Climate Change (album)

Climate Change is the tenth studio album by Cuban-American rapper Pitbull. It was released on March 17, 2017, through RCA Records, Polo Grounds Music and Mr. 305 Inc. The production on the album was handled by multiple producers including Dr. Luke, Ricky Reed, Ian Kirkpatrick, Cirkut and The Monsters & Strangerz among others. The album also features guest appearances by Kiesza, Robin Thicke, Travis Barker, Flo Rida, Enrique Iglesias, Stephen Marley, Ty Dolla Sign, Jennifer Lopez, Jason Derulo, Austin Mahone and R. Kelly among others.
Climate Change was supported by four singles: "Messin' Around", "Greenlight", "Options" and "Better On Me". The album received generally positive reviews from music critics but despite that received small commercial success. The album debuted at number 29 on the US Billboard 200 chart, earning 14,000 album-equivalent units in its first week.


Climate Change Bill

Climate Change Bill may refer to:

American Clean Energy and Security Act
The Bill for the Climate Change Act 2008
Climate Change Bill (Thailand)


Climate Change Performance Index

The Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI) is a scoring system designed by the German environmental and development organisation Germanwatch e.V. to enhance transparency in international climate politics. On the basis of standardised criteria, the index evaluates and compares the climate protection performance of 63 countries and the European Union (EU) (status CCPI 2022), which are together responsible for more than 90% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
The CCPI was first published in 2005 and an updated version is presented at the UN Climate Change Conference annually. Germanwatch publishes the index in cooperation with the NewClimate Institute and Climate Action Network International and with financial support from Barthel Foundation. The most important results are available in German, English, French and Spanish.


Climate change

Present-day climate change includes both global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its wider effects on Earth's climate system. In a broader sense, climate change also includes previous long-term changes to Earth's climate. The modern-day rise in global temperatures is driven by human activities, especially fossil fuel (coal, oil and natural gas) burning since the Industrial Revolution. Fossil fuel use, deforestation, and some agricultural and industrial practices release greenhouse gases. These gases absorb some of the heat that the Earth radiates after it warms from sunlight, warming the lower atmosphere. Earth's atmosphere now has roughly 50% more carbon dioxide, the main gas driving global warming, than it did at the end of the pre-industrial era, reaching levels not seen for millions of years.
Climate change has an increasingly large impact on the environment. Heat waves and wildfires are becoming more common. Amplified warming in the Arctic has contributed to thawing permafrost, retreat of glaciers and sea ice decline. Higher temperatures are also causing more intense storms, droughts, and other weather extremes. Rapid environmental change in mountains, coral reefs, and the Arctic is forcing many species to relocate or become extinct. Even if efforts to minimize future warming are successful, some effects will continue for centuries. These include ocean heating, ocean acidification and sea level rise.
Climate change threatens people with increased flooding, extreme heat, increased food and water scarcity, more disease, and economic loss. Human migration and conflict can also be a result. The World Health Organization calls climate change one of the biggest threats to global health in the 21st century. Societies and ecosystems will experience more severe risks without action to limit warming. Adapting to climate change through efforts like flood control measures or drought-resistant crops partially reduces climate change risks, although some limits to adaptation have already been reached. Poorer communities are responsible for a small share of global emissions, yet have the least ability to adapt and are most vulnerable to climate change.

Many climate change impacts have been observed in the first decades of the 21st century, with 2024 the warmest on record at +1.60 °C (2.88 °F) since regular tracking began in 1850. Additional warming will increase these impacts and can trigger tipping points, such as melting all of the Greenland ice sheet. Under the 2015 Paris Agreement, nations collectively agreed to keep warming "well under 2 °C". However, with pledges made under the Agreement, global warming would still reach about 2.8 °C (5.0 °F) by the end of the century.
There is widespread support for climate action worldwide, and most countries aim to stop emitting carbon dioxide. Fossil fuels can be phased out by ending their subsidies, conserving energy and switching to energy sources that do not produce significant carbon pollution. These energy sources include wind, solar, hydro, and nuclear power. Cleanly generated electricity can replace fossil fuels for powering transportation, heating buildings, and running industrial processes. Carbon can also be removed from the atmosphere, for instance by increasing forest cover and farming with methods that store carbon in soil.


Climate change (disambiguation)

Climate change includes both global warming driven by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases and the resulting large-scale shifts in weather patterns.
Climate change may also refer to:

Climate variability and change, changes in Earth's climate system resulting in new weather patterns that remain in place for an extended period of time
Climate Change (album), a 2017 album by Pitbull
Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges and Decisions, a 2009 conference in Copenhagen
Climate Change – The Facts, a 2019 British documentary presented by David Attenborough
Climate Change TV, an online broadcaster
Climate Change: What Everyone Needs to Know, a 2015 book by Joe Romm
Climate Change (Ladybird Expert book), a 2017 book for adults co-authored by Charles III
Climate Change (children's book), a 2023 book co-authored by Charles III


Climate change adaptation

Climate change adaptation is the process of adjusting to the effects of climate change, both current and anticipated. Adaptation aims to moderate or avoid harm for people, and is usually done alongside climate change mitigation. It also aims to exploit opportunities. Adaptation can involve interventions to help natural systems cope with changes.
Adaptation can help manage impacts and risks to people and nature. The four types of adaptation actions are infrastructural, institutional, behavioural and nature-based options. Some examples are building seawalls or inland flood defenses, providing new insurance schemes, changing crop planting times or varieties, and installing green roofs or green spaces. Adaptation can be reactive (responding to climate impacts as they happen) or proactive (taking steps in anticipation of future climate change).
The need for adaptation varies from place to place. Adaptation measures vary by region and community, depending on specific climate impacts and vulnerabilities. Worldwide, people living in rural areas are more exposed to food insecurity owing to limited access to food and financial resources. For instance, coastal regions might prioritize sea-level rise defenses and mangrove restoration. Arid areas could focus on water scarcity solutions, land restoration and heat management. The needs for adaptation will also depend on how much the climate changes or is expected to change. Adaptation is particularly important in developing countries because they are most vulnerable to climate change. Adaptation needs are high for food, water and other sectors important for economic output, jobs and incomes. One of the challenges is to prioritize the needs of communities, including the poorest, to help ensure they are not disproportionately affected by climate change.
Adaptation plans, policies or strategies are in place in more than 70% of countries.
Recent research indicates that while global awareness and planning for climate change adaptation have increased, the actual implementation of adaptation measures remains limited and uneven across regions. Agreements like the Paris Agreement encourage countries to develop adaptation plans. Other levels of government like cities and provinces also use adaptation planning. So do economic sectors. Donor countries can give money to developing countries to help develop national adaptation plans. Effective adaptation is not always autonomous; it requires substantial planning, coordination, and foresight. Studies have identified key barriers such as knowledge gaps, behavioral resistance, and market failures that slow down adaptation progress and require strategic policy intervention. Addressing these issues is crucial to prevent long-term vulnerabilities, especially in urban planning and infrastructure investments that determine resilience to climate impacts. Furthermore, adaptation is deeply connected to economic development, with decisions in industrial strategy and urban infrastructure shaping future climate vulnerability.


Climate change and agriculture

Climate change and agriculture may refer to:

Effects of climate change on agriculture
Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture


Climate change denial

Climate change denial (also global warming denial) is a form of science denial characterized by rejecting, refusing to acknowledge, disputing, or fighting the extensive evidence for anthropogenic global warming that has led to a scientific consensus on climate change. Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where none exists. Climate change denial includes raising unreasonable doubts about the extent to which climate change is caused by humans, its effects on nature and human society, and understating the costs of climate change adaptation while overstating the costs of mitigating it. To a lesser extent, climate change denial can also be implicit when people accept the science but fail to reconcile it with their belief or action. Several studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism, pseudoscience, or propaganda.
Many issues that are settled in the scientific community, such as human responsibility for climate change, remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay, dismiss or deny them—an ideological phenomenon academics and scientists call climate change denial. Climate scientists, especially in the United States, have reported government and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data, with directives not to discuss the subject publicly. The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on climate change.
Industrial, political and ideological interests organize activity to undermine public trust in climate science. Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby, the Koch brothers, industry advocates, ultraconservative think tanks, and ultraconservative alternative media, often in the U.S. More than 90% of papers that are skeptical of climate change originate from right-wing think tanks. Climate change denial is undermining efforts to act on or adapt to climate change, and exerts a powerful influence on the politics of climate change.
In the 1970s, oil companies published research that broadly concurred with the scientific community's view on climate change. Since then, for several decades, oil companies have been organizing a widespread and systematic climate change denial campaign to seed public disinformation, a strategy that has been compared to the tobacco industry's organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking. Some of the campaigns are carried out by the same people who previously spread the tobacco industry's denialist propaganda.


Climate change feedbacks

Climate change feedbacks are natural processes that impact how much global temperatures will increase for a given amount of greenhouse gas emissions. Positive feedbacks amplify global warming while negative feedbacks diminish it. Feedbacks influence both the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and the amount of temperature change that happens in response. While emissions are the forcing that causes climate change, feedbacks combine to control climate sensitivity to that forcing.
While the overall sum of feedbacks is negative, it is becoming less negative as greenhouse gas emissions continue. This means that warming is slower than it would be in the absence of feedbacks, but that warming will accelerate if emissions continue at current levels. Net feedbacks will stay negative largely because of increased thermal radiation as the planet warms, which is an effect that is several times larger than any other singular feedback. Accordingly, anthropogenic climate change alone cannot cause a runaway greenhouse effect.
Feedbacks can be divided into physical feedbacks and partially biological feedbacks. Physical feedbacks include decreased surface reflectivity (from diminished snow and ice cover) and increased water vapor in the atmosphere. Water vapor is not only a powerful greenhouse gas, it also influences feedbacks in the distribution of clouds and temperatures in the atmosphere. Biological feedbacks are mostly associated with changes to the rate at which plant matter accumulates CO2 as part of the carbon cycle. The carbon cycle absorbs more than half of CO2 emissions every year into plants and into the ocean. Over the long term the percentage will be reduced as carbon sinks become saturated and higher temperatures lead to effects like drought and wildfires.
Feedback strengths and relationships are estimated through global climate models, with their estimates calibrated against observational data whenever possible. Some feedbacks rapidly impact climate sensitivity, while the feedback response from ice sheets is drawn out over several centuries. Feedbacks can also result in localized differences, such as polar amplification resulting from feedbacks that include reduced snow and ice cover. While basic relationships are well understood, feedback uncertainty exists in certain areas, particularly regarding cloud feedbacks. Carbon cycle uncertainty is driven by the large rates at which CO2 is both absorbed into plants and released when biomass burns or decays. For instance, permafrost thaw produces both CO2 and methane emissions in ways that are difficult to model. Climate change scenarios use models to estimate how Earth will respond to greenhouse gas emissions over time, including how feedbacks will change as the planet warms.


Climate change in Bangladesh

Climate change is a critical issue in Bangladesh. The country is one of the most vulnerable to the effects of climate change. In the 2020 edition of Germanwatch's Climate Risk Index, it ranked seventh in the list of countries most affected by climate calamities during the period 1999–2018. Bangladesh's vulnerability to the effects of climate change is due to a combination of geographical factors, such as its flat, low-lying, and delta-exposed topography and socio-economic factors, including its high population density, levels of poverty, and dependence on agriculture. The impacts and potential threats include sea level rise, temperature rise, food crisis, droughts, floods, and cyclones. Bangladesh has established a set of actions for climate mitigation and adaptation that includes reducing greenhouse gas emissions, supporting renewable energy projects, increasing forest cover, and planning response to disaster risks (p. 9).
Natural hazards that come from increased rainfall, rising sea levels, and tropical cyclones are expected to increase as the climate changes, each seriously affecting agriculture, water and food security, human health, and shelter.
Sea levels in Bangladesh are predicted to rise by up to 0.30 metres by 2050, resulting in the displacement of 0.9 million people, and by up to 0.74 metres by 2100, resulting in the displacement of 2.1 million people.
To address the sea level rise threat in Bangladesh, the Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 was launched in 2018. The Government of Bangladesh is working on a range of specific climate change adaptation strategies, which play a crucial role in fostering the country's development. As of 2020, it was seen falling short of most of its initial targets, still leaving 80 million people at risk of flooding where it should have been reduced to 60 million people. The progress is being monitored.


Climate change in Germany

Climate change is leading to long-term effects on agriculture in Germany, more intense heatwaves and Cold waves, flash and coastal flooding, and reduced water availability. Debates over how to address these long-term challenges caused by climate change have also sparked changes in the energy sector and in mitigation strategies. Germany's energiewende ("energy transition") has been a significant political issue in German politics that has made coalition talks difficult for Angela Merkel's CDU.
Despite massive investments in renewable energy, Germany has struggled to reduce coal usage. The country remains Europe's largest importer of coal and produces the second most coal in the European Union behind Poland, about 1% of the global total. Germany phased out nuclear power in 2023, and plans to retire existing coal power plants by 2030. In 2024, Germany's greenhouse gas emissions decreased by 3% compared to the previous year, totaling 656 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent.
Climate change could cost Germany up to €900 billion by 2050 due to issues like extreme heat, drought, and floods. These events have already caused significant economic losses, with at least €145 billion in damages between 2000 and 2021.
German climate change policies started to be developed in around 1987 and have historically included consistent goal setting for emissions reductions (mitigation), promotion of renewable energy, energy efficiency standards, market based approaches to climate change, and voluntary agreements with industry. In 2021, the Federal Constitutional Court issued a landmark climate change ruling, which ordered the government to set clearer targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.


Climate change in India

India was ranked seventh among the list of countries most affected by climate change in 2019. India emits about 3 gigatonnes (Gt) CO2eq of greenhouse gases each year; about two and a half tonnes per person, which is more than twice the greenhouse gasses relative to GDP than the world average. The country emits 7% of global emissions, despite having 17% of the world population. The climate change performance index of India ranks eighth among 63 countries which account for 92% of all GHG emissions in the year 2021.
Temperature rises on the Tibetan Plateau are causing Himalayan glaciers to retreat, threatening the flow rate of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Yamuna and other major rivers. A 2007 World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) report states that the Indus River may run dry for the same reason. Severe landslides and floods are projected to become increasingly common in such states as Assam. Heat waves' frequency and intensity are increasing in India because of climate change. Temperatures in India have risen by 0.7 °C (1.3 °F) between 1901 and 2018.
According to some current projections, the number and severity of droughts in India will have markedly increased by the end of the present century.
Climate change disproportionately affects India's lower caste and indigenous Adivasi populations. Due to flooding and coastal erosion caused by sea level rise, citizens living along the coast are particularly vulnerable to displacement, while the urban poor are most likely to suffer from extreme heat-related diseases.


Climate change in Singapore

Singapore adopts a proactive long-term effort in addressing rising sea-levels, temperature increases due to global warming, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

As of 2022, compared to other ASEAN countries, Singapore has the second highest per capita CO2 emissions at 8.9 tonnes, and ranks sixth in total annual CO2 emissions at 53.25 million tonnes.


Climate change in Turkey


Climate change in Tuvalu


Climate change in the Arctic


Climate change in the United Kingdom


Climate change in the United States


Climate change mitigation


Climate change policy of the United States


Climate migration


Climate variability and change


Developing country


Effects of climate change


Glossary of climate change


Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change


Kiribati


Lake Superior


Mediterranean Sea


Net-zero emissions


Paris Agreement


Permafrost


Savanna


Scientific consensus on climate change


Secretary-General of the United Nations


Secretary of State for Energy Security and Net Zero


Siberia


Temperate climate


Tipping points in the climate system


United Nations Climate Change Conference


United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change


Volcanic winter of 536


Wetland


100% renewable energy

100% renewable energy is the goal of using fully renewable resources for all electric energy consumption. 100% renewable energy for electricity, heating, cooling and transport is motivated by greenhouse gas emissions, pollution, and other environmental issues, as well as economic and energy security concerns. Shifting the total global primary energy supply to renewable sources requires a transition of the energy system, since most of today's energy is derived from non-renewable fossil fuels.
Research into this topic is fairly new, with few studies published before 2009, but has gained increasing attention in recent years. A cross-sectoral, holistic approach is seen as an important feature of 100% renewable energy systems and is based on the assumption "that the best solutions can be found only if one focuses on the synergies between the sectors" of the energy system such as electricity, heat, transport or industry.


Brookfield Renewable Partners

Brookfield Renewable Partners L.P. is a publicly traded limited partnership that owns and operates renewable power assets, with corporate headquarters in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Approximately 45% owned by Brookfield Asset Management.
Brookfield Asset Management claims to have "more than 100 years of experience as an owner, operator and developer of hydroelectric power facilities." It was founded in the 1890s in Brazil, where the company installed the first electrical lights and tramways in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro.


Energy in Australia

Energy in Australia is the production in Australia of energy and electricity, for consumption or export. Energy policy of Australia describes the politics of Australia as it relates to energy.
In 2021, Australia was a net energy exporter and one of the largest exporters in the world of liquefied natural gas (LNG), coal, and minerals.
Energy consumption is dominated by oil and other fossil fuels, however, recently, due to the increasing effects of global warming and human-induced climate change on the global environment, there has been a shift towards renewable energy such as solar power and wind power both in Australia and abroad. In 2022, renewable energy accounted for 39.4% of the total amount of electricity generated in Australia.


Energy transition

An energy transition (or energy system transformation) is a major structural change to energy supply and consumption in an energy system. Currently, a transition to sustainable energy is underway to limit climate change. Most of the sustainable energy is renewable energy. Therefore, another term for energy transition is renewable energy transition. The current transition aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from energy quickly and sustainably, mostly by phasing-down fossil fuels and changing as many processes as possible to operate on low carbon electricity. A previous energy transition perhaps took place during the Industrial Revolution from 1760 onwards, from wood and other biomass to coal, followed by oil and later natural gas.
Over three-quarters of the world's energy needs are met by burning fossil fuels, but this usage emits greenhouse gases. Energy production and consumption are responsible for most human-caused greenhouse gas emissions. To meet the goals of the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change, emissions must be reduced as soon as possible and reach net-zero by mid-century. Since the late 2010s, the renewable energy transition has also been driven by the rapidly falling cost of both solar and wind power. After 2024, clean energy is cheaper than ever. Global solar module prices fell 35 percent to less than 9 cents/kWh. EV batteries saw their best price decline in seven years. Another benefit of the energy transition is its potential to reduce the health and environmental impacts of the energy industry.
Heating of buildings is being electrified, with heat pumps being the most efficient technology by far. To improve the flexibility of electrical grids, the installation of energy storage and super grids are vital to enable the use of variable, weather-dependent technologies. However fossil-fuel subsidies are slowing the energy transition.
Energy transitions have varied environmental and social effects, as they can create both burdens and benefits for different communities.  Concepts such as energy justice and energy democracy emphasise the importance of equitable distribution of energy costs and benefits, inclusive decision-making processes, and the recognition of historically marginalised groups in energy transitions.


GE Renewable Energy

GE Renewable Energy was a manufacturing and services division of the American company General Electric. It was headquartered in Boulogne-Billancourt, near Paris, France, and focused on the production of energy systems that use renewable sources. Its products included wind (onshore and offshore), hydroelectric and solar (concentrated and photovoltaic) power generating facilities.
In 2024, GE Renewable Energy and GE Power merged to create GE Vernova, a company completely independent of General Electric, which ceased to exist as a conglomerate (refocusing on aerospace as GE Aerospace).


Innergex Renewable Energy

Innergex Renewable Energy Inc. is a developer, owner and operator of run-of-river hydroelectric facilities, wind energy, and solar farms in North America, France and South America. While many of the firm's operational assets are located in its home province of Québec, it has expanded into Ontario, British Columbia, and Idaho, as well as Chile and France.


International Renewable Energy Agency

The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) is an intergovernmental organization mandated to facilitate cooperation, advance knowledge, and promote the adoption and sustainable use of renewable energy. It is the first international organization to focus exclusively on renewable energy, addressing needs in both industrialized and developing countries. It was founded in 2009, and its statute entered into force on 8 July 2010. The agency is headquartered in Masdar City, Abu Dhabi. The Director-General of IRENA is Francesco La Camera, a national of Italy. IRENA is an official United Nations observer.


List of countries by renewable electricity production

This is a list of countries and dependencies by electricity generation from renewable sources.
Renewables accounted for 32% of electric generation in 2024. Renewables consist of hydro (44%), wind (25%), solar (22%), biomass (6%) and other renewables (1%). In 2025 China produced 32% of global renewable electricity, followed by the United States (11%), Brazil (7.0%), Canada (4.7%) and India (4.3%).

Renewable investment reached almost $500 billion globally in 2022, amounting to 83% of new electric capacity that year. The renewable energy industry employs almost 14 million people.


List of renewable energy organizations

This is a list of notable renewable energy organizations:


List of renewable energy topics by country

This is a list of renewable energy topics by country and territory.  These links can be used to compare developments in renewable energy in different countries and territories and to help and encourage new writers to participate in writing about developments in their own countries or countries of interest.
The list refers to renewable energy in general, as well as solar power, wind power, geothermal energy, biofuel, and hydropower. As of 2013, China, Germany, and Japan, and India, four of the world's largest economies generate more electricity from renewables than from nuclear power.
Based on REN21's 2014 report, renewables supplied 19% of humans' global energy consumption. This energy consumption is divided as 9% coming from traditional biomass, 4.2% as heat energy (non-biomass), 3.8% hydro electricity and 2% is electricity from wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass.
China is the world's largest producer of hydroelectricity, followed by Canada, Brazil, India, U.S and Russia. Wind power capacity is growing at the rate of 26% annually, and is widely used in Europe, Asia, and the United States. Wind power accounts for approximately 30% of electricity use in Denmark, 20% in Portugal, and 18% in Spain.
While historically characterized in climate policy discussions by its significant population and rapid economic growth, India has recently met several of its primary emissions targets ahead of schedule. As of 2024, the country has seen a substantial increase in its renewable energy capacity, making it one of the world's fastest-growing markets for clean energy adoption.


Luma Energy

Luma Energy is a private power company that is responsible for power distribution and power transmission in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. It is also in charge of maintaining and modernizing the power infrastructure. Previously, these duties belonged exclusively (according to the law) to the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA, Spanish Autoridad de Energía Eléctrica, AEE), but as of July 20, 2018, permission was granted for PREPA assets and service duties to be sold to private companies, and on June 22, 2020, a 15-year contract with Luma was signed, making Luma the new operator. The takeover occurred on June 1, 2021.


Ministry of Energy, New and Renewable Energy Maharashtra or MAHAURJA is a ministry of Government of Maharashtra. The Ministry is currently headed by Devendra Fadnavis, a Chief Minister of Maharashtra and Cabinet Minister.
The Ministry is mainly responsible for research and development, intellectual property protection, and international cooperation, promotion, and coordination in renewable energy sources such as wind power, small hydro, biogas, and solar power. The broad aim of the Ministry is to develop and deploy new and renewable energy for supplementing the energy requirements of India.
The Ministry is headquartered in Mantralaya, Mumbai, Mumbai. According to the Central New and Renewable Energy Ministry's 2012–2013 annual report, India has made significant advances in several renewable energy sectors which include, Solar energy, Wind power, and Hydroelectricity.


Ministry of New and Renewable Energy

The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is a ministry of the Government of India, headed by current Union Cabinet Minister Pralhad Joshi, that is mainly responsible for research and development, intellectual property protection, and international cooperation, promotion, and coordination in renewable energy sources such as wind power, small hydro, biogas, battery energy storage and solar power.
The broad aim of the ministry is to develop and deploy new and renewable energy for supplementing the energy requirements of India.
The ministry is headquartered in Lodi Road, New Delhi. According to the Ministry's 2016-17 annual report, India has made significant advances in several renewable energy sectors which include, solar energy, wind power, battery energy storage system (BESS) and hydroelectricity.


Non-renewable resource

A non-renewable resource (also called a finite resource) is a natural resource that cannot be readily replaced by natural means at a pace quick enough to keep up with consumption. An example is carbon-based fossil fuels. The original organic matter, with the aid of heat and pressure, becomes a fuel such as oil or gas. Earth minerals and metal ores, fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, natural gas) and groundwater in certain aquifers are all considered non-renewable resources, though individual elements are always conserved (except in nuclear reactions, nuclear decay or atmospheric escape).
Conversely, resources such as timber (when harvested sustainably) and wind (used to power energy conversion systems) are considered renewable resources, largely because their localized replenishment can also occur within our lifespans.


Nuclear power

Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions to produce electricity. Nuclear power can be obtained from nuclear fission, nuclear decay and nuclear fusion reactions. Presently, the vast majority of electricity from nuclear power is produced by nuclear fission of uranium and plutonium in nuclear power plants. Nuclear decay processes are used in niche applications such as radioisotope thermoelectric generators in some space probes such as Voyager 2. Reactors producing controlled fusion power have been operated since 1958 but have yet to generate net power and are not expected to be commercially available in the near future.
The first nuclear power plant was built in the 1950s. The global installed nuclear capacity grew to 100 GW in the late 1970s, and then expanded during the 1980s, reaching 300 GW by 1990. The 1979 Three Mile Island accident in the United States and the 1986 Chernobyl disaster in the Soviet Union resulted in increased regulation and public opposition to nuclear power plants. Nuclear power plants supplied 2,602 terawatt hours (TWh) of electricity in 2023, equivalent to about 9% of global electricity generation, and were the second largest low-carbon power source after hydroelectricity. As of November 2025, there are 416 civilian fission reactors in the world, with overall capacity of 376 GW, 63 under construction and 87 planned, with a combined capacity of 66 GW and 84 GW, respectively. The United States has the largest fleet of nuclear reactors, generating almost 800 TWh per year with an average capacity factor of 92%. The average global capacity factor is 89%. Most new reactors under construction are generation III reactors in Asia.
Nuclear power is a safe and sustainable energy source that reduces carbon emissions. Nuclear power generation results in one of the lowest levels of fatalities per unit of energy generated compared to other energy sources. One study estimated that each nuclear plant built could have saved 800,000 life years due to averted air pollution from fossil fueled power plants. Coal, petroleum, natural gas and hydroelectricity have each caused more fatalities per unit of energy due to air pollution and accidents. Nuclear power plants also emit no greenhouse gases and result in less life-cycle carbon emissions than common sources of renewable energy. The radiological hazards associated with nuclear power are the primary motivations of the anti-nuclear movement, which contends that nuclear power poses threats to people and the environment, citing the potential for accidents like the Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan on March 11, 2011, and is too expensive to deploy when compared to alternative sustainable energy sources.

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Renewable Energy Act, 2011

The Renewable Energy Act, 2011 (Act 832) is a law enacted by the Parliament of Ghana to provide a legal framework for the development, management, utilization, and sustainability of renewable energy sources in the country. It was assented to by the late former President His excellency John Evans Fiifi Atta Mills on 31 December 2011 and commenced on the same date. The Act aims to promote the use of renewable energy to generate heat and power in an efficient and environmentally sustainable manner.


Renewable Energy Directive 2018

The Renewable Energy Directive 2018 (2018/2001) is a Directive in EU law that requires 42.5 percent of the energy consumed within the European Union to be renewable by 2030. This target is pooled among the member states.


Renewable Energy Programme

The Renewable Energy Programme (REP) is Nigeria's contribution to the African strategy on voluntary emission reduction in response to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) The Federal Ministry of Environment's Renewable Energy Programme is targeted at stimulating the energy sector by attracting capital as well as promoting the development of initiatives and technologies in Nigeria.


Renewable Energy Systems

The RES Group (Renewable Energy Systems) is the world's largest independent renewable energy company, having been in the sector for more than 40 years. As of 2023, the company had established more than 23 gigawatts of renewable energy projects worldwide and supported more than 12 gigawatts operations. Employing more than 2500 people in 14 countries, it operates onshore and offshore in wind and solar energy, in energy storage and in transmission and distribution.


Renewable energy

Renewable energy (also called green energy) is energy made from renewable natural resources that are replenished on a human timescale. The most widely used renewable energy types are solar energy, wind power, and hydropower. Bioenergy and geothermal power are also significant in some countries. Renewable energy installations can be large or small and are suited for both urban and rural areas. Renewable energy is often deployed together with further electrification. This has several benefits: electricity can move heat and vehicles efficiently and is clean at the point of consumption. Variable renewable energy sources are those that have a fluctuating nature, such as wind power and solar power. In contrast, controllable renewable energy sources include dammed hydroelectricity, bioenergy, or geothermal power.
Renewable energy systems have rapidly become more efficient and cheaper over the past 40 years. A large majority of newly installed worldwide electricity capacity is now renewable. Renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power, have seen significant cost reductions over the past decade, making them more competitive with traditional fossil fuels. In some geographic localities, photovoltaic solar or onshore wind is the cheapest new-build electricity. From 2011 to 2021, renewable energy grew from 20% to 28% of the global electricity supply. Power from the sun and wind accounted for most of this increase, growing from a combined 2% to 10%. Use of fossil energy shrank from 68% to 62%. In 2025, renewables accounted for than 30% of global electricity generation and are projected to reach over 45% by 2030. Many countries already have renewables contributing more than 20% of their total energy supply, with some generating over half or even all their electricity from renewable sources.
The main motivation to use renewable energy instead of fossil fuels is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, which cause climate change. In general, renewable energy sources pollute much less than fossil fuels. Renewables also cause much less air pollution than fossil fuels, improving public health, and are less noisy. The International Energy Agency estimates that to achieve net zero emissions by 2050, 90% of global electricity will need to be generated by renewables. The current pace of renewable expansion remains far from this required rate globally, including in major economies with high financial capacities such as the G7 and the EU.
The deployment of renewable energy still faces obstacles, especially fossil fuel subsidies, lobbying by incumbent power providers, and local opposition to the use of land for renewable installations. Like all mining, the extraction of minerals required for many renewable energy technologies also results in environmental damage.
Some also consider nuclear power a renewable power source, although this is controversial, as nuclear energy requires mining uranium, a nonrenewable resource.

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Renewable energy commercialization


Renewable energy debate


Renewable energy in Africa


Renewable energy in Albania


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Renewable energy in Australia


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Renewable energy in developing countries


Renewable energy in the European Union


Renewable energy in the Philippines


Renewable energy in the United Kingdom


Renewable energy in the United States


Renewable energy industry


Variable renewable energy


19 (number)

19 (nineteen) is the natural number following 18 and preceding 20. It is a prime number.


3I/ATLAS

3I/ATLAS, also known as C/2025 N1 (ATLAS) and previously as A11pl3Z, is an interstellar comet discovered on 1 July 2025 by the Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS) station. The comet follows an unbound, hyperbolic trajectory past the Sun, and passed by Earth at 1.8 AU, posing no threat. The prefix "3I" designates it as the third confirmed interstellar object passing through the Solar System, after 1I/ʻOumuamua and 2I/Borisov.
3I/ATLAS is an active comet consisting of a solid icy nucleus and a coma, which is a cloud of gas and icy dust escaping from the nucleus. The Sun is responsible for the comet's activity because it heats up the comet's nucleus to sublimate its ice into gas, which outgasses and lifts up dust from the comet's surface to form its coma. Images taken by the Hubble Space Telescope and various interplanetary spacecraft suggest that the diameter of 3I/ATLAS's nucleus is less than 1 km (0.62 mi). Observations by the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) have shown that 3I/ATLAS is unusually rich in carbon dioxide, and contains a small amount of water ice, water vapor, carbon monoxide, carbonyl sulfide, and methane. Observations by the Very Large Telescope have also shown that 3I/ATLAS is emitting cyanide gas and atomic nickel vapor, at concentrations similar to those seen in Solar System comets.
The comet came to solar conjunction on 21 October 2025, and it came closest to the Sun on 29 October 2025, at a distance of 1.36 AU (203 million km; 126 million mi) from the Sun, which is between the orbits of Earth and Mars. The comet appears to have originated from either the Milky Way's thin disk, or thick disk; if 3I/ATLAS originated from the thick disk, the comet could be at least 7 billion years old—older than the Solar System.


Administrator of NASA

The administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration is the highest-ranking official of NASA, the national space agency of the United States. The administrator is NASA's chief decision maker, responsible for providing clarity to the agency's vision and serving as a source of internal leadership within NASA. The office holder also has an important place within United States space policy, and is assisted by a deputy administrator.
The administrator is appointed by the president of the United States, with the advice and consent of the United States Senate, and thereafter serves at the president's pleasure. Jared Isaacman has served as the administrator since December 18, 2025.


Alliant Techsystems

Alliant Techsystems Inc. (ATK) was an American aerospace and arms manufacturer headquartered in Arlington County, Virginia. The company operated across 22 states, Puerto Rico, and internationally. ATK revenue in fiscal year 2014 was about US$4.8 billion.
On April 29, 2014, ATK announced that it would spin off its Sporting Group and merge its Aerospace and Defense Groups with Orbital Sciences Corporation.
The spinoff of the Sporting Group to create Vista Outdoor and the merger leading to the creation of Orbital ATK were completed on February 9, 2015. The companies began operations as separate entities on February 20, 2015. Orbital ATK was bought by Northrop Grumman in 2018.


Alpha Centauri Ab

Alpha Centauri Ab (also known as Rigil Kentaurus b, or originally as Candidate 1) is a candidate exoplanet that was first directly imaged around Alpha Centauri A in 2019 and reported in February 2021. If confirmed as an exoplanet, it would be the nearest, coldest, shortest-period and oldest directly imaged exoplanet around a solar-type star, and Alpha Centauri would be the brightest planet-hosting star (see list of brightest stars). The planet is expected to be a gas giant based on physical properties. Additional observations are needed to confirm its existence.


Aperture masking interferometry

Aperture masking interferometry (or Sparse aperture masking) is a form of speckle interferometry, that allows diffraction limited imaging from ground-based telescopes (like the Keck Telescope and the Very Large Telescope), and is a high contrast imaging mode on the James Webb Space Telescope. This technique allows ground-based telescopes to reach the maximum possible resolution, allowing ground-based telescopes with large diameters to produce far greater resolution than the Hubble Space Telescope. A mask is placed over the telescope which only allows light through a small number of holes. This array of holes acts as a miniature astronomical interferometer. The principal limitation of the technique is that it is applicable only to relatively bright astronomical objects, since the mask discards most of the light received from the astronomical source. The method was developed by John E. Baldwin and collaborators in the Cavendish Astrophysics Group at the University of Cambridge in the late 1980s.


Ariane flight VA256

Ariane flight VA256 was an Ariane 5 rocket flight that launched the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) into space on 25 December 2021. It was 2021's final Ariane flight, its most valuable payload to date, and the 256th Ariane mission. The launch was described by NASA as "flawless" and "perfect".


Atmosphere of Triton

The atmosphere of Triton is the layer of gases surrounding Triton. Like the atmospheres of Titan and Pluto, Triton's atmosphere is composed more than 95% of nitrogen, with smaller amounts of methane and carbon monoxide. It hosts a layer of organic haze extending up to 30 kilometers above its surface and a deck of thin bright clouds at about 4 kilometers in altitude. Due to Triton's low gravity, its atmosphere is loosely bound, extending over 800 kilometers from its surface.
Triton, along with Saturn's moon Titan, is one of only two moons in the Solar System known to have significant, global atmospheres. The surface pressure is only 14 microbars (1.4 Pa or 0.0105mmHg), 1⁄70000 of the surface pressure on Earth. Similar to the atmosphere of Pluto, Triton's atmosphere is sensitive to seasonal changes; observations obtained in 1998 showed an increase in temperature, increasing the atmosphere's density.


Carina Nebula

The Carina Nebula or Eta Carinae Nebula (catalogued as NGC 3372; also known as the Great Carina Nebula) is a large, complex area of bright and dark nebulosity in the constellation Carina, located in the Carina–Sagittarius Arm of the Milky Way galaxy. The nebula is approximately 8,500 light-years (2,600 pc) from Earth.
The nebula has within its boundaries the large Carina OB1 association and several related open clusters, including numerous O-type stars and several Wolf–Rayet stars. Carina OB1 encompasses the star clusters Trumpler 14 and Trumpler 16. Trumpler 14 is one of the youngest known star clusters at half a million years old and contains stars like the O2 supergiant HD 93129A. Trumpler 16 is the home of many extremely luminous stars, such as WR 25 and the Eta Carinae star system. Trumpler 15, Collinder 228, Collinder 232, NGC 3324, and NGC 3293 are also considered members of the association. NGC 3293 is the oldest and furthest from Trumpler 14, indicating sequential and ongoing star formation.
The nebula is one of the largest diffuse nebulae in Earth's sky. Although it is four times as large as and even brighter than the famous Orion Nebula, the Carina Nebula is much less well known due to its location in the southern sky. It was discovered by Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille in 1752 from the Cape of Good Hope.
The Carina Nebula was selected as one of five cosmic objects observed by the James Webb Space Telescope, as part of the release of its first official science images. A detailed image was made of an early star-forming region of NGC 3324 known as the Cosmic Cliffs.


Chopping (astronomy)

Chopping is a technique used with infrared telescopes to minimize interference from external or internal heat. The chopper is the mechanism that rocks a mirror (typically a secondary mirror) inside a telescope back and forth in rapid succession because background radiation would change too quickly to measure otherwise.


Deep Sky

Deep Sky is a 2023 American documentary film directed by Nathaniel Kahn. Originally released on October 20, 2023 for IMAX,  Deep Sky is narrated by Michelle Williams telling the story about the production of the James Webb Space Telescope and its impact on the technological improvements it made upon the Hubble Space Telescope.
Although it was filmed in 2023, the documentary did not receive a wide release until April 19, 2024 in commemoration with Earth Day.


GN-z11

GN-z11 is a high-redshift galaxy discovered by NASA's Hubble Space Telescope in the constellation Ursa Major. It is among the farthest galaxies from Earth ever found. The 2015 discovery was published in a 2016 paper headed by Pascal Oesch and Gabriel Brammer (Cosmic Dawn Center). Up until the discovery of JADES-GS-z13-0 in 2022 by the James Webb Space Telescope, GN-z11 was the oldest and most distant galaxy yet identified in the observable universe, having a spectroscopic redshift of z = 10.957, which corresponds to a proper distance of approximately 32 billion light-years (9.8 billion parsecs). Data published in 2024 established that the galaxy contains the most distant, and therefore earliest, black hole known in the universe, estimated at around 1.6 million solar masses.
The object's name is derived from its location in the GOODS-North field of galaxies and its high cosmological redshift number (GN + z11). It is observed as it existed 13.4 billion years ago, just 400 million years after the Big Bang; as a result, its distance is sometimes inappropriately reported without qualification as 13.4 billion light-years, its light-travel distance measurement.
In early 2023, the James Webb Space Telescope observed the galaxy and reported a definitive redshift of z = 10.6034 ± 0.0013.
The galaxy has such a high redshift that its angular diameter distance is actually less than that of some galaxies with lower redshift. This means that the ratio of its angular size (how big it appears in the sky) to its size in light-years is greater.


Galaxy cluster

A galaxy cluster, or a cluster of galaxies, is a structure that consists of anywhere from hundreds to thousands of galaxies that are bound together by gravity, with typical masses ranging from 1014 to 1015 solar masses (M☉). Clusters consist of galaxies, heated gas, and dark matter. They are the biggest known gravitationally bound structures in the universe. They were believed to be the largest known structures in the universe until the 1980s, when superclusters were discovered. Small aggregates of galaxies are referred to as galaxy groups rather than clusters of galaxies. Together, galaxy groups and clusters form superclusters.


Giant Magellan Telescope

The Giant Magellan Telescope (GMT) is a ground-based, extremely large telescope currently under construction at Las Campanas Observatory in Chile's Atacama Desert. With a primary mirror diameter of 25.4 meters, it is expected to be the largest Gregorian telescope ever built, observing in optical and mid-infrared wavelengths (320–25,000 nm). Commissioning of the telescope is anticipated in the early 2030s.
The GMT will feature seven of the world's largest mirrors, collectively providing a light-collecting area of 368 square meters. It is expected to have a resolving power approximately 10 times greater than the Hubble Space Telescope and four times greater than the James Webb Space Telescope. However, it will not be able to observe in the same infrared frequencies as space-based telescopes. The GMT will be used to explore a wide range of astrophysical phenomena, including the search for signs of life on exoplanets and the study of the cosmic origins of chemical elements.
The casting of the GMT's primary mirrors began in 2005, and construction at the site started in 2015. By 2023, all seven primary mirrors had been cast, the first of seven adaptive secondary mirrors was under construction, and the telescope mount was in the manufacturing stage. Other subsystems of the telescope were in the final stages of design.
The project, with an estimated cost of USD $2 billion, is being developed by the GMTO Corporation, a consortium of research institutions from seven countries: Australia, Brazil, Chile, Israel, South Korea, Taiwan, and the United States.


Gliese 341 b

Gliese 341 b, also known as TOI-741 b or GJ 341 b, is a confirmed exoplanet orbiting Gliese 341, a red dwarf star located 33.9 light-years from Earth in the constellation Carina, visually close to the False Cross asterism. Having a radius of 0.92 R🜨 and an estimated mass of 0.72 M🜨, it is classified as a sub-Earth. It was discovered in 2024 via transit observations and analyzed by James Webb Space Telescope in the search for an atmosphere.


Gregory L. Robinson

Gregory L. Robinson is an American engineer and the former director of the James Webb Space Telescope Program at NASA.


HIP 65426 b

HIP 65426 b, formally named Najsakopajk, is a super-Jupiter exoplanet orbiting the star HIP 65426. It was discovered on 6 July 2017 by the SPHERE consortium using the Spectro-Polarimetric High-Contrast Exoplanet Research (SPHERE) instrument belonging to the European Southern Observatory (ESO), being the first confirmed planet discovered by the SPHERE instrument. It is 385 light-years from Earth in the Centaurus constellation.


Herschel Space Observatory

The Herschel Space Observatory was a space observatory built and operated by the European Space Agency (ESA). It was active from 2009 to 2013, and was the largest infrared telescope ever launched until the launch of the James Webb Space Telescope in 2021. Herschel carried a 3.5-metre (11.5 ft) mirror and instruments sensitive to the far infrared and submillimetre wavebands (55–672 μm). Herschel was the fourth and final cornerstone mission in the Horizon 2000 programme, following SOHO, Cluster II, XMM-Newton and Rosetta.
The observatory was carried into orbit by an Ariane 5 in May 2009, reaching the second Lagrangian point (L2) of the Earth–Sun system, 1,500,000 kilometres (930,000 mi) from Earth, about two months later. Herschel is named after Sir William Herschel, the discoverer of the infrared spectrum and planet Uranus, and his sister and collaborator Caroline Herschel.
The observatory was capable of seeing the coldest and dustiest objects in space; for example, cool cocoons where stars form and dusty galaxies just starting to bulk up with new stars. The observatory sifted through star-forming clouds—the "slow cookers" of star ingredients—to trace the path by which potentially life-forming molecules, such as water, form.
The telescope's lifespan was governed by the amount of coolant available for its instruments; when that coolant ran out, the instruments would stop functioning correctly. At the time of its launch, operations were estimated to last 3.5 years (to around the end of 2012). It continued to operate until 29 April 2013 15:20 UTC, when Herschel ran out of coolant.
NASA was a partner in the Herschel mission, with US participants contributing to the mission; providing mission-enabling instrument technology and sponsoring the NASA Herschel Science Center (NHSC) at the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center and the Herschel Data Search at the Infrared Science Archive.


Hubble Space Telescope

The Hubble Space Telescope (HST or Hubble) is a space telescope that was launched into low Earth orbit in 1990 and remains in operation. It was not the first space telescope, but it is one of the largest and most versatile, renowned as a vital research tool and as a public relations boon for astronomy. The Hubble Space Telescope is named after astronomer Edwin Hubble and is one of NASA's Great Observatories. The Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) selects Hubble's targets and processes the resulting data, while the Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) controls the spacecraft.
Hubble features a 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in) mirror, and its five main instruments observe in the ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Hubble's orbit outside the distortion of Earth's atmosphere allows it to capture extremely high-resolution images with substantially lower background light than ground-based telescopes. It has recorded some of the most detailed visible light images, allowing a deep view into space. Many Hubble observations have led to breakthroughs in astrophysics, such as determining the rate of expansion of the universe.
The Hubble Space Telescope was funded and built in the 1970s by NASA with contributions from the European Space Agency. Its intended launch was in 1983, but the project was beset by technical delays, budget problems, and the 1986 Challenger disaster. Hubble was launched on STS-31 in 1990, but its main mirror had been ground incorrectly, resulting in spherical aberration that compromised the telescope's capabilities. The optics were corrected to their intended quality by a servicing mission, STS-61, in 1993.
Hubble is the only telescope designed to be maintained in space by astronauts. Five Space Shuttle missions repaired, upgraded, and replaced systems on the telescope, including all five of the main instruments. The fifth mission was initially canceled on safety grounds following the Columbia disaster (2003), but after NASA administrator Michael D. Griffin approved it, the servicing mission was completed in 2009. Hubble completed 30 years of operation in April 2020 and is predicted to last until 2030 to 2040.
Hubble is the visible light telescope in NASA's Great Observatories program; other parts of the spectrum are covered by the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, the Chandra X-ray Observatory, and the Spitzer Space Telescope (which covers the infrared bands).
The mid-IR-to-visible band successor to the Hubble telescope is the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), which was launched on December 25, 2021, with the Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope due to follow in 2026.

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Infinity Galaxy

The Infinity Galaxy (∞ Galaxy), also known as the Cosmic Owl, is an interacting galaxy pair approximately 8 billion light-years away observed by the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) as part of the COSMOS-Web Survey. The galaxy is named due to its distinctive shape, which resembles the infinity symbol (∞). The 2025 discovery is credited to astronomers Pieter van Dokkum of Yale University and Gabriel Brammer of the University of Copenhagen. The galaxy is likely one of the first observed examples of the direct collapse mechanism of black-hole formation.


Infrared astronomy


James E. Webb


James Webb


James Webb Space Telescope


James Webb Space Telescope sunshield


Jane Rigby


K2-18b


Kapton


Lagrange point

Short description is different from Wikidata


Launch and commissioning of the James Webb Space Telescope


List of deep fields


NASA


NGC 6334


Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope


Northrop Grumman


Optical Telescope Element


PSR J2322−2650 b


Pillars of Creation


Primordial black hole


Radiative cooling


SMACS 0723


Space Park


Space Telescope Science Institute


Space telescope


Spacecraft bus (James Webb Space Telescope)


Steam world


Stephan's Quintet


Timeline of the James Webb Space Telescope


Trans-Neptunian object


Webb's First Deep Field


Acuitas Therapeutics

Acuitas Therapeutics Inc. is a Canadian biotechnology company based in Vancouver, British Columbia. The company was established in February 2009 to specialize in the development of delivery systems for nucleic acid therapeutics based on lipid nanoparticle (LNP) technology, a key component of the mRNA vaccines deployed for COVID-19.


Anti-CRISPR

Anti-CRISPR (Anti-Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats or Acr) is a group of proteins found in phages, that inhibit the normal activity of CRISPR-Cas, the immune system of certain bacteria. CRISPR consists of genomic sequences that can be found in prokaryotic organisms, that come from bacteriophages that infected the bacteria beforehand, and are used to defend the cell from further viral attacks. Anti-CRISPR results from an evolutionary process occurred in phages in order to avoid having their genomes destroyed by the prokaryotic cells that they will infect.
Before the discovery of this type of family proteins, the acquisition of mutations was the only way known that phages could use to avoid CRISPR-Cas mediated shattering, by reducing the binding affinity of the phage and CRISPR. Nonetheless, bacteria have mechanisms to retarget the mutant bacteriophage, a process that it is called "priming adaptation". So, as far as researchers currently know, anti-CRISPR is the most effective way to ensure the survival of phages throughout the infection process of bacteria.


CRISPR

CRISPR (; acronym for clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) is a family of DNA sequences found in the genomes of prokaryotic organisms such as bacteria and archaea. Each sequence within an individual prokaryotic CRISPR is derived from a DNA fragment of a bacteriophage that had previously infected the prokaryote or one of its ancestors. These sequences are used to detect and destroy DNA from similar bacteriophages during subsequent infections. Hence these sequences play a key role in the antiviral (i.e. anti-phage) defense system of prokaryotes and provide a form of heritable, acquired immunity. CRISPR is found in approximately 50% of sequenced bacterial genomes and nearly 90% of sequenced archaea.
Cas9 (or "CRISPR-associated protein 9") is an enzyme that uses CRISPR sequences as a guide to recognize and open up specific strands of DNA that are complementary to the CRISPR sequence. Cas9 enzymes together with CRISPR sequences form the basis of a technology known as CRISPR-Cas9 that can be used to edit genes within living organisms. This editing process has a wide variety of applications including basic biological research, development of biotechnological products, and treatment of diseases. The development of the CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing technique was recognized by the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2020 awarded to Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna.


CRISPR-Display

CRISPR-Display (CRISP-Disp) is a modification of the CRISPR/Cas9 (Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) system for genome editing. The CRISPR/Cas9 system uses a short guide RNA (sgRNA) sequence to direct a Streptococcus pyogenes Cas9 nuclease, acting as a programmable DNA binding protein, to cleave DNA at a site of interest.
CRISPR-Display, in contrast, uses a nuclease deficient Cas9 (dCas9) and an engineered sgRNA with aptameric accessory RNA domains, ranging from 100bp to 5kb, outside of the normal complementary targeting sequence. The accessory RNA domains can be functional domains, such as long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), protein-binding motifs, or epitope tags for immunochemistry. This allows for investigation of the functionality of certain lncRNAs, and targeting of ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes to genomic loci.
CRISPR-Display was first published in Nature Methods in July 2015, and developed by David M. Shechner, Ezgi Hacisuleyman, Scott T. Younger and John Rinn at Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), USA.


CRISPR/Cas tools

CRISPR-Cas design tools are computer software platforms and bioinformatics tools used to facilitate the design of guide RNAs (gRNAs) for use with the CRISPR/Cas gene editing system.


CRISPR Therapeutics

CRISPR Therapeutics AG is a Swiss–American biotechnology company headquartered in Zug, Switzerland. The company does business as CRISPR Therapeutics, Inc. in the United States. It was one of the first companies formed to utilize the CRISPR gene editing platform to develop medicines for the treatment of various rare and common diseases. The company has approximately 500 employees and has offices in Zug, Switzerland; Boston, Massachusetts; San Francisco, California; and London, United Kingdom. Its manufacturing facility in Framingham, Massachusetts, won the Facilities of the Year Award (FOYA) award in 2022. The company’s lead program, exagamglogene autotemcel, or exa-cel (formerly CTX001), was granted regulatory approval by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in December 2023.


CRISPR activation

CRISPR activation (CRISPRa) is a gene regulation technique that utilizes an engineered form of the CRISPR-Cas9 system to enhance the expression of specific genes without altering the underlying DNA sequence. Unlike traditional CRISPR-Cas9, which introduces double-strand breaks to edit genes, CRISPRa employs a modified, catalytically inactive Cas9 (dCas9) fused with transcriptional activators to target promoter or enhancer regions, thereby boosting gene transcription. This method allows for precise control of gene expression, making it a valuable tool for studying gene function, creating gene regulatory networks, and developing potential therapeutic interventions for a variety of diseases.
Like for CRISPR interference, the CRISPR effector is guided to the target by a complementary guide RNA. However, CRISPR activation systems are fused to transcriptional activators to increase expression of genes of interest. Such systems are usable for many purposes including but not limited to, genetic screens and overexpression of proteins of interest.
The most commonly used effectors are based on Cas9 (from Type II systems), but effectors based on other CRISPR-associated proteins, such as Cas12a (Type V), have been engineered as well.


CRISPR gene editing

CRISPR gene editing (; pronounced like "crisper"; an abbreviation for "clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats") is a genetic engineering technique in molecular biology by which the genomes of living organisms may be modified. It is based on a simplified version of the bacterial CRISPR-Cas9 antiviral defense system. By delivering the Cas9 nuclease complexed with a synthetic guide RNA (gRNA) into a cell, the cell's genome can be cut at a desired location, allowing existing genes to be removed or new ones added in vivo ("within the living").
The technique is considered highly significant in biotechnology and medicine as it enables in vivo genome editing and is considered exceptionally precise, cost-effective, and efficient. It can be used in the creation of new medicines, agricultural products, and genetically modified organisms, or as a means of controlling pathogens and pests. It also offers potential in the treatment of inherited genetic diseases as well as diseases arising from somatic mutations, such as cancer. However, its use in human germline genetic modification is highly controversial. The development of this technique earned Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2020. The third researcher group that shared the Kavli Prize for the same discovery, led by Virginijus Šikšnys, was not awarded the Nobel Prize.
Working like genetic scissors, the Cas9 nuclease opens both strands of the targeted DNA sequence to introduce the modification by one of two methods. Knock-in mutations, facilitated via homology-directed repair (HDR), are the traditional pathway of targeted genomic editing approaches. This allows for the introduction of targeted DNA damage and repair. HDR employs the use of similar DNA sequences to drive the repair of the break via the incorporation of exogenous DNA to function as the repair template. This method relies on the periodic and isolated occurrence of DNA damage at the target site in order for the repair to commence. Knock-out mutations caused by CRISPR-Cas9 result from the repair of the double-stranded break by means of non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) or POLQ/polymerase theta-mediated end-joining (TMEJ). These end-joining pathways can often result in random deletions or insertions at the repair site, which may disrupt or alter gene functionality. Therefore, genomic engineering with CRISPR-Cas9 enables researchers to generate targeted random gene disruption.
While genome editing in eukaryotic cells has been possible using various methods since the 1980s, the methods employed have proven to be inefficient and impractical for large-scale implementation. With the discovery of CRISPR and specifically the Cas9 nuclease molecule, efficient and highly selective editing became possible. Cas9, derived from the bacterial species Streptococcus pyogenes, has facilitated targeted genomic modification in eukaryotic cells by enabling a reliable method of creating a targeted break at a specific location as designated by the crRNA and tracrRNA guide strands. Researchers can insert Cas9 and template RNA with ease in order to silence or cause point mutations at specific loci. This has proven invaluable for quick and efficient mapping of genomic models and biological processes associated with various genes in a variety of eukaryotes. Newly engineered variants of the Cas9 nuclease that significantly reduce off-target activity have been developed.
CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing techniques have many potential applications. The use of the CRISPR-Cas9-gRNA complex for genome editing was the AAAS's choice for Breakthrough of the Year in 2015. Since 2015, CRISPR has been experimentally investigated on non-viable human embryos. In 2019, the first humans were born from genome-edited embryos using the CRISPR technique, as a result of the controversial He Jiankui affair. Several bioethical concerns have been raised about the prospect of using CRISPR for germline editing, especially the potential enabling of human eugenics. In 2023, the first drug making use of CRISPR gene editing, Exagamglogene autotemcel, sold under the brand name "Casgevy", was officially approved for use in the United Kingdom, to cure sickle-cell disease and beta thalassemia. On 2 December 2023, the Kingdom of Bahrain became the second country in the world to approve the use of Casgevy to treat sickle-cell anemia and beta thalassemia. On December 8, 2023, Casgevy received approval for use in the United States by the Food and Drug Administration.


CRISPR interference

CRISPR interference (CRISPRi) is a genetic perturbation technique that allows for sequence-specific repression of gene expression in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. It was first developed by Stanley Qi and colleagues in the laboratories of Wendell Lim, Adam Arkin, Jonathan Weissman, and Jennifer Doudna. Sequence-specific activation of gene expression refers to CRISPR activation (CRISPRa).
Based on the bacterial genetic immune system - CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) pathway,
the technique provides a complementary approach to RNA interference. The difference between CRISPRi and RNAi, though, is that CRISPRi regulates gene expression primarily on the transcriptional level, while RNAi controls genes on the mRNA level.


Cas12a

Cas12a (CRISPR-associated protein 12a, previously Cpf1) is a Class II Type V CRISPR-associated endonuclease-exonuclease. In bacteria such as F. novicida, its natural context, Cas12a targets and destroys the genetic material of viruses and other foreign mobile genetic elements. In a target organism, crRNA contains a constant region that Cas12a recognizes and a "spacer" region that is complementary to a piece of foreign nucleic acid (e.g., a portion of a phage genome) that previously infected the cell.
Cas12a is distinct from Cas9: it generates staggered cuts in double-stranded DNA, in contrast to the blunt ends; it relies on a 'T-rich' protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) (typically 5'-TTTV-3', where V is A, C, or G), offering alternative sites compared to the 'G-rich' PAMs (typically 5'-NGG-3') favored by Cas9; and it requires only a CRISPR RNA (crRNA) for effective targeting, whereas Cas9 necessitates both a crRNA and a trans-activating crRNA (tracrRNA).
The programmable DNA-targeting activity of Cas12a makes it a useful tool for biotechnology and biological research applications. By modifying the spacer sequence in the crRNA, researchers can target Cas12a to a specific DNA sequence, allowing for targeted DNA modifications. Cas12a is distinguished from other Cas proteins by its single RuvC active site, its 5' protospacer adjacent motif preference, and its formation of sticky rather than blunt ends at the cut site; these and other differences make it more suitable for certain applications. Beyond basic research, the CRISPR-Cas12a system could have applications in genetic diseases and gene drives.


Cas9

Cas9 (CRISPR-associated protein 9) is a DNA cutting endonuclease that is part of the CRISPR immune system in bacteria and archaea. It has been adapted for use as a CRISPR genome editing tool. The CRISPR-Cas9 system is widely used in genetic engineering, medicine, agriculture, and biotechnology.
The Cas9 endonuclease introduces site-specific double-stranded breaks in DNA, enabling gene inactivation, removal, or insertion through cellular repair mechanisms such as non-homologous end joining or homologous recombination.
Cas9 was discovered in S. pyogenes and later in S. thermophilus. It functions with two small RNAs—crRNA and tracrRNA—to form a four-component complex. In 2012, Doudna and Charpentier fused the RNAs into a single-guide RNA, enabling Cas9 to cut specific DNA sequences. These developments spurred genome modification efforts, including groups led by Zhang and Church who showed genome editing in human cells.
Variants of Cas9, including Cas9 nickase (Cas9n), that create single-strand breaks, and versions recognizing different PAM sequences, address specific Cas9 limitations.
CRISPR-Cas9 technology has raised ethical and regulatory concerns, particularly regarding human germline editing and genetic enhancement.


Cure Rare Disease

Cure Rare Disease is a non-profit biotechnology company based in Woodbridge, Connecticut that is working to create novel therapeutics using gene therapy, gene editing (CRISPR technology) and antisense oligonucleotides to treat people impacted by rare and ultra-rare genetic neuromuscular conditions.


Cystinosis

Cystinosis is a lysosomal storage disease characterized by the abnormal accumulation of free cystine, the oxidized dimer of the amino acid cysteine in lysosomes, eventually leading to intracellular crystal formation throughout the body, e.g. in kidneys.
It is genetically inheritable in the autosomal recessive fashion via CTNS (AR) gene. It is characterized by systemic accumulation of the amino acid cystine within lysosomes, proximal tubulopathy, and by progressive chronic kidney disease. If untreated, it leads to progressive cellular dysfunction and multiorgan involvement. The disease most commonly presents in infancy with renal Fanconi syndrome and, without treatment, progresses to end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) in childhood. Extra-renal manifestations affecting the eyes, thyroid, muscle, pancreas, and central nervous system may develop later in life. Early diagnosis and lifelong cystine-depleting therapy improve growth, delay progression to ESKD, and reduce many systemic complications.  Nevertheless, despite treatment, the mean age at death for individuals born between 1985 and 1999 has been 29 years.
Cystinosis is the most common cause of Fanconi syndrome in the pediatric age group. Fanconi syndrome occurs when the function of cells in renal tubules is impaired, leading to abnormal amounts of carbohydrates and amino acids in the urine, excessive urination, and low blood levels of potassium and phosphates.
Cystinosis was the first documented genetic disease belonging to the group of lysosomal storage disease disorders. Cystinosis is caused by mutations in the CTNS gene that codes for cystinosin, the lysosomal membrane-specific transporter for cystine. Intracellular metabolism of cystine, as it happens with all amino acids, requires its transport across the cell membrane. After degradation of endocytosed protein to cystine within lysosomes, it is normally transported to the cytosol. But if there is a defect in the carrier protein, cystine is accumulated in lysosomes. As cystine is highly insoluble, when its concentration in tissue lysosomes increases, its solubility is immediately exceeded and crystalline precipitates are formed in almost all organs and tissues.
However, the progression of the disease is not related to the presence of crystals in target tissues. Although tissue damage might depend on cystine accumulation, the mechanisms of tissue damage are not fully understood. Increased intracellular cystine profoundly disturbs cellular oxidative metabolism and glutathione status, leading to altered mitochondrial energy metabolism, autophagy, and apoptosis.
Cystinosis is usually treated with cysteamine, which is prescribed to decrease intralysosomal cystine accumulation. However, the discovery of new pathogenic mechanisms and the development of an animal model of the disease may open possibilities for the development of new treatment modalities to improve long-term prognosis.


Deng Hongkui

Deng Hongkui (Chinese: 邓宏魁) is a Chinese immunologist and stem cell researcher. He is a Changjiang Professor, the Boya Chair Professor, and Director of the Institute of Stem Cell Research at Peking University. He was awarded US$1.9 million by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation for his research on vaccines for HIV and hepatitis C. In 2017, he and Chen Hu engineered resistance to HIV in mice using CRISPR gene editing, and for the first time used the technique on an AIDS patient.


Designer baby

A designer baby is an embryo or fetus whose genetic makeup has been intentionally selected or altered, often to exclude a particular gene or to remove genes associated with disease, to achieve desired traits. This process usually involves preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), which analyzes multiple human embryos to identify genes associated with specific diseases and characteristics, then selecting embryos that have the desired genetic makeup. While screening for single genes is commonly practiced, advancements in polygenic screening are becoming more prominent, though only a few companies currently offer it. This technique uses an algorithm to aggregate the estimated effects of numerous genetic variants tied to an individual's risk for a particular condition or trait. Other methods of altering a baby's genetic information involve directly editing the genome before birth, using technologies such as CRISPR. A controversial example of this can be seen in the 2018 case involving Chinese twins Lulu and Nana, which had their genomes edited to resist HIV infection, sparking widespread criticism and legal debates.
This highlights the implications of germline engineering, which involves introducing the desired genetic material into the embryo or parental germ cells. This process is typically prohibited by law, however, regulations vary globally. Editing embryos in this manner can result in genetic changes that are passed down to future generations, raising significant controversy and ethical concerns. While some scientists advocate for its use in treating genetic diseases, others warn that it could lead to misuse for non-medical purposes, such as cosmetic enhancements and modification of human traits.


Editas Medicine

Editas Medicine, Inc., (formerly Gengine, Inc.), is a clinical-stage biotechnology company which is developing therapies for rare diseases based on CRISPR gene editing technology. Editas headquarters is located in Cambridge, Massachusetts and has facilities in Boulder, Colorado.


Epigenome editing

Epigenome editing or epigenome engineering is a type of genetic engineering in which the epigenome is modified at specific sites using engineered molecules targeted to those sites (as opposed to whole-genome modifications). Whereas gene editing involves changing the actual DNA sequence itself, epigenetic editing involves modifying and presenting DNA sequences to proteins and other DNA binding factors that influence DNA function. By "editing" epigenomic features in this manner, researchers can determine the exact biological role of an epigenetic modification at the site in question.
The engineered proteins used for epigenome editing are composed of a DNA binding domain that targets specific sequences and an effector domain that modifies epigenomic features. Currently, three major groups of DNA binding proteins have been predominantly used for epigenome editing: Zinc finger proteins, Transcription Activator-Like Effectors (TALEs) and nuclease deficient Cas9 fusions (CRISPR).


Excision BioTherapeutics

Excision BioTherapeutics was a biopharmaceutical company based in San Francisco focused on developing gene therapies against HIV infection.
The company had a single, CRISPR–Cas9 based therapy, EBT-101, that was under investigation. Initial investigation into the therapy was conducted by the lab of Kamel Khalili, a professor at Temple University. In July 2023 the US Food and Drug Administration granted EBT-101 fast-track status. In October 2023 an early-stage study on 3 people reported that the treatment appeared to be safe with no major side effects. In March 2024 it was revealed that EBT-101 did not maintain HIV viral suppression when used alone at the initial dose tested, although it might have delayed viral rebound in one trial participant. One possible explanation for the viral rebound is that EBT-101 did not reach all of the cells that harboured latent HIV.
A long-term follow-up study of HIV-1 infected adults who received EBT-101 was also started.


Francisco Mojica

Francisco Juan Martínez Mojica (born 5 October 1963) is a Spanish molecular biologist and microbiologist at the University of Alicante in Spain. He is known for his discovery of repetitive, functional DNA sequences in bacteria which he named CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats). These were later developed into the first widespread genome editing tool, CRISPR-Cas9.


Gene drive

A gene drive is a natural process (see meiotic drive) and technology of genetic engineering that propagates a particular suite of genes throughout a population by altering the probability that a specific allele will be transmitted to offspring (instead of the Mendelian 50% probability). Gene drives can arise through a variety of mechanisms. They have been proposed to provide an effective means of genetically modifying specific populations and entire species.
The technique can employ adding, deleting, disrupting, or modifying genes.
Proposed applications include exterminating insects that carry pathogens (notably mosquitoes that transmit malaria, dengue, and zika pathogens), controlling invasive species, or eliminating herbicide or pesticide resistance.
As with any potentially powerful technique, gene drives can be misused in a variety of ways or induce unintended consequences. For example, a gene drive intended to affect only a local population might spread across an entire species. Gene drives that eradicate populations of invasive species in their non-native habitats may have consequences for the population of the species as a whole, even in its native habitat. Any accidental return of individuals of the species to its original habitats, through natural migration, environmental disruption (storms, floods, etc.), accidental human transportation, or purposeful relocation, could unintentionally drive the species to extinction if the relocated individuals carried harmful gene drives.
Gene drives can be built from many naturally occurring selfish genetic elements that use a variety of molecular mechanisms. These naturally occurring mechanisms induce similar segregation distortion in the wild, arising when alleles evolve molecular mechanisms that give them a transmission chance greater than the normal 50%.
Most gene drives have been developed in insects, notably mosquitoes, as a way to control insect-borne pathogens. Recent developments designed gene drives directly in viruses, notably herpesviruses. These viral gene drives can propagate a modification into the population of viruses, and aim to reduce the infectivity of the virus.


Gene editing


Gene knockout


Gene therapy

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Genetic engineering

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The Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture (ANFA) is a nonprofit organization whose mission is to promote and advance knowledge that links neuroscience research to a growing understanding of human responses to the built environment.


Affective neuroscience

Affective neuroscience is the study of how the brain processes emotions. This field combines neuroscience with the psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood. The basis of emotions and what emotions are remains an issue of debate within the field of affective neuroscience.
The term "affective neuroscience" was coined by neuroscientist Jaak Panksepp in the early 1990s, at a time when cognitive neuroscience focused on parts of psychology that did not include emotion, such as attention or memory.


Andrew Huberman

Andrew David Huberman (born September 26, 1975) is an American neuroscientist and podcaster. He is an associate professor of neurobiology and ophthalmology at the Stanford University School of Medicine. He has been the host of the popular health and science focused podcast Huberman Lab since 2021, and has a Google H-index of 45 with over 14,742 citations. Huberman has drawn criticism from scientists for promoting dietary supplements and for making poorly evidenced health claims.
Huberman is the son of Argentine physicist Bernardo Huberman. He earned a B.A. in psychology from UC Santa Barbara in 1998, an M.A. in psychology from UC Berkeley in 2000, and a Ph.D. in neuroscience from UC Davis in 2004. Huberman conducted postdoctoral research at Stanford under Ben Barres, focusing on the visual system, and held faculty positions at UC San Diego and later Stanford, where his lab studies vision regeneration, stress mitigation, and non-pharmacological interventions for anxiety.


Asperger syndrome

Asperger syndrome (AS), also known as Asperger's syndrome or Asperger's, is a formerly used diagnostic category for a condition characterized by significant difficulties in social interaction and nonverbal communication, along with restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior and interests. It ceased to be a distinct diagnosis when it was merged into autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in the DSM-5 (2013) and ICD-11 (2022). Previously, it had been classified as a pervasive developmental disorder.
AS was considered milder than other diagnoses. This change reflected a shift toward a unified understanding of autism-related conditions rather than a judgment about individuals previously diagnosed with AS. Despite its removal from contemporary medical classification systems, many people continued to identify with the term Asperger's because of its long-standing use, personal relevance, and the way it shaped their diagnostic history and community identity. However, self-identification using the Asperger label became much rarer (going from 51 percent in 2018 to 19 percent in 2022, according to one set of polls) following the publication of the 2018 Edith Sheffer book Asperger's Children. The book revealed that the label's namesake was complicit in the Nazis' murder of disabled children.
The syndrome was named in 1976 by English psychiatrist Lorna Wing after the Austrian pediatrician Hans Asperger, who in 1944 described children in his care who struggled to form friendships, did not understand others' gestures or feelings, engaged in one-sided conversations about their favorite interests, and were clumsy. In 1990 (coming into effect in 1993), the diagnosis of Asperger syndrome was included in the tenth edition (ICD-10) of the World Health Organization's International Classification of Diseases, and in 1994 it was also included in the fourth edition (DSM-4) of the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. With the publication of DSM-5 in 2013, the syndrome was removed, and the symptoms regarded as an autism spectrum disorder along with classic autism and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS). It was similarly merged into autism spectrum disorder in the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) in 2018 (published, came into effect in 2022).
The cause of autism, including what was formerly called Asperger syndrome, is not well understood. While it has high heritability, the underlying genetics have not been determined conclusively. Environmental factors are also believed to play a role. Brain imaging has not identified a common underlying condition. There is no single treatment, and the UK's National Health Service (NHS) guidelines suggest that "treatment" of any form of autism should not be a goal, since autism is not "a disease that can be removed or cured". According to the Royal College of Psychiatrists, while co-occurring conditions might require treatment, "management of autism itself is chiefly about the provision of the education, training, and social support/care required to improve the person's ability to function in the everyday world". The effectiveness of particular interventions for autism is supported by only limited data. Interventions may include social skills training, cognitive behavioral therapy, physical therapy, speech therapy, parent training, and medications for associated problems, such as mood or anxiety. Autistic characteristics tend to become less obvious in adulthood, but social and communication difficulties usually persist.
In 2015, Asperger syndrome was estimated to affect 37.2 million people globally, or about 0.5% of the population. The exact percentage of people affected has still not been firmly established. Autism spectrum disorder is diagnosed in males more often than females, and females are typically diagnosed at a later age. The modern conception of Asperger syndrome came into existence in 1981 and went through a period of popularization. It became a standardized diagnosis in the 1990s, and was merged into ASD in 2013. Many questions about the condition remain.


Australasian Journal of Neuroscience

The Australasian Journal of Neuroscience is a peer-reviewed neuroscience journal established in 1988. It is the official journal of the Australasian Neuroscience Nurses Association and is published by Exeley twice a year.


Awareness

Awareness refers to the knowledge or perception of something, a concept widely discussed in psychology and philosophy. As such, it is the ability to consciously perceive, understand, and respond both generally to one's surroundings and specifically to individual stimuli. The concept is often synonymous with consciousness; however, one can be aware of something without being explicitly conscious of it (e.g., blindsight). Essentially, awareness is the state of being attuned to, or mindful of something, whether it is a physical sensation or an idea. The states of awareness are also associated with the states of experience, so that the structure represented in awareness is mirrored in the structure of experience.


Behavioral neuroscience

Behavioral neuroscience, also known as biological psychology, biopsychology, or psychobiology, is part of the broad, interdisciplinary field of neuroscience, with its primary focus being on the biological and neural substrates underlying human experiences and behaviors, as in our psychology. Derived from an earlier field known as physiological psychology, behavioral neuroscience applies the principles of biology to study the physiological, genetic, and developmental mechanisms of behavior in humans and other animals.
Behavioral neuroscientists examine the biological bases of behavior through research that involves neuroanatomical substrates, environmental and genetic factors, effects of lesions and electrical stimulation, developmental processes, recording electrical activity, neurotransmitters, hormonal influences, chemical components, and the effects of drugs. Important topics of consideration for neuroscientific research in behavior include learning and memory, sensory processes, motivation and emotion, as well as genetic and molecular substrates concerning the biological bases of behavior. Subdivisions of behavioral neuroscience include the field of cognitive neuroscience, which emphasizes the biological processes underlying human cognition. Behavioral and cognitive neuroscience are both concerned with the neuronal and biological bases of psychology, with a particular emphasis on either cognition or behavior depending on the field.


Cellular neuroscience

Cellular neuroscience is a branch of neuroscience concerned with the study of neurons at a cellular level. This includes morphology and physiological properties of single neurons. Several techniques such as intracellular recording, patch-clamp, and voltage-clamp technique, pharmacology, confocal imaging, molecular biology, two photon laser scanning microscopy and Ca2+ imaging have been used to study activity at the cellular level. Cellular neuroscience examines the various types of neurons, the functions of different neurons, the influence of neurons upon each other, and how neurons work together.


Clinical neuroscience

Clinical neuroscience is a branch of neuroscience that focuses on the scientific study of fundamental mechanisms that underlie diseases and disorders of the brain and central nervous system. It seeks to develop new ways of conceptualizing and diagnosing such disorders and ultimately of developing novel treatments.
A  clinical neuroscientist is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field. Not all clinicians are clinical neuroscientists. Clinicians and scientists -including psychiatrists, neurologists, clinical psychologists, neuroscientists, and other specialists—use basic research findings from neuroscience in general and clinical neuroscience in particular to develop diagnostic methods and ways to prevent and treat neurobiological disorders. Such disorders include addiction, Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, anxiety disorders, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism, bipolar disorder, brain tumors, depression, Down syndrome, dyslexia, epilepsy, Huntington's disease, multiple sclerosis, neurological AIDS, neurological trauma, pain, obsessive-compulsive disorder, Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, sleep disorders, stroke and Tourette syndrome.
While neurology, neurosurgery and psychiatry are the main medical specialties that use neuroscientific information, other specialties such as cognitive neuroscience, neuroradiology, neuropathology, ophthalmology, otorhinolaryngology, anesthesiology and rehabilitation medicine can contribute to the discipline. Integration of the neuroscience perspective alongside other traditions like psychotherapy, social psychiatry or social psychology will become increasingly important.