that anything could come out of it for no reason , from a pile of bananas to lost socks or a solar system .


Predictability, causality and physics as we know it would break down.

Predictability , causality and physics as we know it would break down .


We think that singularities should exist in nature because we can prove that under very general conditions, gravitational collapse leads to the formation of singularities.

We think that singularities should exist in nature because we can prove that under very general conditions , gravitational collapse leads to the formation of singularities .


However, scientists think that nature forbids the formation of naked singularities.

However , scientists think that nature forbids the formation of naked singularities .


Something enforces the creation of an event horizon around them to prevent their insanity from infecting the rest of the universe.

Something enforces the creation of an event horizon around them to prevent their insanity from infecting the rest of the universe .


Without event horizons, physics may not make sense at all.

Without event horizons , physics may not make sense at all .


So although black holes have been portrayed as the ultimate monsters of the universe, they may actually be the heroes that keep us safe from the madness of singularities.

So although black holes have been portrayed as the ultimate monsters of the universe , they may actually be the heroes that keep us safe from the madness of singularities .


So if we do destroy the horizon, we might destroy the fundamental rules of the universe.

So if we do destroy the horizon , we might destroy the fundamental rules of the universe .


You know what?


Let's not do that.


As far as we know, there's just one safe method to destroy a black hole.

As far as we know , there 's just one safe method to destroy a black hole .


Wait!


All black holes emit tiny particles, a phenomenon called Hawking radiation.

All black holes emit tiny particles , a phenomenon called Hawking radiation .


This process causes them to slowly lose mass until they eventually evaporate, leaving behind no horizon and no naked singularity.

This process causes them to slowly lose mass until they eventually evaporate , leaving behind no horizon and no naked singularity .


The time it takes for a black hole to completely evaporate depends on its mass.

The time it takes for a black hole to completely evaporate depends on its mass .


For our mini black hole, the size of a speck of dust, it will be about 10 to the power of 44 years.

For our mini black hole , the size of a speck of dust , it will be about 10 to the power of 44 years .


So is it possible to destroy a black hole?

So is it possible to destroy a black hole ?


Yes, we just have to wait.


But you don't have to wait that long.


There are plenty of fascinating things to explore right here on this planet right now, if you have the knowledge to understand them.

There are plenty of fascinating things to explore right here on this planet right now , if you have the knowledge to understand them .


To help you with that, we've created a series of lessons to take your scientific knowledge to the next level.

To help you with that , we 've created a series of lessons to take your scientific knowledge to the next level .


Made in collaboration with our friends at Brilliant.org, these lessons give you a deeper understanding of the topics from our most popular videos,

Made in collaboration with our friends at Brilliant.org , these lessons give you a deeper understanding of the topics from our most popular videos ,


There's even a lesson on black holes, where you can delve into the fundamental principles behind their behavior and life cycle.

There 's even a lesson on black holes , where you can delve into the fundamental principles behind their behavior and life cycle .


Brilliant is the best way to master key concepts in everything from maths and science to computer science and beyond.

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Just set your goal and Brilliant designs the perfect path and equips you with the right tools to reach it.

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Brilliant has thousands of lessons to explore, and each one is interactive like a one-on-one version of a Kurzgesagt video.

Brilliant has thousands of lessons to explore , and each one is interactive like a one - on - one version of a Kurzgesagt video .


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You 'll analyze real data sets , like one about Starbucks , and learn the skills to draw insights for yourself .


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In a world overflowing with information , data skills are becoming essential in virtually every field .


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We love seeing how the gears interlock with our research.

We love seeing how the gears interlock with our research .


Brilliant gives you the tools to understand how everything fits together.

Brilliant gives you the tools to understand how everything fits together .


The Earth is a gigantic ball of semi-molten rock, with a heart of iron as hot as the surface of the Sun.

The Earth is a gigantic ball of semi - molten rock , with a heart of iron as hot as the surface of the Sun .


Titanic amounts of heat left over from its birth and the radioactive decay of trillions of tons of radioactive elements find no escape but up.

Titanic amounts of heat left over from its birth and the radioactive decay of trillions of tons of radioactive elements find no escape but up .


Currents of rock spanning thousands of kilometers carry this energy to the surface.

Currents of rock spanning thousands of kilometers carry this energy to the surface .


Earth's crust is the only thing in their way.

Earth 's crust is the only thing in their way .


It feels solid to us, but it's only a fragile barrier, an apple skin around a flaming behemoth.

It feels solid to us , but it 's only a fragile barrier , an apple skin around a flaming behemoth .


True apocalypses can break through and unleash eruptions tens of times more powerful than all of our nuclear weapons combined,

True apocalypses can break through and unleash eruptions tens of times more powerful than all of our nuclear weapons combined ,


How big can they get?


And will they put an end to humanity?


There are many types of volcanoes, from towering mountains to lava domes, but they have two main sources.

There are many types of volcanoes , from towering mountains to lava domes , but they have two main sources .


The first is at the boundaries between tectonic plates, the pieces of the crust that cover the Earth like a giant jigsaw puzzle.

The first is at the boundaries between tectonic plates , the pieces of the crust that cover the Earth like a giant jigsaw puzzle .


There are seven major tectonic plates and dozens of smaller ones, drifting against each other at up to 15 centimeters per year.

There are seven major tectonic plates and dozens of smaller ones , drifting against each other at up to 15 centimeters per year .


This sounds slow, but on geological terms, it is a titanic struggle over who gets to stay on the surface.

This sounds slow , but on geological terms , it is a titanic struggle over who gets to stay on the surface .


The winning plate crumples into a new mountain range, while the loser is shoved underneath, into an ocean of hot rock at 1,300 degrees Celsius.

The winning plate crumples into a new mountain range , while the loser is shoved underneath , into an ocean of hot rock at 1,300 degrees Celsius .


The temperature here is enough to melt rock into a liquid, but the insane pressures of all that mass keep it a superheated solid.

The temperature here is enough to melt rock into a liquid , but the insane pressures of all that mass keep it a superheated solid .


Tectonic plates are usually in contact with water for thousands of years and absorb some of it.

Tectonic plates are usually in contact with water for thousands of years and absorb some of it .


When they're submerged into the hot underworld, this water triggers chemical transformations that allow tiny portions to melt into magma.

When they 're submerged into the hot underworld , this water triggers chemical transformations that allow tiny portions to melt into magma .


Liquid magma is less dense than solid rock, so it rises to the surface in furious bubbles that accumulate in sponge-like reservoirs right under the crust.

Liquid magma is less dense than solid rock , so it rises to the surface in furious bubbles that accumulate in sponge - like reservoirs right under the crust .


If enough magma accumulates, it becomes powerful enough to pierce through the crust, which we experience as volcanoes.

If enough magma accumulates , it becomes powerful enough to pierce through the crust , which we experience as volcanoes .


This happens under the winning plate, like a revenge attack by the loser before it's erased forever.

This happens under the winning plate , like a revenge attack by the loser before it 's erased forever .


The second main source of volcanoes are thought to be mantle plumes.

The second main source of volcanoes are thought to be mantle plumes .


These are columns of abnormally hot rock that rise all the way from the planet's core mantle boundary to the surface.

These are columns of abnormally hot rock that rise all the way from the planet 's core mantle boundary to the surface .


Much less is known about them, but in a way, it's as if the Earth's mantle has weather patterns and mantle plumes are a little like hot air rising to form storm clouds.

Much less is known about them , but in a way , it 's as if the Earth 's mantle has weather patterns and mantle plumes are a little like hot air rising to form storm clouds .


They don't care about the motion of tectonic plates, so they can break the crust to create volcanoes in the middle of nowhere that stubbornly stay active as the crust shifts around them.

They do n't care about the motion of tectonic plates , so they can break the crust to create volcanoes in the middle of nowhere that stubbornly stay active as the crust shifts around them .


Scientists love to put big booms on a scale and came up with a logarithmic scale that measures the volume ejected during an eruption.

Scientists love to put big booms on a scale and came up with a logarithmic scale that measures the volume ejected during an eruption .


Simply put, it starts really small and gets very big very quickly.

Simply put , it starts really small and gets very big very quickly .


A VEI 2 eruption would fill 400 full Olympic swimming pools with lava.

A VEI 2 eruption would fill 400 full Olympic swimming pools with lava .


We have around 10 of these per year.


At VEI 3, we already see devastating effects like the eruption of the Semeru volcano in 2021 that destroyed thousands of homes in Indonesia.

At VEI 3 , we already see devastating effects like the eruption of the Semeru volcano in 2021 that destroyed thousands of homes in Indonesia .


At VEI 5, we see catastrophic amounts of materials, cubic kilometers of debris, equivalent to an entire lake of molten rock blasted into the air.

At VEI 5 , we see catastrophic amounts of materials , cubic kilometers of debris , equivalent to an entire lake of molten rock blasted into the air .


At a VEI of 6, an eruption can change the world.

At a VEI of 6 , an eruption can change the world .


In 1883, the Indonesian island volcano Krakatoa erupted nearly continuously over the course of five months.

In 1883 , the Indonesian island volcano Krakatoa erupted nearly continuously over the course of five months .


One of those eruptions blew it apart, producing the loudest sound recorded in history.

One of those eruptions blew it apart , producing the loudest sound recorded in history .


30-meter high tsunamis swept away nearby populations and so much gas and ash were released, the global temperatures cooled by nearly 0.5 degrees Celsius.

30 - meter high tsunamis swept away nearby populations and so much gas and ash were released , the global temperatures cooled by nearly 0.5 degrees Celsius .


Red, dusty sunsets followed for many years.

Red , dusty sunsets followed for many years .


At VEI 7, we get supercolossal eruptions, millennium-defining events that human civilization has only encountered a handful of times.

At VEI 7 , we get supercolossal eruptions , millennium - defining events that human civilization has only encountered a handful of times .


Mount Tambora was a 4,300-meter high mountain until it exploded in 1815 and released 400 times more energy than the Tsar Bomba.

Mount Tambora was a 4,300 - meter high mountain until it exploded in 1815 and released 400 times more energy than the Tsar Bomba .


140 billion tons of ash and dust were shot halfway to space before smothering the world's skies, turning them a sickly yellow.

140 billion tons of ash and dust were shot halfway to space before smothering the world 's skies , turning them a sickly yellow .


There was no summer the following year, crops died, and over 100,000 people perished.

There was no summer the following year , crops died , and over 100,000 people perished .


This is the dreadful potential of volcanic eruptions, with famines across the other side of the world and even centuries-long cold periods being attributed to them.

This is the dreadful potential of volcanic eruptions , with famines across the other side of the world and even centuries - long cold periods being attributed to them .


Okay, but what's a supervolcano?


The term supervolcano is a media invention and not a scientific term.

The term supervolcano is a media invention and not a scientific term .


The main issue with them is that not every eruption from a supervolcano is a supereruption.

The main issue with them is that not every eruption from a supervolcano is a supereruption .


What makes supervolcanoes special is that they've been waiting to erupt for hundreds of thousands of years.

What makes supervolcanoes special is that they 've been waiting to erupt for hundreds of thousands of years .


Pressure builds up in colossal magma reservoirs several kilometers deep until it becomes strong enough to lift the rock above it by several meters.

Pressure builds up in colossal magma reservoirs several kilometers deep until it becomes strong enough to lift the rock above it by several meters .


Rocks crack under the pressure until they finally give way and billions of tons of gas and ash blast out at supersonic speed.

Rocks crack under the pressure until they finally give way and billions of tons of gas and ash blast out at supersonic speed .


And yet, that is only a small portion of the magma reservoir.

And yet , that is only a small portion of the magma reservoir .


Supereruptions are like a boiling pot of water popping its lid off and spitting a bit off the top.

Supereruptions are like a boiling pot of water popping its lid off and spitting a bit off the top .


Afterwards, the ground collapses into the void left behind, forming a hole called a caldera.

Afterwards , the ground collapses into the void left behind , forming a hole called a caldera .


Under this caldera, pressure starts building again until the volcano gathers enough energy for another supereruption.

Under this caldera , pressure starts building again until the volcano gathers enough energy for another supereruption .


But this could take hundreds of thousands of years.

But this could take hundreds of thousands of years .


It's estimated that one of the few volcanoes capable of supereruptions on Earth could cause a catastrophic eruption every 17,000 years on average.

It 's estimated that one of the few volcanoes capable of supereruptions on Earth could cause a catastrophic eruption every 17,000 years on average .


That would make them far more frequent than comparable asteroid impacts.

That would make them far more frequent than comparable asteroid impacts .


The most recent supereruption is the Oranui eruption 26,500 years ago in New Zealand.

The most recent supereruption is the Oranui eruption 26,500 years ago in New Zealand .


With the force of dozens of billions of tons of TNT, a Mount Everest-sized pile of explosives, a huge portion of the landscape was scooped out and thrown into the atmosphere.

With the force of dozens of billions of tons of TNT , a Mount Everest - sized pile of explosives , a huge portion of the landscape was scooped out and thrown into the atmosphere .


It left behind a caldera spanning 20 kilometers, and it caused the entire southern hemisphere to undergo a period of abrupt cooling.

It left behind a caldera spanning 20 kilometers , and it caused the entire southern hemisphere to undergo a period of abrupt cooling .


Though among supereruptions, it's a mere firework.

Though among supereruptions , it 's a mere firework .


The Lake Toba eruption of 74,000 years ago was a much more significant turning point in history.

The Lake Toba eruption of 74,000 years ago was a much more significant turning point in history .


It released a gargantuan 5,300 cubic kilometers of material, enough to blanket parts of South Asia in 15 centimeters of ash and trigger a rapid 4 degrees Celsius drop in global temperatures.

It released a gargantuan 5,300 cubic kilometers of material , enough to blanket parts of South Asia in 15 centimeters of ash and trigger a rapid 4 degrees Celsius drop in global temperatures .


It's possible that the volcanic winter lasted 10 years, followed by worldwide droughts for centuries.

It 's possible that the volcanic winter lasted 10 years , followed by worldwide droughts for centuries .


Earth's climate might have not recovered for a thousand years.

Earth 's climate might have not recovered for a thousand years .


The largest volcanic events we know of were not really huge explosions, but floods of millions of cubic kilometers of lava.

The largest volcanic events we know of were not really huge explosions , but floods of millions of cubic kilometers of lava .


The grand finale were the Siberian Traps around 250 million years ago, a continuous release of lava for 2 million years.

The grand finale were the Siberian Traps around 250 million years ago , a continuous release of lava for 2 million years .


They raised the ocean temperatures to over 40 degrees Celsius, which caused the Permian-Triassic extinction, killing over 90% of all species.

They raised the ocean temperatures to over 40 degrees Celsius , which caused the Permian - Triassic extinction , killing over 90 % of all species .


Earth's surface needed 9 million years to recover.

Earth 's surface needed 9 million years to recover .


These sorts of eruptions don't change the climate.

These sorts of eruptions do n't change the climate .


They are the climate.


But thankfully, we haven't seen anything even remotely close to that scale in many millions of years.

But thankfully , we have n't seen anything even remotely close to that scale in many millions of years .


So, should you be scared of supervolcanoes?

So , should you be scared of supervolcanoes ?


They've been used to frighten many people and are overhyped as an unavoidable apocalypse.

They 've been used to frighten many people and are overhyped as an unavoidable apocalypse .


The most famous one, Yellowstone, will erupt again, but they will be relatively small eruptions.

The most famous one , Yellowstone , will erupt again , but they will be relatively small eruptions .


The chance of a VEI8 eruption in the next few hundred years is less than 2%, and more importantly, it wouldn't come as a sudden surprise.

The chance of a VEI8 eruption in the next few hundred years is less than 2 % , and more importantly , it would n't come as a sudden surprise .


However, less powerful but more frequent eruptions can also do serious damage to our civilizations and are in many ways a much greater concern.

However , less powerful but more frequent eruptions can also do serious damage to our civilizations and are in many ways a much greater concern .


So, we must watch for slow changes in magma reservoirs, like ground swelling and temperature increases,

So , we must watch for slow changes in magma reservoirs , like ground swelling and temperature increases ,


And there's time to develop solutions that can remove sulfur and ash from the stratosphere to eliminate the root cause of the climate disruption we've seen from previous eruptions.

And there 's time to develop solutions that can remove sulfur and ash from the stratosphere to eliminate the root cause of the climate disruption we 've seen from previous eruptions .


Who knows?


Maybe we'll even be able to turn this force of destruction into an agent for good by exploiting the geothermal energy held in their giant magma reservoirs.

Maybe we 'll even be able to turn this force of destruction into an agent for good by exploiting the geothermal energy held in their giant magma reservoirs .


We've done this work for so many other disasters, and we are already doing things we could only have dreamed about decades ago,

We 've done this work for so many other disasters , and we are already doing things we could only have dreamed about decades ago ,


With determination, humanity really can solve anything.

With determination , humanity really can solve anything .


So, while deep below us an angry hell is churning and waiting for its moment, you can sleep well tonight.

So , while deep below us an angry hell is churning and waiting for its moment , you can sleep well tonight .


Learning how we can get ahead of catastrophes like climate change and supervolcanoes is interesting but can also be challenging.

Learning how we can get ahead of catastrophes like climate change and supervolcanoes is interesting but can also be challenging .


Maybe you still feel like you don't really understand how most of the science behind it works.

Maybe you still feel like you do n't really understand how most of the science behind it works .


And, on your own, it seems too hard to dig deeper.

And , on your own , it seems too hard to dig deeper .


To solve this, we've collaborated with our friends from Brilliant to create a series of lessons to build your understanding of fundamental science.

To solve this , we 've collaborated with our friends from Brilliant to create a series of lessons to build your understanding of fundamental science .


Brilliant is an interactive learning tool that makes science accessible with a hands-on approach.

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In our latest lessons, you'll discover the mechanisms that drive climate change and use them to understand the impact of supervolcanoes on our global climate.

In our latest lessons , you 'll discover the mechanisms that drive climate change and use them to understand the impact of supervolcanoes on our global climate .


Beyond new Kurzgesagt lessons regularly released, Brilliant has thousands of lessons for members to explore.

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With new releases each month, you'll always find something fascinating to learn.

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We love going down a rabbit hole with our research.

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Brilliant will take you by the hand to come along on the ride.

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Today, we are answering an age-old, very scientific and important question.

Today , we are answering an age - old , very scientific and important question .


It's more interesting and weird than you probably think.

It 's more interesting and weird than you probably think .


Let's start with the basics.


Why isn't the Moon on its way to crash into us already?

Why is n't the Moon on its way to crash into us already ?


We know that Earth's gravity pulls everything towards it, including the Moon, but somehow it stays up, as if suspended by some opposite force.

We know that Earth 's gravity pulls everything towards it , including the Moon , but somehow it stays up , as if suspended by some opposite force .


But there is no other force countering gravity.

But there is no other force countering gravity .


Instead, the trick to staying up is a sideways motion that we call an orbit.

Instead , the trick to staying up is a sideways motion that we call an orbit .


You see orbits every day.


When you throw a ball, it makes a tiny little orbit.

When you throw a ball , it makes a tiny little orbit .


The only difference between the ball's orbit and the Moon's is that the ball eventually hits the ground.

The only difference between the ball 's orbit and the Moon 's is that the ball eventually hits the ground .


Basically, the reason is speed.


If you could throw your ball fast enough, it would bend around the world and come back to you.

If you could throw your ball fast enough , it would bend around the world and come back to you .


If there were no air slowing it down, it could orbit forever.

If there were no air slowing it down , it could orbit forever .


And this is what the Moon does, falling sideways around Earth very fast with no air slowing it down, orbiting Earth every 27 days at 3,600 km an hour.

And this is what the Moon does , falling sideways around Earth very fast with no air slowing it down , orbiting Earth every 27 days at 3,600 km an hour .


So, how do we crash it into Earth?


In a nutshell, to change an object's orbit, you need to change its speed, which changes where gravity takes it.

In a nutshell , to change an object 's orbit , you need to change its speed , which changes where gravity takes it .


But even small changes require enormous forces, which is why all the large objects in the Solar System are so stable nowadays.

But even small changes require enormous forces , which is why all the large objects in the Solar System are so stable nowadays .


According to science, the Moon is big and very massive.

According to science , the Moon is big and very massive .


Even igniting billions of rocket engines all over its surface would barely move the Moon.

Even igniting billions of rocket engines all over its surface would barely move the Moon .


It looks like nothing short of magic will make the Moon fall, so we'll use a magic spell that slows down the Moon so much that it changes its orbit and spirals towards Earth.

It looks like nothing short of magic will make the Moon fall , so we 'll use a magic spell that slows down the Moon so much that it changes its orbit and spirals towards Earth .


To get the most from the experience, the Moon will take exactly one year before it hits Earth.

To get the most from the experience , the Moon will take exactly one year before it hits Earth .


For the first few days, nothing really changes.

For the first few days , nothing really changes .


The Moon gets a tiny bit brighter, and scientists get confused, but the rest of us don't notice anything different.

The Moon gets a tiny bit brighter , and scientists get confused , but the rest of us do n't notice anything different .


The only noticeable real effect of the Moon on the Earth are the tides.

The only noticeable real effect of the Moon on the Earth are the tides .


Tides exist because while Earth pulls on the Moon, the Moon's gravity pulls back on the Earth.

Tides exist because while Earth pulls on the Moon , the Moon 's gravity pulls back on the Earth .


Since the strength of gravity gets weaker with distance, different parts of the Earth feel a slightly different pull,

Since the strength of gravity gets weaker with distance , different parts of the Earth feel a slightly different pull ,


As Earth rotates every day underneath the Moon, the Moon's influence fluctuates, causing the water level of the oceans to rise and fall by about half a meter twice a day.

As Earth rotates every day underneath the Moon , the Moon 's influence fluctuates , causing the water level of the oceans to rise and fall by about half a meter twice a day .


But with the Moon drawing ever closer, high tide gets higher every day.

But with the Moon drawing ever closer , high tide gets higher every day .


At first barely noticeable, within a month the Moon has covered half the distance to the Earth, and ocean tides have grown to 4 meters.

At first barely noticeable , within a month the Moon has covered half the distance to the Earth , and ocean tides have grown to 4 meters .


Every day high tide comes and waves flood coastal cities.

Every day high tide comes and waves flood coastal cities .


And there's no end in sight.


With the Moon drawing ever closer, tides rise ever higher, inundating another city and more inhabited land with salty water every day.

With the Moon drawing ever closer , tides rise ever higher , inundating another city and more inhabited land with salty water every day .


By the end of month 2, the Moon has covered two-thirds of the distance to Earth,

By the end of month 2 , the Moon has covered two - thirds of the distance to Earth ,


and global infrastructure is crumbling as tides rise above 10 meters, displacing up to a billion people who happen to live near the coastlines.

and global infrastructure is crumbling as tides rise above 10 meters , displacing up to a billion people who happen to live near the coastlines .


As ports become inoperable, shipping grinds to a halt.

As ports become inoperable , shipping grinds to a halt .


Not only will it slow down the delivery of kurzgesagt products, but also less exciting things like food.

Not only will it slow down the delivery of kurzgesagt products , but also less exciting things like food .


Global communications fall into disarray.

Global communications fall into disarray .


95% of the Internet is carried by ocean-crossing cables, and while these largely don't mind the water, their terminals on land do.

95 % of the Internet is carried by ocean - crossing cables , and while these largely do n't mind the water , their terminals on land do .


Living inland doesn't guarantee safety either.

Living inland does n't guarantee safety either .


Tidal bores cause rivers to flow backwards, carrying salt water to contaminate surface and groundwater supplies.

Tidal bores cause rivers to flow backwards , carrying salt water to contaminate surface and groundwater supplies .


Gas shortages follow as oil refineries near the coast are abandoned.

Gas shortages follow as oil refineries near the coast are abandoned .


Countries are left with the supplies they had on their shelves, and strict rationing will begin.

Countries are left with the supplies they had on their shelves , and strict rationing will begin .


In the cities, chaos reigns during the scavenging hours of low tide, while survivors take refuge in high-rises when the water returns.

In the cities , chaos reigns during the scavenging hours of low tide , while survivors take refuge in high - rises when the water returns .


Three months in, and the Moon is close enough to disrupt communication and navigation satellites.

Three months in , and the Moon is close enough to disrupt communication and navigation satellites .


While it's normally far too distant for its gravity to cause any major problems for our satellites, the closer it gets, the more warped their orbits become.

While it 's normally far too distant for its gravity to cause any major problems for our satellites , the closer it gets , the more warped their orbits become .


As their fuel for orbital corrections runs out, satellites careen out of control.

As their fuel for orbital corrections runs out , satellites careen out of control .


On Earth, the tides are rapidly growing to about 30 meters, and will be reaching 100 meters in height in a few short weeks.

On Earth , the tides are rapidly growing to about 30 meters , and will be reaching 100 meters in height in a few short weeks .


At low tide, the ocean recedes hundreds of kilometers, exposing the continental shelf like vast desert,

At low tide , the ocean recedes hundreds of kilometers , exposing the continental shelf like vast desert ,


while at high tide, walls of water drown agriculture, houses, and skyscrapers.

while at high tide , walls of water drown agriculture , houses , and skyscrapers .


And now, almost five months in, the apocalypse has finished its warm-up act.

And now , almost five months in , the apocalypse has finished its warm - up act .


Since the oceans are on average only 3 kilometers deep, the tides have reached their maximum.

Since the oceans are on average only 3 kilometers deep , the tides have reached their maximum .


Up until now, the water in the oceans could flow, absorbing most of the Moon's gravitational squeezing,

Up until now , the water in the oceans could flow , absorbing most of the Moon 's gravitational squeezing ,


but now the Earth itself is really feeling the squeeze of the ever-approaching Moon.

but now the Earth itself is really feeling the squeeze of the ever - approaching Moon .


These aren't so much tides of water, but tides of rock.

These are n't so much tides of water , but tides of rock .


It's impossible to say how serious these earthquakes might be or where they occur, but like a child jumping on their bed until it breaks, no good can come of it.

It 's impossible to say how serious these earthquakes might be or where they occur , but like a child jumping on their bed until it breaks , no good can come of it .


Strong tidal forces lead to volcanism on other planets and moons.

Strong tidal forces lead to volcanism on other planets and moons .


On Earth, squeezing the planet disrupts the magma reservoirs inside the crust, triggering sizable, climate-altering eruptions in Chile, New Zealand, Yellowstone, and elsewhere.

On Earth , squeezing the planet disrupts the magma reservoirs inside the crust , triggering sizable , climate - altering eruptions in Chile , New Zealand , Yellowstone , and elsewhere .


Within 75,000 km of Earth, it is bright enough to illuminate the night sky like twilight.

Within 75,000 km of Earth , it is bright enough to illuminate the night sky like twilight .


After half a year, the Moon is entering the space once occupied by geosynchronous satellites, where it orbits Earth every 24 hours.

After half a year , the Moon is entering the space once occupied by geosynchronous satellites , where it orbits Earth every 24 hours .


It appears to float at one spot in the sky, unmoving, cycling through a full set of phases every day, but only visible to half the planet.

It appears to float at one spot in the sky , unmoving , cycling through a full set of phases every day , but only visible to half the planet .


With the Moon stationary above the Earth, the tides seem to freeze in place.

With the Moon stationary above the Earth , the tides seem to freeze in place .


Half the world flooded, half with its water seemingly returned to the sea, as if Earth is holding its breath to prepare for the worst.

Half the world flooded , half with its water seemingly returned to the sea , as if Earth is holding its breath to prepare for the worst .


As the Moon sinks further, you might wonder if its gravity would overpower Earth's, pulling you up and ending your misery.

As the Moon sinks further , you might wonder if its gravity would overpower Earth 's , pulling you up and ending your misery .


The Earth's surface gravity is about six times stronger than the Moon's, so even if the Moon were hovering right on top of you, you would still stay on the ground.

The Earth 's surface gravity is about six times stronger than the Moon 's , so even if the Moon were hovering right on top of you , you would still stay on the ground .


On the Moon, things are different though.

On the Moon , things are different though .


it starts to stretch forward towards the Earth into something of an egg, triggering deep moonquakes as the lunar rock flexes and changes shape.

it starts to stretch forward towards the Earth into something of an egg , triggering deep moonquakes as the lunar rock flexes and changes shape .


Though barely noticeable now, this squish will grow to hundreds of kilometers in a matter of months.

Though barely noticeable now , this squish will grow to hundreds of kilometers in a matter of months .


At this point, the apocalypse has arrived, and we can summarize the months before the crash as everybody left has a really bad time.

At this point , the apocalypse has arrived , and we can summarize the months before the crash as everybody left has a really bad time .


The tides sweeping over the Earth slow down and then reverse their direction because the Moon now orbits Earth faster than it rotates.

The tides sweeping over the Earth slow down and then reverse their direction because the Moon now orbits Earth faster than it rotates .


The planet will experience an abundance of earthquakes and volcanism.

The planet will experience an abundance of earthquakes and volcanism .


Massive amounts of volcanic aerosols rise high into the stratosphere, shiny enough to reflect sunlight back into space.

Massive amounts of volcanic aerosols rise high into the stratosphere , shiny enough to reflect sunlight back into space .


What little light gets through is rust red and is periodically diminished by daily eclipses.

What little light gets through is rust red and is periodically diminished by daily eclipses .


The result is a rapid global cooling with acid rains and summer snows killing even the hardiest plants.

The result is a rapid global cooling with acid rains and summer snows killing even the hardiest plants .


The clock runs out on civilization.


Billions have perished while an X-shaped Moon is still drawing closer.

Billions have perished while an X - shaped Moon is still drawing closer .


Let's get ready for the grand finale.


Finally, at the end of the year, the Moon has reached the Roche limit.

Finally , at the end of the year , the Moon has reached the Roche limit .


That's the point where Earth's gravitational pull on the Moon is stronger than the Moon's own gravity.

That 's the point where Earth 's gravitational pull on the Moon is stronger than the Moon 's own gravity .


Things on the lunar surface start falling towards Earth, and by the time it crosses 10,000 kilometers,

Things on the lunar surface start falling towards Earth , and by the time it crosses 10,000 kilometers ,


the entire Moon disintegrates into rubble, smearing itself into a massive ring system around the Earth.

the entire Moon disintegrates into rubble , smearing itself into a massive ring system around the Earth .


Fortunately, the Moon's disintegration means the misery on Earth has ended.

Fortunately , the Moon 's disintegration means the misery on Earth has ended .


No Moon means the general apocalyptic nature of things comes to a halt.

No Moon means the general apocalyptic nature of things comes to a halt .


The oceans recede, flowing off the land one last time.

The oceans recede , flowing off the land one last time .


Any survivors are treated to a view of tremendous arches spanning the sky,

Any survivors are treated to a view of tremendous arches spanning the sky ,


It's hard to say what happens next, but the tranquility may be short-lived.

It 's hard to say what happens next , but the tranquility may be short - lived .


If too much Moon dust rains down, friction heats the atmosphere, possibly boiling the oceans.

If too much Moon dust rains down , friction heats the atmosphere , possibly boiling the oceans .


If not, the enormous shadows cast by the rings, combined with all the volcanic and meteoric aerosols, block even more sunlight,

If not , the enormous shadows cast by the rings , combined with all the volcanic and meteoric aerosols , block even more sunlight ,


and a period of runaway cooling could begin that freezes much of Earth's surface solid.

and a period of runaway cooling could begin that freezes much of Earth 's surface solid .


In any case, at some point, people will emerge again, from submarines or bunkers or mountaintops.

In any case , at some point , people will emerge again , from submarines or bunkers or mountaintops .


They will not have a great time before rebuilding civilization, and their success is not guaranteed, but at least they'll be trying to do so with beautiful rings in the sky.

They will not have a great time before rebuilding civilization , and their success is not guaranteed , but at least they 'll be trying to do so with beautiful rings in the sky .


So, how do you calculate that sort of thing?

So , how do you calculate that sort of thing ?


Well, you just need a bit of insanity and some maths.

Well , you just need a bit of insanity and some maths .


If you need to brush up on the latter, our friends from Brilliant are the perfect coaches to turn your curiosity into practical skills.

If you need to brush up on the latter , our friends from Brilliant are the perfect coaches to turn your curiosity into practical skills .


Brilliant is a problem-solving website and app that makes science accessible with a hands-on approach.

Brilliant is a problem - solving website and app that makes science accessible with a hands - on approach .


More than 60 interactive courses like The Joy of Problem Solving or Scientific Thinking give you the tools to crack problems


Lessons will surprise you with storytelling, code-writing tasks, and interactive challenges, basically using whatever keeps you interested and entertained.

Lessons will surprise you with storytelling , code - writing tasks , and interactive challenges , basically using whatever keeps you interested and entertained .


All the content is interactive.


Instead of just reading and listening to explanations, you drag and drop, manipulate shapes and diagrams, make selections, and answer questions.

Instead of just reading and listening to explanations , you drag and drop , manipulate shapes and diagrams , make selections , and answer questions .


This way, you learn something almost without you noticing it.

This way , you learn something almost without you noticing it .


And tiny step by step, you'll build up your long-term understanding of science and get closer to your STEM goals.

And tiny step by step , you 'll build up your long - term understanding of science and get closer to your STEM goals .


To start looking at the world of science from a different perspective, go to brilliant.org/nutshell and sign up for free.

To start looking at the world of science from a different perspective , go to brilliant.org/nutshell and sign up for free .


And there's an extra perk for Kurzgesagt viewers.

And there 's an extra perk for Kurzgesagt viewers .


The first 200 people to use the link get 20% off their annual membership, which unlocks all of Brilliant's courses in maths, science, and computer science.

The first 200 people to use the link get 20 % off their annual membership , which unlocks all of Brilliant 's courses in maths , science , and computer science .


At Kurzgesagt, we love to create things that seem impossible at first.

At Kurzgesagt , we love to create things that seem impossible at first .


Brilliant can help you acquire the skills to do that.

Brilliant can help you acquire the skills to do that .


This year, we'll release three very special limited edition pins.

This year , we 'll release three very special limited edition pins .


The first one is this very shiny Mooncrash pin set.

The first one is this very shiny Mooncrash pin set .


Pre-order is available for only 72 hours, so you can order it now and then, never again.

Pre - order is available for only 72 hours , so you can order it now and then , never again .


Be sure to watch out for pin number two and three to complete your 12,022 collection.

Be sure to watch out for pin number two and three to complete your 12,022 collection .


The night sky seems peaceful and orderly.

The night sky seems peaceful and orderly .


But in reality, stars are careening through the galaxy at speeds of hundreds of thousands of kilometers per hour.

But in reality , stars are careening through the galaxy at speeds of hundreds of thousands of kilometers per hour .


Fortunately, space is big, and so the stars of the Milky Way are very unlikely to hit us.

Fortunately , space is big , and so the stars of the Milky Way are very unlikely to hit us .


Unfortunately, they don't have to hit anything to make us have a really bad time on Earth.

Unfortunately , they do n't have to hit anything to make us have a really bad time on Earth .


And there are already stars starting to get very close.

And there are already stars starting to get very close .


To understand how dangerous stars are to us, we need to talk about gravity.

To understand how dangerous stars are to us , we need to talk about gravity .


Gravity attracts every piece of matter to every other piece of matter in the universe.

Gravity attracts every piece of matter to every other piece of matter in the universe .


You are attracted by an atom a million light years away and vice versa.

You are attracted by an atom a million light years away and vice versa .


Luckily, this force gets weaker over distance, and it also depends on how massive something is.

Luckily , this force gets weaker over distance , and it also depends on how massive something is .


So things that are close and are very massive are more attractive, winning the cosmic tug of war.

So things that are close and are very massive are more attractive , winning the cosmic tug of war .


This way, massive things define how smaller things behave around them.

This way , massive things define how smaller things behave around them .


The Sun makes up 99.75% of all the mass in the solar system, and so it shapes the behavior and orbits of everything else in it.

The Sun makes up 99.75 % of all the mass in the solar system , and so it shapes the behavior and orbits of everything else in it .


Billions of years ago, after the Sun was born, the solar system was a chaotic and dangerous place,

Billions of years ago , after the Sun was born , the solar system was a chaotic and dangerous place ,


as the planets were formed from countless little pieces that collided constantly.

as the planets were formed from countless little pieces that collided constantly .


But over the eons, a stable balance emerged.

But over the eons , a stable balance emerged .


Today, most planets and asteroids have settled into safe and predictable orbits.

Today , most planets and asteroids have settled into safe and predictable orbits .


We have the inner and outer planets, the asteroid and Kuiper belt, and at the edge, the Oort cloud, a giant sphere of comets orbiting slowly in cold storage.

We have the inner and outer planets , the asteroid and Kuiper belt , and at the edge , the Oort cloud , a giant sphere of comets orbiting slowly in cold storage .


We really don't want this balance to be disturbed.

We really do n't want this balance to be disturbed .


If another star came too close to us, its gravity would pull on everything in the solar system like a spoiled toddler,

If another star came too close to us , its gravity would pull on everything in the solar system like a spoiled toddler ,


This isn't some imaginary danger.


Some 70,000 years ago, a red dwarf-brown dwarf binary system passed through the Oort cloud and messed things up.

Some 70,000 years ago , a red dwarf - brown dwarf binary system passed through the Oort cloud and messed things up .


It might even have sent a deadly onslaught of asteroids our way.

It might even have sent a deadly onslaught of asteroids our way .


But it could take 2 million years until those visitors from the Oort cloud arrive in the inner solar system.

But it could take 2 million years until those visitors from the Oort cloud arrive in the inner solar system .


But there's a much bigger problem on the horizon.

But there 's a much bigger problem on the horizon .


A close flyby like this would unfold over hundreds of thousands of years, disrupting the orbits of millions of objects in the Oort cloud considerably.

A close flyby like this would unfold over hundreds of thousands of years , disrupting the orbits of millions of objects in the Oort cloud considerably .


If we're unlucky, it will trigger a new period of planetary bombardment similar to the early solar system.

If we 're unlucky , it will trigger a new period of planetary bombardment similar to the early solar system .


The night sky could be filled with comets and asteroids raining down on the inner solar system.

The night sky could be filled with comets and asteroids raining down on the inner solar system .


The larger ones could cause dinosaur-level mass extinctions and would be bad for the stock market.

The larger ones could cause dinosaur - level mass extinctions and would be bad for the stock market .


But it could get much worse.


The galaxy is an intense place, and stars get close to each other regularly.

The galaxy is an intense place , and stars get close to each other regularly .


So it is possible that a star could come much closer and not just pass us, but fly directly through the inner solar system.

So it is possible that a star could come much closer and not just pass us , but fly directly through the inner solar system .


This would be very bad in the extreme.


The chance of another star colliding with the Sun is astronomically unlikely, but that isn't what we're worried about.

The chance of another star colliding with the Sun is astronomically unlikely , but that is n't what we 're worried about .


If another star were to pass by about as close as the Earth is from the Sun, it could easily eject the Earth from the solar system.

If another star were to pass by about as close as the Earth is from the Sun , it could easily eject the Earth from the solar system .


The odds of such an event are estimated to be around 1 in 100,000 in the next 5 billion years.

The odds of such an event are estimated to be around 1 in 100,000 in the next 5 billion years .


As we discussed in another video, there seem to be billions of rogue planets doing their own thing in the galaxy, and this is one way to make them.

As we discussed in another video , there seem to be billions of rogue planets doing their own thing in the galaxy , and this is one way to make them .


So if this were to happen with an average red dwarf, what would happen on Earth?

So if this were to happen with an average red dwarf , what would happen on Earth ?


As the star enters the solar system, a small orangish dot appears in the sky that grows bigger and bigger for months, eventually becoming visible during the day.

As the star enters the solar system , a small orangish dot appears in the sky that grows bigger and bigger for months , eventually becoming visible during the day .


It would get bigger and much brighter than the Moon.

It would get bigger and much brighter than the Moon .


The night sky would be filled with an eerie red glow.

The night sky would be filled with an eerie red glow .


After a few months, it would start shrinking again.

After a few months , it would start shrinking again .


Over a few years, the Sun slowly grows smaller in the sky, and with it warmth and light start to dissipate.

Over a few years , the Sun slowly grows smaller in the sky , and with it warmth and light start to dissipate .


All around the world, as the days turn dark, the final winter of humanity would begin.

All around the world , as the days turn dark , the final winter of humanity would begin .


The polar ice caps begin to grow and spread, while plants shrivel and die.

The polar ice caps begin to grow and spread , while plants shrivel and die .


Forests freeze, and animals die in droves.

Forests freeze , and animals die in droves .


As the Earth passes the orbit of Mars, the average surface temperature has plummeted to near minus 50 degrees Celsius.

As the Earth passes the orbit of Mars , the average surface temperature has plummeted to near minus 50 degrees Celsius .


From space, Earth begins to look like an icy moon, the blue-green surface becoming the pale grey-white of death.

From space , Earth begins to look like an icy moon , the blue - green surface becoming the pale grey - white of death .


As global infrastructure breaks down, people huddle together indoors, burning what they can for warmth,

As global infrastructure breaks down , people huddle together indoors , burning what they can for warmth ,


as the temperature continues to drop, counting the days until they'll be out of food which no longer grows.

as the temperature continues to drop , counting the days until they 'll be out of food which no longer grows .


Everybody living at the surface is living on borrowed time.

Everybody living at the surface is living on borrowed time .


By the time Earth reaches Jupiter's orbit, surface temperatures sink to minus 150 degrees Celsius, lower than the coldest ever recorded temperatures in Antarctica.

By the time Earth reaches Jupiter 's orbit , surface temperatures sink to minus 150 degrees Celsius , lower than the coldest ever recorded temperatures in Antarctica .


Needless to say, by now, almost everyone is dead.

Needless to say , by now , almost everyone is dead .


Without the energy from sunlight to evaporate water, clouds don't form, and the water cycle stops.

Without the energy from sunlight to evaporate water , clouds do n't form , and the water cycle stops .


The polar ice caps eventually touch at the equator, and the oceans become covered in a thick layer of ice.

The polar ice caps eventually touch at the equator , and the oceans become covered in a thick layer of ice .


As more and more of its heat leaks out, more water freezes onto the bottom of the ice sheet,

As more and more of its heat leaks out , more water freezes onto the bottom of the ice sheet ,


the concentration of salt in the deep ocean grows, poisoning most animals that survived here.

the concentration of salt in the deep ocean grows , poisoning most animals that survived here .


Although around hydrothermal vents, communities of extremophiles might adapt even to these circumstances.

Although around hydrothermal vents , communities of extremophiles might adapt even to these circumstances .


Deep below the surface, some bacteria would not notice much of any of this, as they're still kept warm by the radioactive decay of elements in the Earth's core.

Deep below the surface , some bacteria would not notice much of any of this , as they 're still kept warm by the radioactive decay of elements in the Earth 's core .


As the Earth reaches the orbit of Pluto and the Kuiper Belt, the Sun is still the brightest star in the sky, but it's one among many, with stars now visible during the day.

As the Earth reaches the orbit of Pluto and the Kuiper Belt , the Sun is still the brightest star in the sky , but it 's one among many , with stars now visible during the day .


The temperature is now barely 40 degrees Celsius above absolute zero, below the freezing temperature of the gases in the atmosphere.

The temperature is now barely 40 degrees Celsius above absolute zero , below the freezing temperature of the gases in the atmosphere .


A weird spectacle, enjoyed by no one unfortunately, unfolds as the atmosphere turns into nitrogen and then oxygen snow.

A weird spectacle , enjoyed by no one unfortunately , unfolds as the atmosphere turns into nitrogen and then oxygen snow .


Over a few years, it's deposited into an icy 10 meter thick sheet all over the planet's surface, with only a thin whisper of gas remaining.

Over a few years , it 's deposited into an icy 10 meter thick sheet all over the planet 's surface , with only a thin whisper of gas remaining .


The frozen corpuses of flora and fauna are buried beneath them.

The frozen corpuses of flora and fauna are buried beneath them .


As Earth leaves the solar system, it becomes a rogue planet, traveling alone through the dark, lifeless and in solitude.

As Earth leaves the solar system , it becomes a rogue planet , traveling alone through the dark , lifeless and in solitude .


But weirdly enough, there is hope.


Humanity would not be surprised by this potential extinction event.

Humanity would not be surprised by this potential extinction event .


We'd notice it thousands of years in advance.

We 'd notice it thousands of years in advance .


There's not a lot we could do to stop a star, but we could prepare.

There 's not a lot we could do to stop a star , but we could prepare .


Most of us would perish, but a few million could survive in huge artificial complexes, powered by geothermal and nuclear energy,

Most of us would perish , but a few million could survive in huge artificial complexes , powered by geothermal and nuclear energy ,


Here, humanity might survive for hundreds of thousands of years.

Here , humanity might survive for hundreds of thousands of years .


At some point, we would become used to our circumstances, and new generations would watch documentaries in disbelief about the time we had our own star, and could walk the surface of Earth.

At some point , we would become used to our circumstances , and new generations would watch documentaries in disbelief about the time we had our own star , and could walk the surface of Earth .


And at some point, we might decide to look for another home.

And at some point , we might decide to look for another home .


If the Earth were lucky enough to pass by another star with a habitable planet, we could try to make a fresh start.

If the Earth were lucky enough to pass by another star with a habitable planet , we could try to make a fresh start .


Spaceflight, oddly enough, would become very easy without the atmosphere in the way.

Spaceflight , oddly enough , would become very easy without the atmosphere in the way .


So it's not unthinkable that the last survivors would leave Earth behind and try again on a new planet, around a new star.

So it 's not unthinkable that the last survivors would leave Earth behind and try again on a new planet , around a new star .


Maybe one day, thousands of years later, the descendants of humanity will tell legends about Earth's ancient past.

Maybe one day , thousands of years later , the descendants of humanity will tell legends about Earth 's ancient past .


So, basically, the key to humanity's survival is learning about what we'll be dealing with.

So , basically , the key to humanity 's survival is learning about what we 'll be dealing with .


Well, we'd better get cracking then.


Our friends from Brilliant are the perfect coaches on the way to becoming more science-savvy.

Our friends from Brilliant are the perfect coaches on the way to becoming more science - savvy .


Brilliant is a problem-solving website and app that makes science accessible in a practical way.

Brilliant is a problem - solving website and app that makes science accessible in a practical way .


More than 60 interactive courses give you the tools to crack problems in maths, logic and engineering all by yourself.

More than 60 interactive courses give you the tools to crack problems in maths , logic and engineering all by yourself .


Instead of a classic lecture format, Brilliant uses storytelling, code-writing and hands-on problems to keep you entertained and engaged.

Instead of a classic lecture format , Brilliant uses storytelling , code - writing and hands - on problems to keep you entertained and engaged .


This way, a small daily challenge can build up to real long-term understanding of science and achieving your STEM goals.

This way , a small daily challenge can build up to real long - term understanding of science and achieving your STEM goals .


In a nutshell, Brilliant surprises you and keeps you on your toes, all while sneaking some knowledge into your head without your really noticing.

In a nutshell , Brilliant surprises you and keeps you on your toes , all while sneaking some knowledge into your head without your really noticing .


To get a fresh perspective on science, go to brilliant.org/nutshell and sign up for free.

To get a fresh perspective on science , go to brilliant.org/nutshell and sign up for free .


And there's an extra perk for Kurzgesagt viewers.

And there 's an extra perk for Kurzgesagt viewers .


The first 200 people to use the link get 20% off their annual membership, which lets you view all the daily problems in the archives and unlock every course.

The first 200 people to use the link get 20 % off their annual membership , which lets you view all the daily problems in the archives and unlock every course .


Brilliant helps you end your day a little smarter.

Brilliant helps you end your day a little smarter .


Many of our viewers have asked us a very serious question.

Many of our viewers have asked us a very serious question .


Strangely enough, we couldn't find a good source to answer this question to our satisfaction.

Strangely enough , we could n't find a good source to answer this question to our satisfaction .


So, we gathered together a few scientists to calculate what would happen and find an answer to this extremely important scientific problem once and for all.

So , we gathered together a few scientists to calculate what would happen and find an answer to this extremely important scientific problem once and for all .


Currently, there are 15,000 nuclear weapons on Earth.

Currently , there are 15,000 nuclear weapons on Earth .


The US and Russia both have around 7,000, while France, China, the UK, Pakistan, India, Israel and North Korea own around 1,000 between them.

The US and Russia both have around 7,000 , while France , China , the UK , Pakistan , India , Israel and North Korea own around 1,000 between them .


But how much destructive power is this really?

But how much destructive power is this really ?


Let's try to put these numbers into perspective.

Let 's try to put these numbers into perspective .


On Earth, there are about 4,500 cities or urban areas with at least 100,000 inhabitants.

On Earth , there are about 4,500 cities or urban areas with at least 100,000 inhabitants .


Some are bigger than others, so we'll assume that on average we need three nuclear bombs to completely wipe out one city.

Some are bigger than others , so we 'll assume that on average we need three nuclear bombs to completely wipe out one city .


This means we could destroy every single city on planet Earth with our nuclear arsenal, killing more than 3 billion people, roughly half of humanity, in an instant.

This means we could destroy every single city on planet Earth with our nuclear arsenal , killing more than 3 billion people , roughly half of humanity , in an instant .


And we'd still have 1,500 nuclear weapons left.

And we 'd still have 1,500 nuclear weapons left .


Now that's what an expert would call overkill.

Now that 's what an expert would call overkill .


So we can say with confidence that we have a lot of nuclear weapons and they can do a lot of damage.

So we can say with confidence that we have a lot of nuclear weapons and they can do a lot of damage .


Let's drop our nuclear pile in the middle of the Amazon rainforest, just to show nature who's boss.

Let 's drop our nuclear pile in the middle of the Amazon rainforest , just to show nature who 's boss .


Our warheads, piled haphazardly, fit into a small warehouse.

Our warheads , piled haphazardly , fit into a small warehouse .


A typical US warhead has the power of 200,000 tons of TNT.

A typical US warhead has the power of 200,000 tons of TNT .


So 15,000 warheads would be the equivalent of 3 billion tons of TNT.

So 15,000 warheads would be the equivalent of 3 billion tons of TNT .


For scale, this is enough to rebuild the whole island of Manhattan with every building and skyscraper using stacks of TNT.

For scale , this is enough to rebuild the whole island of Manhattan with every building and skyscraper using stacks of TNT .


The closest thing we can compare to the energy gathered here is a volcano.

The closest thing we can compare to the energy gathered here is a volcano .


One of the deadliest volcanic eruptions in recorded history took place in 1883 on the island of Krakatoa.

One of the deadliest volcanic eruptions in recorded history took place in 1883 on the island of Krakatoa .


The eruption was so powerful that 70% of the island and the surrounding archipelago was destroyed, killing tens of thousands of people.

The eruption was so powerful that 70 % of the island and the surrounding archipelago was destroyed , killing tens of thousands of people .


Its effects were felt around the world for days after the event.

Its effects were felt around the world for days after the event .


Our nuclear pile contains 15 times the energy of the Krakatoa volcanic eruption.

Our nuclear pile contains 15 times the energy of the Krakatoa volcanic eruption .


So let's finally push the button.


In a second, a fireball 50 kilometers across vaporizes everything in its way and creates a blast wave that flattens 3,000 square kilometers of forest.

In a second , a fireball 50 kilometers across vaporizes everything in its way and creates a blast wave that flattens 3,000 square kilometers of forest .


Every living thing within 250 kilometers will start to burn.

Every living thing within 250 kilometers will start to burn .


The explosion will be heard literally around the world as the pressure wave circles the Earth tens of times over the next few weeks.

The explosion will be heard literally around the world as the pressure wave circles the Earth tens of times over the next few weeks .


Millions of tons of incinerated material are catapulted into the atmosphere.

Millions of tons of incinerated material are catapulted into the atmosphere .


The mushroom cloud reaches the outer reaches of the stratosphere, pushing up against space itself.

The mushroom cloud reaches the outer reaches of the stratosphere , pushing up against space itself .


After things have calmed down, a small crater about 10 kilometers across is left in the center of the worst world fires the planet has seen in millennia,

After things have calmed down , a small crater about 10 kilometers across is left in the center of the worst world fires the planet has seen in millennia ,


And now the unpleasant part begins.


Extremely radioactive material will kill living things very quickly, and a large area several kilometers around the crater is now uninhabitable,

Extremely radioactive material will kill living things very quickly , and a large area several kilometers around the crater is now uninhabitable ,


Much of the fallout is carried high into the atmosphere by the mushroom cloud and carried around the planet.

Much of the fallout is carried high into the atmosphere by the mushroom cloud and carried around the planet .


A portion of the particles will flow to the edge of space for years and cause a nuclear winter that could lower global temperatures by a few degrees for a few years.

A portion of the particles will flow to the edge of space for years and cause a nuclear winter that could lower global temperatures by a few degrees for a few years .


This explosion was pretty bad if you're in South America and especially Brazil.

This explosion was pretty bad if you 're in South America and especially Brazil .


The Amazon rainforest is pretty much history, which is not great, but human life will go on.

The Amazon rainforest is pretty much history , which is not great , but human life will go on .


Let's suppose humanity decided to mine every bit of uranium on Earth and build as many nuclear bombs as possible.

Let 's suppose humanity decided to mine every bit of uranium on Earth and build as many nuclear bombs as possible .


At current usage, it's estimated that there are around 35 million tons of uranium in Earth's crust,

At current usage , it 's estimated that there are around 35 million tons of uranium in Earth 's crust ,


For the sake of argument, let's say we create a pile with a yield of 10 billion Hiroshima bombs,

For the sake of argument , let 's say we create a pile with a yield of 10 billion Hiroshima bombs ,


Our pile explodes in a fireball stretching so high into the sky that it's visible from half of South America,

Our pile explodes in a fireball stretching so high into the sky that it 's visible from half of South America ,


Bedrock on the scale of whole mountain ranges is vaporized in an instant, while thousands of tons of material is catapulted away with such speed that it's ejected into space.

Bedrock on the scale of whole mountain ranges is vaporized in an instant , while thousands of tons of material is catapulted away with such speed that it 's ejected into space .


Some leaves Earth forever, while most of it comes raining down as hot,

Some leaves Earth forever , while most of it comes raining down as hot ,


The Earth's crust rings like a bell, struck by global earthquakes stronger than anything in recorded history, decimating cities around the world,

The Earth 's crust rings like a bell , struck by global earthquakes stronger than anything in recorded history , decimating cities around the world ,


while hurricane-force winds flatten every single tree in South America, and wildfires consume the continent.

while hurricane - force winds flatten every single tree in South America , and wildfires consume the continent .


The abundance of hydrocarbons in the Amazon burned to form ash are cast into the atmosphere,

The abundance of hydrocarbons in the Amazon burned to form ash are cast into the atmosphere ,


The ensuing global winter may last for decades and results in the extinction of every large animal species, humans included.

The ensuing global winter may last for decades and results in the extinction of every large animal species , humans included .