ur design facilitates the identification of diversity of behavior across subjects: we find that a substantial fraction of subjects behave in the way predicted by standard theory, while another sizeable group deviates substantially from that behavior.;;


In the next stage, the wife will begin to consider leaving the system.;;


in opinion groups, such as political parties or church groups, free riding is arguably a matter of less concern.;;


While it may seem counter-intuitive that the treatments have less-pronounced effects on groups that compete more, it is possible that higher group investment in the Tullock contest is also linked to stronger baseline in-group preferences (i.e. a higher value of a in the model of Section 4).;;


in the present case, since treatment is randomized, it seems plausible that the instrument (deliberation treatment) affects the dependent variable (cooperation) only through the instrumented variable (giving a written justification) (imbens and angrist, 1994).;;


fishermen with the highest contributions who contribute at least half of their endowment have substantially larger hole sizes than the other fishermen (0.482 cm, n=45).;;


All three had participated in the 2005 research practicum course, which familiarized them with the category scheme, and each received approximately 10 hours of additional training and practice before beginning the coding.;;


"assent for children's participation in research: why it matters and making it meaningful"", child: care, health and development, vol.";;


Controlling for social value orientation, the mediating variable was not a significant predictor on the amount kept by the trust recipient ( = 0.001, p = .27).;;


The implicit contract specifies a fixed wage and a desired effort level (where effort choices can range from 1 to 10).;;


carrying keys is an asset to the researcher, demonstrating that their credibility has been established by the prison authorities, who are seen by prisoners as better placed than them to judge someone's trustworthiness;;


We take Traulsen and Nowak (2006) as a starting point and add three elements to it: direct conflict between groups, individual intergroup encounters, and discriminate strategies.;;


for participants to first complete the self-report measures before the self-control tasks, this could have depleted self-control before participants reach that portion of the study.;;


indeed, the fact that the afterlife manipulation only affected reflective behavior in cyberbomb and not cyberball extends prior research on cross-cutting variables and reflective behavior with the notion that such cross-cutting variables need to be relevant to form an appraisal of the situation.;;


"self-defeating behavior is defined as ""a deliberate action with clear negative effects on the self or on the self's projects"" (baumeister and scher 1988).";;


4 Experimenter-participant anonymity was implemented by using an identification code.;;


although scores of dietary restraint were greater among overweight than among normal-weight participants, results failed to show a relationship between dietary restraint and motivation to eat or energy intake as a function of cyberball condition.;;


First, the trustee completed the following standardized statement (which we will refer to below as a promise) by selecting a natural number amount from 0 to 20: "I (Participant B) promise to transfer back $ of my income to you (Participant A) if you choose IN".;;


these studies suggest that the number of people in the experimental arrangement and the ability to engage in verbal behavior related to the cooperative task are important variables to investigate in experimental investigations involving social episodes.;;


Everybody can earn at least 15 E4 each round.;;


this undermining of trust in others being internally motivated to cooperate occurred regardless of whether manipulated trust was low or high.;;


consistent with the hypothesis, our results revealed that the manipulation of exclusion severity 194 personality and social psychology bulletin 38(2) led to opposing pain responses, such that a less severe future-alone rejection led to an increase in sensitivity to painful stimuli, whereas the highly severe version led to pain numbing.;;


Study results were expressed as mean 6 SD.;;


h umans have a strong need for belonging and regular social interactions 1 2 traditionally this need has been satisfied in face-to-face interactions, but as technology evolves humans obtain new methods for interacting with one another.;;


The common denominator of these models is that they all apply standard methods of game theory to the interaction of agents with modified utility functions, i.e., incorporating some form of fairness utility.;;


cooperation rates were low when no information about opponent behavior was given or when players were assured that they would encounter cooperation or defection.;;


third, ostracized individuals feel they have less control over social interactions (williams & sommer, 1997).;;


"this study is guided by recent theory and research suggesting that increased motivation to eat unhealthy foods and increased consumption of these foods may reflect and be measures of self-regulatory failure (baumeister et al., 2005; oaten et al., 2008; oliver et al., 2001).";;


some scholars argue that participants should be made aware that the interview is not a therapeutic encounter and that the researcher may not have the skills to support them (kirsch, 2005).;;


These findings shed light on the mechanisms behind group effects.;;


we hypothesized that ot, compared to placebo, would increase button-pressing rates at the end of the game, and that this effect would differ according to inclusionary status in the game.;;


technological advances and the growing field of big data research present the need for the development of a feminist holistic reflexivity, particularly as big data research brings to the fore the institutional power at play within the research process.;;


we hypothesized that these different patterns of findings may be the result of the severity of the social exclusion experiences themselves.;;


In stark contrast, activity in the left TPJ negatively modulates the functional connectivity between the DMPFC and lateral areas of the OFG (BA 10/ 11, left: x ¼ À42, y ¼ 54, z ¼ À9, right: x ¼ 24, y ¼ 60, z ¼ À6) and rffff (BA 45/46, x ¼ 54, y ¼ 36, z ¼ 15) (Fig. 7A,B; for additional information and illustration please see Supporting Information Discussion S1 and Fig. S3B-D).;;


however, they might take additional steps such as flagging the possibility in their ethics review applications, and enquiring in advance from ethics committees regarding the procedures for changing pseudonym related practices.;;


it may also be that findings were affected by demand characteristics of the sample.;;


even if these tables never become part of the paper, reflecting on them may offer authors another opportunity to think through their interpretations before sending a paper out.;;


"the contractual, quasi-legal procedures required by ethical review boards are, according to some scholars, entirely in commensurable with the relational, emergent"" (sabati, 2019, p. 1056) nature of qualitative research, in which it is impossible to fully inform prospective participants about the nature of participation.";;


additionally, biologists have found that animals that are incapable of mentalizing (for lack of cognitive ability) can nevertheless employ relatively sophisticated strategies in their interactions with members of their own species (milinski, 1987).;;


those with low levels of security should be hesitant to reveal vulnerability and should thus report relatively high post manipulation pain thresholds.;;


subtracting the cost of the public good from the gross reward level makes allowance for the fact that as the threshold increases, the cost of the public good also rises.;;


Again, in both feedback conditions, harvests were negatively correlated with blaming, r 100 coins (122) = -.23,;;


In Becker (1974), for example, an individual's utility is defined over not only his own consumption, but also the consumption of others (positively in the case of altruism).;;


however, it is possible the depletion method itself may have undermined confidence and thus resulted in setting lower goals.;;


In each round, first the leader decides on his or her investment in project A. Before the other participants decide, they get to see the leader's investment in project A in the round.;;


we again expect the negative main effect of treatment: the more pronounced the harm, the more disutility the participant suffers if she is the only one to cooperate.;;


yet, because giving another person saltines or prunes is not overtly hostile, we sought additional evidence that people's snack choices reflected a hostile vs. benevolent motivation.;;


This is an important factor when the individual faces the decision of whether to leave the interdependent situation (Kelley, 1984;Van Lange, 1994).;;


although perceived control and meaningful existence were not influenced by the quantity of ostracism, they independently influenced aversive impact.;;


such analyses will provide richer data, as the experimenter will be able to videotape participants' reactions, facial gestures and eye contact and measure efforts to bond.;;


Using the strategy method (Selten 1967), we vary P, in the interval S; R ½ , in 10 steps: P ¼ 0:005x 2 , for x 2 0:1; . . .;;


certain improvements are to be expected, as the allocator will make the other team members contribute more to the production of the public good.;;


Hence the prof)ability of choice of a given alternative should be a fmlction of the 1111~ l)rr of motives a choice satisfies as well as the probability associated \vith CYK& motive.;;


if there is a null effect of exclusion on self-reported present distress when feelings are reported immediately after the experience, to comport with williams' temporal theory this would require that recovery from exclusion is near instantaneous a conclusion that contradicts the results of other research.;;


this shift in selfesteem prompts behavior that is likely to maintain social connections.;;


with funding by the National Science Foundation under grant numbers EEC-0228390, EEC-0634750, OCI-0438246, and OCI-0721680.;;


suggested that one way to reduce participant ambivalence towards researchers is to use a more ethnic staff.;;


For example, they are more likely to blame fellow group members for the unfavorable outcome (Burnette & Forsyth, 2008;Price & Garland, 1978) and avoid associations with the group when possible (Boen, Vanbeselaere, & Feys, 2002;Cialdini & Richardson, 1980).;;


apparently, sex effects in response to ostracism are rather small, and strong negative responses to ostracism are found across all age categories with regard to need threats.;;


at the same time, no technology is neutral, and so careful attention must be paid to how qdas, and other digital tools, are changing our research practices, for better and for worse.;;


Therefore we think that the allocator's incentive structure in small and "medium sized" groups is not as different as it seems to be at first glance.;;


this ensured that participants would at least get a decent base payment for participation independent of their earnings in the experimental game.;;


"internalized cooperative tendency within people are specifically reflected by ""behavior of contributing to public goods,"" ""behavior of pro-social punishment,"" and ""behavior of antisocial punishment.""";;


through their experiences, researchers may learn to play the game by deploying ' ' ethics speak ' ' describing their projects in terms that are more acceptable to an institution 6 big data & society designed to evaluate biomedical research (halse and honey, 2007).;;


that is, overall self-esteem may buffer against the influence of contingent self-worth on feeling threatened.;;


a transgression is understood to be an event that counters expectations about how situations or others should be or behave (thompson et al., 2005).;;


We focus on two specific mechanisms that have received substantial attention especially in the theoretical literature on voluntary participation.;;


"being treated like ""crap"" means they are denied the status as a human being.";;


First, we do not want to compare the different ingroups among each other.;;


"in some instances, interviewees may refuse or counter rapport building efforts; they may also set the interview agenda themselves by exercising their own rapport building skills.";;


however, endowment heterogeneity is more effective at fostering coordination since it results in fewer cases of over contributing as well.;;


tft is the one strategy that is sensitive to whether one or both participants change strategy after an interaction.;;


the preceding analyses show that the experience of ostracism in the cyberball game is, in several senses, more aversive than the experience of inclusion.;;


in addition, bettez's noted 'being critically reflexive is especially important so that researchers are more aware .;;


the jiegnote software generally yielded fewer transcription errors compared to the traditional methods, and on considering the effect size (hedge's g), the impact it had on the quality of transcript was small for the software was a working prototype at the time of the study.;;


targets may have worked hard not because they cared about group performance but to get the money.;;


because of nhst's remaining popularity, preregistration can rescue a great deal of social, behavioral, and (bio)medical science (perezgonzalez 2015).;;


"and in experiment 3 ostracized participants were again more aggressive toward ostracizers who had chosen identity disguise than those ostracizers who had been assigned identity disguise; however, participants in the inclusion conditions were not differentially aggressive toward the other ball-toss participants as based on volition.";;


when men and women play against each other, however, these differences are erased: the men become more like women and the women more like men.;;


this research is based on self affirmation theory (steele, 1988), which holds that people are more accepting of threatening information when they can sustain a general feeling of morality, integrity, and consistency.;;


The first type of experiment (the P-experiment) elicits people's contribution preferences in a linear one-shot public goods game.;;


as such, no difference in allocation behavior between elected and appointed leaders is expected when social responsibility is reinforced.;;


certain activities that some take part in are illegal (e.g., vote buying in various forms) or touch on legal gray areas (e.g., persuading city officials to overlook building code violations).;;


the gots dilemma creates situations where environmental uncertainty is endogenous as it is associated exclusively with strategic human behavior: the threshold necessary for ''the givers'' to provide (or sustain) the shared resource is a function of the amount requested by ''the takers''.;;


2002 Department Travel Grant ($439) for travel to the Association for Behavior Analysis conference in Toronto, Canada (poster presentation).;;


self-esteem stability influences reactions to the daily events an individual experiences.;;


although our analysis yielded only main effects on the mood composite, one might wonder whether exclusion from claimball exacerbates specific types of mood, in particular feelings of hostility or guilt.;;


people who hold strong destiny beliefs crumble at the slightest hint of ego-threat or setback, which may make them particularly vulnerable to aggression in the wake of ostracism.;;


apparently, ss are better able to forgive their own transgressions than those of their partner.;;


it therefore remains to be seen whether or not rejection the journal of social psychology 65 leads to similar increases in aggression when others are aware of the aggressive act.;;


Since the subjects participated in both conditions it was possible to observe behavioural changes at the individual level.;;


but our procedure could have created a deceptive feeling for some subjects who believed that the experiment would end after 10 periods.;;


our conjecture that the winner-take-all rule may generate higher contributions than the proportional rebate rule is also consistent with the notion that individuals prefer higher skewness of earnings to risk (golec and tamarkin, 1998).;;


to address this issue, it would be useful for research adopting a more participatory approach to explore confidentiality with children and provide examples of concerns that would need to be shared to keep them safe.;;


here, we investigate whether proclivity to empathize or systemize has any bearing on the perception and experience of social rejection.;;


Specifically, participants in familiar pairs had less variability in how they changed over time compared to the unfamiliar groups.;;


under unilateral c hoice the couple can only split if b oth agree to do so, whic h sligh tly increases the n um b er of unhappily married couples but also increases the n um b er of happily married couples.;;


these results suggest that prosocials prefer the equality rule out of fairness concerns whereas for proselfs efficiency concerns dominate.;;


connecting themes perhaps because they had already identified themselves as creative in order to participate in the research project, participants had strong opinions about their creative self-hood.;;


Thus, homophily and tie frequency emerged simply as a result of selective shedding of unwanted ties.;;


items measuring belonging, meaningful existence, anger, and bad mood were reverse scored such that lower scores for each measure reflected a stronger negative effect and a greater need threat.;;


some researchers identified ethical considerations that are intrinsic to the nature of sda, such as their efforts to conduct sda in order to not overburden vulnerable populations that were participating in research (see turcotte et al., 2015).;;


Importantly, in the mentioned experiments, the conditions for altruistic punishment were relatively favourable, however: low cost for the punisher and high impact on the punished.;;


"all ostracized participants demonstrated affective decline, but over time participants high in loneliness showed less affect decrease than participants low in loneliness (time condition loneliness; fig.";;


our subgroup discussions prevented sufficiently large numbers of subjects (esg., a subgroup size larger than the provision point) from negotiating a social contract.;;


for example, shareholders with more stocks would be expected to vote for a resolution more readily than shareholders with a smaller number of stocks.;;


we strongly advocate for researchers to extend on the reflections we present here as they use caqdas while conducting research, informing the research community in a way that we may identify in a clear manner what constitutes good ethical practices when using caqdas.;;


it has been shown that the inequity inherent in such social compensation can be highly demotivating, particularly when one is compensating for a lazy (rather than a low-ability) partner-we do not like ''playing the sucker'' and doing more than our fair share of the group's work (kerr, 1983).;;


Online experiments, like any experimental method, have limitations, even when conducted within online labor markets.;;


typically, non-academic impacts arise when research directly informs national debates in parliament (or relevant political bodies), affects policy and regulation, influences how the private sector operates, connects with legal testimony and ongoing court decisions, and/or shapes national discourse via the broader mass media.;;


Firstly, it reveals each person's identity and his contribution to the public good.;;


moreover, might socially included and excluded individuals simply differ in their interest in mating, as documented here, or do they also prefer different strategies toward mating based on the amount of resources they have available to invest in the first place?;;


For example, companies in a sector such as computers or broadband Internet services can choose to keep their prices similarly high, or they can do the opposite-start a price war in which each undercuts the other.;;


If so, who are the cooperators?;;


experiment 5: experienced subjects one threat to the general iz ability of the above experiments is the fact that each subject confronted his or her investment decision only once.;;


individual with high social anxiety will have higher overall scores on ratings of the importance of their next turn for maintaining the quality of their relationship with their partner than those low in social anxiety.;;


not only are funder demands reconfiguring researchers' expectations about their data but also open data tends to be treated as an inherent good within the research community.;;


"it revealed that webqda is a powerful digital tool for broadening and deepening the analysis of qualitative data; however, some of its features might be improved depending on specificities of the data collection technique.";;


average contribution rates per period in treatments r and or subjects put zero toward the public account, which contrasts with the significant difference between the number of free-riders in treatments es and eos.;;


However, many of us applaud or have fully engaged the program Heintz suggests (combining "multivariate analysis" with qualitative ethnography), as presented in Henrich et al. (2004), and in other venues where we link to economic anthropology (Ensminger 2002;Henrich 2002;Tracer 2003).;;


In the text chat condition, the client was divided into two parts, one housing the game itself, and the other housing a standard chat interface, including a history of the subject's conversation.;;


in this vein, we expected to replicate that decision makers cooperate more when they face an increased risk of retaliation (fehr & gächter, 2002), which has also been confirmed in bargaining games (van dijk et al., 2004).;;


Irrational punishment again occurred with a comparatively small probability, but antisocial punishment occurred with about the same probability as irrational punishment, ΔG 2 (2) = 0.38, p = .836,;;


The interaction was not observed with the SL measure of SVO (F(1,404) = 0.83, p = .364),;;


this sometimes accompanied a very rapid response rate so the fact of the light being out may have gone unnoticed.;;


if, for example, the researcher had access to only a portion of the diaries in a multi-mode in-depth interview study, the final interpretations and conclusions reached by the researcher would be seriously in doubt.;;


this may have occurred because participants in two-person exclusion received 12 ball-tosses, compared to two ball-tosses received in williams et al.;;


By applying this index to the experimental data of this research, it is shown that over all 20 rounds, on average, 63.7% of the unreported income in the endogenous-audit treatment is discovered, and this magnitude is 50.3% in the random-audit treatment.;;


the design we used was based on the assumption that experiencing a small dose of the specific pain produced by an interrogation tactic provides a more realistic and complete understanding of how that tactic is experienced.;;


social anxiety is directly related to a fear of social rejection (of which ostracism is a form).;;


"the first is that it can help to identify the competencies of the researcher, whether novice or expert; it can help the researcher to read the context and prevent them from getting out of their depth.";;


on the other hand, the extent of a researcher's knowledge of analytical procedures will have an influence on and be revealed in different forms and approaches to analysis.;;


age differences between participants and field workers was important when older participants were reported as being reluctant to answer questions on their sexual behavior to young field workers, or those of a different gender to themselves.;;


see also bartling and von siemens (2011), who find that wage inequality has no detrimental effect on effort provision in a team production setting.;;


Finally, Study 3 employed a levels-of-processing manipulation (Ramponi et al., 2007) to provide evidence for the causal role of explicit memory in indirect reciprocity.;;


for example, when speaking with participants over the telephone, the researcher felt that this mode of communication that obscures facial expressions and gestures may have negatively affected her ability to effectively build a rapport with the participant.;;


ostracism is experienced neurologically as pain (eisenberger, lieberman, & williams, 2003), and hurts even when being ostracized by a hated outgroup (gonsalkorale & williams, 2007).;;


constructivist and ecological models are complementary to each other because they make it possible to cover various aspects of human activities.;;


This raises interesting questions, as dematerialized payment is most likely to become the standard way to remunerate subjects in online experiments.;;


The use of a coaxing strategy was determined by whether such a strategy was used during turns 2-5 of Phase 3 (i.e., a dichotomous variable).;;


jones (2008, 2013), in a meta-study of repeated prisoner's dilemma experiments run at schools with differing average sat and act scores, reported that average cooperation rates are higher at universities with higher average test scores.;;


this procedure affords a content-free manipulation of self-other similarity-one that (i) manipulates perceived similarity independent of group identity, and (ii) does not involve differences in incentives stemming from information exchange and reduced social distance.;;


"researchers complain of the way in which such regulations (a concept that ""can provoke discomfort"" (dingwall, 2016)) infringe on their academic freedom or limit their methodological innovation (see nind et al., 2013; shweder, 2006; sikes and piper, 2011).";;


since all end node payoffs for both players were kept constant, it appears that the difference is primarily through how individuals were influenced by the reversal probability.;;


the results of study 2 indicate that contrary to predictions, as activity exclusion increases, targets make fewer internal attributions.;;


we predicted that strong (vs. weak) destiny beliefs would interact with ostracism to produce the highest levels of aggressive affect.;;


Thus, more women than men were represented in this study.;;


by showing that interpersonal rejection leads consumers to pursue riskier financial opportunities, our research uncovers a shift in consumers' idiosyncratic risk-to-benefit ratio as a result of social exclusion.;;


hostility was further significantly correlated with belonging [r(46) = -.35, p = .02), control (r(46) = -.31, p = .04], self-esteem [r(46) = -.513, p < .001], and meaningfulness of life [r(46) = - .41, p = .004], meaning higher scores for hostility were strongly associated with diminished needs.;;


To alleviate such concerns, we randomized the counterparts and roles (with replacement) in each round to induce participants to consider each round and decision strictly as a one-off decision and limited the number of standard trust game rounds to three with a randomly 3 A reader worried about post hoc hypothesizing (see e.g., Kerr, 1998) may be comforted by the fact that in a grant application submitted to KAUTE Foundation on February 14, 2014 and our research proposal submitted to Aalto University Research Ethics Committee on March 6, 2014 we unambiguously state that we will study the relationship between short-term hunger and trust and do not hypothesize on other outcome variables.;;


clarification the journal of social psychology 73 of these underlying processes may improve our understanding for why rejection causes people to become privately, but not publicly, aggressive.;;


self-control an important component of self-regulation theory affected by ostracism is self-control.;;


for example, qualitative review approaches offer advantages of generating deeper understanding of literature and contributing to more comprehensive research integration, even across quantitative studies.;;


ethical and legal issues the debate on open data is further polarized when ethical and legal implications surrounding potential harm to participants are considered.;;


Ahn et al., 2001) suggest that when games are assigned, such a change in payoffs does not affect behavior.;;


the establishment of solid foods 2022, 11, 2287 3 of 18 methodological guidelines can be extremely useful when analysing qualitative data, as it has been criticised for its rather subjective nature for a long time.;;


Some are the same sort of things that I am, others are less so.;;


Each player received an endowment of one token that could be invested either in a private account or in a group account.;;


this study draws a distinction between cooperation, increasing both contributions and payoffs, and coercion, increasing contributions at the expense of lower payoffs.;;


autonomous choice is at the core of informed consent and is intended as a form of independent acquiescence to participate in research.;;


"individuals cling tenaciously to their optimistic beliefs by using a plethora of defensive strategies (e.g., croyle, sun, & louie, 1993; klein, 1996); as a result, unrealistic optimism is particularly resistant to change using risk communications (e.g., weinstein & klein, 1995).";;


having a friend or mentor makes the work environment more pleasant for someone who is ostracized.;;


This is in line with Hypothesis 2, which stated that prosocials transform the situation into an environmental problem (resembling a Prisoner's Dilemma Game), whereas proselves transform it into an accessibility problem (resembling a Chicken Dilemma Game).;;


"however, in the field and when going about generating data, the actual practice of being reflexive and reflective while undertaking research becomes something far more elusive and slippery (bloor and wood, 2006; hesse-biber and leavy, 2011).";;


the most practical and obvious impact related to the redaction of details is how the data is used in the future, highlighting the epistemic distinction between inductive and deductive research that is often ignored by archiving requirements (feldman and shaw, 2019).;;


in that case, the possibility to modify the level of service to the group is very limited for most individuals.;;


H3: For all PDs (Γ: ∆) there is a positive association between Prop(C|∆) and w u .;;


however, this instruction effect is generally very strong and therefore is seldom influenced by, and almost independent of, the actual partner's behavior.;;


"for example, differing interpretations or understandings of themes that arise during codebook development can help the research team to refine thematic codes and establish inclusion and exclusion criteria for codes through iterative discussion and resolution (cascio et al., 2019; hruschka 2004; macqueen et al., 1998).";;


this distress should move beyond feeling sadness or guilt for observing the target suffering ostracism (cf.;;


Examples include accommodative dilemmas in close relationships (Arriaga & Rusbult, 1998), harvesting and conservation of limited natural resources (Raiffa, Richardson, & Metcalfe, 2002;Van Vugt, 2009), the provision of public goods (Biel, Eek, & Garling, 1997), and resource distribution within social groups (Kramer, 1991).;;


Lemma 1 implies that b k ) i ∈ R , and M k is the (N − S) × (N − S) matrix whose diagonal elements are 0 and its (m, n)-th element is α S + m, S + n s j k ∀ i ∈ R and j ∈ S, and (I − M k ) − 1 y R k is increasing in y R k in the relevant nonnegative range, the above establishes that b s k i ≥s k i ∀ i ∈ R. Then k b T implies b s t i ≥s t i ∀ i ∈ N and t ∈ {1,..., k} , and b s k + 1 i ≥s k + 1 i ∀ i ∈ S. The claim then follows by induction.;;


In each session, sixteen or twenty undergraduate participants are randomly and anonymously assigned to groups of four who interact knowingly without change of partners and for a total of fifteen periods.;;


"apophenia, also known as patternicity, refers to the identification of connections or meaningful patterns in disparate data, where no such relationship exists (fyfe, williams, mason & pickup, 2008; paul, monda, olausson & reed-daley, 2014; shermer, 2008).";;


"in cooperative games, players can communicate freely and make enforceable agreements; in noncooperative games, they can do neither.";;


similarly, earning trust was particularly challenging for antilla while she was conducting her study on her study with african american women.;;


sharing the ostracism experience did mitigate reflective self-reports of belonging, self-esteem, meaning, control and mood.;;


Likewise, up to roughly 60% of the third parties punished violations of the cooperation norm.;;


In line with Hypothesis 4, pro-socials exhibited a stronger preference for responsible and efficient leaders than pro-selfs.;;


Another set of explanations focuses on cognitive biases related to the concept of loss aversion (Kahneman and Tversky, 1979), according to which the disutility associated with a loss is greater than the utility associated with a gain of the same magnitude.;;


however, without disclosing the decisions and actions involved in its conduct in an accessible manner, an independent reader will not be able to appreciate the results.;;


there is also the expectation in participants' sharing personal information that it might be necessary for researchers to share equivalent information as a way of demonstrating their humanness.;;


However, in the known end-period free riding is always optimal.;;


this code would also acknowledge that inter subjectivity means that participants co researchers are members of communities, hold knowledge of their subjective experience, and live and navigate systems that are entrenched in hierarchies of power, noting that we as researchers are also entangled in these hierarchies of power.;;


cues of being watched enhance cooperation in a real-world setting.;;


after playing cyberball, the victimized students in the ostracism condition scored significantly lower on feelings of meaningful existence compared to the ostracized students not involved in bully/victim problems.;;


For gamma (R 2 ¼ 0.087, F(3, 116) ¼ 3.71, p ¼ 0.01), we found a negative interaction between interpersonal trust and condition (b ¼ À0.15, t(116) ¼ À2.34, p ¼ 0.02).;;


although i have taken steps to minimize how much such restrictions limited participants' voices, such as through thoroughly describing the participant generated images that i cannot show, i cannot completely overcome the academic institution's ability to shape the way participants and i present their stories.;;


the price for the right to play the game served as an efficiency enhancing coordination device if the price was high enough to exclude inefficient equilibria.;;


however, there might, for example, be a trade-off between equity and efficiency, leading participants to prefer the equal but inefficient option.;;


these psychologists leveraged open card sorting to first generate participant labelled cards, then facilitated free-form sorting activities with those cards as an interactive way of exploring nuanced, experiential concepts during therapeutic assessment.;;


our failure to fi nd attributions leading to different basic need satisfaction outcomes may stem more from study limitations than from fl aws.;;


We thank Simon Gächter, Joshua Tasoff, Pinghan Liang, and two anonymous referees for their comments and Prof. Mingjian Zhou for his assistance.;;


however, results from these experiments suggest that thinking about what others will do in a game-theoretic setting moves subjects' actions toward that of the equilibrium.;;


According to this hypothesis, establishing a minimal contributing set puts the designated contributors in a position of payers in a market of private goods.;;


for this reason, auriacombe (2016) explains that conceptualising can be seen as a means of reasoning, where various distinct concepts or cases are studied to develop a pattern and ultimately lead to the creation of a conceptual category.;;


in other words, compared to included persons, these participants were more upset by the partial exclusion.;;


crucially, we claim that if differences in attentional focus between conditions have a part to play in the explanation of whether ibr is instantiated, then those differences in attentional focus are themselves to be explained by judgments about social inclusion and exclusion.;;


In asymmetric dilemmas, group members differ with regard to one (or more) of the defining characteristics of the social dilemma.;;


although some people's self-esteem may vary from moment to moment others self-esteem may be uniquely conditional on specific areas that are important to them.;;


It was found that the differences between the four age groups in the second set position approached statistical significance, F(3, 103) = 2.68, p = .051,;;


For example, there is evidence to suggest that women have become more similar to men in terms of their agentic (but not communal) orientation over the last 50 years (Twenge, 1997(Twenge, , 2001).;;


third, due to the common cultural background, the interviewers were often perceived as allies by the interviewees and not as state representatives;;


abandoning the audio-recorder may be particularly beneficial when working with participants who have historically been and/or currently are experiencing oppression, and thus have good reason to be suspicious of the audio-recorder (liamputtong, 2010).;;


credibility conditions; the 50% credibility SS (X = -1.94);;


"in addition, we found that ""fooling"" the fingers, by briefly stimulating them with a cup of warm tea, eliminates the negative feelings typically experienced after social exclusion.";;


The results of the two studies reported here (which placed relatively large sums of money at stake) indicate that, as players are given essentially neutral but more complete information about the structure of a PD game, they play the game more cooperatively.;;


our hypothesis is that because of communication efforts of the communicating group should be no lower than efforts of the non communicating group.;;


People may be strongly focused on enhancing immediate outcomes for self (direct self-interest) but may also take into account broader considerations, such as the goal to minimize (absolute) differences in outcomes for self and other (egalitarianism or fairness), the goal to enhance outcomes for the collective, or the goal to enhance outcomes in the future.;;


we believe the role of curation of qualitative data for reuse is to enable secondary users of data to act epistemically responsibly, that is, to allow them to learn additional evidence about the data they are reusing, which in turn allows them to shape justifiable beliefs based on those data.;;


because social exclusion leads to an enhanced search for preference consistent information while neglecting preference inconsistent information, potential risks may be overlooked.;;


thus, researchers will need to address an array of concerns related to confidentiality and take steps to acknowledge authors' autonomy (heilferty, 2011b), while also respecting that their accounts were not generated for research purposes and some degree of confidentiality might be desired (roberts, 2015).;;


the fact that in the one-sided treatment recipients in their imaginary role as dictators are less generous than actual dictators supports the view that the lack of generosity in the two-sided treatment may be triggered by pessimistic expectations.;;


these aims notwithstanding we find that scale exacerbates ethical challenges by adding to their complexity.;;


after all, if it is possible to consume the good even without contributing to its provision, individuals may reason that it is in their personal interest not to contribute.;;


given limitations on data, this tends to be the weakest of the four approaches.;;


this kind of focus makes our discussion distinctive in exploring those micro dialogues we have with ourselves in the life of a research project and thus extends important methodological discussions within the social sciences.;;


As before, given that participants were aware of the endpoint, contributions decrease significantly over time.;;


(The tables refer to these 15 as "wise" subjects.);;


blake, mcauliffe and warneken, (2014) suggested that young children understand the principles of fairness, but do not follow them and will only do so when they start to worry about their reputation, when 8 years and older.;;


if players choose opposite strategies, the player choosing option a receives $20, while the player choosing option b receives $2.;;


Past research has shown that reciprocity is key to maintaining collective action.;;


that is, for institutions to be effective in reducing the adverse effects of diversity, sanctions must be available (table s3).;;


There is no evidence of an interaction effect between Observation and Announcement that increases contributions.;;


and contrasts with evidence that men tend to be more influential in general social settings (carli 2001).;;


these theoretical levers of change are philosophical underpinnings of ai that influence the methodological details of an ai study with the goal of maximizing the advantages of ai to produce positive changes in an organization.;;


Our findings are especially consistent with the argument that conditional cooperators exhibit a downward or self-serving bias (see, e.g., Fischbacher and Gächter (2010) ).;;


certain personality traits, for example, may allow for some individuals to notice that they are being rejected but be unmoved by its effects.;;


researchers can feel traumatised after bearing witness to women's testimonies.;;


"our data suggest that not only does ostracism in this environment have the same negative effects as in other environments, but these effects are powerful; the effect sizes were medium to large in magnitude.";;


concerning evidence from economic games, a metaanalysis of donation behavior in the dictator game found that older adults in western samples tend to donate 30% more than the average dictator (engel, 2011).;;


we further hypothesized that interpersonal constraint should lead to constrained giving only in the condition in which participants were asked to play as if playing with a friend (not a stranger or a computer).;;


although it would seem plausible that, on reflection, ostracism from a loss game would be more easily dismissed as nonthreatening or perhaps even regarded as protective and nurturing, it might still diminish one's sense of self-worth and overall contribution to the group.;;


in these treatments, figure 1 shows the average rates of decline of contributions to be relatively mild in both periods 1 - 7 and periods 8 - 10 of each phase, due in part to the fact that the average contributions in earlier periods were already low.;;


if a young person in a school setting feels they do not have a clear understanding of the research project, the stigma attached to declaring this status might cause the student to hesitate to tell the researcher so (gallagher et al., 2010).;;


"keeping a reflexive journal enables a researcher to promote internal validity of the results, to uphold transparency in the process, and to justify the decisionmaking process throughout the study (ahern, 1999; ortlipp, 2008).";;


when it comes to descriptions of the research process, it is normal to have limitations according to the expectations of the publisher or the journal, which often lead to very brief articles on methods and methodology.;;


"indeed, several experiments have indicated that people are motivated to enhance the self's public, and not private, image in order to appear desirable and important to others (baumeister, 1982; baumeister & jones, 1978).";;


the united states and india offer an attractive comparison because subjects from these two countries can be recruited from the same online labor market (amazon mechanical turk, mturk [28]) but they differ substantially in terms of institutional quality (and in other ways, of course).;;


In the overuse condition, the sequence of pool sizes that subjects were shown over the 10 trials was 826, 753, 681, 608, 538, 463, 386, 307, 226, and 143.;;


theoretically, the crtm is included in rule enforcement, but in practice they have little coercive power in the villages.;;


informational norms, nissenbaum suggests, are what determine the contextual appropriateness of particular behaviours.;;


"the most efficient outcome for the group as a whole involves all group members making a full contribution; unfortunately, the socially optimal outcome is hard to achieve.";;


"ostracism is highly aversive even when it is perpetrated by distant or despised others (gonsalkorale & williams, 2007; williams, cheung, & choi, 2000), or even by inanimate objects (zadro et al., 2004).";;


if information about endowments is private knowledge, social approval decreases only because player 1 gives better evaluations to players 2 and 3. this is what we call the guilt-effect.;;


That is, for each euro that you decide to invest, 0.75 cents will come back to you and 0.75 cents will be received by your random partner.;;


thus, broker insights helped to compensate for the lack of participation by the mothers in individual member checking, in turn, increasing the credibility of our study by adding nuance to our analysis.;;


However, there is another, brighter prospect.;;


among those are a large sample size, non-trivial financial stakes, and two consecutive observations per subjects that allow for a tight econometric control over unobserved individual factors that could otherwise bias the rt-contribution link.;;


consistent with this, individualists were indifferent in their second choice since all the remaining alternatives provided them with the same outcome.;;


"however, they also caution that this form of analysis should be used ""wisely"" and, by inference, should not necessarily be the form of analysis considered appropriate for those journals that prioritise methodological engagement with academic research (such as those with higher impact factors).";;


We used a scenario in which a person needed a bonemarrow transplant, and one person, the donor, was one of a relatively small number of compatible individuals.;;


Subjects from environments that support cooperation are more prosocial, more likely to punish selfishness, and more trusting in general.;;


rather than a risk posed to the integrity of the participants, the ambiguity and indeterminacy of the boundaries of the research relationship are a natural and productive part of any research relationship.;;


not surprisingly, many nonunionized fishers harvest loco illegally and poach within meabrs.;;


research in the u.s. and other countries regarding views about sharing quantitative data derived from biospecimens or clinical trials reveal that respondents are generally supportive of sharing their deidentified research data to benefit themselves, their immediate community, the public, or science as a whole.;;


in the absence of any direct punishment, this may have persuaded them to keep on contributing despite the repeated group failure.;;


balliet, van lange thus, trust in others may result in benevolent perceptions of cooperative norm enforcers, which may have two effects that sustain cooperative norms.;;


If P 1−β is not an integer, the statement of Step 5 follows from Step 4. Suppose P 1−β is an integer.;;


based on this evidence, a vs. b a vs. c we conclude that the availability of information on n and pp did not create meaningful incentives to adopt a simple cost sharing strategy.;;


the way that the situation will evolve depends on what they both decide, but neither of them knows how the other responds.;;


when the target has not met this need in a group setting, s/he can fulfil it elsewhere, for example, by helping a fellow undergraduate (in 41 group) outside the group context.;;


one way to address this problem is to use rotating coder teams (cascio et al., 2019), but this approach requires multiple rounds of new training sessions and may present difficulty in ensuring reliability across different coder teams.;;


if i said something that might seem culturally insensitive, this person would give me the benefit of the doubt.;;


it was consistent across both genders, though one study found that the effect of manipulated rejection on meaningfulness was stronger among men than among women.;;


Fig. 2. Histograms of unconditional contributions per treatment.;;


hypothesis 2 predicted that groups that initially form coalitions will have more subsequent rounds of coalitional distributions than groups that begin with collective distributions.;;


Such an increase may be guided by the individual's perception of the social norms in the peer group.;;


however, a critical flaw with this study is that the time of measurement, which is intended to assess reactions at the reflexive and reflective stage, is confounded with the temporal phrasing of the questions.;;


if joseph believes that most others are contributing (i.e., high normative expectations), then it would be rational, from a purely self-interested perspective, to free ride and not cooperate with the group.;;


she noted that children who lived in well-resourced communities benefitted from private educational programs, whereas children in underresourced communities were left to struggle on their own, as she did as a child.;;


using an experimental approach and a non-clinical population, we showed that the mere presence of a dog is sufficient to decrease mental table 1 inter correlations between the dependent mental health variables.;;


where quantitative research requires a decision given prescribed options, qualitative researchers have often prioritized one participant response over another based on the ocean et al.;;


this change was performed simply to allow for more variability in participant responses in study 2.;;


We implemented a design that allows the comparison of minimal groups, and groups with real social interactions leading to social ties.;;


Our experiment generated a data set with observations on offers and responses for 183 games played under the six experimental conditions.;;


"tenopir, c., allard, s., douglass, k., aydinoglu, a.u., wu, l., read, e. and frame, m. (2011), ""data sharing by scientists: practices and perceptions"", plos one, vol.";;


"no adverse events were reported by participants regarding receiving individual screening test results, and giving individual results seemed to create a positive attitude toward research, and was seen as a fair benefit from the research (shalowitz and miller, 2005; cioms, 2016).";;


in fact, social identity seems to influence the contributions to the lower order public goods, whereas globalisation has a stronger role in affecting contributions to the higher order public goods.;;


this may contribute to extending false universalism(s) thus forming a unilateral and hegemonic perspective to how reality is defined and understood (denzin & lincoln, 2005).;;


investments in market 2 are characterized by a pulsing pattern: yield is reduced, investors reduce their investments in market 2, and yields increase.;;


Hypothesis 2 (Main phase) During the main phase of a supergame the participants will either cooperate as long as the state s 1 = (c, c) is realized and defect after one of the states s 2 = (c, d), s 3 = (d, c), or s 4 = (d, d), or they will defect consistently.;;


"williams & bargh, 2008), but priming interpersonal interaction should not affect experience with coldness (bargh, 2006; lakoff & johnson, 1980).";;


The role of individual differences has received renewed interest in the context of work-related affect.;;


"results suggest that when participants were exposed to an anti-littering norm ""do not litter"" they were least likely to litter (10%), and the litter progressively increased the further the conceptual distance of the injunctive norm was to the anti-littering norm.";;


an increase in the moshav member's capital stock, by causing an upward shift in his marginal productivity of labor curve, will lead him to work less off-farm and to allocate more of his time to work on the farm.;;


"married people are also more likely to drive safely and responsibly (harano, peck, & mcbride, 1975; harrington & mcbride, 1970; richman, 1985).";;


where k =i P ik was the sum of points agent i sent to all group members, and k =i P ki was the sum of points agent i received from all other subjects.;;


since judgment of neutral pictures is random, the actual accuracy rates in the judgment of neutral pictures can be used as a priori bases (or expected accuracy rates) to which actual accuracy rates in the judgment of proper pictures are compared.;;


on the other hand, progressive relational devaluation predicted that ostracism after ten throws would be felt as most aversive because more relational value is built and subsequently lost.;;


The Örst term in this expression simply represents individual iís contribution to the public pool as a fraction of his endowment, whilst the second term represents the average contribution of others in the group to the public pool (also measured as a fraction of endowment status).;;


this basic exposure may produce people's first understanding that social closeness equals warmth, whereas social distance equals coldness (l.e.;;


Among the 29 Romanian subjects that had the opportunity to engage in both prosocial and antisocial punishment in the first round, 8 engaged in both kinds of punishment whereas only 3 exclusively punished antisocially (another 9 punished exclusively prosocially). 18;;


this randomness may be due to the fact that subjects are in an unfamiliar situation and that they have to learn through experience what is in their interest.;;


Public goods experimentalists (Andreoni and Miller 2002;Andreoni and Petrie 2004;Camerer et al. 2005) are interested in cooperation in relation with the continuation of the game.;;


Following the approach by Kiesler et al. (1996), the prisoner's dilemma was recast as an investment game.;;


"the role as a qualitative researcher is as an intermediary in knowledge co-construction in the collection, interpretation, and revelation of the meaning behind the stories: ""we are naturally drawn to stories because it helps make ideas easier to understand"" (yamagata-lynch et al., 2017, p. 2).";;


there is criticism that 'engagement' has trumped confrontation or challenge about men's use of violence, particularly when men are voluntarily, rather than court mandated, to attend.;;


k. kamei, l. putterman / journal of economic behavior & organization 120 (2015) 145-159 dedicated opportunity to punish back, and when identifiers last one period only, the addition of these elements to the original cooperation and punishment design has a seriously deleterious effect on cooperation and efficiency.;;


"ostracism is defined as the experience of ""being ignored and excluded, often without excessive explanation or explicit negative attention"" (williams, 2007b, p. 429).";;


"thus, mimicry can be used flexibly and strategically; it occurs to a greater extent in those situations in which it is most beneficial.";;


This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.;;


for instance, baumeister and leary (1995) explicitly state that belonging to social groups is a fundamental human drive, with social support and affiliation being essential to human survival.;;


although these results are small in magnitude, many subjects showed large effects, while other subjects behaved as if they were trying to be consistent, ignoring variables that they had decided were irrelevant.;;


"severe"" social injuries, on the other hand, should trigger numbing and thus lead to more antisocial behaviors.";;


Responses on this 2-item scale were consistently reliable, with alphas ranging from .81 to .85 across the three administrations of the items.;;


In Experiments 1, 2, and 3 we used a social dilemma game to measure prosocial behavior.;;


This means that a total of 155 participants remained for the analyses.;;


not only that, being explicit about our positions in our work allows those who read our work to better grasp how we produced the data (finlay, 2002).;;


"hence, ""freezing"" the preregistration more than once could foster the transparency of qualitative research, as it allows the reviewer or interested reader to track the development of the study.";;


thus, it is proposed that relative economic affluence will result in less cooperation if the affluence can be justified (e.g.;;


in addition, this research demonstrates that nonconscious mimicry is selective and sensitive to context.;;


finally, based on our theoretical model, we expected that the effect of ostracism on self-reported psychological discomfort would be mediated by the degree to which the four needs were threatened.;;


perceiving discrimination against one's gender group has different implications for well-being in women and men.;;


they reveal that increased belonging needs, and not differences in mood and self-esteem, were associated with an increased desire to listen to friends disclose emotional, but not descriptive, information.;;


bargh, chen, and burrows (1996) demonstrated that participants primed with traits related to rudeness interrupted a conversation much faster than participants primed with traits related to politeness.;;


simultaneously or sequentially to this effect, the partner's perception that the actor is trustworthy causes the actor to perceive the partner as trustworthy in return.;;


2. You have to estimate your counterpart's contribution between 0 and 24 by using the "Payoff table (for the actual task).";;


Across three studies -a scenario (Study 1), experimental (Study 2), and field study on employed adults (Study 3) -we find support for the hypothesis that individuals who are less (versus more) oriented towards future outcomes engage in less prosocial behaviors with others who have ostracized them during prior interactions.;;


one may feel the urge to withdraw from the situation by leaving the conference early, but withdrawal may not always be a realistic option.;;


therefore, self-interested rational group members are expected to free ride on the contribution of others.;;


"at first sight, this description might sound negative and competitive; however, negotiating and valuing interpretative propositions is very productive.";;


the grit strategy and the 304 rationality and society 17(3) unconditional cooperation is needed, however, to increase the level of trust gradually to the self-sustaining level through the spiral of mutual trust and cooperation.;;


in a seminal paper exploring the concept of accessibility, tversky and kahneman (1973) found that ease of retrieval and familiarity with a concept could have a great impact on the degree to which that concept was drawn on and thus, was cognitively accessible.;;


although the social identity map has boxes to fill in for visual clarity, we encourage the learner using this map to think outside of these boxes and to not feel limited by them.;;


Therefore, the PPM is essentially a game of (tacit) coordination in which the n players face a coordination problem of designating exactly m contributors.;;


This table shows that we were unable to find a significant difference between treatments reg versus regrank in the replication data.;;


in sum, in public, the strength of descriptive norms increases antisocial punishment.;;


First, in the corruption experiment, individuals in the high-monitoring group commit fewer corrupt acts than those in the low-monitoring groups.;;


if the instruments were correlated with the potentially endogenous regressor but only weakly, then the estimator would not perform well.;;


16 ( 76) 6 ( 60) 10 ( 91) 19 ( 66) 8 ( 57) 11 ( 73);;


rejection is such a fundamental threat to social survival that even when rejected by groups generally unimportant to most of our social lives (e.g., computer use preference), we nonetheless still feel the pain of the experience.;;


the groups versus individuals by assessment order interact indicates that the tendency of individuals to expect more cooperation t groups was more apparent with the after assessment.;;


the latter finding may be due to a range restriction and poor reliability of the single-item measure used to assess momentary self-esteem (devellis, 2003).;;


Prospect theory (Kahneman and Tversky, 1979;Tversky and Kahneman, 1992) suggested that utility is indeed concave for gains, but convex for losses.;;


However, they do not explore the role of noise.;;


These are respectively called female and male trust.;;


found evidence that women experience a delayed physiological effect of exclusion: although women's cortisol levels did not increase immediately after exclusion, when they were subsequently placed in a situation that does reliably increase cortisol (public speaking), their cortisol response was blunted relative to included participants.;;


Although the term reciprocity seems to imply anticipation of future behavior, we emphasize here that the expectation is not limited to future behavior.;;


if s/he obtains less, it means that other group mates withdrew more than her/him.;;


We think that the connection between cultural evolution and behavioral economics might be better understood as the shaping of heuristics in the adaptive toolbox.;;


or burns and visser (2008) report a positive relation between inequality and contribution levels when full information about all players' behavior is provided or communicated between players.;;


specifically, building a good reputation in situations where the same two people interact repeatedly may be much less important in china than in the west and than in situations in china where several people interact repeatedly in a network.;;


reciprocate patterns were used twice as often by aggressive couples than non-aggressive couples and may be a useful pattern in distinguishing the two groups.;;


argue that the unique circumstances of conducting research in humanitarian settings necessitates that the researcher be less stringent in terms of study design.;;


In light of the consistent associations of self-interest with individual values and other-interest with collective values in Studies 1 and 2, we manipulated the salience of self-and other-interest by focusing participants' attention on individual or collective values.;;


The second employed the gambling game to elicit subjects' risk preferences.;;


today, almost two decades after solomos and wrench described how western european countries were grappling with the social integration of immigrants in the 1980s, concerns over tensions between immigrants and host majority populations have only become more prominent in europe.;;


"qualitative research and institutional review boards"", qualitative inquiry, vol.";;


The authors find that different kinds of heterogeneity are associated with different contributions norms-with the most normatively appealing contribution rules seemingly being the efficiency rule, equal contributions rule and and a rule denoting that contributions be proportional to endowment.;;


this pattern of interchange, however, while ostensibly aimed at keeping interactions positive, appears to engender heightened negative emotion in girls.;;


There was no requirement that an individual's actual contribution level correspond in any way to his or her announcement.;;


in thinking about my role as researcher in this experience, and the power dynamic between the teachers and myself, this experience will shape future member checking interviews.;;


in fact, demonstrating that individuals have concern for reputation is not the same thing as demonstrating that indirect reciprocity underpins cooperative actions.;;


the lack of significant moderation in this case does not necessarily mean that there is no influence of social anxiety on affect level over time, but this type of moderation may occur in a more extreme clinically anxious population.;;


Each correct question is worth 2 points.;;


Group contribution levels are significantly lower without refund bonuses in the late periods with heterogeneous values (N = 5) and in the early periods with homogeneous values and small groups (N = 5).;;


n particular, the experimental paradigm used by psychologists begins by creating two distinct social categories to which participants are assigned.;;


over time, the willingness to contribute increases, as indicated by the period dummies.;;


to the extent that commodity firms may be more likely have multiple facilities while final good firms may be less likely, these variables may be proxying for differences in the organizational structure of these types of firms rather than capturing pressure from consumers to be more environmentally friendly.;;


with a view to influence wider organisational change, as it is well recognised that values of an organisation manifest more frequently than those of an individual (hofstede 2010).;;


Each distribution of money contained an optimal choice in which both the participant and the other received more money and a non-optimal choice in which both received less money.;;


in other words, ingestion of a medication to quash physical pain attenuated a neurological reaction to a social threat.;;


merely observing another individual's ostracism is enough to cause distress to the observer (wesselmann, bagg, & williams, 2009).;;


this assertion has been supported by a series of laboratory studies showing that just 5-min of ostracism, either face-to-face or over the internet, reduced targets' feelings of belonging, control, self-esteem, and meaningful existence compared to subjects who were socially included (for review, see williams, 2001).;;


although advocates of secondary data analysis foreground an ethics of transparency, others argue that there are more profound ethical concerns in imposing a positivist or foundational5 model of data on a very different way of working.;;


the effect of this is increased contri butions by all group members.;;


college students indicating higher levels of hope also reported higher levels of self-worth (snyder, hoza, pelham, & rapoff, 1997).;;


in this study we examined whether ostracism by a particular type of outgroup, a despised outgroup, was sufficient to inflict emotional distress.;;


The study had two groups of participants complete a business simulation as incumbents of roles within a fictitious company.;;


This exists when two subjects engage in a long set of exchanges of the chips which yield them the greatest joint profit.;;


the paper contributes to the literature on private collective innovation by questioning what incentives motivate innovators to share their knowledge in an initial situation, before a community and social norms are available to sustain private collective innovation.;;


If stability is an objective, an endogenous implementation should be preferred.;;


findings - using multi-method and creative approaches can facilitate young children to assent and dissent from service evaluation in a school setting.;;


on the other hand, other experimentally induced social challenges, like public speaking, readily affect cortisol secretion even if they take place in a laboratory setting and last a few minutes, only (e.g.;;


taken together, these results provide strong evidence for our prediction that sadness is not involved in aggressive behavior in response to social exclusion.;;


Taken together, in contrast to the classic public good game, where individuals' actions may have a positive externality on others and individuals' outcomes are positive, both outcome valence and externality valence may be positive or negative.;;


thus, we expect that meta perceptions of warmth will mediate the effect of the different conditions on need satisfaction.;;


the decision for combining very different strategies in dealing with these challenges reveals a pragmatic hands-on approach, which is of course partially due to the ambitious one-year-time line and the economic limitations of the project.;;


"the interviewer may gently confront the inter-viewee with information found elsewhere that conflicts with something he previously said; this can help resolve contradictions in the data, obtain deeper insight into a contested point, and assess credibility.";;


To save space we provide only a summary of the three parts of the experiment.;;


"according to blichfeldt and heldbjerg (2011: 5), ""researchers who refer to reality as being socially constructed through interaction among individuals and their life-worlds of subjective interpretations may generate especially valuable results by interviewing friends and/or acquaintances.""";;


argue that social exclusion leads participants to seek connection with strangers but not with those who have excluded them.;;


On the basis of this last analysis, we would judge extracted plasma assayed by either the ELISA or the RIA to be good choices of methods and medium.;;


one variable that may influence whether people punish in-group or out-group members more severely is the extent to which they are identified with the group.;;


In contrast, proselves exhibited a greater preference for commuting by public transportation in the majority car condition (A4 = 4.85) than in the majority public transportation condition ( M = 3.66), t(26) = 1.75, p < .05.;;


The most plausible conclusion from these data is that identity matters, and it matters because it motivates an effort not only to increase in-group payoffs but also to decrease in-group inequality.;;


the competitive scheme is revenue neutral as the bonuses for the high performers are funded by transfers from the lowperforming groups.;;


these studies raise the question of whether exclusion might increase the accessibility of aggression.;;


secondly, the capacity to reflect on emotional experiences is crucial to developing rich understandings when conducting fieldwork and to interacting sensitively with research participants (methodological reason).;;


when including close personal contacts, researchers are likely to have more personal background information on their participant, and it is important to recognize this dynamic and how it can impact specific questions.;;


Table 1 shows real-world examples for all four combinations of the externality valence and outcome valence dimensions.;;


Upon arriving at the lab, participants were randomly and anonymously arranged in teams of four in the first round and remained together throughout both the original and the restart game.;;


the success of the grit strategy adopted by the cautious unconditional cooperators - those who unconditionally cooperate, but adjust their levels of trust to their partner's level of cooperation - implies the latter causality.;;


"however, women seem to be more vulnerable to social triggers of health disturbances (denton et al., 2004; troisi, 2001).";;


This resulted in some people expressing their regret and intention to reimburse the loss to the driver even though they were not actually charged with theft.;;


Panels 2 and 3: effective public goods over the 27 rounds of interactions in randomly changing groups (strangers (panel 2): n M = 128; n P = 128) and fixed groups (partners (panel 3): n M = 80; n P = 80).;;


when human uniqueness attributes are denied to people they are explicitly or implicitly likened to animals, and seen as childlike, immature, coarse, irrational, or backward.;;


by definition, reciprocity implies a reaction to the action of someone else.;;


e) communication among experimental subjects strongly increases the contributive rates (ledyard 1995).;;


Another difference is that the payoff-dominant Nash equilibrium is risk-dominant in B-10 and not risk-dominant in B-8.;;


this suggests that the possible mechanism for reducing bias is quite different in coordination situations that are transformed to exchange situations (chicken) than in coordination situations that are not transformed to exchange situations (bos and leader).;;


this may lead individuals to be less likely to aggress publicly, for fear of appearing socially undesirable.;;


does exclusion lead to riskier behavior (as argued earlier), or, in contrast, does inclusion lead consumers to prefer safer options?;;


that is, although everyone would benefit from the access to a public good, the individual costs exceed the individual benefits in producing them.;;


this increases the suspicion that the group task was not strong enough to create group involvement.;;


additionally, threatened belonging was associated with increased discrimination, which was then associated with increased belonging.;;


We analyze one-shot PD decisions made by participants of the high-stakes TV game show The Manipulation, and document the influence of social life factors on economic decisions of financial assistance and resource sharing.;;


we hypothesized that individuals categorized as empathizers would report greater levels of distress as a result of being socially excluded during a ball toss game.;;


Again, Behrens (1996) reports that, while rate of contribution to public television is increasing, amount given per contribution is flat, or even decreasing, suggesting that rewards are impacting the mere act of cooperation, but not the amount of cooperation given.;;


The task consisted of two runs with 36 trials (i.e.;;


In the context of the discontinuity effect, we have obtained extensive nonexperimental evidence (summarized in Wildschut et al., 2004) indicating that groups are more distrustful of each other than are individuals.;;


we compensated for lack of measurement precision with triangulation of data across several researchers and the use of several methods (meetings, teleconferences and emails) and sources of data (documents and inputs from project mem bers), which increases our study's credibility.;;


"grant et al., 2016 observer triangulation using an outside coder to develop ecomaps led to ""observer triangulation,"" a strategy to enhance rigor and limit bias.";;


"compared with inclusion, exclusion threatens people's fundamental needs, decreases their mood (blackhart, nelson, knowles, & baumeister, 2009; gerber & wheeler, 2009), and impairs self-regulation (dewall & baumeister, 2006).";;


Compassion was significantly related to religiosity after controlling for positive affect (r ϭ .21,;;


this directly replicates the findings from gonsalkorale and williams (2007) as well as previous studies, all showing that group status does not moderate the powerful effects of social exclusion.;;


As to the noisy condition, mean deviations start at 0.71E$ and range from 0.63E$ to 6.17E$.;;


We study the robustness of the end-game effect in repeated linear public goods experiments without changing the equilibrium structure, but by simply deviating from the typical practice of setting a fixed, commonly known and symmetric endpoint to the game. 3;;


"governments need to decide to impose sanctions on their citizens; managers in organizations need to decide to give their employees bonuses, etcetera.";;


In a similar vein, cooperation in social dilemmas may also be understood best as a combination of outcome concerns and relational concerns.;;


plus, these findings cannot be attributed to a poor video game performance or by a bad mood.again, depleted participants were not overly confident,but instead very accurate and realistic about their future performance on the video game.;;


Accordingly, given that antisocial punishment involves costs, we would predict that only sadism should be related to the costly behaviour of antisocial punishment, whereas psychopathy, narcissism and Machiavellianism should not predict this tendency.;;


the result above may be restated by saying that, when individuals 6 in ledyard (1995) a theory is put forward where the success of the group is identified with its members gaining a higher payoff than what they would have without being part of the group.;;


yet our earlier review of past research clearly shows that most people haven't recovered from social exclusion by the time researchers administer their dependent measures.;;


The pay-off functions are written as;;


one interesting result of study 1 was the fact that targets were more often ostracized by co-workers than by superiors.;;


In motivating this point suppose (as considered by Tavoni et al. 2011;Barrett andfannenberg 2012, 2014) that group members are allowed to make a public pledge of how much they plan to contribute before actually contributing.;;


this finding is consistent with leary's (1999) sociometer theory in that performing well on the task could increase relational evaluation.;;


furthermore, it is not surprising that this occurred with moderate discounters rather than low or high discounters: low discounters generally cooperated in ipg and are able to make this short-tem sacrifice while high discounters generally defected in ipg and never made the short-term sacrifice.;;


while mrs. o'neill found my overall tone to be too negative, i would like to think reading the analysis did provide some space for reflection in her teaching.;;


The scoring system describes the extent to which a subject is able to differentiate and integrate various roles and points of view.;;


However, there is a significant difference in cooperation between girls from the two countries, where Colombian girls are less cooperative than Swedish girls.;;


The harmed person's attitude toward his previously unknown partner should also undergo significant negative change for two reasons.;;


The loss associated with making a Type I error is strictly limited to c, the cost of cooperation.;;


The pattern of strategy use was remarkably similar between the two games with similar number of players applying TFT-like and Pavlovian strategies and with both strategies leading to higher payoffs than the pay-off of all other strategies (figure 4).;;


the ensuing quest for wealth, we predict, may foster riskier but potentially more lucrative financial decision making;;


"relative to baseline, ostracized males reported more hostility than included males 20 min after the stressor; still, most of these levels of hostility were within the normal range of negative affect for most participants.";;


thus, whereas participants discuss in interviews challenging experiences similar to those they share in these other venues, the photographs offer an opportunity to think about and reflect on these experiences in new ways.;;


children therefore led the protagonist to share resources more with those who had given to the protagonist compared to those who had given to a different doll, in accord with a principle of direct reciprocity.;;


This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.;;


the sequential nature might overcome information asymmetries regarding the value of the underlying public good.;;


However, the specific facial traits that are involved in detecting cooperation remain unidentified.;;


During play of this and earlier games, players were asked what were their attitudes toward the game and their opponent.;;


he hypothesized that in the absence of an effective sanctioning system, high trusters, who expect a high level of cooperation among other members, would cooperate more fully than low trusters.;;


however, their design did not allow them to examine how introducing cash into the experiments affects subjects' behaviors, compared to those in a point or token environment.;;


In the game, two players choose to either cooperate or defect and receive a payoff that depends upon the interaction of their respective choices.;;


The Prisoner's Dilemma (PD) game has been widely used to study the evolution of cooperation by reciprocity (Trivers 1971).;;


"political ramifications often exist as well, especially when indigenous groups are involved; and such ramifications were apparent in a recent study among the bajau people, who exhibit exceptional diving skills.";;


in what follows, we investigate whether the possibility to send feedback increases cooperation and, if so, why that occurs.;;


Median and maximum percentage contributing per session were not tested.;;


What happens when the size of groups increases and with it the costs of communication and monitoring?;;


Prediction 3. The punishment imposed by a player in a given round will be unrelated to the amount of punishment the same player received in the previous round.;;


as fehr (2009) points out, it is difficult to maintain that trust is exclusively one or the other.;;


The more outward-oriented, defensive, striving, taskoriented and conforming subjects in the ROTC contrast with a population of more introspective, individualistic, self-critical and openminded Berkeley students.;;


However, public goods games have been played in many places similar to Khailino and Vyvenka, where participants know one another and will encounter each other often after the game.;;


However, we replicated the same effects in the second study in which the term "punishment" was not used.;;


fragmented work settings make it challenging to employ the method that is intended to narrow the gap between what people say and what they do.;;


collins (1985), for example, argues that unequal exchange between capital and labor reflects not only a structural asymmetry in the ability to exclude workers from access to the means of production, but also the structural constraints on the ability of workers to act collectively to protect themselves from exclusion.;;


in other words, the 'template culture' of formulaic accountability practices is not suitable for the methodological versatility and fluctuating business ethics scenarios of these studies.;;


potential pools of coders may include undergraduate and/or graduate students who are eager to gain hands-on research experience; engaged community members with a stake or vested interest in the research outcomes; or interdisciplinary research collaborators who are untrained but interested in qualitative research.


We find a significant and positive correlation between amounts donated in the four tasks-the VCM and three donations experiments.;;


We use the continuous measure in later analyses.;;


Their experiment differs from ours in a number of aspects.;;


"we conjecture that this is due to some subjects learning about the nature of the punishment technology ""the hard way.""";;


For example, Burger et al. (2011) find that depleted students initially put in less effort on a subsequent homework task, but more than make up for this in subsequent days and end up performing better overall.;;


In the cooperative trust condition proselfs kept significantly less money than in the selfish trust condition, such that the difference between proselfs and prosocials was attenuated.;;


In turn, neither SVO nor Honesty-Humility was linked to behavior minimizing the out-group's welfare.;;


i argue that punishments do this to a greater extent than rewards as punishments communicate an obligatory rule and rewards communicate a voluntary rule.;;


the authors argue that being in a positive mood can enhance people's experiences of intrinsic motivation by heightening the level of enjoyment people experience.;;


charities seem keenly aware of this in that they try to give the impression that every donation is critical.;;


The data show it to be four points higher under the abundance treatment than under the scarcity treatment and two points higher than in the baseline scenario.;;


Where X is the statement: Play 1 is the best choice for this trial.;;


It is common information to the subjects that: 1) each group member receives the same message from the leader; 2) each group member makes his/her decision after observing the leader's message; 3) the message is an unenforceable suggestion and group members can make any decision they like; and 4) the leader needs not follow her own suggestion.;;


"this framing is consistent with the general belief that qualitative methods excel at providing explanation and description but are weaker in documenting causation or allowing for future prediction (e.g., creswell & creswell, 2017; luker, 2008; mertens, 2014).";;


additionally, i wish to consider how a more reflexive reading, one which focuses on the encounter between researcher and participant, may reorient and enrich our understanding of how participants may be using photographs in this project and in quality improvement research more generally.;;


Most humans will experience the unpleasant palette of emotions that accompanies grief (Bonanno & Kaltman, 1999;Cowles, 1996).;;


In this section we explore the cooperative behavior of leaders in our experiment.;;


in two experiments, self-control depletion was manipulated by having participants either resist tempting cookies or by inhibiting thoughts about a white bear.;;


as a consequence, van dijk and wilke suggested, group members in public good dilemmas may be less focused on the eventual distribution of outcomes, but more on realization of the public good.;;


"although excluded people are motivated to affiliate, their affiliative behaviors often are conscious, require great effort, or are high in cost (maner et al., 2007; williams et al., 2000).";;


some researchers may not ask for permission because they are worried about being refused.;;


having a weapon made accessible (visible), even though it was not part of the study, caused individuals to have greater cognitive accessibility for weapon-related object or behaviors.;;


'To what extent did the leader allowed group members complete freedom in their decisions'' (reversely coded), and ''To what extent did you find the leader was bossy or dominating.'';;


we then discussed those submissions that had received at least on plus (+) rating, which may or may not have led to an upgrading of the second rating.;;


"the trust extended to researchers who submit manuscripts by editors, reviewers and publishers need not be absolute or uncritical; some journals require that manuscript authors submit raw data sets, offer evidence that studies have been pre-registered, or supply copies of dated institutional review board (irb) approval.";;


In particular, the DD response in these conditions carries a double punishment: the players' loss for having made such a response, and the increment in loss for subsequent responses of the same type.;;


The remaining third were given the opportunity to divide up the common resource pool into six unequal "territories," whose maximum size would be proportional to each subject's harvest total during the first session.;;


"others, including some of the most fully documented works on wives of prisoners, indicated that stigma can be a significant factor (i.e., braman, 2004, fishbern, 1991; morris, 1967).";;


Two buttons, one blue (cooperation) and one red (defection), were located just above the Scoreboard.;;


A joint future offers the possibility to reward or sanction others' behaviour and to build up one's reputation as a cooperation partner.;;


These clinical perspectives have been codified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-IV-TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2000), which refers to exploitativeness as a trait of those who suffer from narcissistic personality disorder.;;


By eliminating this confound, past experiments offer insight into the mechanisms spurring altruistic punishment.;;


responsible decisions about how best to translate key concepts from an indigenous language may represent painstaking processes of interpretation, trial and error, such as that described by orlove (2002) in his quest to translate ''fisherman'' from quechua to english.;;


although using a composite measure of negative affect is often empirically justifiable in the sense that the negative emotion terms are highly correlated, it may nonetheless miss an important part of the psychology of social exclusion.;;


Thus, the searches produced a total of 158,997 published studies of which 52.13% were about depression, 41.62% were about anxiety, and only 6.25% were about anger.;;


Modeling perceived trustworthiness Acceptable fit was found for a linear change growth model for ability [χ 2 = (10, N = 304) = 20.691,;;


However, task name and initial contribution interacted significantly, as seen in Model 3.;;


however, there are grounds for suspicion that the starting mechanism will fail to function in situations in which there is a history of interaction characterized by exkey words: conflict resolution, reciprocity, retaliation, conciliatory strategy, grit strategy.;;


thus, we expected that ostracized participants initially would perform more poorly relative to participants who were not ostracized, but that over time, as participants recouped from the experience, any performance differences would either no longer persist or be substantially reduced.;;


high obligations seem to be a good tool to induce high cooperation levels in one-shot situations or in the earlier periods of repeated games.;;


if it is, then it should be sensitive to the manipulation of social variables and depend on an agent's judgments of the social aspects of a given situation.;;


Research has demonstrated that this cooperative TFT strategy is the most eective instrument in maximizing one's individualistic or `max own' outcomes as well as the `max joint' or collective outcomes of the players in the PDG (Pruitt & Kimmel, 1977;Wilson, 1971;Axelrod, 1984).;;


( 1) The competitive subjects yield a 24-76% split in their expectations that the typical person will be cooperative vs competitive, respectively, which departs significantly from a 50: 50 split ( p < ,001).;;


In this view, it could be argued that rewards highlight the cooperative side of human nature more than punishments and may therefore have less detrimental effects on trust.;;


Although the negative signs remain for the relation between group cooperation and wealth (average and inequality), the results are not as strong-except for the third column model-when using the data for all the rounds of the communication phase for the reasons just discussed.;;


such reluctance to offer specific guidelines or methods for making ethical judgements is common and understandable amidst the complexities of internet research ethics (ess 2009).;;


Several studies on ultimatum games with high stakes find that while responders may reject less often when the stakes are high, they still reject some positive offers (Hoffman et al., 1996a;Slonim and Roth, 1998;Cameron, 1999).;;


thus, in concert with previous research (baumeister, twenge, & nuss, 2002) showing that social exclusion leads to impaired logical reasoning, the present research suggests that excluding individual decision makers might lower decision quality.;;


indeed, according to impression management theory, people will present themselves positively to gain social rewards (tedeschi & norman, 1985).;;


if the maximization of own community gain in a resource allocation task is made salient, it would appeal to people's ingroup social identity.;;


hence, if targets are asked to offer help to a charity, they should be able to distinguish between those in need and the sources of their ostracism if they are in the third stage.;;


This is the premise on which the current study is based.;;


In the case of rejection, both subjects earned 0 in that round.;;


results behavioral manipulation the game was intended to cause the participants to form opinions of the personalities of the two confederates: that one was fair and cooperative and the other unfair and uncooperative.;;


when ostracism leads to aggression: the moderating effects of control deprivation.;;


"showing that physical pain decreases one's satisfaction of belonging, self-esteem, control and meaningful existence, our findings could support healthcare professionals in appreciating why and how they can take the ""social"" component of the bio psychosocial model into consideration.";;


support by their male partners enhances the cortisol release of women, while men, on the other hand, show a dampened cortisol response when supported by their female mates (kirschbaum et al., 1995).;;


Mean contribution rates for the four experimental groups with a high/low guideline which is salient or discreet and the control group without a guideline.;;


In contrast, mid-level and similar cooperation rates were observed in the single team conditions with no outside team to make comparisons with, whether participants and their teammates were performing well (M D .;;


the current situation also impedes both students and researchers in focusing their studies and understanding each other's work (lazarsfeld and barton 1982:239).;;


moreover, in contrast to simultaneous protocol, these levels do not decrease under iterations of the stage game.;;


"other studies have shown that the mere presence of a companion animal offers shortterm health benefits by ameliorating stress levels (allen et al., 2002; wells, 2007).";;


In this paper, we experimentally investigate the consequences of competitive rivalry in a situation without formal contracting possibilities.;;


consequently, duffy argues that robots need to have a certain degree of anthropomorphic attributes in order to allow for a meaningful social interaction with a human being [38].;;


implementation of these steps varied at the rc level, largely due to local resource availability, which was explicated by two case examples of approaches used by rcs participating in cj-dats: the expert approach and the team approach.;;


The middle school subjects were relatively less risk-seeking, transferring an average of less that 58% of their endowments in this game.;;


For the other four groups, however, there is a link between performance and outcome.;;


Given the small sample of Study 1, however, caution is required in interpreting the lack of impact of traits.;;


i sometimes find that collaborators want certainty (when there is none) when seeking answers to questions.;;


Though no a priori prediction was made about the 3-way interaction, this interaction was added in the third step of the same model and found to be non-significant.;;


however, data collected manually from documents gives researchers additional contextual knowledge (heem skerk et al., 2017: 5) which may help to alleviate some of the concerns raised by mizruchi (1996), including the potential overestimation of the impact of director interlocks on firm behaviour and performance.;;


however, maximizing efficiency in the absence of rewards implies maximizing inequality.;;


we feel that the large dropout rate may have been because of the lengthy time lags and technical incompatibilities that on-line users faced.;;


For the Hom and SHet groups, voluntary contributions rise by 44% and 80%.;;


the dissimulation of the research identity can preclude ethical issues, especially revolving around disclosures and consent-which conversations constitute research versus rapport building or even just friendship?;;


thus, there remains a need for additional guidance and support for utilizing and applying intersection ali ty theory throughout the qualitative research process.;;


however, for studies that would benefit from an appreciative conversation instead of a deficit approach, ai promises to provide a participant experience and identify study findings that will strengthen the organization's culture and interpersonal relationships among the participants (hammond, 2013).;;


The present study had a few limitations.;;


"as such, the motives that guide behaviour in a prisoner""s dilemma or a trust game, are likely to differ from motives that guide behaviour in a social dilemma.";;


with respect to our studies, one might wonder whether the financial risks taken as a result of social exclusion were in fact nothing more than the manifestation of self-defeating behavior.;;


frank upward and colleagues write that in order for a paradigm shift to take place, a crisis situation must have arisen in the archives and in the information management sector (upward et al.;;


furthermore, in making use of the film to instigate a co-design process, ebcd arguably takes the participatory principles further than some photovoice projects by moving beyond priority setting to engage patients as actors in a collaborative shaping of service improvement interventions.;;


to sum up, in spite of the available literature on the way interviews should be conducted in general, the existing instructions and guidelines on how to conduct semi-structured interviews lacked precision and examples and were therefore insufficient for us in order to completely achieve our goals at the piloting phase.;;


most importantly, progressive relational devaluation predicts that being ostracized from the outset of an interaction should be less adverse than ostracism after minimal inclusion.;;


"nonetheless, this direct and indirect participant subject involvement has the potential to foster an ""observer effect"" that influences a participant's behavior as a result of being observed by the researcher (garrett & hawkin, 2014, p. 150).";;


it may be that the findings of the current study are an accurate reflection of self-esteem levels after ostracized or it may be that my findings were confounded by reasons mentioned previously.;;


Consider an individual with von Neumann-Morgenstern preferences choosing between S and T for the Decision problem described in the Introduction.;;


"he writes that 'a recognition of the performative action of interview talk removes the temptation to deal with such data as if they gave us access to personal or private ""experiences""' (2015: 99-100).";;


"natural selection may favor developmental systems that use early-life experiences to calibrate later strategies, such that harsh or unpredictable early-life environments (e.g., resource-scarce or dangerous environments) sensitize individuals to follow faster strategies (belsky, schlomer, & ellis, 2012; ellis et al., 2009).";;


the changing technological landscape makes it possible to digitally store data, creating opportunity to both share and reuse data anywhere in the world for later use.;;


This results in higher cooperation in the mixed condition compared with the average of the nice and nasty conditions (step iv), although this effect only approached significance.;;


discussion study 1 showed that reflexive responses to ostra cism are moderated by whether the game is depicted as a ball toss or bomb toss.;;