IEEE Transactions on Nanotechnology

IEEE Transactions on Nanotechnology is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by IEEE. Sponsored by IEEE Nanotechnology Council, the journal covers physical basis and engineering applications in nanotechnology. Its editor-in-chief is Sorin Coțofană (Delft University of Technology).
According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2024 impact factor of 2.5.


Impact of nanotechnology

The impact of nanotechnology extends from its medical, ethical, mental, legal and environmental applications, to fields such as engineering, biology, chemistry, computing, materials science, and communications.
Major benefits of nanotechnology include improved manufacturing methods, water purification systems, energy systems, physical enhancement, nanomedicine, better food production methods, nutrition and large-scale infrastructure auto-fabrication. Nanotechnology's reduced size may allow for automation of tasks which were previously inaccessible due to physical restrictions, which in turn may reduce labor, land, or maintenance requirements placed on humans.
Potential risks include environmental, health, and safety issues; transitional effects such as displacement of traditional industries as the products of nanotechnology become dominant, which are of concern to privacy rights advocates. These may be particularly important if potential negative effects of nanoparticles are overlooked.
Whether nanotechnology merits special government regulation is a controversial issue. Regulatory bodies such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency and the Health and Consumer Protection Directorate of the European Commission have started dealing with the potential risks of nanoparticles. The organic food sector has been the first to act with the regulated exclusion of engineered nanoparticles from certified organic produce, firstly in Australia and the UK, and more recently in Canada, as well as for all food certified to Demeter International standards


Industrial applications of nanotechnology

Nanotechnology is impacting the field of consumer goods, several products that incorporate nanomaterials are already in a variety of items; many of which people do not even realize contain nanoparticles, products with novel functions ranging from easy-to-clean to scratch-resistant. Examples of that car bumpers are made lighter, clothing is more stain repellant, sunscreen is more radiation resistant, synthetic bones are stronger, cell phone screens are lighter weight, glass packaging for drinks leads to a longer shelf-life, and balls for various sports are made more durable. Using nanotech, in the mid-term modern textiles will become "smart", through embedded "wearable electronics", such novel products have also a promising potential especially in the field of cosmetics, and has numerous potential applications in heavy industry. Nanotechnology is predicted to be a main driver of technology and business in this century and holds the promise of higher performance materials, intelligent systems and new production methods with significant impact for all aspects of society.


International Council on Nanotechnology

The International Council on Nanotechnology (ICON) is an international, multi-stakeholder group committed to developing and communicating information regarding potential environmental and health risks of nanotechnology, thereby fostering risk reduction while maximizing societal benefit. ICON is composed of individuals from academia, industry, government and non-governmental organizations from countries of high nanotechnology research and development activity. ICON is a technically driven organization and does not engage in advocacy or commercial activities.


The International Institute for Nanotechnology (IIN) was established by Northwestern University in 2000. It was the first institute of its kind in the United States and is one of the premier nanoscience research centers in the world. Today, the IIN represents and unites more than $1 billion in nanotechnology research, educational programs, and supporting infrastructure.
IIN faculty includes 20 members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. One of Northwestern University's largest collaborative efforts, IIN brings together more than 240 chemists, engineers, biologists, physicians, and business experts, to focus on society's most perplexing problems. But the IIN's influence extends far beyond Northwestern's campus. It has developed collaborative partnerships with academic institutions in 30 countries, as well as with more than a dozen U.S. federal agencies and 100 countries.
Since its inception, more than 2,000 products and systems have been commercialized worldwide. Twenty-three start-up companies have been launched based upon IIN research, and they have attracted over $1 billion in venture capital funding. The IIN is changing the face of research in fields from medical diagnostics to materials science. The IIN drives innovation-based business formation, employment and economic growth.
The role of the institute is to support meaningful efforts in nanotechnology, house state-of-the-art nanomaterials characterization facilities, and nucleate individual and group efforts aimed at addressing and solving key problems in nanotechnology. The IIN positions Northwestern University and its partners in academia, industry, and national labs as leaders in this exciting field.


Iran

Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, historically known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the northeast, Afghanistan to the east, Pakistan to the southeast, and the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf to the south. With a population of over 92 million, Iran ranks 17th globally in both geographic size and population. It is divided into five regions with 31 provinces. Tehran is the nation's capital and largest city and serves as its primary economic center.
Home to one of the world's oldest continuous major civilizations, the territory of present-day Iran was first unified under the Medes in the 7th century BC and reached its territorial height in the 6th century BC, when Cyrus the Great founded the Achaemenid Empire. Alexander the Great conquered the empire in the 4th century BC. An Iranian rebellion in the 3rd century BC established the Parthian Empire, which later liberated the country. In the 3rd century AD, the Parthians were succeeded by the Sasanian Empire, which oversaw a golden age in the history of Iranian civilization. Ancient Iran saw some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanization, religion, and administration. Once a center for Zoroastrianism, Iran underwent Islamization following the 7th century Muslim conquest. Innovations in literature, philosophy, mathematics, medicine, astronomy and art were renewed during the Islamic Golden Age and Iranian Intermezzo, a period during which Iranian Muslim dynasties ended Arab rule and revived the Persian language. This era was followed by Seljuk and Khwarazmian rule, Mongol conquests and the Timurid Renaissance from the 11th to 14th centuries.
In the 16th century, the native Safavid dynasty re-established a unified Iranian state with Twelver Shia Islam as the official religion, laying the framework for the modern state of Iran. During the Afsharid Empire in the 18th century, Iran was a leading world power, but it lost this status after the Qajars took power in the 1790s. The early 20th century saw the Persian Constitutional Revolution and the establishment of the Pahlavi dynasty by Reza Shah, who ousted the last Qajar Shah in 1925. Following the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran in 1941, his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi rose to power. Attempts by Mohammad Mosaddegh to nationalize the oil industry led to the Anglo-American coup in 1953.
The Iranian Revolution in 1979 overthrew the monarchy, and the Islamic Republic of Iran was established by Ruhollah Khomeini, the country's first supreme leader. In 1980, Iraq invaded Iran, sparking the eight-year-long Iran–Iraq War. Iran has since been involved in proxy wars with Israel and Saudi Arabia; in 2025, Israeli strikes on Iran escalated tensions into the Twelve-Day War. Following the war and amid a growing economic crisis, the largest protests since 1979 erupted in 2025. The United States and Israel launched a war with Iran in 2026, after they assassinated supreme leader Ali Khamenei. His son, Mojtaba Khamenei, was subsequently elected as his successor.
Iran's government is a theocratic Islamic republic governed by elected and unelected institutions, with ultimate authority vested in the supreme leader. While it holds elections, key offices, including the head of state and military, are not subject to public vote. The Iranian government is an authoritarian regime which has been widely criticized internationally due to poor human rights record, including restrictions on freedom of assembly, expression, and the press, as well as its treatment of women, ethnic minorities, and political dissidents. The Iranian economy is centrally planned with significant state ownership in key sectors. It is a regional power, due to its large reserves of fossil fuels, natural gas supply and oil reserves, its geopolitically significant location, and its role as the world's focal point of Shia Islam. Iran is a threshold state with one of the most scrutinized nuclear programs. It is a founding member of the UN and a member state of numerous international organizations. Iran has 30 UNESCO World Heritage Sites (the 10th-highest in the world) and ranks 4th in intangible cultural heritage or human treasures.

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James Tour

James Mitchell Tour is an American chemist, nanotechnologist and intelligent design proponent. He is the T. T. and W. F. Chao Professor of Chemistry at Rice University, where he is also a joint professor of materials science and nanotechnology.


K. Eric Drexler


List of nanotechnology journals


List of nanotechnology organizations


Lithuania


Man of Tomorrow (film)


Marcus Nanotechnology Building


Molecular assembler


Molecular nanotechnology


Nanoparticle


Nanorobotics


Nanotechnology


Nanotechnology (journal)


Nanotechnology education


Nanotechnology for water purification


Nanotechnology in agriculture


Nanotechnology in cosmetics


Nanotechnology in fiction


Nanotechnology in warfare


National Nanotechnology Initiative


Nature Nanotechnology


Outline of nanotechnology


Pioneer Award in Nanotechnology


Portugal


Radical Abundance (book)


Regulation of nanotechnology


Richard Feynman


Societal impact of nanotechnology


Special Headquarters for the Development of Nanotechnology


Superman (2025 film)


Wet nanotechnology


Anaphora (linguistics)

In linguistics, anaphora () is the use of an expression whose interpretation depends upon another expression in context (its antecedent). In a narrower sense, anaphora is the use of an expression that depends specifically upon an antecedent expression and thus is contrasted with cataphora, which is the use of an expression that depends upon a postcedent expression. The anaphoric (referring) term is called an anaphor. For example, in the sentence Sally arrived, but nobody saw her, the pronoun her is an anaphor, referring back to the antecedent Sally. In the sentence Before her arrival, nobody saw Sally, the pronoun her refers forward to the postcedent Sally, so her is now a cataphor (and an anaphor in the broader sense, but not in the narrower one). Usually, an anaphoric expression is a pro-form or some other kind of deictic (contextually dependent) expression. Both anaphora and cataphora are species of endophora, referring to something mentioned elsewhere in a dialog or text.
Anaphora is an important concept for different reasons and on different levels: first, anaphora indicates how discourse is constructed and maintained; second, anaphora binds different syntactical elements together at the level of the sentence; third, anaphora presents a challenge to natural language processing in computational linguistics, since the identification of the reference can be difficult; and fourth, anaphora partially reveals how language is understood and processed, which is relevant to fields of linguistics interested in cognitive psychology.


Applied linguistics

Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems. Some of the academic fields related to applied linguistics are education, psychology, communication research, information science, natural language processing, anthropology, and sociology. Applied linguistics is a practical use of language.


The Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) is a scientific and professional organization for people working on natural language processing. Its namesake conference is one of the primary high impact conferences for natural language processing research, along with EMNLP. The conference is held each summer in locations where significant computational linguistics research is carried out.
It was founded in 1962, originally named the Association for Machine Translation and Computational Linguistics (AMTCL). It became the ACL in 1968. The ACL has a European (EACL), a North American (NAACL), and an Asian (AACL) chapter.


Austronesian languages

The Austronesian languages ( AW-strə-NEE-zhən) are a language family widely spoken throughout Maritime Southeast Asia, parts of Mainland Southeast Asia, Madagascar, the islands of the Pacific Ocean and Taiwan (by Taiwanese indigenous peoples). They are spoken by approximately 386 million people (4.4% of the world population). This makes it the fifth-largest language family by number of speakers. Major Austronesian languages include Malay (one variant standardized as Indonesian), Javanese, Sundanese, Tagalog (and its standardized form Filipino), Malagasy and Cebuano. According to some estimates, the family contains 1,257 languages, which is the second most of any language family.
In 1706, the Dutch scholar Adriaan Reland first observed similarities between the languages spoken in the South East Asia Archipelago and by peoples on islands in the Pacific Ocean. In the 19th century, researchers (e.g. Wilhelm von Humboldt, Herman van der Tuuk) started to apply the comparative method to the Austronesian languages. The first extensive study on the history of the phonology was made by the German linguist Otto Dempwolff. It included a reconstruction of the Proto-Austronesian lexicon. The term Austronesian was coined (as German austronesisch) by Wilhelm Schmidt, deriving it from Latin auster "south" and Ancient Greek νῆσος (nêsos "island"), meaning the "Southern Island languages".
Most Austronesian languages are spoken by the people of Insular Southeast Asia and Oceania. Only a few languages, such as Peninsular Malay varieties, Jakun, Temuan, Urak Lawoiʼ and the Chamic languages (except Acehnese), are indigenous to mainland Asia, or Malagasy which is the only Austronesian language indigenous to Insular East Africa. There are few Austronesian languages which have populations exceeding a few thousand, but a handful have speaking populations in the millions; Indonesian, the most widely spoken, has around 252 million speakers, making it the tenth most-spoken language in the world. Approximately twenty Austronesian languages are official in their respective countries.
By the number of languages they include, Austronesian and Niger–Congo are the two largest language families in the world. They each contain roughly one-fifth of the world's languages. The geographical span of Austronesian was the largest of any language family in the first half of the second millennium CE, before the spread of Indo-European languages in the colonial period. It ranges from Madagascar to Easter Island in the eastern Pacific.
According to Robert Blust (1999), Austronesian is divided into several primary branches, all but one of which are found exclusively in Taiwan. The Formosan languages of Taiwan are grouped into as many as nine first-order subgroups of Austronesian. All Austronesian languages spoken outside the Taiwan mainland (including its offshore Yami language) belong to the Malayo-Polynesian (sometimes called Extra-Formosan) branch.
Most Austronesian languages lack a long history of written attestation. The oldest inscription in the Cham language, the Đông Yên Châu inscription dated to c. 350 AD, is the first attestation of any Austronesian language.


Classifier (linguistics)

A classifier (abbreviated clf or cl) is a word or affix that accompanies nouns and can be considered to "classify" a noun depending on some characteristics (e.g. humanness, animacy, sex, shape, social status) of its referent. Classifiers in this sense are specifically called noun classifiers because some languages in Papua as well as the Americas have verbal classifiers which categorize the referent of its argument.
In languages that have classifiers, they are often used when the noun is being counted, that is, when it appears with a numeral. In such languages, a phrase such as "three people" is often required to be expressed as "three X (of) people", where X is a classifier appropriate to the noun for "people"; compare to "three blades of grass". Classifiers that appear next to a numeral or a quantifier are particularly called numeral classifiers. They play an important role in certain languages, especially East and Southeast Asian languages, including Chinese, Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese.
Numeral classifiers may have other functions too; in Chinese, they are commonly used when a noun is preceded by a demonstrative (word meaning "this" or "that"). Some Asian languages like Zhuang, Hmong and Cantonese use "bare classifier construction" where a classifier is attached without numerals to a noun for definite reference; the latter two languages also extend numeral classifiers to the possessive classifier construction where they behave as a possessive marker connecting a noun to another noun that denotes the possessor.
Possessive classifiers are usually used in accord with semantic characteristics of the possessed noun and less commonly with the relation between the possessed and the possessor although possessor classifiers are reported in a few languages (e.g. Dâw).
Classifiers are absent or marginal in European languages. An example of a possible classifier in English is piece in phrases like "three pieces of paper". In American Sign Language, particular classifier handshapes represent a noun's orientation in space.
There are similarities between classifier systems and noun classes, although there are also significant differences. While noun classes are defined in terms of agreement, classifiers do not alter the form of other elements in a clause. Also, languages with classifiers may have hundreds of classifiers whereas languages with noun classes (or in particular, genders) tend to have a smaller number of classifiers. Noun classes are not always dependent on the nouns' meaning but they have a variety of grammatical consequences.


Cognitive linguistics

Cognitive linguistics is an approach to the study of language that encompasses a number of complementary and sometimes overlapping theories. Their defining characteristic is the guiding assumption that linguistic patterns are patterns of conceptualization. Thus, cognitive linguists consider that the study of language provides insight into other human cognitive functions and vice-versa. In this regard, cognitive linguistics challenges generative grammar's hypothesis that some basic linguistic competence is innate and separate from other cognitive faculties. It also objects to truth-conditional semantics's notion that linguistic meaning can be understood in terms of the truth or falsity of a sentence in relation to an external reality.
Cognitive linguistic theories include George Lakoff and Mark Johnson's conceptual metaphor theory (CMT), Ronald Langacker's cognitive grammar, Charles Fillmore's frame semantics, Leonard Talmy's force dynamics, and Gilles Fauconnier and Mark Turner's conceptual blending.


Coherence (linguistics)

Coherence in linguistics is what makes a text semantically meaningful.
It is especially dealt with in text linguistics. Coherence is achieved through syntactic features such as the use of deictic, anaphoric and cataphoric elements or a logical tense structure, and semantic features such as presuppositions and implications connected to general world knowledge.
Robert De Beaugrande and Wolfgang U. Dressler define coherence as a "continuity of senses" and "the mutual access and relevance within a configuration of concepts and relations". Thereby a textual world is created that does not have to comply to the real world. But within this textual world the arguments also have to be connected logically so that the reader/hearer can produce coherence.
"Continuity of senses" implies a link between cohesion and the theory of Schemata initially proposed by F. C. Bartlett in 1932 which creates further implications for the notion of a "text".  Schemata, subsequently distinguished into Formal and Content Schemata (in the field of TESOL) are the ways in which the world is organized in our minds. In other words, they are mental frameworks for the organization of information about the world. It can thus be assumed that a text is not always one because the existence of coherence is not always a given. On the contrary, coherence is relevant because of its dependence upon each individual's content and formal schemata.


Compound (linguistics)

In linguistics, a compound is a lexeme (less precisely, a word or sign) that consists of more than one stem. Compounding, composition or nominal composition is the process of word formation that creates compound lexemes. Compounding occurs when two or more words or signs are joined to make a longer word or sign. Consequently, a compound is a unit composed of more than one stem, forming words or signs. If the joining of the words or signs is orthographically represented with a hyphen, the result is a hyphenated compound (e.g., must-have, hunter-gatherer).  If they are joined without an intervening space, it is a closed compound (e.g., footpath, blackbird).  If they are joined with a space (e.g. school bus, high school, lowest common denominator), then the result – at least in English – may be an open compound.
The meaning of the compound may be similar to or different from the meaning of its components in isolation. The component stems of a compound may be of the same part of speech—as in the case of the English word footpath, composed of the two nouns foot and path—or they may belong to different parts of speech, as in the case of the English word blackbird, composed of the adjective black and the noun bird.  With very few exceptions, English compound words are stressed on their first component stem.
Some languages easily form compounds from what in other languages would be a multi-word expression. This can result in unusually long words, a phenomenon known in German (which is one such language) as Bandwurmwörter ("tapeworm words").
Compounding extends to Sign languages as well, where compounds are also created by combining two or more sign stems.
So-called "classical compounds" are compounds derived from classical Latin or ancient Greek roots.
In many languages, including English, Spanish, Latin and German, all numbers greater than twenty that have more than one non-zero digit are written and spoken as compounds.


Computational linguistics

Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field concerned with the computational modelling of natural language, as well as the study of appropriate computational approaches to linguistic questions. In general, computational linguistics draws upon linguistics, computer science, artificial intelligence, mathematics, logic, philosophy, cognitive science, cognitive psychology, psycholinguistics, anthropology and neuroscience, among others. Computational linguistics is closely related to mathematical linguistics.

Short description is different from Wikidata


Corpus linguistics

Corpus linguistics is an empirical method for the study of language by
text corpus (plural corpora). Corpora are balanced, often stratified collections of authentic, "real world", text of speech or writing that aim to represent a given linguistic variety. Today, corpora are generally machine-readable data collections.
Corpus linguistics proposes that a reliable analysis of a language is more feasible with corpora collected in the field—the natural context ("realia") of that language—with minimal experimental interference. Large collections of text, though corpora may also be small in terms of running words, allow linguists to run quantitative analyses on linguistic concepts that may be difficult to test in a qualitative manner.
The text-corpus method uses the body of texts in any natural language to derive the set of abstract rules which govern that language. Those results can be used to explore the relationships between that subject language and other languages which have undergone a similar analysis. The first such corpora were manually derived from source texts, but now that work is automated.
Corpora have not only been used for linguistics research, they have been increasingly used to compile dictionaries (starting with The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language in 1969) and reference grammars, with A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, published in 1985, as a first.
Experts in the field have differing views about the annotation of a corpus. These views range from John McHardy Sinclair, who advocates minimal annotation so texts speak for themselves, to the Survey of English Usage team (University College, London), who advocate annotation as allowing greater linguistic understanding through rigorous recording.


Economy (linguistics)

The economy principle in linguistics, also known as linguistic economy, is a functional explanation of linguistic form. It suggests that the organization of phonology, morphology, lexicon and syntax is fundamentally based on a compromise between simplicity and clarity, two desirable but to some extent incompatible qualities. The more distinctive elements that a language has, for example phonemes or functional markers, the more it will promote hearer-easiness. This, however, occurs on the expense of the speaker, who must make a greater effort to convey a message. An economic solution yields good communicative value without excessive time and energy costs.
The word 'economy' derives from Greek oikòs ('house') and nomòs (from némein, 'to deliver'). The notion of good household management is transferred metaphorically from a social to a linguistic level where it represents a force maintaining systemic equilibrium. The same principle—a compromise between gain and cost—also applies to biological systems. However, functional linguistics does not consider itself to be a part of evolutionary biology, but both as belonging to systems theory, and both as being governed by the logic of trade-off. In linguistics, the economy principle suggests that language change cannot make languages exceedingly difficult to produce or process, predicting that the constant changes that are natural to language, despite appearing to have a deteriorating effect, ultimately do not make languages less suited for intercommunication.


Folk linguistics

Folk linguistics consists of statements, beliefs, or practices concerning language which are based on uninformed speculation rather than based on the scientific method, which characterizes the modern field of linguistics. Folk linguistics sometimes arises when scientific conclusions about language come off as counterintuitive to native speakers. However, folk linguistics may also be motivated by confirmation bias, prejudice, ideology, or nationalism.


Forensic linguistics

Forensic linguistics, legal linguistics, or language and the law is the application of linguistic knowledge, methods, and insights to the forensic context of law, language, crime investigation, trial, and judicial procedure. It is a branch of applied linguistics.
Forensic linguistics is an umbrella term covering many applications to legal contexts. These are often split between written and spoken items. It is common for forensic linguistics to refer only to written text, whereas anything involving samples of speech is known as forensic speech science.
There are principally three areas of application for linguists working on written texts in forensic contexts:

understanding language of the written law,
understanding language use in forensic and judicial processes, and
the provision of linguistic evidence.
Forensic speech science also has many different applications:

speaker comparison
disputed utterance analysis
voice parades
speaker profiling
audio enhancement and authentication
The discipline of forensic linguistics is not homogeneous; it involves a range of experts and researchers in different areas of the field.


Functional linguistics

Functional linguistics is an approach to the study of language characterized by taking systematically into account the speaker's and the hearer's side, and the communicative needs of the speaker and of the given language community. Linguistic functionalism spawned in the 1920s to 1930s from Ferdinand de Saussure's systematic structuralist approach to language (1916).
Functionalism sees functionality of language and its elements to be the key to understanding linguistic processes and structures. Functional theories of language propose that since language is fundamentally a tool, it is reasonable to assume that its structures are best analyzed and understood with reference to the functions they carry out. These include the tasks of conveying meaning and contextual information.
Functional theories of grammar belong to structural and, broadly, humanistic linguistics, considering language as being created by the community, and linguistics as relating to systems theory. Functional theories take into account the context where linguistic elements are used and study the way they are instrumentally useful or functional in the given environment. This means that pragmatics is given an explanatory role, along with semantics. The formal relations between linguistic elements are assumed to be functionally-motivated. Functionalism is sometimes contrasted with formalism, but this does not exclude functional theories from creating grammatical descriptions that are generative in the sense of formulating rules that distinguish grammatical or well-formed elements from ungrammatical elements.
Simon Dik characterizes the functional approach as follows:

In the functional paradigm a language is in the first place conceptualized as an instrument of social interaction among human beings, used with the intention of establishing communicative relationships. Within this paradigm one attempts to reveal the instrumentality of language with respect to what people do and achieve with it in social interaction. A natural language, in other words, is seen as an integrated part of the communicative competence of the natural language user. (2, p. 3)
Functional theories of grammar can be divided on the basis of geographical origin or base (though it simplifies many aspects): European functionalist theories include Functional (discourse) grammar and Systemic functional grammar (among others), while American functionalist theories include Role and reference grammar and West Coast functionalism. Since the 1970s, studies by American functional linguists in languages other than English from Asia, Africa, Australia and the Americas (like Mandarin Chinese and Japanese), led to insights about the interaction of form and function, and the discovery of functional motivations for grammatical phenomena, which apply also to the English language.


Historical linguistics

Historical linguistics, also known as diachronic linguistics, is the scientific study of how languages change over time. It seeks to understand the nature and causes of linguistic change and to trace the evolution of languages. Historical linguistics involves several key areas of study, including the reconstruction of ancestral languages, the classification of languages into families (comparative linguistics), and the analysis of the cultural and social influences on language development.
This field is grounded in the uniformitarian principle, which posits that the processes of language change observed today were also at work in the past, unless there is clear evidence to suggest otherwise. Historical linguists aim to describe and explain changes in individual languages, explore the history of speech communities, and study the origins and meanings of words (etymology).


History of linguistics

Linguistics is the scientific study of language, involving analysis of language form, language meaning, and language in context.
Language use was first systematically documented in Mesopotamia, with extant lexical lists of the 3rd to the 2nd Millennia BCE, offering glossaries on Sumerian cuneiform usage and meaning, and phonetical vocabularies of foreign languages. Later, Sanskrit would be systematically analysed, and its rules described, by Pāṇini (fl. 6-4th century BCE), in the Indus Valley. Beginning around the 4th century BCE, Warring States period China also developed its own grammatical traditions. Aristotle laid the foundation of Western linguistics as part of the study of rhetoric in his Poetics c. 335 BC. Traditions of Arabic grammar and Hebrew grammar developed during the Middle Ages in a religious context like Pānini's Sanskrit grammar.
Modern approaches began to develop in the 18th century, eventually being regarded in the 19th century as belonging to the disciplines of psychology or biology, with such views establishing the foundation of mainstream Anglo-American linguistics, although in England philological approaches such as that of Henry Sweet tended to predominate.
This was contested in the early 20th century by Ferdinand de Saussure, who established linguistics as an autonomous discipline within social sciences. Following Saussure's concept, general linguistics consists of the study of language as a semiotic system, which includes the subfields of phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics. Each of these subfields can be approached either synchronically or diachronicially.
Today, linguistics encompasses a large number of scientific approaches and has developed still more subfields, including applied linguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, sociolinguistics, and computational linguistics.


Integrational linguistics

Integrational Linguistics (IL) is a general approach to linguistics that has been developed by the German linguist Hans-Heinrich Lieb and others since the late 1960s. The term "Integrational Linguistics" as a name for this approach has been used in publications since 1977 and antedates the use of the same term for integrationism, an unrelated approach developed by Roy Harris. Integrational Linguistics continues being developed by an open group of linguists from various countries.


Interactional linguistics

Interactional linguistics (IL) is an interdisciplinary approach to grammar and interaction in the field of linguistics, that applies the methods of Conversation Analysis to the study of linguistic structures, including syntax, phonetics, morphology, and so on. Interactional linguistics is based on the principle that linguistic structures and uses are formed through interaction and it aims at understanding how languages are shaped through interaction. The approach focuses on temporality, activity implication and embodiment in interaction. Interactional linguistics asks research questions such as "How are linguistic patterns shaped by interaction?" and "How do linguistic patterns themselves shape interaction?".


Interlocutor (linguistics)

In linguistics, discourse analysis, and related fields, an interlocutor is a person involved in a conversation or dialogue. Two or more people speaking to one another are each other's interlocutors.  The terms conversation partner, hearer, or addressee are often used interchangeably with interlocutor.


Intonation (linguistics)

In linguistics, intonation is the variation in pitch used to indicate the speaker's attitudes and emotions, to highlight or focus an expression, to signal the illocutionary act performed by a sentence, or to regulate the flow of discourse. For example, the English question "Does Maria speak Spanish or French?" is interpreted as a yes-or-no question when it is uttered with a single rising intonation contour (i.e.,is Maria able to speak either Spanish or French?), but is interpreted as an alternative question when uttered with a rising contour on "Spanish" and a falling contour on "French" (i.e.,I know Maria can speak either Spanish or French, but I don't know which it is— which is it?). Although intonation is primarily a matter of pitch variation, its effects almost always work hand-in-hand with other prosodic features. Intonation is distinct from tone, the phenomenon where pitch is used to distinguish words (as in Mandarin) or to mark grammatical features (as in Kinyarwanda).


LGBTQ linguistics


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Abigail Doyle

Abigail Gutmann Doyle is a professor of chemistry at the University of California, Los Angeles, where she holds the  Saul Winstein Chair in Organic Chemistry. Her research focuses on the development of new chemical transformations in organic chemistry.


American Chemical Society

The American Chemical Society (ACS) is a scientific society based in the United States that supports scientific inquiry in the field of chemistry.  Founded in 1876 at New York University, the ACS currently has more than 262,000 members at all degree levels and in all fields of chemistry, chemical engineering, and related fields. It is one of the world's largest scientific societies by membership. The ACS is a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization and holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code. Its headquarters are located in Washington, D.C., and it has a large concentration of staff in Columbus, Ohio.
The ACS is a source of scientific information through its peer-reviewed scientific journals, national conferences, and the Chemical Abstracts Service. Its publications division produces over 90 scholarly journals including the prestigious Journal of the American Chemical Society, as well as the weekly trade magazine Chemical & Engineering News. The ACS holds national meetings twice a year covering the complete field of chemistry and also holds smaller conferences concentrating on specific chemical fields or geographic regions. The primary source of income of the ACS is the Chemical Abstracts Service, a provider of chemical databases worldwide.
The ACS has student chapters in virtually every major university in the United States and outside the United States as well. These student chapters mainly focus on volunteering opportunities, career development, and the discussion of student and faculty research. The organization also publishes textbooks, administers several national chemistry awards, provides grants for scientific research, and supports various educational and outreach activities.
The ACS has been criticized for predatory pricing of its products (SciFinder, journals and other publications), for opposing open access publishing, as well as for initiating numerous copyright enforcement litigations despite its non-profit status and its chartered commitment to dissemination of chemical information.


Analytical chemistry

Analytical chemistry (or chemical analysis) is the branch of chemistry concerned with the development and application of methods to identify the chemical composition of materials and quantify the amounts of components in mixtures. It focuses on methods to identify unknown compounds, possibly in a mixture or solution, and quantify a compound's presence in terms of amount of substance (in any phase), concentration (in aqueous or solution phase), percentage by mass or number of moles in a mixture of compounds (or partial pressure in the case of gas phase).
It encompasses both classical techniques (e.g. titration, gravimetric analysis) and modern instrumental approaches (e.g. spectroscopy, chromatography, mass spectrometry, electrochemical methods). Modern analytical chemistry is deeply intertwined with data analysis and chemometrics, and is increasingly shaped by trends such as automation, miniaturization, and real-time sensing, with applications across fields as diverse as biochemistry, medicinal chemistry, forensic science, archaeology, nutritional science, agricultural chemistry, chemical synthesis, metallurgy, chemical engineering and materials science.
In the age of "big data", analytical chemistry, along with chemometrics and bioinformatics, has become central to interpreting complex results from high-throughput techniques like gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS), high-performance liquid chromatography, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, and high-resolution mass spectrometry. There is also a strong trend towards miniaturization, automation, and the development of real-time, point-of-care diagnostic sensors.

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August Wilhelm von Hofmann

August Wilhelm von Hofmann (8 April 1818 – 5 May 1892) was a German chemist who made considerable contributions to organic chemistry. His research on aniline helped lay the basis of the aniline-dye industry, and his research on coal tar laid the groundwork for his student Charles Mansfield's practical methods for extracting benzene and toluene and converting them into nitro compounds and amines. Hofmann's discoveries include formaldehyde, hydrazobenzene, the isonitriles, and allyl alcohol. He prepared three ethylamines and tetraethylammonium compounds and established their structural relationship to ammonia.
After studying under Justus von Liebig at the University of Giessen, Hofmann became the first director of the Royal College of Chemistry, now part of Imperial College London, in 1845. In 1865 he returned to Germany to accept a position at the University of Berlin as a teacher and researcher. After his return he co-founded the German Chemical Society (Deutsche Chemische Gesellschaft) (1867).
In both London and Berlin, Hofmann recreated the style of laboratory instruction established by Liebig at Giessen, fostering a school of chemistry focused on experimental organic chemistry and its industrial applications.
Hofmann received several significant awards in the field of chemistry, including the Royal Medal (1854), the Copley Medal (1875) and the Albert Medal (1881). He was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1862. He was ennobled on his seventieth birthday. His name is associated with the Hofmann voltameter, the Hofmann rearrangement, the Hofmann–Martius rearrangement, Hofmann elimination, and the Hofmann–Löffler reaction.


Calcium hypochlorite

Calcium hypochlorite is an inorganic compound with chemical formula Ca(ClO)2, also written as Ca(OCl)2. It is a white solid, although commercial samples appear yellow. It strongly smells of chlorine, owing to its slow decomposition in moist air. This compound is relatively stable as a solid and solution and has greater available chlorine than sodium hypochlorite. "Pure" samples have 99.2% active chlorine. Given common industrial purity, an active chlorine content of 65-70% is typical. It is the main active ingredient of commercial products called bleaching powder, used for water treatment and as a bleaching agent.


Chemistry

Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a physical science within the natural sciences that studies matter: composition, structure, properties, behavior and the changes they undergo during reactions with other substances. Chemistry also addresses the nature of chemical bonds in chemical compounds.
In the scope of its subject, chemistry occupies an intermediate position between physics and biology. It is sometimes called the central science because it provides a foundation for understanding both basic and applied scientific disciplines at a fundamental level. For example, chemistry explains aspects of plant growth (botany), the formation of igneous rocks (geology), how atmospheric ozone is formed and how environmental pollutants are degraded (ecology), the properties of the soil on the Moon (cosmochemistry), how medications work (pharmacology), and how to collect DNA evidence at a crime scene (forensics).
Chemistry has existed under various names since ancient times. It has evolved, and now chemistry encompasses various areas of specialisation, or subdisciplines, that continue to increase in number and interrelate to create further interdisciplinary fields of study. The applications of various fields of chemistry are used frequently for economic purposes in the chemical industry.

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Chemistry of ascorbic acid

Ascorbic acid is an organic compound with the formula C6H8O6, originally called hexuronic acid. It is a white solid, but impure samples can appear yellowish.  It dissolves freely in water to give mildly acidic solutions.  It is a mild reducing agent.
Ascorbic acid exists as two enantiomers (mirror-image isomers), commonly denoted "l" (for "levo") and "d" (for "dextro"). The l isomer is the one most often encountered: it occurs naturally in many foods, and is one form ("vitamer") of vitamin C, an essential nutrient for humans and many animals. Deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy, formerly a major disease of sailors in long sea voyages. It is used as a food additive and a dietary supplement for its antioxidant properties. The "d" form (erythorbic acid) can be made by chemical synthesis, but has no major biological role.

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Condensation reaction

In organic chemistry, a condensation reaction is a type of chemical reaction in which two molecules are combined to form a single molecule, usually with the loss of a small molecule such as water. If water is lost, the reaction is also known as a dehydration synthesis. However other molecules can also be lost, such as ammonia, ethanol, acetic acid and hydrogen sulfide.
The addition of the two molecules typically proceeds in a step-wise fashion to the addition product, usually in equilibrium, and with loss of a water molecule (hence the name condensation). The reaction may otherwise involve the functional groups of the molecule, and is a versatile class of reactions that can occur in acidic or basic conditions or in the presence of a catalyst. This class of reactions is a vital part of life as it is essential to the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids and to the biosynthesis of fatty acids.

Many variations of condensation reactions exist. Common examples include the aldol condensation and the Knoevenagel condensation, which both form water as a by-product, as well as the Claisen condensation and the Dieckman condensation (intramolecular Claisen condensation), which form alcohols as by-products.


Diethylamine

Diethylamine is an organic compound with the formula (CH3CH2)2NH. It is classified as a secondary amine. It is a flammable, volatile weakly alkaline liquid that is miscible with most solvents. It is a colorless liquid, but commercial samples often appear brown due to impurities. It has a strong ammonia-like odor.


Ether

In organic chemistry, ethers are a class of compounds that contain an ether group, a single oxygen atom bonded to two separate carbon atoms, each part of an organyl group (e.g., alkyl or aryl). They have the general formula R−O−R′, where R and R′ represent the organyl groups. Ethers can again be classified into two varieties: if the organyl groups are the same on both sides of the oxygen atom, then it is a simple or symmetrical ether, whereas if they are different, the ethers are called mixed or unsymmetrical ethers. A typical example of the first group is the solvent and anaesthetic diethyl ether, commonly referred to simply as "ether" (CH3−CH2−O−CH2−CH3). Ethers are common in organic chemistry and even more prevalent in biochemistry, as they are common linkages in carbohydrates and lignin.


European Journal of Organic Chemistry

The European Journal of Organic Chemistry is a weekly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering organic chemistry. It is published by Wiley-VCH on behalf of Chemistry Europe.
The journal, along with the European Journal of Inorganic Chemistry, was established in 1998 as the result of a merger of Chemische Berichte/Recueil, Bulletin de la Société Chimique de France, Bulletin des Sociétés Chimiques Belges, Gazzetta Chimica Italiana, Recueil des Travaux Chimiques des Pays-Bas, Anales de Química, Chimika Chronika, Revista Portuguesa de Química, and ACH-Models in Chemistry.
According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2021 impact factor of 3.261.


Friedrich Wöhler

Friedrich Wöhler FRS(For) HonFRSE (German: [ˈvøːlɐ]; 31 July 1800 – 23 September 1882) was a German chemist known for his work in both organic and inorganic chemistry, being the first to isolate the chemical elements beryllium and yttrium in pure metallic form. He was the first to prepare several inorganic compounds, including silane and silicon nitride.
Wöhler is also known for seminal contributions in organic chemistry, in particular, the Wöhler synthesis of urea. His synthesis of the organic compound urea in the laboratory from inorganic substances contradicted the belief that organic compounds could only be produced by living organisms due to a "life force" known as vitalism. However, the exact extent of Wöhler's role in diminishing the belief in vitalism is considered by some to be questionable.


Functionality (chemistry)

In chemistry, functionality is the presence of functional groups in a molecule. A monofunctional molecule possesses one functional group, a bifunctional (or difunctional) two, a trifunctional three, and so forth. In organic chemistry (and other fields of chemistry), a molecule's functionality has a decisive influence on its reactivity.
In polymer chemistry, the functionality of a monomer refers to its number of polymerizable groups, and affects the formation and the degree of crosslinking of polymers.


Heterocyclic compound

A heterocyclic compound or ring structure is a hydrocarbon-based cyclic compound that contains at least one heteroatom as member(s) of its ring(s). Heterocyclic organic chemistry is the branch of organic chemistry dealing with the synthesis, properties, and applications of organic heterocycles.
Examples of heterocyclic compounds include all of the nucleic acids, the majority of drugs, most biomass (cellulose and related materials), and many natural and synthetic dyes.  More than half of known compounds are heterocycles.  59% of US FDA-approved drugs contain nitrogen heterocycles.


History of chemistry

The history of chemistry represents a time span from ancient history to the present. By 1000 BC, civilizations used technologies that would eventually form the basis of the various branches of chemistry. Examples include the discovery of fire, extracting metals from ores, making pottery and glazes, fermenting beer and wine, extracting chemicals from plants for medicine and perfume, rendering fat into soap, making glass,
and making alloys like bronze.
The protoscience of chemistry, alchemy, was unsuccessful in explaining the nature of matter and its transformations. However, by performing experiments and recording the results, alchemists set the stage for modern chemistry. The history of chemistry is intertwined with the history of thermodynamics, especially through the work of Willard Gibbs.


IUPAC nomenclature of chemistry

IUPAC nomenclature is a set of recommendations for naming chemical compounds and for describing chemistry and biochemistry in general. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) is the international authority on chemical nomenclature and terminology.


IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

In chemical nomenclature, the IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry is a method of naming organic chemical compounds as recommended by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). It is published in the Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry (informally called the Blue Book). Ideally, every possible organic compound should have a name from which an unambiguous structural formula can be created. There is also an IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry.
To avoid long and tedious names in normal communication, the official IUPAC naming recommendations are not always followed in practice, except when it is necessary to give an unambiguous and absolute definition to a compound. IUPAC names can sometimes be simpler than older names, as with ethanol, instead of ethyl alcohol. For relatively simple molecules, they can be more easily understood than non-systematic names, which must be learnt or looked over. However, the common or trivial name is often substantially shorter and clearer, and so preferred. These non-systematic names are often derived from an original source of the compound. Also, very long names may be less clear than structural formulas.


Inorganic chemistry

Inorganic chemistry deals with synthesis and behavior of inorganic and organometallic compounds. This field covers chemical compounds that are not carbon-based, which are the subjects of organic chemistry. The distinction between the two disciplines is far from absolute, as there is much overlap in the subdiscipline of organometallic chemistry. It has applications in every aspect of the chemical industry, including catalysis, materials science, pigments, surfactants, coatings, medications, fuels, and agriculture.


Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences (shortened as IOCB Prague) (Czech: Ústav organické chemie a biochemie Akademie věd České republiky) is a research institute under the Czech Academy of Sciences (CAS). The institute centers around research in the fields of organic chemistry, biochemistry and neighboring disciplines, mostly oriented at applications in medicine and environment. It is known for its contribution in the development of key drugs against HIV and HBV. The institute also takes part in university education, supervising master's and doctoral theses.


The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC ) is an international federation of National Adhering Organizations working for the advancement of the chemical sciences, especially by developing nomenclature and terminology. It is a member of the International Science Council (ISC). IUPAC is registered in Zürich, Switzerland, and its administrative office, known as the "IUPAC Secretariat", is in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, United States.
IUPAC was established in 1919 as the successor of the International Congress of Applied Chemistry for the advancement of chemistry. Its members, the National Adhering Organizations, can be national chemistry societies, national academies of sciences, or just other bodies representing chemists. There are a total of fifty-four National Adhering Organizations and three Associate National Adhering Organizations. IUPAC's Inter-divisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols (IUPAC nomenclature) is the recognized world authority in developing standards for naming chemical elements and compounds. Since its creation, IUPAC has been run by many different committees with different responsibilities. These committees run different projects; of those which include standardizing nomenclature, finding ways to bring chemistry to the world, and publishing works.
IUPAC is best known for its works standardizing nomenclature in chemistry, but they have publications in many science fields including chemistry, biology, and physics. Some important work IUPAC has done in these fields includes standardizing nucleotide base sequence code names; publishing books for environmental scientists, chemists, and physicists; and improving education in science. IUPAC is also known for standardizing the atomic weights of the elements through one of its oldest standing committees, the Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights (CIAAW).


Jones oxidation


Letters in Organic Chemistry


Life


Maitland Jones Jr.


Medicinal chemistry


Metal–organic framework


Moiety (chemistry)


Nitrile


Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry


Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry


Organic azide


Organic chemistry


Organic compound


Organic matter


Organic reaction


Organic synthesis


Organometallic chemistry


Organotin chemistry


Outline of chemistry


Pavel Jungwirth


Phanes (organic chemistry)


Physical chemistry


Physical organic chemistry


Preferred IUPAC name


Radical (chemistry)


Sandmeyer reaction


The Journal of Organic Chemistry


Triethylsilane


Women in chemistry


Yield (chemistry)


Annals of Epidemiology

The Annals of Epidemiology is a monthly peer-reviewed journal devoted to epidemiological research and is published as the official journal for American College of Epidemiology. The journal was established in 1990 and is published by Elsevier. Its Editor-in-Chief is Dr. Patrick Sullivan (Emory University). According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2022 impact factor of 5.6.


Antisocial personality disorder

Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) is a personality disorder defined by a chronic pattern of behavior that disregards the rights and well-being of others. People with ASPD often exhibit behavior that conflicts with social norms, leading to issues with interpersonal relationships, employment, and legal matters. The condition generally manifests in childhood or early adolescence, with a high rate of associated conduct problems and a tendency for symptoms to peak in late adolescence and early adulthood.
The prognosis for ASPD is complex, with high variability in outcomes. Individuals with severe ASPD symptoms may have difficulty forming stable relationships, maintaining employment, and avoiding criminal behavior, resulting in higher rates of divorce, unemployment, homelessness, and incarceration. In extreme cases, ASPD may lead to violent or criminal behaviors, often escalating in early adulthood. Research indicates that individuals with ASPD have an elevated risk of suicide, particularly those who also engage in substance misuse or have a history of incarceration. Additionally, children raised by parents with ASPD may be at greater risk of delinquency and mental health issues themselves.
Although ASPD is a persistent and often lifelong condition, symptoms may diminish over time, particularly after age 40, though only a small percentage of individuals experience significant improvement. Many individuals with ASPD have co-occurring issues such as substance use disorders, mood disorders, or other personality disorders. Research on pharmacological treatment for ASPD is limited, with no medications approved specifically for the disorder. However, certain psychiatric medications, including antipsychotics, antidepressants, and mood stabilizers, may help manage symptoms like aggression and impulsivity in some cases, or treat co-occurring disorders.

The diagnostic criteria and understanding of ASPD have evolved significantly over time. Early diagnostic manuals, such as the DSM-I in 1952, described "sociopathic personality disturbance" as involving a range of antisocial behaviours linked to societal and environmental factors. Subsequent editions of the DSM have refined the diagnosis, eventually distinguishing ASPD in the DSM-III (1980) with a more structured checklist of observable behaviors. Current definitions in the DSM-5 align with the clinical description of ASPD as a pattern of disregard for the rights of others, with potential overlap in traits associated with psychopathy.


Clinical Epidemiology (journal)

Clinical Epidemiology is a peer-reviewed medical journal covering research in epidemiology. It was established in 2009 and is published by the publisher Dove Medical Press. Clinical Epidemiology has published over 100 papers since 2009. The journal has also been indexed in PubMed.


Clinical epidemiology

Clinical epidemiology is a subfield of epidemiology specifically focused on issues relevant to clinical medicine. The term was first introduced by virologist John R. Paul in his presidential address to the American Society for Clinical Investigation in 1938. It is sometimes referred to as "the basic science of clinical medicine".


Computational epidemiology

Computational epidemiology is a multidisciplinary field that uses techniques from computer science, mathematics, geographic information science and public health to better understand issues central to epidemiology such as the spread of diseases or the effectiveness of a public health intervention. Computational epidemiology traces its origins to mathematical epidemiology, but began to experience significant growth with the rise of big data and the democratization of high-performance computing through cloud computing.


Conflict epidemiology

The emerging field of conflict epidemiology offers a more accurate method to measure deaths caused during violent conflicts or wars that can generate more reliable numbers than before to guide decision-makers.
In February 2001 the Carter Center and the United States Institute of Peace (USIP), in collaboration with CARE, Emory University and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), sponsored a meeting on "Violence and Health". The goals of the meeting were to determine the impact of violent conflict on public health and to advise public health training programs on means to enhance the work of public health professionals in working in violent conflicts.
Compiling or estimating the numbers of deaths caused during wars and other violent conflicts is a controversial subject.  Historians often put forward many different estimates of the numbers killed during historic conflicts.  What conflict epidemiology offers is a better methodology to more accurately estimate actual mortality rates during existing wars and conflict.
As war is a leading cause of illness and death, there are those in the field of public health who argue "war epidemiology" should be a more prominent component of the field of public health.


E-epidemiology

What is E-epidemiology?

E-epidemiology, also known as digital epidemiology, is the science underlying the acquisition, maintenance, and application of epidemiological knowledge through digital media such as the internet, mobile phones, digital paper, and digital TV. It includes large-scale epidemiological studies increasingly conducted through distributed global collaborations enabled by the Internet (Brownstein, 2009)

Advantages of E-epidemiology

Traditionally, performing epidemiological trials with paper questionnaires has been both costly and time-consuming, requiring significant personnel to transform physical data into analyzable formats( Ebert, 2018). In contrast, modern communication tools allow for the rapid and cost-efficient assembly of data (Wyatt, 2000). Modern IT infrastructure provides the means for storing and organizing vast amounts of biological and lifestyle data, while high-performance computing and simulation-based inference procedures allow researchers to examine variables from complex data structures. Web portals directly enable efficient participant feedback, facilitate the use of interactive tools like animations, and allow researchers to disseminate their findings more easily. By transitioning questionnaire models into digital formats, researchers can increase interactivity and improve the flow of information between the participant and the investigator (Belisario, 2015). Beyond these general benefits of digitization, E-epidemiology also enables improved longitudinal tracking of participants over time, supports real-time disease surveillance, and allows for integration with electronic health records, capabilities that are particularly valuable for population-level research (Casey, 2019; Fallatah,2024).

Disadvantages of E-epidemiology

Despite its evident advantages over traditional methodologies, E-epidemiology introduces distinct challenges that researchers must navigate. One significant hurdle is the heightened need for security and confidentiality solutions to protect individual integrity and data ownership (Boulos, 2006; Porta, 2014). As the handling of personal records requires robust security programs and firewalls, researchers must protect both the digital data and the identities of their participants.
Another disadvantage of E-epidemiology that must be addressed is its inherent biases. Despite the digital nature of these tools, they remain subject to many of the same limitations and biases as traditional epidemiology methods. For instance, online surveys are still vulnerable to non-response bias (Bozman, 2005), social desirability bias (Zhu, 2024), and interviewer bias (Spencer, 2022).
A further concern is the digital divide, the tendency for internet-based studies to systematically underrepresent older adults, lower-income populations, and people in low-connectivity regions,  which can introduce significant sampling bias at the population level (Sander, 2021). These factors must be addressed during the study design and data collection phases to prevent the generation of skewed or inaccurate results. Accounting for these complexities is especially critical in E-epidemiology given that its findings are often applied at the population level.

Bibliography

Sanders, C. K., & Scanlon, E. (2021). The Digital Divide Is a Human Rights Issue: Advancing Social Inclusion Through Social Work Advocacy. Journal of human rights and social work, 6(2), 130–143. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41134-020-00147-9
Ebert, J. F., Huibers, L., Christensen, B., & Christensen, M. B. (2018). Paper- or Web-Based Questionnaire Invitations as a Method for Data Collection: Cross-Sectional Comparative Study of Differences in Response Rate, Completeness of Data, and Financial Cost. Journal of medical Internet research, 20(1), e24. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.8353
Casey, J. A., Schwartz, B. S., Stewart, W. F., & Adler, N. E. (2016). Using Electronic Health Records for Population Health Research: A Review of Methods and Applications. Annual review of public health, 37, 61–81. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032315-021353
Blumenberg, C., & Barros, A. J. (2016). Electronic data collection in epidemiological research. The use of REDCap in the Pelotas birth cohorts. Applied clinical informatics, 7(3), 672–681. https://doi.org/10.4338/ACI-2016-02-RA-0028
Fallatah, D. I., & Adekola, H. A. (2024). Digital epidemiology: harnessing big data for early detection and monitoring of viral outbreaks. Infection prevention in practice, 6(3), 100382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infpip.2024.100382

Brownstein, John S.; Freifeld, Clark C.; Madoff, Lawrence C. (2009). "Digital Disease Detection — Harnessing the Web for Public Health Surveillance". New England Journal of Medicine. 360 (21): 2153–2157. doi:10.1056/NEJMp0900702. ISSN 0028-4793. PMC 2917042. PMID 19423867.

Kamel Boulos MN; Cai Q; Padget JA; Rushton G (April 2006). "Using software agents to preserve individual health data confidentiality in micro-scale geographical analyses". J Biomed Inform. 39 (2): 160–70. doi:10.1016/j.jbi.2005.06.003. PMID 16098819.

Miquel Porta (2014) A dictionary of epidemiology, 6th edn, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199976737.

Marcano Belisario, J. S., Jamsek, J., Huckvale, K., O'Donoghue, J., Morrison, C. P., & Car, J. (2015). Comparison of self-administered survey questionnaire responses collected using mobile apps versus other methods. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2015(7), MR000042. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.MR000042.pub2
Wyatt J. C. (2000). When to use web-based surveys. Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association : JAMIA, 7(4), 426–429. https://doi.org/10.1136/jamia.2000.0070426
Zhu, O. Y., Greene, D., & Dolnicar, S. (2024). Should the risk of social desirability bias in survey studies be assessed at the level of each pro-environmental behaviour? Tourism Management, 104, 104933. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2024.104933
Bozman, C. S., & Stem, D. E., Jr. (2005). Non-response error within internet surveys: A cautionary note. Journal of International Information Management, 14(2), Article 3. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/jiim/vol14/iss2/3
Spencer, N. H., Syrdal, D. S., Coates, M., & Huws, U. (2022). Assessing bias in online surveys using alternative survey modes. Work Organisation, Labour & Globalisation, 16(1), 34–51. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48675868


Economic epidemiology

Economic epidemiology is a field at the intersection of epidemiology and economics. Its premise is to incorporate incentives for healthy behavior and their attendant behavioral responses into an epidemiological context to better understand how diseases are transmitted. This framework should help improve policy responses to epidemic diseases by giving policymakers and health-care providers clear tools for thinking about how certain actions can influence the spread of disease transmission.
The main context through which this field emerged was the idea of prevalence-dependence, or disinhibition, which suggests that individuals change their behavior as the prevalence of a disease changes. However, economic epidemiology also encompasses other ideas, including the role of externalities, global disease commons and how individuals' incentives can influence the outcome and cost of health interventions.
Strategic epidemiology is a branch of economic epidemiology that adopts an explicitly game theoretic approach to analyzing the interplay between individual behavior and population wide disease dynamics.


Endemic (epidemiology)

In epidemiology, an infection is said to be endemic in a specific population or populated place when that infection is constantly present, or maintained at a baseline level. The term describes the distribution of an infectious disease among a group of people or animals or within a populated area. An endemic disease always has a steady, predictable number of people or animals getting sick, but that number can be high (hyperendemic) or low (hypoendemic), and the disease can be severe or mild. Also, a disease that is usually endemic can become epidemic.
For example, chickenpox is endemic in the United Kingdom, but malaria is not. Every year, there are a few cases of malaria reported in the UK, but these do not lead to sustained transmission in the population due to the lack of a suitable vector (mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles). Consequently, there is no constant baseline level of malaria infection in the UK, and the disease is not endemic. However, the number of people who get chickenpox in the UK varies little from year to year, so chickenpox is considered endemic in the UK.


Environmental epidemiology

Environmental epidemiology is a branch of epidemiology concerned with determining how environmental exposures impact human health. This field seeks to understand how various external risk factors may predispose to or protect against disease, illness, injury, developmental abnormalities, or death. These factors may be naturally occurring or may be introduced into environments where people live, work, and play.


Epidemiology

Epidemiology is the study and analysis of the distribution (who, when, and where), patterns and determinants of health and disease conditions in a defined population, and application of this knowledge to prevent diseases.
It is a cornerstone of public health, and shapes policy decisions and evidence-based practice by identifying risk factors for disease and targets for preventive healthcare. Epidemiologists help with study design, collection, and statistical analysis of data, amend interpretation and dissemination of results (including peer review and occasional systematic review). Epidemiology has helped develop methodology used in clinical research, public health studies, and, to a lesser extent, basic research in the biological sciences.
Major areas of epidemiological study include disease causation, transmission, outbreak investigation, disease surveillance, environmental epidemiology, forensic epidemiology, occupational epidemiology, screening, biomonitoring, and comparisons of treatment effects such as in clinical trials. Epidemiologists rely on other scientific disciplines like biology to better understand disease processes, statistics to make efficient use of the data and draw appropriate conclusions, social sciences to better understand proximate and distal causes, and engineering for exposure assessment.
Epidemiology, literally meaning 'the study of what is upon the people', is derived from Greek  epi 'upon, among',   demos 'people' and  logos 'study', referring to the study of human populations. However, the term is widely used in studies of zoological populations (veterinary epidemiology), although the term 'epizootiology' was historically used. 'Epidemiology' has also been applied to studies of plant populations (botanical or plant disease epidemiology).
The distinction between "epidemic" and "endemic" was first drawn by Hippocrates, The term "epidemiology" appears to have first been used to describe the study of epidemics in 1802 by the Spanish physician Joaquín de Villalba in Epidemiología Española. Epidemiologists also study the interaction of diseases in a population, a condition known as a syndemic.
The term epidemiology is now widely applied to cover the description and causation of not only epidemic, infectious disease, but of disease in general, including related conditions and, especially since the 20th century, chronic diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. Some examples of topics examined through epidemiology include high blood pressure, mental illness and obesity. Therefore, this epidemiology is based upon how the pattern of the disease causes change in the function of human beings.

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Epidemiology (Community)

"Epidemiology" is the sixth episode of the second season of the American comedy television series Community, and the 31st episode of the series overall. It originally premiered in the United States on NBC on October 28, 2010 as a special Halloween-themed episode. In the episode, the dean throws a Halloween themed party on campus. During the party, a few of the partygoers become sick from eating a hazardous substance that the dean mistook for taco meat bought at an army surplus store. The sickness causes those affected to turn into a violent, zombie-like state that can be passed on through bites. As the study group try to escape, the dean (under orders from U.S. Army Special Operations) locks the doors, trapping them inside with the infected.
The episode was written by Karey Dornetto and directed by Anthony Hemingway, and also features the voice of George Takei. The episode's plot is an homage to various zombie and horror movies, with the infected students mimicking stereotypical zombies and various tropes of the genre. The episode received overwhelmingly positive reviews and was watched by 5.6 million viewers on its original airing.


Epidemiology (disambiguation)

Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and patterns of health-events, health-characteristics and their causes or influences in defined populations.
Epidemiology may also refer to:

Epidemiology (journal)
Epidemiology (Community), episode of the television series Community


Epidemiology (journal)

Epidemiology is a bi-monthly, peer-reviewed journal for epidemiologic research, published by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
The journal publishes original research from all fields of epidemiology, as well as review articles, meta-analyses, novel hypotheses, descriptions and applications of new methods and discussions of research theory and public health policy. It is the official journal of the International Society for Environmental Epidemiology (ISEE).  In 2020, Epidemiology had an impact factor of 4.822, ranking 35th among 203 journals in the field of public, environmental and occupational health.
Epidemiology was founded by Ken Rothman in 1990, who was Editor-in-Chief until 2001. From 2001-2014, Allen Wilcox was the Editor-in-Chief. Timothy Lash is the current Editor-in-Chief.


Epidemiology and Infection

Epidemiology and Infection  is a peer-reviewed medical journal that contains original reports and reviews on all aspects of infection in humans and animals. Some of these aspects include zoonoses, tropical infections, food hygiene, and vaccine studies.
According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2022 impact factor of 4.2.


Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS

The global pandemic of HIV/AIDS (human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) began in 1981, and is an ongoing worldwide public health issue. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), by 2023, HIV/AIDS had killed approximately 40.4 million people, and approximately 39 million people were infected with HIV globally. Of these, 29.8 million people (75%) are receiving antiretroviral treatment. There were about 630,000 deaths from HIV/AIDS in 2022. The 2015 Global Burden of Disease Study estimated that the global incidence of HIV infection peaked in 1997 at 3.3 million per year. Global incidence fell rapidly from 1997 to 2005, to about 2.6 million per year. Incidence of HIV has continued to fall, decreasing by 23% from 2010 to 2020, with progress dominated by decreases in Eastern Africa and Southern Africa. As of 2023, there are about 1.3 million new infections of HIV per year globally.
HIV originated in nonhuman primates in Central Africa and jumped to humans several times in the late 19th or early 20th century. One reconstruction of its genetic history suggests that HIV-1 group M, the strain most responsible for the global epidemic, may have originated in Kinshasa, the capital of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, around 1920. AIDS was first recognized in 1981, and in 1983 HIV was discovered and identified as the cause of AIDS.
In some countries, HIV disproportionately affects certain key populations (sex workers and their clients, men who have sex with men, people who inject drugs, and transgender people) and their sexual partners. In Sub-Saharan Africa, 63% of new infections are women, with young women (aged 15 to 24 years) twice as likely as men of the same age to be living with HIV. In Western Europe and North America, men who have sex with men account for almost two thirds of new HIV infections.
Climate change impacts HIV risk, and the availability of and access to HIV prevention and treatment services, contributing to poor nutrition, impaired immunity, and poor adherence to treatment.
In 2018, the prevalence of HIV in the Africa Region was estimated at 1.1 million people. The African Region accounts for two thirds of the incidence of HIV around the world. Sub-Saharan Africa is the region most affected by HIV. In 2020, more than two thirds of those living with HIV were living in Africa. HIV rates have been decreasing in the region: From 2010 to 2020, new infections in eastern and southern Africa fell by 38%. Still, South Africa has the largest population of people with HIV of any country in the world, at 8.45 million, 13.9% of the population as of 2022.
In Western Europe and North America, most people with HIV are able to access treatment and live long and healthy lives. In 2020, 88% of people living with HIV in this region knew their HIV status, and 67% have suppressed viral loads. In 2019, approximately 1.2 million people in the United States had HIV. 13% did not realize that they were infected. In Canada in 2016, there were about 63,110 cases of HIV. In 2020, 106,890 people were living with HIV in the UK and 614 died (99 of these from COVID-19 comorbidity). In Australia, in 2020, there were about 29,090 cases.


Epidemiology of asthma

As of 2011, approximately 235 million people worldwide were affected by asthma, and roughly 250,000 people die per year from asthma-related causes. Low and middle income countries make up more than 80% of the mortality. Prevalences vary between countries from 1% to 18%. Asthma tends to be more prevalent in developed than in developing countries. Rates are lower in Asia, Eastern Europe, and Africa. Within developed countries it is more common among those who are economically disadvantaged, but in contrast in developing countries it is more common amongst the affluent. The reason for these differences is not well known.
While asthma is twice as common in boys as in girls, severe asthma occurs at equal rates. Among adults, however, asthma is twice as common in women as in men.


Epidemiology of depression

The epidemiology of depression has been studied across the world.
Depression is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, as the epidemiology has shown. Lifetime prevalence estimates vary widely, from 3% in Japan to 17% in India. Epidemiological data shows higher rates of depression in the Middle East, North Africa, South Asia and the United States than in other regions and countries. For most countries among the 10 studied, the number of people who experience depression during their lifetimes falls within an 8–12% range.
In North America, the probability of having a major depressive episode within any year-long period is 3–5% for males and 8–10% for females.


Epidemiology of diabetes

Globally, an estimated 537 million adults are living with diabetes, according to 2021 data from the International Diabetes Federation. Diabetes was the 9th-leading cause of mortality globally in 2020, attributing to over 2 million deaths annually due to diabetes directly, and to kidney disease due to diabetes. The primary causes of type 2 diabetes is diet and physical activity, which can contribute to increased BMI, poor nutrition, hypertension, alcohol use and smoking, while genetics is also a factor. Diabetes prevalence is increasing rapidly; previous 2019 estimates put the number at 463 million people living with diabetes, with the distributions being equal between both sexes  incidence peaking around age 55 years old.  The number is projected to 643 million by 2030, or 7079 individuals per 100,000, with all regions around the world continue to rise. Type 2 diabetes makes up about 85-90% of all cases. Increases in the overall diabetes prevalence rates largely reflect an increase in risk factors for type 2, notably greater longevity and being overweight or obese. The prevalence of African Americans with diabetes is estimated to triple by 2050, while the prevalence of white Americans is estimated to double. The overall prevalence increases with age, with the largest increase in people over 65 years of age. The prevalence of diabetes in America is estimated to increase to 48.3 million by 2050.
Diabetes mellitus occurs throughout the world, but is more common (especially type 2) in the more developed countries. The greatest increase in prevalence is, however, occurring in low- and middle-income countries including in Asia and Africa, where most patients will probably be found by 2030. The increase in incidence in developing countries follows the trend of urbanization and lifestyle changes, including increasingly sedentary lifestyles, less physically demanding work and the global nutrition transition, marked by increased intake of foods that are high energy-dense but nutrient-poor (often high in sugar and saturated fats, sometimes referred to as the Western pattern diet). The risk of getting type 2 diabetes has been widely found to be associated with lower socio-economic position across countries.
The WHO estimates that diabetes resulted in 1.5 million deaths in 2012, making it the 8th leading cause of death. However another 2.2 million deaths worldwide were attributable to high blood glucose and the increased risks of associated complications (e.g. heart disease, stroke, kidney failure), which often result in premature death and are often listed as the underlying cause on death certificates rather than diabetes.
The burden of diabetes (both type 1 and 2) has a possibility to lead to complications of multiple body systems including nephropathy, neuropathy and retinopathy. About half of patients with type 2 diabetes die due to cardiovascular disease and 10% from kidney failure. A study done on Gomel city population with radiation exposure after the Chernobyl incident demonstrated increased incidence of type 1 diabetes mellitus. Women who had gestational diabetes during pregnancy have a 20-50% increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes later in life.


Epidemiology of obesity

Obesity has been observed throughout human history. Many early depictions of the human form in art and sculpture appear obese. However, it was not until the 20th century that obesity became common — so much so that, in 1997, the World Health Organization (WHO) formally recognized obesity as a global epidemic and estimated that the worldwide prevalence of obesity has nearly tripled since 1975. Obesity is defined as having a body mass index (BMI) greater than or equal to 30 kg/m2, and in June 2013 the American Medical Association classified it as a disease.
In countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), one child out of five is overweight or obese. Once considered a problem only of high-income countries, obesity rates are rising worldwide. In 2014, the mean BMI in 128 countries was above the threshold for overweight. Globally, there are now more people who are obese than who are underweight, a trend observed in every region over the world except parts of sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. In 2013, an estimated 2.1 billion adults were overweight, as compared with 857 million in 1980. Of adults who are overweight, 31% are obese. Increases in obesity have been seen most in urban settings.
Since body fat can be measured in several ways, statistics on the epidemiology of obesity vary between sources. While BMI is the most basic and commonly used indicator of obesity, other measures include waist circumference, waist-to-hip ratio, skinfold thicknesses, and bioelectrical impedance. The rate of obesity increases with age at least up to 50 or 60 years old. Sex- and gender-based differences also influence the prevalence of obesity. Globally there are more obese women than men, but the numbers differ depending on how obesity is measured.


Epidemiology of pneumonia


Epidemiology of representations


Epidemiology of schizophrenia


Epidemiology of snakebites


Epidemiology of suicide


European Programme for Intervention Epidemiology Training


Evolutionary epidemiology


Field epidemiology


Genetic epidemiology


Incidence (epidemiology)


Information bias (epidemiology)


Lagging (epidemiology)


Landscape epidemiology


Managerial epidemiology


Molecular epidemiology


Molecular pathological epidemiology


National Institute of Epidemiology


Nutritional epidemiology


Occupational epidemiology


Psychiatric epidemiology


Public health


Sepsis

Articles with unsourced statements from April 2026

Articles with unsourced statements from August 2021


Sleep epidemiology


Social epidemiology


Spatial epidemiology


Statistical epidemiology


Strengthening the reporting of observational studies in epidemiology


Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results


Survival epidemiology


Zoonosis

Articles with unsourced statements from September 2021


A.I. – Artificiell Intelligens

A.I. – Artificiell Intelligens (engelska: A.I. Artificial Intelligence) är en amerikansk science fiction-film i regi av Steven Spielberg. Den hade biopremiär i USA den 29 juni 2001.

Kategori:Filmer från Amblin Entertainment

Kategori:Filmer i regi av Steven Spielberg

Kategori:Filmer producerade av Steven Spielberg


AI (olika betydelser)

AI eller Ai kan syfta på:

AI – intelligens hos maskiner eller programvara, se Artificiell intelligens
A.I. – Artificiell Intelligens – en film av Steven Spielberg
AI – en halvkanton i nordöstra Schweiz, se Appenzell Innerrhoden
AI – en internationell frivilligorganisation och ideell organisation, se Amnesty International
Ai (stad) – en stad i Gamla testamentet i Bibeln
Ai (musikgrupp) – en svensk popgrupp som främst uppmärksammades för sin medverkan i Melodifestivalen 1999
a.i. – en förkortning för ad interim
.ai – nationell toppdomän för Anguilla
.ai - filändelse för ett illustrationsprogram, se Adobe Illustrator
Ai, Marshallöarna – ö i Marshallöarna


Anthropic

Anthropic PBC är ett amerikanskt privatägt AI-företag baserat i San Francisco, grundat 2021 av syskonen Daniela Amodei och Dario Amodei tillsammans med andra tidigare medarbetare från OpenAI.
Anthropic är registrerat som ett Public Benefit Corporation (PBC). Denna bolagsform ger företaget juridisk frihet att investera delar av sin vinst i allmännyttiga projekt, istället för att uteslutande maximera utdelningen till aktieägare. I gengäld krävs full transparens och årliga rapporter som redovisar hur verksamheten har bidragit till allmännyttan.


Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (AIMA) är en lärobok om artificiell intelligens, skriven av Stuart J. Russell och Peter Norvig för universitetsstudenter. Den tredje upplagan av boken släpptes den 11 december 2009. Boken används i över 1100 universitet runt om i världen och har kallats "den mest populära artificiell intelligens-läroboken i världen".


Artificiell intelligens

Artificiell intelligens (AI), eller maskinintelligens, är förmågan hos datorprogram och robotar att efterlikna människors och andra djurs naturliga intelligens, främst kognitiva funktioner såsom förmågan att lära sig av tidigare erfarenheter, förstå naturligt språk, lösa problem, planera sekvenser av handlingar och att generalisera.
Begreppet är även namnet på det akademiska studieområde som ägnar sig åt att studera och skapa datorprogram med intelligent beteende. Inom AI-forskningen ryms flera delområden och metoder, från historiska expertsystem till maskininlärning, datautvinning, datorseende, stora språkmodeller och generativ AI. Tillämpningsområdena är breda och innefattar bland annat maskinläsning, röststyrning, maskinöversättning, chattbotar, digitala assistenter, självkörande bilar, ansiktsigenkänning och autonoma vapensystem.
Många AI-forskare och läroböcker definierar området som "studiet och utformningen av intelligenta agenter". En intelligent agent är ett system som uppfattar sin omgivning och vidtar åtgärder som maximerar chansen att framgångsrikt uppnå sina inprogrammerade mål. John McCarthy, som myntade begreppet artificiell intelligens 1956, definierade ämnet som "vetenskapen och tekniken att skapa intelligenta maskiner". De centrala problemen för AI-forskningen inkluderar resonemang, kunskapsrepresentation, planering, inlärning, naturlig språkbearbetning, perception samt förmågan att flytta och manipulera objekt.
Tekniken klassificeras i regel som "svag AI" (applikationsspecifik), till skillnad från artificiell generell intelligens (AGI), superintelligens (ASI) och artificiellt medvetande, vilka förblir hypotetiska och långsiktiga mål för forskningen.
Som vetenskapsfält är artificiell intelligens tvärvetenskapligt; det kombinerar discipliner som datavetenskap, matematik, psykologi, lingvistik, filosofi och neurovetenskap. Fältet är mycket tekniskt och specialiserat, ofta uppdelat kring specifika matematiska metoder (som statistik, symbolisk AI eller artificiella neurala nätverk) eller specifika tillämpningar.
Hela forskningsområdet bygger på det underliggande antagandet att den centrala mänskliga egenskapen intelligens "går att beskriva så exakt att det gör det möjligt för en maskin att simulera den." Denna utgångspunkt väcker komplexa filosofiska och etiska frågor om medvetande, själ och skapandet av tänkande maskiner, vilka har behandlats i mytologi och litteratur sedan antiken. Efter att historiskt ha pendlat mellan enorm optimism och djupa besvikelser (så kallade AI-vintrar), utgör artificiell intelligens i modern tid en grundpelare inom teknikindustrin och driver utvecklingen för att lösa flera av samhällets mest utmanande problem.

Kategori:Wikipediaartiklar med identifierare från BNE

Kategori:Wikipediaartiklar med identifierare från BNF

Kategori:Wikipediaartiklar med identifierare från GND

Kategori:Wikipediaartiklar med identifierare från LCCN


Artificiell intelligens i datorspel

Artificiell intelligens i datorspel avser de metoder och system som används för att styra icke-spelbara figurer (NPC:er), anpassa spelupplevelsen, analysera spelarbeteende och generera innehåll i datorspel och TV-spel. Begreppet syftar vanligen inte på artificiell generell intelligens, utan på praktiska tekniker som ska skapa trovärdigt, underhållande och resurseffektivt spelbeteende.


Artificiellt neuronnät

Ett neuronnät (rekommenderad term enligt Svenska datatermgruppen) eller artificiellt neuronnät (ANN) är ett samlingsnamn på ett antal självlärande algoritmer som försöker efterlikna funktionen i biologiska neuronnät (exempelvis hjärnan).
Algoritmer som emulerar neuronnät kan ofta klara problem som är svåra att lösa med konventionella datalogiska metoder. Exempel på tillämpningar är: informationsutvinning (data mining), mönsterigenkänning, signalbehandling, reglerteknik, datorspel, prognoser, självorganisering, icke-linjär optimering, optimeringsproblem med många bivillkor (exempelvis schemaläggning) med mera.
Ett neuronnät måste tränas innan det kan användas. De flesta neuronnät arbetar därför i två faser, först en inlärningsfas där nätverket tränas på den uppgift som ska utföras. Sedan följer en tillämpningsfas där nätverket bara använder det som det har lärt sig. Det går också att låta nätet fortsätta att lära sig även när det används, men vanligen lämnas det som det är när det uppnått den precision som eftersträvades.


Arvid Lunnemark

Arvid Lunnemark, född 3 november 1999 i Malmö, är en svensk IT-entreprenör, matematiker och mjukvaruutvecklare. Han är mest känd som medgrundare och tidigare teknisk chef (CTO) för det amerikanska AI-bolaget Anysphere, företaget bakom den globalt uppmärksammade kodredigeraren Cursor.
I samband med att Anysphere stängde en rekordstor finansieringsrunda i slutet av 2025, där bolaget värderades till närmare 30 miljarder dollar, omskrevs Lunnemark som en av Sveriges yngsta dollarmiljardärer.