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e8cfc614-2fd3-4dbe-9c95-b275611dabd9 | Air pollution
Air pollution is the presence of substances in the air that are harmful to humans, other living beings or the
environment. Pollutants can be gases, like ozone or nitrogen oxides, or small particles like soot and dust.
Both outdoor and indoor air can be polluted.
Outdoor air pollution comes from burning fossil fuels for electricity and transport, wildfires, some industrial
processes, waste management, demolition and agriculture. Indoor air pollution is often from burning
firewood or agricultural waste for cooking and heating. Other sources of air pollution include dust storms
and volcanic eruptions. Many sources of local air pollution, especially burning fossil fuels, also release
greenhouse gases that cause global warming. However, air pollution may limit warming locally.
Air pollution kills 7 or 8 million people each year. It is a significant risk factor for a number of diseases, | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 10, "from": 1}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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a9066457-2918-46ca-8c94-32b27b3111f8 | Air pollution kills 7 or 8 million people each year. It is a significant risk factor for a number of diseases,
including stroke, heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, and lung cancer.
Particulate matter is the most deadly, both for indoor and outdoor air pollution. Ozone affects crops, and
forests are damaged by the pollution that causes acid rain. Overall, the World Bank has estimated that
welfare losses (premature deaths) and productivity losses (lost labor) caused by air pollution cost the world
economy over $8 trillion per year.
Various technologies and strategies reduce air pollution. Key approaches include clean cookers, fire
protection, improved waste management, dust control, industrial scrubbers, electric vehicles and renewable
energy. National air quality laws have often been effective, notably the 1956 Clean Air Act in Britain and the
1963 US Clean Air Act. International efforts have had mixed results: the Montreal Protocol almost eliminated | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 19, "from": 10}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
9c73f535-7539-4bc6-9763-e6fcab30e98c | 1963 US Clean Air Act. International efforts have had mixed results: the Montreal Protocol almost eliminated
harmful ozone-depleting chemicals, while international action on climate change has been less successful.
Sources
Human sources
Industry and construction
Demolition of the cooling towers of a power
station, Athlone, Cape Town, South Africa,
2010. | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 27, "from": 19}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
cb141194-2931-434d-9bbf-b80b4268a95f | Before flue-gas desulfurization was
installed, the emissions from this power
plant in New Mexico contained excessive
amounts of sulfur dioxide.
Burning fuel to generate electricity causes air pollution; lignite and coal produce the most air pollution,
followed by oil, and then by fossil gas and biomass.
[1][2]
Methane leaks are common in oil and gas
production,
[3][4]
and oil refineries emit a wide range of pollutants.
[5]
Some hazardous air pollutants are
produced in plastic and rubber production, whereas chloroform can be produced during water chlorination,
and arsenic is found in the mining industry.
[6]
Many polluting industries have been pushed out of richer
nations, and China too has started to push its most polluting industries out of the country.
[7]
Construction and demolition produces dust, but also other pollutants. The direct particles from construction
and demolition are relatively coarse.
[8][9]
Construction also has an indirect impact on air quality, as cement | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 52, "from": 30}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
64d91168-41a2-4a7e-9acc-4c4235dce998 | and demolition are relatively coarse.
[8][9]
Construction also has an indirect impact on air quality, as cement
production is one of the main sources of particle pollution.
[5]
Though banned in many countries, asbestos
persists in older buildings, where it poses a risk of lung disease when disturbed.
[10]
Building materials
including carpeting and plywood emit formaldehyde, a gas which can cause difficulty breathing and
nausea.
[11]
Transportation
Road vehicles produce a significant amount of all air pollution. For instance, they may be responsible for a
third to half of all nitrogen dioxide emissions,
[12][13]
and are a major cause of climate change.
[14]
Vehicles
with petrol and diesel engines produce about half of their emissions from their exhaust gas, and the other
half from non-exhaust emissions (tire and brake wear and erosion or disturbance of the road surface);
electric vehicles produce no tailpipe emissions, but still produce the other emissions.
[15] | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 72, "from": 50}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
c042d087-359d-4e97-959a-4d1eb8197a2a | half from non-exhaust emissions (tire and brake wear and erosion or disturbance of the road surface);
electric vehicles produce no tailpipe emissions, but still produce the other emissions.
[15]
Diesel trains, ships,
and planes also cause air pollution.
[16]
Agriculture and waste
Controlled burning of a field outside of
Statesboro, Georgia, US, in preparation for
spring planting. | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 80, "from": 70}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
efed2f2d-c8a8-479d-955f-dad88737cf30 | E-waste processing in Agbogbloshie,
Ghana, using open-burning of electronics
to access valuable metals like copper.
Agricultural emissions, both from crops and from animal agriculture, contribute substantially to air
pollution.
[17][18]
For instance, methane is emitted by the digestion of food by cattle, causing ground-level
ozone.
[19]
Agriculture is also a major source of ammonia, which can form fine particulate matter.
[20]
Practices like slash-and-burn in forests like the Amazon cause large air pollution alongside deforestation.
[21]
Open dumps of waste are a common source of air pollution in low-income countries. They can be a source
of toxins and can promote the growth of microbes that pollute water and air. Through open burning of waste
—whether self-ignited or burned on purpose—soot, methane, and other pollutants are released.
[22]
Organic
waste in landfills itself also produces methane as it decomposes.
[23]
Globally, a quarter of solid waste is not | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 103, "from": 83}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
2086466e-ca17-4a48-b1d7-830fc9ca024e | [22]
Organic
waste in landfills itself also produces methane as it decomposes.
[23]
Globally, a quarter of solid waste is not
collected and another quarter is not disposed of properly.
[24]
Household sources
Smoking fish over an open fire in Ghana,
2018.
As of 2023, more than 2.3 billion people in developing countries rely on burning polluting fuels such as
firewood, agricultural waste, dry dung, coal, or charcoal for cooking, which causes harmful household air
pollution.
[25]
Kerosene, another polluting fuel, is used in many countries for lighting and sometimes for
space heating or cooking. Globally, 12% of outdoor fine particle pollution comes from household cooking.
Health effects are concentrated among women, who are likely to be responsible for cooking, and young
children.
[26]
Gas stoves for cooking contribute to indoor air pollution by emitting NO
2
, benzene, and carbon
monoxide.
[27]
Toasters can produce particulate pollution.
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|
63568e0f-57d4-4ed7-9b2d-536c2177bb2d | children.
[26]
Gas stoves for cooking contribute to indoor air pollution by emitting NO
2
, benzene, and carbon
monoxide.
[27]
Toasters can produce particulate pollution.
[28]
Similarly, heating systems such as furnaces and
other types of fuel-burning heating devices release pollutants into the air.
[29]
In some developed countries,
including the UK and Sydney, Australia, wood stoves are the major source of particulate pollution in urban
areas.
[30][31]
Wood stoves can also emit carbon monoxide and NO
x
.
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|
230f548f-ac2b-48bf-ae53-754ced409cae | Other sources of indoor air pollution are building materials, biological material and tobacco smoke.
Biological material, such as dander, house dust mite, mold and pollen, can come from humans, animals or
plants. Some of this material can trigger allergies, such as allergic rhinitis.
[11]
Fumes from pesticides, paints,
cleaning products and personal care products can be substantial, and make up an increasing share of
outdoor and indoor air pollution as transportation is getting cleaner.
[32]
Natural sources
Dust storm approaching Stratford, Texas, in
1935.
Dust from desert can cause poor air quality far from its source. For instance, dust from the Gobi Desert in
China and Mongolia can reach Hawaii, and dust from the Sahara reaches the Amazon rainforest in South
America.
[33]
Radon is a radioactive gas that can build up in buildings from the soil. It can cause lung cancer, especially | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 154, "from": 138}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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a5af56a5-06e3-4cb7-a3a7-527a1c752ac9 | The theory motivated an enormous emphasis on public sanitation in major cities to remove smelly pollution,
especially human and animal excrement, from streets and back alleys. The theory collapsed when
physicians accepted the new germ theory of disease in the late 19th century. Germs coughed up by an | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 927, "from": 925}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
d6fea0e1-a1cf-4c88-a4b2-7e5691ee78c7 | America.
[33]
Radon is a radioactive gas that can build up in buildings from the soil. It can cause lung cancer, especially
in smokers. Levels are generally low, but can be elevated in buildings with "leaky" foundations or areas with
soils rich in uranium.
[34]
Volcanic eruptions can be a large source of sulfur dioxide and also produce particle
pollution.
[35]
Vegetation can emit gases that contribute to ozone formation and particle pollution. This is especially true in
warmer climates and during the growth season.
[36]
These gases react with human pollution sources to
produce a seasonal haze.
[37]
Black gum, poplar, oak and willow emit gases that can raise ozone levels up
to eight times more than low-impact tree species.
[38]
Wildfires, which have become more severe and more
common due to climate change, release fine particles. They are a major source of air pollution.
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|
a7c6cab8-96b5-4790-abe2-061ce0ee2c1b | Major pollutants
Major pollutants, their sources and effects: (1)
greenhouse gases, (2) particulate pollution, (3) ozone-
depleting gases, (4) acid rain, (5) ground-level ozone, (6)
nitrogen oxides
Air pollutants can be tiny solid or liquid particles dispersed in the air (called aerosols), or gases.
[40]
Pollutants are classified as primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are produced directly by a source and
remain in the same chemical form after they have been emitted into the atmosphere. Examples include
carbon monoxide gas from car exhausts and sulfur dioxide from factories. Secondary pollutants are not
emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react with each other or with other parts
of the atmosphere. Ground-level ozone is one example of a secondary pollutant. Some pollutants may be
both primary and secondary — both are emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.
[41]
Ammonia
Ammonia (NH
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|
c35df22a-4e98-4042-b739-babd97723bb8 | both primary and secondary — both are emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.
[41]
Ammonia
Ammonia (NH
3
) is emitted mainly by overuse of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers on farmland, and from manure
and urine from livestock.
[42]
At typical concentrations in the air, it is not harmful to health directly. However,
ammonia can react with other pollutants in the air to form ammonium sulfate or nitrate salts, contributing to
particulate matter pollution. Furthermore, when ammonia is deposited onto the soil, it can harm ecosystems
via eutrophication.
[43]
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide (CO
2
) is mainly emitted by the burning of fossil fuels.
[44]
CO
2
is sometimes called an air
pollutant, because it is the main greenhouse gas responsible for climate change.
[45][46]
Although the World
Health Organization recognizes CO
2
as a climate pollutant, it does not include the gas in its Air Quality
Guidelines or set recommended targets for it.
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|
4a6c77c1-a383-4313-8a97-4dc7e9800362 | [45][46]
Although the World
Health Organization recognizes CO
2
as a climate pollutant, it does not include the gas in its Air Quality
Guidelines or set recommended targets for it.
[47]
This question of terminology has practical consequences,
for example, in determining whether the U.S. Clean Air Act (which is designed to improve air quality) is
deemed to regulate CO
2
emissions. The Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 amended the Clean Air Act to
define CO
2
from fossil fuel burning explicitly as an air pollutant.
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|
6f247858-9f1f-491e-aabe-6a0d7053ede8 | Carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, and toxic gas.
[49]
It is a product of combustion of fuel such
as natural gas, coal, or wood. In the past, emissions from vehicles were the main source of CO, but modern
vehicles do not emit much of it. Now, wildfires and bonfires are the main source of outdoors CO.
[50]
Indoors,
CO is a larger problem and mainly comes from cooking and heating.
[51]
In poorly ventilated spaces, CO can
accumulate to dangerous levels, and exposure may cause people to lose consciousness and die. When CO
is destroyed in the atmosphere, it can raise levels of CO
2
and CH
4
.
[52]
Ground-level ozone
Leaves damaged by exposure to ozone.
Ground-level ozone (O
3
) is mostly created when NO
x
and volatile organic compounds mix in the presence
of sunlight. It can also form from carbon monoxide or methane.
[53]
Due to the influence of temperature and
sunlight on this reaction, high ozone levels are most common on hot summer afternoons.
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|
da81dd04-c996-45b6-a287-6ceb5a479967 | [53]
Due to the influence of temperature and
sunlight on this reaction, high ozone levels are most common on hot summer afternoons.
[54]
It is the main
gas in photochemical smog.
[55]
O
3
can be harmful to human health, but also to some materials, forests, plants, and crops.
[56]
Smog is a
particular problem in big cities where it cannot easily be transported away by wind (e.g. cities built in valleys
surrounded by mountains).
[57]
When ground-level ozone is produced, it can linger in the air for days or
weeks, and therefore be transported far from where it was first formed.
[53]
Nitrogen oxides
A NASA video on satellite measurement of nitrogen
oxides, showing declining levels due to regulation.
However, some regions did see rising levels of NO
2
pollution, for instance, those with fracking or civil
unrest.
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|
38d395f8-d12e-4129-82b4-ac5484e0982e | Nitrogen oxides (NO
x
), particularly nitrous oxide (NO), are mostly created by the burning of fossil fuels, and
in lesser amounts by lightning. Nitrogen dioxide (NO
2
) is formed from NO in a reaction with other
atmospheric gases.
[58][59]
NO and NO
2
can form acid rain, can form into a haze, and can cause nutrient
pollution in water.
[60]
NO
2
is a reddish-brown toxic gas with a strong odor, whereas NO is odorless and
colorless.
[61]
Particulate matter
Particulate matter (PM), also known as particle pollution, includes all airborne substances that are not
gases.
[8][62]
It is a mix of microscopic solid particles or droplets suspended in a gas.
[63]
Particulate matter can contain a large variety of materials and chemical compounds including toxic
substances, which can vary strongly in size.
[8]
Coarse PM (PM
10
) is 10 micrometer (μm) or smaller in
diameter, fine PM (PM
2.5
) is smaller than 2.5 μm, and ultrafine particles are 0.1 μm or smaller.
[64]
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|
571225d0-d6a5-4c26-aa3f-6d1ede4a111f | [8]
Coarse PM (PM
10
) is 10 micrometer (μm) or smaller in
diameter, fine PM (PM
2.5
) is smaller than 2.5 μm, and ultrafine particles are 0.1 μm or smaller.
[64]
Smaller
particles pose more risk to health, as they can reach the bloodstream.
[62][64]
A definitive link between fine
particulate pollution and higher death rates in urban areas was established by the Harvard Six Cities study,
published in 1993.
[65]
Sea spray, wildfires, volcanoes and dust storms are the main natural sources of PM. Meanwhile, human
sources include the burning of biomass and fossil fuels, as well as road emissions and dust resuspension.
Human PM is usually finer than natural PM.
[66]
Most particulate matter is formed in the atmosphere from
precursor gases. For instance, sulfate comes from SO
2
, nitrate from NO
2
, and ammonium is formed from
ammonia. Soot on the other hand is directly emitted from combustion, and consists of black carbon and
organic compounds.
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|
2d7c429a-3df7-42b1-b636-1c34b4368690 | 2
, nitrate from NO
2
, and ammonium is formed from
ammonia. Soot on the other hand is directly emitted from combustion, and consists of black carbon and
organic compounds.
[67]
Particulate matter can have a cooling effect locally on the climate, as it reflects
sunlight away from Earth's surface.
[68][69][70][71][72]
Sulfur dioxide
Sulfur dioxide (SO
2
), an acidic and corrosive gas, is produced mostly by burning crude oil and coal. These
fossil fuels often contain sulfur compounds, and their combustion generates sulfur dioxide.
[73]
In Europe and
North America, SO
2
is mostly found in areas with significant shipping and industry, as road traffic fuels are
regulated.
[74]
Smaller amounts of SO
2
are released from smelting and volcanoes.
[75]
High concentrations of SO
2
in the air generally also lead to the formation of other sulfur oxides (SO
x
). SO
x
can react with other compounds in the atmosphere to form small particles and contribute to particulate | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 359, "from": 327}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
adf230dd-2a87-416c-b0f4-aedc54e3870e | 2
in the air generally also lead to the formation of other sulfur oxides (SO
x
). SO
x
can react with other compounds in the atmosphere to form small particles and contribute to particulate
matter pollution. At high concentrations, gaseous SO
x
can harm plants by damaging leafs and decreasing
growth.
[75]
Further oxidation of SO
2
, mostly taking place in cloud droplets, forms sulfuric acid (H
2
SO
4
),
which is one of the components of acid rain.
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|
599cf185-333b-43f4-9d0f-22c4bfff752a | Volatile organic compounds
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are a class of carbon-based chemicals that exist as gases at room
temperature, found both indoors and outdoors.
[77]
They can cause photochemical smog and form aerosols
impacting climate. The group includes methane, acetone, and toluene. Some can cause cancer, such as
butadiene and benzene,
[78]
with benzene being released from cigarette smoking. Methane is a greenhouse
gas and the second-largest driver of global warming. Other VOCs contribute to climate warming because
they help form ground-level ozone, a greenhouse gas.
[79]
Other pollutants
Some heavy metals can be bad for health. For instance, lead exposure can lead to learning disabilities in
children. In the atmosphere, heavy metals can exist in different states, such as particles or gases. One of
the forms of chromium can cause cancer. Mercury is harmful both as an element and in an organic | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 390, "from": 375}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
0e0e8e9a-949a-48fe-a41f-a7b9020bbd5e | the forms of chromium can cause cancer. Mercury is harmful both as an element and in an organic
compound. In the atmosphere, it comes mostly from cement production, coal burning, and incinerators.
[80]
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental
degradation. They persist in the environment, are capable of long-range transmission, bioaccumulate in
humans and animals, and biomagnify in food chains.
[81]
The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic
Pollutants identified pesticides and other POPs of concern. These include dioxins and furans which are
created by waste combustion. POPs are usually either semi-volatile (gaseous only at higher temperatures)
or non-volatile (emitted as particles). The harmful effects of the pesticide DDT, a POP, were popularized by
Rachel Carson's 1962 book Silent Spring.
[82]
PFASs and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are
other examples of POPs.
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|
b1fc9fd8-9623-46ac-88df-d0c85540be72 | Rachel Carson's 1962 book Silent Spring.
[82]
PFASs and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are
other examples of POPs.
[83]
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are a group of compounds which harm the ozone layer. They were widely used
in aerosol sprays, refrigerants, and fire suppression. Due to their chemical stability, CFCs persist in the
atmosphere and eventually reach the stratosphere (the upper atmosphere).
[84]
There, they break down
under the impact of UV light, which releases chlorine. This in turn reacts with ozone, destroying it. As the
ozone layer blocks harmful UV radiation from reaching the Earth's surface, its depletion leads to health risks
such as skin ageing and skin cancer.
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|
a2ed9112-de5a-44dd-834c-e56244cacc6f | Exposure
PM
2.5
Levels Across the World's 5 Most
Populated Nations in 2019.
Exposure to air pollution varies widely across the world and across groups.
[86]
Children, for example, are
more exposed because they breathe more rapidly than adults and closer to the ground, where pollution
from vehicle exhaust and dust is more concentrated.
[87]
Similarly, people engaging in strenuous exercise
inhale more pollutants than those at rest.
[88]
People can reduce their exposure by wearing high-quality face
masks or by using air purifiers.
[89]
Share of the population exposed to air
pollution levels above WHO guidelines,
2017.
For some pollutants, low exposure can be seen as safe, whereas other pollutants have negative health
effects even at low levels.
[90]
As evidence has grown that even very low levels of air pollutants hurt human
health, the WHO halved its recommended safe limit for particulate matter from 10 μg/m
3
to 5 μg/m
3
in 2021. | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 446, "from": 416}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
f55f8541-f067-4d6d-bad5-bfa9084a37cd | [90]
As evidence has grown that even very low levels of air pollutants hurt human
health, the WHO halved its recommended safe limit for particulate matter from 10 μg/m
3
to 5 μg/m
3
in 2021.
Under the new guideline, nearly the entire global population—97%—is classified as exposed to unsafe
levels of fine particles (PM
2.5)
.
[91]
The new limit for nitrogen dioxide (NO
2
) became 75% lower.
[92]
For all
pollutants together, the World Health Organization concluded that 99% of the world population is exposed to
harmful air pollution.
[93]
For some pollutants such as black carbon, traffic related exposures may dominate total exposure despite
short exposure times, since high concentrations coincide with proximity to major roads or participation in
(motorized) traffic.
[94]
A large portion of total daily exposure occurs as short peaks of high concentrations.
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|
0efb0536-b51c-4dc9-bb65-f2e1ce081bf7 | Top 5 most polluted cities in 2024
[101]
CityPM
2.5
concentration
Byrnihat, India128
Delhi, India108
Karaganda, Kazakhstan105
Mullanpur, India102
Lahore, Pakistan102
By socioeconomic group
While air pollution affects a variety of populations, some groups are more exposed. In many regions, there
are disparities in exposure to pollution by race and income. This is especially true in countries with high
inequalities in incomes and healthcare, such as the United States. Polluting industries and roads are more
likely to be placed in poorer communities, and people in these communities are more likely to work
outdoors, leading to additional exposure.
[96]
Residents in public housing, who are generally low-income and
cannot easily move to healthier neighborhoods, are highly affected by nearby refineries and chemical
plants.
[97]
Additionally, lower-income communities more often perform polluting activities, such as using
solid biofuels for cooking.
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|
d70d6403-ece6-4392-925b-59f13d958c3d | plants.
[97]
Additionally, lower-income communities more often perform polluting activities, such as using
solid biofuels for cooking.
[98][99]
In the United States, Blacks and Latinos generally face more pollution than
Whites and Asians.
[100]
By geographic area
Exposure to outdoor air pollution is worst in lower-middle income
countries in line with the environmental Kuznets curve, which
postulates that pollution is worst in economies that rely on
manufacturing but have not yet been able to prioritize
environmental regulation.
[96]
Indoor air pollution is worst in low-
income countries, in particularly south-east Asia, the western
Pacific, and Africa.
[102]
Outdoor air pollution is usually concentrated in densely populated
metropolitan areas. Urbanization leads to a rapid rise in premature mortality due to air pollution in fast-
growing tropical cities.
[103]
Indoor air pollution on the other hand is most common in rural areas, which may
lack access to clean cooking fuels.
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|
632b4e53-0f7b-4908-8a56-23a0100d0e0c | growing tropical cities.
[103]
Indoor air pollution on the other hand is most common in rural areas, which may
lack access to clean cooking fuels.
[102]
A map published in 2025 by Climate TRACE indicates that PM
2.5
(fine particles) and other toxins are
released near the homes of about 1.6 billion people, about 900 million of whom are in the path of "super-
emitting" facilities such as power plants, refineries, ports, and mines.
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|
7674d0b2-75d7-4333-879d-8b998b00effb | Health effects
The share of total deaths from indoor air pollution, 2017.
Air pollution is an important risk factor for various diseases, such as COPD (a common lung disease),
stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, and pneumonia. Indoor air pollution is also associated with cataract.
[90]
According to the WHO, 99% of the world's population lives in areas with air pollution that exceeds WHO
recommended levels.
[105]
Even at very low levels (under the World Health Organization recommended
levels), fine particulates can continue to cause harm.
[106]
Pollutants strongly linked to ill health include particulate matter,
[107]
carbon monoxide,
[108]
nitrogen dioxide
(NO
2
), ozone (O
3
),
[109]
and sulfur dioxide (SO
2
). Fine particulates are especially damaging, as they can
enter the bloodstream via the lungs and reach other organs.
[110][111]
Air pollution causes disease by driving
inflammation and oxidative stress, suppressing the immune system, and by damaging DNA.
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|
587594dd-0a6c-48c3-a260-35ec4dbb0877 | [110][111]
Air pollution causes disease by driving
inflammation and oxidative stress, suppressing the immune system, and by damaging DNA.
[90]
People living in poverty, babies, and older people are disproportionately affected by air pollution; pregnancy
is also more risky when exposed to air pollution.
[112]
Communities with a low socioeconomic status and
minority groups are more vulnerable to pollution than more privileged communities.
[113]
Lower-income
groups might for instance have less access to healthcare.
[96]
Mortality
Estimates of yearly deaths from air pollution range from 6.7
million to 8.8 million. In comparison, war caused 50,000
yearly deaths and terrorism 25,000. | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 563, "from": 546}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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b9a9c4e0-dc5d-41f5-9640-39c86aaa1d1b | Directly spraying the seat of the fire in enclosed areas can have unfortunate consequences: the force of
water pushes air in front of it, which supplies the fire with extra oxygen before the water. 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|
c4c98f69-d310-4f6e-9e90-cc44303c18ea | Deaths in 2021 from air pollution per 100,000 inhabitants
(IHME).
Estimates of deaths due to air pollution vary.
[114]
The 2024 Global Burden of Disease Study estimates that
air pollution contributed to 8.1 million deaths in 2021, which is more than 1 in 8 deaths. Outdoor particulate
pollution (PM
2.5
) was the largest cause of death (4.7 million), followed by indoor particulate pollution (3.1
million) and ozone (0.5 million).
[115]
The World Health Organization estimates that 6.7 million people die from air pollution each year, 4.2 million
due to outdoor air pollution.
[116]
Roughly 68% of outdoor air pollution-related premature deaths were due to
coronary heart disease and stroke, 14% due to COPD, and 14% due to lung infections (lower respiratory
tract infections).
[116]
A study published in 2019 estimated that, for 2015, the number was around 8.8 million, with 5.5 million of
these premature deaths due to air pollution from human sources.
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aad6e719-1257-4801-803c-bb1fd5173724 | [116]
A study published in 2019 estimated that, for 2015, the number was around 8.8 million, with 5.5 million of
these premature deaths due to air pollution from human sources.
[117][118]
The global mean loss of life
expectancy from air pollution in 2015 was 2.9 years, substantially more than, for example, 0.3 years from all
forms of direct violence.
[119]
By region
Regional deaths due to air pollution depend not only on the regional exposure, but also on how large and
how old the population is, and the health of people overall.
[120]
In some countries, more than 20% of deaths are attributed to air pollution (e.g. China, Nepal, Bangladesh,
Laos, and North Korea). In South America, around 4% of deaths are from air pollution, while in countries
such as Australia, Canada, and the US, this number is under 3%.
[121]
In absolute number, India and China have the higher number of deaths from air pollution. In India, it | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 599, "from": 583}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
00355e7a-570d-440c-9f83-4c402157a41d | such as Australia, Canada, and the US, this number is under 3%.
[121]
In absolute number, India and China have the higher number of deaths from air pollution. In India, it
contributed to 2.1 million deaths in 2021, whereas China saw 2.4 million deaths.
[122]
Annual premature
European deaths from air pollution are estimated at 416,000
[123]
to 800,000.
[118]
The UK saw some 17,000
deaths in 2021 due to air pollution and the US saw 64,000. Nigeria, Indonesia and Pakistan each saw over
200,000 deaths resulting from air pollution.
[124]
By source | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 611, "from": 597}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
65355ebc-077c-461e-bc17-24a9683188f3 | Deaths caused by accidents and air pollution from
fossil fuel use in power plants exceed those
caused by production of renewable energy.
[2]
The burning of fossil fuels is the largest source of air pollution deaths.
[125]
There are estimated 4.5 million
annual premature deaths worldwide due to pollutants released by high-emission power stations and vehicle
exhausts.
[126]
PM
2.5
formed from emissions from coal-fired power plants could be more harmful than other
types of fine particulate matter.
[127]
The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that cooking-related pollution causes 3.8 million annual
deaths.
[128]
The Global Burden of Disease study estimated the number of deaths in 2021 at 3.1 million.
[129]
Cardiovascular disease
There is strong evidence that air pollution increases the risk of cardiovascular disease, including stroke,
high blood pressure, and coronary heart disease.
[130]
According to the Global Burden of Disease Study, air | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 637, "from": 613}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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6e963962-ebd7-40bd-a7ad-465a37c3e508 | high blood pressure, and coronary heart disease.
[130]
According to the Global Burden of Disease Study, air
pollution is responsible for 27% of deaths from strokes worldwide and 28% of coronary heart disease.
[131]
The risks are highest in regions with higher air pollution (e.g. Asia), for elderly and for people who are
overweight.
[130]
Air pollution is a leading risk factor for stroke, particularly in developing countries where pollutant levels are
highest.
[131]
A systematic analysis of 17 different risk factors in 188 countries found air pollution is
associated with nearly one in three strokes (29%) worldwide (34% of strokes in developing countries versus
10% in developed countries).
[132][133]
The mechanisms linking air pollution to increased cardiovascular
mortality are not fully understood, but likely include systemic inflammation and oxidative stress.
[134]
Lung disease
Air pollution is associated with increased development, hospitalization, mortality, and COPD (chronic | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 654, "from": 635}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
a1353064-3017-4985-a2a8-18595b539aae | [134]
Lung disease
Air pollution is associated with increased development, hospitalization, mortality, and COPD (chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease).
[135]
COPD is a common disease which causes restricted airflow and
breathing difficulties, and is the fourth-largest cause of death globally.
[136]
Nearly half of global COPD
deaths are due to air pollution.
[131]
Fine particles (PM
2.5
) and NO
2
are associated with increased risk of
developing COPD.
[137]
In children, air pollution can hinder lung development, which may increase their
susceptibility to COPD later in life.
[135]
Air pollution is further associated with increased risk of asthma and worsening of symptoms, and this effect
seems stronger in children.
[138]
For adults, fine particles (PM
2.5
) or NO
2
seem linked to asthma onset | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 680, "from": 652}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
c093bd09-13f2-44b3-b4ae-a682a1b01afb | too.
[139]
Short-term exposure to ozone makes asthma worse in children.
[140]
There is limited evidence on
(almost) fatal asthma attacks in children: ground-level ozone and PM
2.5
seem to increase its risk.
[141]
Cancer
Dark factory-emitted clouds
obscuring the Clark Avenue
Bridge in Cleveland, Ohio in July
1973.
Around 265,000 lung cancer deaths were attributed globally in 2019 to exposure to fine particulate matter
(PM
2.5
) suspended in the air.
[142]
Exposure to indoor air pollution, including radon, caused another 170,000
lung cancer deaths.
[142]
Lung cancer was also more common among people exposed to NO
2
and black
carbon.
[143]
Outdoor air pollution may increase risk of other types of cancer too, but the evidence is not as clear as for
lung cancer.
[144]
For example, there may be a relationship between kidney cancer and PM
2.5
and NO
2
levels.
[145]
Household air pollution – from cooking with solid fuels, but also from radon in building material – | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 719, "from": 682}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
eb1db92d-d57c-426c-a958-f26f6ed10a81 | For example, there may be a relationship between kidney cancer and PM
2.5
and NO
2
levels.
[145]
Household air pollution – from cooking with solid fuels, but also from radon in building material –
has been associated with cervical, oral, and esophageal cancer.
[144]
Pregnancy and children
Stillbirths, miscarriages, and birth defects are all more likely when the mother is exposed to air pollution
during pregnancy.
[87]
Exposure to air pollution also raises the chance that a baby has a low birth weight.
The impacts might be due to pollutants directly impacting the placenta or fetus, or indirectly via the mother's
health (as air pollution can cause systemic inflammation and oxidative stress).
[87]
Over a third of preterm births were associated with air pollution in 2021 globally. It causes more than half a
million newborn deaths, a quarter of overall deaths.
[87]
The source of PM
2.5
differs greatly by region. 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|
2bfcb2f9-1c49-422d-9b5b-a67bb8e57de2 | million newborn deaths, a quarter of overall deaths.
[87]
The source of PM
2.5
differs greatly by region. In
South and East Asia, pregnant women are frequently exposed to indoor air pollution because of wood and
other biomass fuels being used for cooking, which are responsible for more than 80% of regional pollution. | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 737, "from": 731}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
f520171b-5f8c-4618-9280-457ee5b7fbd5 | In the Middle East, North Africa, and West sub-Saharan Africa, fine PM comes from natural sources, such
as dust storms.
[146]
For data including older children, polluted air resulted in the death of over 700,000 children in 2021
(709,000 under 5 years of age and 16,600 aged 5–14 years).
[87]
Children in low- or middle-income
countries are exposed to higher levels of fine particulate matter than those in high income countries.
[147]
Further health effects of air pollution on children include asthma, pneumonia, and lower respiratory tract
infections.
[148]
There is possibly a link between exposure to air pollution during pregnancy and after birth
and autism in children.
[149][150]
Many of these relationships could previously only be described as correlations, as study designs that
demonstrate causation are difficult or impossible to conduct in environmental medicine. This would require | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 755, "from": 739}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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0132a51e-f041-4723-bce1-ef3dcb382111 | ides-nox). European Environment Agency. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20250520204117/h
ttps://www.eea.europa.eu/help/glossary/eper-chemicals-glossary/nitrogen-oxides-nox) from the
original on 20 May 2025. Retrieved 15 March 2025. | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 1449, "from": 1447}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
49a56589-5b15-40df-8e91-80a2be07810f | demonstrate causation are difficult or impossible to conduct in environmental medicine. This would require
a randomized controlled trial. Scientists at BIPS in Bremen were able to demonstrate a causal relationship
for at least some health problems (e.g. diabetes and high blood pressure) using a special study design.
[151]
Brain health
Air pollution is linked to various diseases of the brain. It increases the risk of dementia.
[152]
Indoor air
pollution exposure during childhood may negatively affect cognitive function and neurodevelopment.
[153][154]
Prenatal exposure may also affect neurodevelopment.
[155][156]
Exposure to air pollution may contribute to
neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease.
[154]
Exposure to air pollution may also drive mental health issues, such as depression and anxiety.
[157]
In
particular, air pollution from the use of solid fuels was associated with a higher depression risk.
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|
4e18b95e-5dc6-48e5-a9a6-ea6dfa543653 | [157]
In
particular, air pollution from the use of solid fuels was associated with a higher depression risk.
[158]
Depression risk and suicide was more strongly linked to finer particulate matter (PM
2.5
), compared to
coarser particles (PM
10
). The association was strongest for people over the age of 65.
[159]
Problems with thinking (cognitive issues) are also associated with air pollution. In people over the age of 40,
both NO
x
and PM
2.5
have been linked to general cognitive problems. PM
2.5
was also associated with
reduced verbal fluency (for instance, number of animals one can list in a minute) and worse executive
functions (like attention and working memory). Similarly, children tended to fare worse in tests involving
working memory when there was NO
x
, PM
2.5
, or PM
10
pollution.
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|
4401dcac-522e-4ddf-b667-3b53ea8e7e13 | Social and environmental impacts
Acid rain
Monument damaged by acid rain.
Effects of acid rain in the Jizera Mountains,
Czech Republic.
Naturally, water in the atmosphere is slightly acidic. Some pollutants can form strong acids, making
rainwater much more acidic. Key acids that cause acid rain are nitric acid (HNO
3
), sulfuric acid (H
2
SO
4
) and
hydrochloric acid (HCl). HCl comes from coal combustion. H
2
SO
4
forms from SO
2
, which comes from the
burning of coal and oil and from some industrial processes like smelting. HNO
3
forms from NO
2
, which is
formed during high-temperature combustion. The term acid rain not only refers to rain, but also to pollution
from hail, fog, and snow.
[161]
Acid rain caused substantial damage in the 1970s, including lake acidification and forest diebacks in
Northern Europe. Due to the changed acidity in water bodies and soils, essential nutrients such as | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 832, "from": 801}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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08c5a2df-14fc-420c-90b8-be185166f214 | Northern Europe. Due to the changed acidity in water bodies and soils, essential nutrients such as
magnesium and calcium became soluble and could be washed away. Other elements, such as aluminium,
which were toxic to vegetation, became available for the roots to absorb. Acid rain also impacts buildings
and statues made of specific stones (e.g. marble, calcite or freestone), as the stone reacts chemically with
the acid in the water and erodes.
[161]
Water and soil pollution
Air pollution can settle (deposit) on the soil or in water, causing various problems. For instance, ammonia
and nitric acid in the air can contribute to nutrient pollution in water, a process called eutrophication. At first,
the extra nutrients help plants grow, but dense plant growth blocks sunlight from reaching the bottom. | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 841, "from": 832}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
de14d152-d4a4-41d9-a21e-08908089e1b4 | Plants in the lower layers then die, and with fewer plants producing oxygen, the oxygen level drops. This
harms organisms that need oxygen to live,
[162]
and can lead to the loss of sensitive species.
[163]
Agricultural effects
Various studies have estimated the impacts of air pollution on agriculture, especially ozone. Ozone acts as
an oxidant and reduces photosynthesis. One study estimated that for a 1% increase in ozone
concentrations, there would be a global economic loss of $10 billion each year. For PM
2.5
, a 1% increase in
pollution levels would lead to around $5 billion in losses, especially in colder climates.
[164]
After air
pollutants enter the agricultural environment, they not only directly affect agricultural production and quality,
but also enter agricultural waters and soil.
[165]
Air pollution further decreases the productivity of laborers via
health impacts.
[164]
The COVID-19 lockdowns created a natural experiment to examine the links between air quality and | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 863, "from": 843}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
d03d0b10-a529-4bb1-8e8d-cf7c697174bd | [165]
Air pollution further decreases the productivity of laborers via
health impacts.
[164]
The COVID-19 lockdowns created a natural experiment to examine the links between air quality and
agricultural output. In India, the lockdown improved air quality, which enhanced surface greenness and
photosynthetic activity. Both forests and crops saw positive effects; the improvement was most pronounced
for crops.
[166]
Economic effects
Air pollution has a strong impact on the economy via its health effects – such as reduced productivity at
work and the costs of healthcare – and its effects on crop yield. It also affects tourism, biodiversity, forestry,
and water quality. Tourism may be negatively affected due to decreased visibility and damage to cultural
heritage.
[167]
People may be more prone to accidents due to air pollution. Increased NO
2
levels are for
instance linked to construction site accidents.
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eac61245-66c3-46cd-80b8-5484f86ab3d6 | heritage.
[167]
People may be more prone to accidents due to air pollution. Increased NO
2
levels are for
instance linked to construction site accidents.
[168]
In terms of the welfare cost on human health (non-market costs), a World Bank study found that PM
2.5
pollution in 2019 cost the world economy over $8 trillion, over 6% of global GDP. In India and China, the
loss of GDP was over 10%. Around 85% of this loss globally came from the loss of life, the rest from
increased ill health.
[169]: 23–24
The costs of lives lost are calculated using the Value of Statistical Life, a
number that tries to estimate how much people would be willing to pay to reduce their risk of dying.
[169]: xiii
This number differs by country and is difficult to estimate for low- and middle-income countries.
[170]
The direct market impacts on productivity loss, healthcare use, and crop losses were estimated to rise to | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 890, "from": 872}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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3d931d22-e1e1-4ac1-8c6d-2d9302907772 | [170]
The direct market impacts on productivity loss, healthcare use, and crop losses were estimated to rise to
1% of GDP by 2060, according to the OECD. The Caspian region and China would see the largest
impact.
[171]
Air pollution also has an impact on energy production, as it reduces the amount of sunlight that
reaches solar panels. It also causes the panels to become dirty, further reducing their energy output.
[172]
History of air pollution
Mummified remains of people in Peru, Egypt and Britain show that ancient people in these regions suffered
from blackening of the lungs caused by open fires in poorly ventilated homes. Recorded complaints of air | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 899, "from": 889}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
0ec853b2-a701-4e5d-9951-de0cedc84e33 | pollution go back to the Greek and Roman period. Outdoor air pollution became a problem with the rise of
cities, caused by household smoke and by early industrial activities (such as smelting and mining). In
particular, lead levels, found in Arctic ice cores, were about ten times higher in the Roman period than in the
period before.
[173]
Industrial Revolution
During the Industrial Revolution, outdoor air pollution started to rise strongly, mostly due to the large-scale
burning of coal. This occurred first in Britain, then in the rest of Northern Europe and the United States. By
the 19th century, buildings around industrial plants started to blacken, while plants and trees in public parks
started to wither. Smoke-induced fogs reduced the amount of sunlight city-dwellers got, contributing to
cases of rickets, a childhood disease caused by lack of sunlight and poor diet.
[174]
However, the business and political leadership of the industrial cities were enthusiastic backers of the | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 913, "from": 901}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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4fa5e432-772d-49e9-b0f9-14ceed785f3e | cases of rickets, a childhood disease caused by lack of sunlight and poor diet.
[174]
However, the business and political leadership of the industrial cities were enthusiastic backers of the
industry: heavy black smoke meant prosperity, high profits, and high wages.
[175]
Poster in the Soviet Union praising "The
smoke of chimneys is the breath of Soviet
Russia."
Miasma theory
The miasma theory was a prominent idea in the 18th and 19th centuries that gave a false explanation of
how deadly epidemics like cholera, yellow fever, and malaria ("bad air") originated and spread. It said that
illnesses were caused by breathing in a mysterious "miasma," a harmful vapor that arose from decaying
organic matter. Epidemics often came in the summer because that is when people spent more time outside.
The theory motivated an enormous emphasis on public sanitation in major cities to remove smelly pollution, | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 925, "from": 911}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
44679ff0-de7a-46ce-a12e-da0dcc165827 | infected person or spread by certain types of mosquitoes or hookworms were the real reason people caught
an infectious disease.
[176]
Anti-smoke action and modern protections
In the 1830s, anti-smoke groups emerged in Britain, followed by groups in the United States in the 1880s.
Legislation against pollution was weak however, as it was seen to conflict with industrial interests. During
the interwar period of 1920s and 1930s, a move from coal to gas and oil meant there was less air pollution,
but this trend reversed when World War II broke out.
[174]
The United Kingdom suffered its worst air pollution
during the 1952 Great Smog of London, with some 12,000 deaths, which led to the Clean Air Act 1956.
[177]
The 1948 Donora smog in the US, killing 20 people, prompted the US to start regulating air
pollution.
[174][178]
Japan followed in 1960, but other heavily polluted regions, such as the Soviet Union and
China, did not implement effective regulation.
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|
dc1d9794-d3bc-4974-a0f9-ae897cf5da1d | pollution.
[174][178]
Japan followed in 1960, but other heavily polluted regions, such as the Soviet Union and
China, did not implement effective regulation.
[174]
Technological disasters have caused severe problems with air pollution. The world's worst pollution disaster
was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster in India. Leaked industrial vapours from the Union Carbide factory (later
bought by the Dow Chemical Company), killed at least 20,000 people and affected around 600,000.
[179]
In the 1950s, smog in developed countries was regulated, but other pollutants were not. Acid rain, caused
by sulfur dioxide, became a major issue as it spread across borders. In the 1990s, for instance, Japan
experienced acid rain from Chinese and Korean industry. International cooperation was needed to curb acid
rain, and various coalitions were started. In 1975, it was discovered that certain chemicals caused a hole in | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 954, "from": 942}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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3aac92b2-4295-42c6-b2e1-b979e3a1582b | rain, and various coalitions were started. In 1975, it was discovered that certain chemicals caused a hole in
the ozone layer; thanks to successful international negotiations, these chemicals were banned worldwide.
There has been far less success in combatting climate change, and greenhouse gas emissions, mostly
from fossil fuels, continue to rise.
[180]
Measurement and monitoring
Monitoring
Air quality monitoring, New Delhi, India.
Air pollution can be monitored using different techniques. For instance, satellites and remote sensing are
used to track PM, NO
2,
and ozone.
[181]
Many regions have a network of monitoring stations, with good
coverage in India, China, Europe, and the US. Poor coverage exists however for a number of highly
polluted countries, such as Chad and Iran. The density of measurements is improving as there are more | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 970, "from": 954}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
9070574b-141b-42ed-aa09-a6f53896bc24 | low-cost techniques to measure air pollution.
[182]
Low-cost monitors can also be used for indoor air quality
monitoring.
[183]
Finally, air quality sensors can be incorporated into drones to measure air pollution higher
up in the air.
[184]
Some websites attempt to map air pollution levels using available data.
[185][186]
Air quality indexes (AQIs) offer a simple way to communicate changes in air quality and associated health
risks to a wide audience. An AQI is essentially a health protection tool people can use to help reduce their
short-term exposure to air pollution by adjusting activity levels during increased levels of air pollution. These
indexes can indicate when air quality is good, when it is dangerous for sensitive groups (e.g. children with
asthma) and when it is a general hazard.
[187]
Modelling and inventories
Map of simulated particle pollution. Wildfire
smoke is in green, desert dust is in orange,
light blue is sea salt, and white shows | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 992, "from": 972}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
ee3bf747-5e3f-4c9e-ab89-1a7a40349d30 | [187]
Modelling and inventories
Map of simulated particle pollution. Wildfire
smoke is in green, desert dust is in orange,
light blue is sea salt, and white shows
sulfate particle pollution.
When direct data is unavailable or when projecting future air pollutant levels, estimates can be derived
using models or emission factors.
[188]
Air pollutant emission factors are typical values that link the amount of
a pollutant released into the air to a related activity. This could for instance be the typical amount of
particulate matter released from a coal-power station.
[189]
The United States Environmental Protection
Agency has published a compilation of air pollutant emission factors for a wide range of industrial
sources,
[190]
as did the European Environment Agency.
[191]
Air quality models use meteorological and emissions data to simulate how pollutants disperse and react in
the atmosphere. Regulatory agencies use them to assess whether a new source of air pollution would | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 1008, "from": 987}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
88811a70-40d7-4e9b-8764-013a980535e3 | the atmosphere. Regulatory agencies use them to assess whether a new source of air pollution would
exceed acceptable pollution levels, for permitting purposes. They can also be used to predict future
pollution levels under different policy scenarios.
[192]
There are models for local pollution, but also for cross-
boundary pollution.
[193]
Pollution reduction by sector
Pollution prevention seeks to prevent pollution such as air pollution and could include adjustments to
industrial and business activities such as designing sustainable manufacturing processes (and the products'
designs)
[194]
as well as efforts towards renewable energy transitions.
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|
c0bc1077-a884-4614-a3e3-919d841ad8de | Industry and waste
Thermal oxidisers are air pollution
abatement options for hazardous air
pollutants (HAPs), volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), and odorous
emissions.
Various pollution control technologies and strategies are available to reduce air pollution. For instance,
industrial plants can install scrubbers, such as flue-gas desulfurization or catalysts to remove NO
x
. In the
power sector, a very effective means to reduce air pollution is the transition to renewable energy (e.g. solar
and wind energy) or nuclear power.
[197]
Switching from coal-fired power plants to fossil gas reduces air
pollution, but does not eliminate it.
[198]
A growing number of countries regulate waste, through national or city-wide waste management systems,
opening managed landfills, landfill gas capture (for electricity production), and waste separation.
[22]
In
agriculture, air pollution can be minimized by not overusing fertilizers and by not feeding excess protein to
livestock.
[197]
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|
4d18b794-59dd-4f8c-8535-4278b7416a58 | [22]
In
agriculture, air pollution can be minimized by not overusing fertilizers and by not feeding excess protein to
livestock.
[197]
Transport
Electric rickshaws in Nepal.
Tram in Alicante, Spain. | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 1051, "from": 1042}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
a8a56f25-c0c6-48bc-9989-0aa9ba6fdd53 | The avoid-shift-improve framework groups efforts to cut pollution from vehicles into reducing travel, shifting
to sustainable transport, and improving vehicle technology.
[199]
Reducing motor vehicle travel can curb
pollution. One strategy is to build compact cities, so that amenities are close by and cars are not
needed.
[200]
Motor traffic can be reduced by creating more walkable cities and by investing in cycling
infrastructure.
[201]
Working from home is another way of avoiding motorized traffic.
[199]
Traffic can be shifted to cleaner modes of transport by increasing use of public transport,
[202]
for instance
through higher parking fees or offering free public transport. Tackling congestion, which increases fuel
usage, with congestion charging, also shifts people to use cleaner modes of transport. Finally, road vehicles
can be improved from increased fuel efficiency, improved quality of fuels, emission standards, and
conversion to electric vehicles.
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|
25d46ae6-d829-48d6-b1c3-98b628d04d5c | can be improved from increased fuel efficiency, improved quality of fuels, emission standards, and
conversion to electric vehicles.
[203]
For example, buses in New Delhi, India, switched to compressed natural
gas after 2000, to reduce the city's thick pea soup smog.
[148][204]
Cooking, lighting and heating
A kettle heated by a solar cooker at the
Phugtal Monastery in Ladakh, India.
Various technologies are available for clean cooking, to replace traditional biomass stoves or three-stone
fires. For example, a switch to cooking with biogas, bioethanol, electricity, natural gas, or LPG (liquified
petroleum gas) significantly reduces air pollution. Improved cook stoves, which use biomass more
efficiently, improve air quality less, but can be an intermediate solution if clean cook stoves or their fuels are
not available. These clean cooking devices, including those run on fossil fuels, usually have a smaller
climate impact than traditional biomass stoves.
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|
4eb86db1-9d0f-4a72-b77a-9aee5936f3f9 | not available. These clean cooking devices, including those run on fossil fuels, usually have a smaller
climate impact than traditional biomass stoves.
[205]
Kerosene for lighting can be replaced with efficient LED lights, for instance, solar-powered LED lights.
[206]
Combustion of fossil fuels for space heating can be replaced by the use of electricity in heat pumps.
[207]
Ventilation improves indoor air quality, but leads to outdoor air pollution, which can in turn reduce local
indoor air quality.
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|
0b098ac8-5d09-46d8-a882-4c7af55f6275 | Policy and regulation
Laws and regulations
Air pollution in Shanghai, China, in 2013.
China launched a "war against pollution" in
2014, which drastically lowered particle
pollution levels across the country.
[209]
Although a majority of countries have air pollution laws, 43% of countries lack a legal definition of air
pollution, 34% lack outdoor air quality standards, and just 31% have laws for tackling pollution originating
from outside their borders. Few countries have limits that are as strict as the World Health Organization's
recommendations.
[210]
Some air pollution laws include specific air quality standards, such as the U.S. National Ambient Air Quality
Standards and E.U. Air Quality Directive,
[211]
which specify maximum atmospheric concentrations for
specific pollutants. Other examples of air quality laws around the world include the Clean Air Act in Britain,
the US Clean Air Act, and the TA Luft in Germany.
[212]
Air pollution laws might also put limits on the | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 1115, "from": 1095}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
8ba97eb9-0152-46f1-943a-783d305e18ac | the US Clean Air Act, and the TA Luft in Germany.
[212]
Air pollution laws might also put limits on the
emissions of air pollutants, e.g. from vehicles.
[213]
The World Health Organization's Global Air Quality Guidelines encourage improvements in a similar way to
national standards, but are "recommendations" and "good practice" rather than mandatory targets that
countries must achieve.
[214]
Some air pollution action has been successful at the international level, such as the Montreal Protocol,
[215]
which phased out harmful ozone-depleting chemicals. It was ratified worldwide. On the other hand,
international action on climate change, has been less successful.
[216]
The 1997 Kyoto Protocol introduced
modest reduction targets for some countries but lacked strong enforcement,
[217]
while the 2015 Paris
Agreement set no binding limits, instead encouraging all countries to raise their ambition over time.
[180]
Clean air as a human right | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 1133, "from": 1113}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
f38548eb-25f5-44e9-a975-29ceb0a4a62e | [217]
while the 2015 Paris
Agreement set no binding limits, instead encouraging all countries to raise their ambition over time.
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Clean air as a human right
In 2022, the UN General Assembly passed a resolution recognizing the right to a clean, healthy, and
sustainable environment as a human right. The resolution is not legally binding. This resolution followed the
declaration from the UN Human Rights Council published earlier that year.
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While many countries have air pollution laws, they differ in how they can be enforced via litigation. In the
European Union, individual countries, including France, have been fined by the EU for not complying with | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 1139, "from": 1129}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
3f127f6d-3107-4814-8227-7312758edcdd | air quality rules. The revised Ambient Air Quality Directive also makes it possible for individuals in the EU to
seek compensation.
[219]
While China allows litigation on environmental grounds, it is rare as it is seen as
risky.
[220]
In Chile, the right to a healthy environment is part of the constitution, and the Supreme Court
found that the government has to act to provide clear air because of this.
[221]
See also
Air stagnation
Atmospheric chemistry
Global Atmosphere Watch
Global dimming
List of smogs by death toll
References
1. Markandya A, Wilkinson P (2007). "Electricity generation and health" (https://www.thelancet.com/journ
als/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(07)61253-7/abstract). The Lancet. 370 (9591): 979–990.
doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61253-7 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2807%2961253-7).
ISSN 0140-6736 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0140-6736). PMID 17876910 (https://pubmed.ncbi. | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 1160, "from": 1141}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
1c0981bc-d7cb-43a3-9e30-a089160bb481 | doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61253-7 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2807%2961253-7).
ISSN 0140-6736 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0140-6736). PMID 17876910 (https://pubmed.ncbi.
nlm.nih.gov/17876910). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20250322230702/https://www.thelanc
et.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(07)61253-7/abstract) from the original on 22 March
2025. Retrieved 20 March 2025.
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ata.org/safest-sources-of-energy). Our World in Data. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2024011
5112316/https://ourworldindata.org/safest-sources-of-energy) from the original on 15 January 2024.
Data sources: Markandya & Wilkinson (2007); UNSCEAR (2008; 2018); Sovacool et al. (2016); IPCC
AR5 (2014); Pehl et al. (2017); Ember Energy (2021).
3. Rannard G (4 February 2022). "Climate change: Satellites map huge methane plumes from oil and | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 1169, "from": 1159}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
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gas" (https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-60203683). BBC News. Archived (https://web.
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Bibcode:2022Sci...375..557L (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022Sci...375..557L).
doi:10.1126/science.abj4351 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.abj4351). ISSN 0036-8075 (https://
search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075). 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|
581a241c-9e84-4f61-82bf-ebc74fc622d0 | doi:10.1126/science.abj4351 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.abj4351). ISSN 0036-8075 (https://
search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075). PMID 35113691 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3511369
1). S2CID 246530897 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246530897). Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20221130084645/https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abj4351) from the
original on 30 November 2022. Retrieved 4 August 2022. | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 1181, "from": 1177}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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g/10.1017%2FS0305741017001369). hdl:10852/60033 (https://hdl.handle.net/10852%2F60033).
ISSN 0305-7410 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0305-7410). Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20250301172946/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/china-quarterly/article/introduction-air-poll
ution-in-china/8D36F205FEC68513BC45E2DEC0F2AC26) from the original on 1 March 2025.
Retrieved 20 March 2025.
8. "Emissions of air pollutants in the UK – Particulate matter (PM
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)" (https://www.gov.uk/gover
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12. Wang J, Wu Q, Liu J, Yang H, Yin M, Chen S, et al. (2019). 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|
ebec4aa0-6ea5-483f-a74a-ed01e22503a9 | This
article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
12. Wang J, Wu Q, Liu J, Yang H, Yin M, Chen S, et al. (2019). "Vehicle emission and atmospheric
pollution in China: problems, progress, and prospects" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC
6526014). PeerJ. 7 e6932. Bibcode:2019PeerJ...7e6932W (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019P
eerJ...7e6932W). doi:10.7717/peerj.6932 (https://doi.org/10.7717%2Fpeerj.6932). PMC 6526014
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6526014). PMID 31143547 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.
nih.gov/31143547). | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 1223, "from": 1216}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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16. 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18. Lelieveld J, Evans JS, Fnais M, Giannadaki D, Pozzer A (2015). 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5e7b02b9-8e4b-4dd2-a68d-550e05e80abb | 95-3119%2817%2961814-8).
18. Lelieveld J, Evans JS, Fnais M, Giannadaki D, Pozzer A (2015). "The contribution of outdoor air
pollution sources to premature mortality on a global scale". Nature. 525 (7569): 367–371.
Bibcode:2015Natur.525..367L (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015Natur.525..367L).
doi:10.1038/nature15371 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature15371). hdl:20.500.14279/9356 (https://
hdl.handle.net/20.500.14279%2F9356). ISSN 1476-4687 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-468
7). PMID 26381985 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26381985). S2CID 4460927 (https://api.sema
nticscholar.org/CorpusID:4460927). "Whereas in much of the USA and in a few other countries
emissions from traffic and power generation are important, in eastern USA, Europe, Russia and East
Asia agricultural emissions make the largest relative contribution to PM2.5, with the estimate of overall
health impact depending on assumptions regarding particle toxicity." | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 1255, "from": 1245}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
61f2c90f-5f80-43e4-a78f-14bb85476afd | Asia agricultural emissions make the largest relative contribution to PM2.5, with the estimate of overall
health impact depending on assumptions regarding particle toxicity."
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a.eu/en/analysis/publications/methane-climate-change-and-air-quality-in-europe-exploring-the-connect
ions). European Environmental Agency. 5 February 2025. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202
50723064104/https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/publications/methane-climate-change-and-air-qu
ality-in-europe-exploring-the-connections) from the original on 23 July 2025. Retrieved 7 March
2025. | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 1261, "from": 1254}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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Bibcode:2018ScTEn.622.1304G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018ScTEn.622.1304G).
doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.12.064 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.scitotenv.2017.12.064). ISSN 0048-
9697 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0048-9697). PMID 29890597 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go
v/29890597). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200408021012/https://www.sciencedirect.co
m/science/article/pii/S0048969717334836) from the original on 8 April 2020. Retrieved 27 May 2025.
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asas-airs-maps-carbon-monoxide-from-brazil-fires). NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). 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24. 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|
f6bd7675-7b88-4b8f-abc6-37958f1b5862 | organic material in landfills. LFG is composed of roughly 50 percent methane..."
24. Cook & Velis 2020, p. 7.
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s/a-vision-for-clean-cooking-access-for-all/executive-summary). IEA. Archived (https://web.archive.or
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26. World Health Organization 2016, pp. vii–xi.
27. Niranjan A (28 October 2024). "Pollutants from gas stoves kill 40,000 Europeans each year, report
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61-3077). 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f2d89ce7-a219-43a8-b7a3-5142e5ef65ad | ropeans-each-year-report-finds). The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/02
61-3077). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20250725054937/https://www.theguardian.com/envi
ronment/2024/oct/28/pollutants-from-gas-stoves-kill-40000-europeans-each-year-report-finds) from
the original on 25 July 2025. Retrieved 21 March 2025.
28. Twilley N (1 April 2019). "The Hidden Air Pollution in Our Homes" (https://web.archive.org/web/202407
27073125/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2019/04/08/the-hidden-air-pollution-in-our-homes).
The New Yorker. Archived from the original (https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2019/04/08/the-hid
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|
ef94e39e-84ee-4291-a923-c8c6a423d662 | 29. "Combustion Pollutants in Your Home - Guidelines" (https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/resources/documents/com
bustion-pollutants-your-home-guidelines). California Air Resources Board. Archived (https://web.arch
ive.org/web/20250524102500/https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/resources/documents/combustion-pollutants-you
r-home-guidelines) from the original on 24 May 2025. Retrieved 16 June 2022. ""... most furnaces,
wood stoves, fireplaces, gas water heaters, and gas clothes dryers, usually vent (exhaust) the
combustion pollutants directly to the outdoors. However, if the vent system is not properly designed,
installed, and maintained, indoor pollutants can build up quickly inside the home."
30. "Emissions of air pollutants in the UK – Particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5)" (https://www.gov.uk/gov
ernment/statistics/emissions-of-air-pollutants/emissions-of-air-pollutants-in-the-uk-particulate-matter-p
m10-and-pm25). GOV.UK. 13 March 2025. 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chemical products emerging as largest petrochemical source of urban organic emissions" (https://ww | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 1317, "from": 1307}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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|
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w.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaq0524). Science. 359 (6377): 760–764.
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doi:10.1126/science.aaq0524 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aaq0524). ISSN 0036-8075 (http
s://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075). PMID 29449485 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2944948
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s://atmosphere.copernicus.eu/what-saharan-dust-and-how-does-it-change-atmosphere-and-air-we-bre
athe) from the original on 23 July 2025. 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725b01dd-29e4-47d7-928c-7948f3b17250 | s://atmosphere.copernicus.eu/what-saharan-dust-and-how-does-it-change-atmosphere-and-air-we-bre
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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 8–9, doi:10.1017/9781108674614.002 (https://doi.org/10.
1017%2F9781108674614.002), ISBN 978-1-108-48163-2, retrieved 4 June 2025 | {"loc": {"lines": {"to": 1333, "from": 1326}}, "pdf": {"info": {"Title": "Air pollution - Wikipedia", "Creator": "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/143.0.0.0 Safari/537.36", "ModDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "Producer": "Skia/PDF m143", "CreationDate": "D:20251215090735+00'00'", "IsXFAPresent": false, "PDFFormatVersion": "1.4", "IsAcroFormPresent": false}, "version": "1.10.100", "metadata": null, "totalPages": 56}, "source": "blob", "blobType": "application/pdf"} | 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G). doi:10.1073/pnas.0904128106 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0904128106). 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|
0da86b5b-1e6b-4e99-b852-83eb92c5845d | 8835–40. Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.8835G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009PNAS..106.8835
G). doi:10.1073/pnas.0904128106 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0904128106). PMC 2690056
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and Physics. 17 (14): 9223–9236. 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9871e50b-2a26-4bf4-b535-f710d7fec282 | during the 21st century" (https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/17/9223/2017/). Atmospheric Chemistry
and Physics. 17 (14): 9223–9236. Bibcode:2017ACP....17.9223K (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2
017ACP....17.9223K). doi:10.5194/acp-17-9223-2017 (https://doi.org/10.5194%2Facp-17-9223-201
7). ISSN 1680-7316 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1680-7316). Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20250710064330/https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/17/9223/2017/) from the original on 10
July 2025. Retrieved 5 June 2025.
40. Pearson & Derwent 2022, pp. 1, 6.
41. Harrison RM (2005). "1: Sources of Air Pollution". Air Quality Guidelines: Global Update 2005:
Particulate Matter, Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide, and Sulfur Dioxide (https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10
665/107823/9789289021920-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y) (PDF). Copenhagen: World Health
Organization. pp. 9–10, 13. ISBN 92-890-2192-6. 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489a8168-38b8-4a77-b40a-f98e8b548b99 | 665/107823/9789289021920-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y) (PDF). Copenhagen: World Health
Organization. pp. 9–10, 13. ISBN 92-890-2192-6. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20250706041
122/https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/107823/9789289021920-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllow
ed=y) (PDF) from the original on 6 July 2025.
42. Carrington D (4 November 2021). "Ammonia from farms behind 60% of UK particulate air pollution –
study" (https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/04/ammonia-from-farms-behind-60-of-uk-
particulate-air-pollution-study). The Guardian. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2025072214511
3/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/04/ammonia-from-farms-behind-60-of-uk-partic
ulate-air-pollution-study) from the original on 22 July 2025. 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48. Friedman L (22 August 2022). "Democrats Designed the Climate Law to Be a Game Changer. 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53. "Ground-level ozone" (https://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/en/observatory/evidence/health-effects/gro
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|
62a0671d-00c3-4790-b2f8-c194de64667d | 53. "Ground-level ozone" (https://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/en/observatory/evidence/health-effects/gro
und-level-ozone#:~:text=Ground-level%20ozone%20affects%20human,use,%20and%20even%20pre
mature%20mortality.). European Climate and Health Observatory. 17 March 2025. Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20250622234704/https://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/en/observatory/evidence/h
ealth-effects/ground-level-ozone/) from the original on 22 June 2025. 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"Quantification of lightning-produced NOx over the Pyrenees and the Ebro Valley by using different
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|
11677c9f-4d12-45a4-b672-f083846c4504 | "Quantification of lightning-produced NOx over the Pyrenees and the Ebro Valley by using different
TROPOMI-NO2 and cloud research products" (https://amt.copernicus.org/articles/15/3329/2022/).
Atmospheric Measurement Techniques. 15 (11): 3329–3351. doi:10.5194/amt-15-3329-2022 (https://d
oi.org/10.5194%2Famt-15-3329-2022). hdl:10261/282028 (https://hdl.handle.net/10261%2F28202
8). ISSN 1867-1381 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1867-1381). Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20250319100438/https://amt.copernicus.org/articles/15/3329/2022/) from the original on 19
March 2025. Retrieved 15 March 2025.
59. "Emissions of air pollutants in the UK – Nitrogen oxides (NOx)" (https://www.gov.uk/government/statisti
cs/emissions-of-air-pollutants/emissions-of-air-pollutants-in-the-uk-nitrogen-oxides-nox). GOV.UK.
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Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20250424011229/https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/emis
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12024000965). Environment International. 185 108510. 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