Arthur Mensch

Arthur Mensch, né le 17 juillet 1992 à Sèvres, est un chercheur en intelligence artificielle et entrepreneur français. Cofondateur et directeur général de l’entreprise Mistral AI, il est considéré comme l’une des figures majeures de l’intelligence artificielle générative en Europe.
En 2024, Challenges le classe parmi les 10 dirigeants de start-up français les plus riches. La même année, il est le seul Français retenu dans la liste Time 100 des innovateurs mondiaux les plus prometteurs.


Bulle de l'intelligence artificielle

La bulle de l'intelligence artificielle est une bulle boursière théorisée dans le contexte actuel du boom de l'IA. Elle provient en grande partie des craintes que les principales entreprises technologiques du secteur de l'IA soient impliquées dans un flux circulaire d'investissements qui gonfle artificiellement la valeur de leurs actions.


ChatGPT

ChatGPT est un agent conversationnel (chatbot) d'intelligence artificielle développé par OpenAI. ChatGPT utilise des transformeurs génératifs préentraînés, tels que GPT-5, afin de générer du texte, des images ou des réponses vocales.
ChatGPT est capable de répondre à des questions, de tenir des conversations, de générer du code informatique, de faire des recherches sur Internet, d'écrire, de traduire ou encore de synthétiser des textes. Il peut le faire en tenant compte du contexte et de contraintes telles que le style d'écriture. Il peut aussi servir d'assistant vocal ou générer des images. Les abonnements payants (ChatGPT « Plus », « Team » et « Enterprise ») offrent un seuil d'utilisation plus élevé, ainsi que des fonctionnalités supplémentaires.
En raison de ses multiples capacités, ChatGPT suscite des inquiétudes quant aux risques de détournement à des fins malveillantes, de plagiat dans le monde universitaire et de suppressions d'emplois dans certains secteurs, en plus de soulever des préoccupations en matière de sécurité et de désinformation, car le modèle peut être utilisé pour créer des textes faux et des informations trompeuses.
ChatGPT est lancé en novembre 2022 dans une version gratuite où il n'a pas accès à Internet comme source d'informations. Il bénéficie aussitôt d’une large exposition médiatique et reçoit un accueil globalement positif, bien que son exactitude factuelle soit critiquée. En juillet 2026, ChatGPT compte plus d'un milliard de comptes enregistrés, dont 2 millions d'entreprises, et la société OpenAI est valorisée à 852 milliards de dollars américains.


Chronologie de l'intelligence artificielle

Cette chronologie de l'intelligence artificielle (IA)  offre une perspective savante sur son évolution à travers les décennies.


Dario Amodei

Dario Amodei, né en 1983 à San Francisco (Californie), est un chercheur et entrepreneur américain en intelligence artificielle (IA). Il est le cofondateur et PDG d'Anthropic, la société à l'origine de Claude, une famille de grands modèles de langage. Sa sœur Daniela Amodei est la présidente de l'entreprise. Il était auparavant vice-président de la recherche d'OpenAI. Dario Amodei promeut la recherche en interprétabilité et en alignement de l'IA afin d'améliorer la sécurité des intelligences artificielles.


Haley Joel Osment

Haley Joel Osment est un acteur américain, né le 10 avril 1988 à Los Angeles. Célèbre pour ses rôles dans les films Forrest Gump (1994), Sixième Sens (1999) et A.I. Intelligence artificielle (2001), le deuxième lui vaut une nomination à l'Oscar du meilleur acteur dans un second rôle à l'âge de onze ans. Il est le frère aîné de l'actrice Emily Osment.


Hallucination (intelligence artificielle)

Dans le domaine de l'intelligence artificielle générative (IA), une hallucination ou une confabulation est une réponse fausse ou trompeuse qui est présentée comme un fait certain ; par exemple, un chatbot qui génère un chiffre d'affaires pour une entreprise sans avoir de données à ce sujet.
Ce phénomène est appelé « hallucination » par analogie avec le phénomène de l'hallucination en psychologie humaine. Une différence clé est que l'hallucination humaine est généralement associée à de fausses perceptions, alors qu'une hallucination d'IA est associée à des réponses ou des croyances injustifiées. Le terme hallucination en intelligence artificielle a pris de l'importance vers 2022 parallèlement au déploiement des modèles de langage basés sur l'apprentissage profond tels que ChatGPT.
Dès 2023, les analystes considèrent les hallucinations comme un problème majeur de ces technologies, un dirigeant de Google identifiant la réduction des hallucinations comme une tâche « fondamentale » pour le concurrent de ChatGPT, Google Gemini. Ces systèmes d’IA étant « conçus pour être persuasifs, pas véridiques », les résultats peuvent sembler très réalistes mais inclure des affirmations qui ne sont pas vraies.


Histoire de l'intelligence artificielle

L'histoire de l'intelligence artificielle (IA) trouve ses origines intellectuelles jusqu’à l’Antiquité. En ces temps, il ne s’agissait évidemment pas d’une intelligence artificielle au sens technologique moderne, mais plutôt d’un ensemble de réflexions philosophiques, mythologiques et techniques qui témoignent d’une interrogation ancienne sur la possibilité de créer des entités artificielles dotées de comportements semblables à ceux attribués aux humains. Ainsi, si l’Antiquité ne connaît pas l’intelligence artificielle en tant que discipline scientifique, elle en préfigure certains aspects fondamentaux comme le rêve de créer des êtres artificiels ou la formalisation du raisonnement (tel le syllogisme d'Aristote). Ces éléments constituent un héritage intellectuel qui, bien des siècles plus tard, nourrit le développement de l’intelligence artificielle moderne.
Après la Seconde Guerre mondiale et l'invention des ordinateurs programmables, l'IA prend son essor. L'intelligence artificielle, nommée ainsi par John McCarthy, est établie en tant que discipline scientifique lors de la conférence de Dartmouth en 1956. Elle connaît des périodes d'enthousiasme, notamment dans les années 1980 autour des systèmes experts, mais aussi deux périodes de désillusion et de gel des financements appelées « hivers de l'IA » (de 1974 à 1980, et de 1987 à 1993).
À partir des années 2010, l'IA connaît des progrès spectaculaires à travers l'avènement de l'apprentissage profond, permis par l'augmentation des données disponibles et l'utilisation de processeurs graphiques qui décuplent les capacités de calcul, puis l'introduction de l'architecture transformeur.


Hugging Face

Hugging Face est une entreprise (licorne) américaine du domaine de l'intelligence artificielle créée en 2016 en France et qui développe des outils pour utiliser l'apprentissage automatique. Elle propose notamment une bibliothèque, open source, de transformeurs conçue pour les applications de traitement automatique des langues, et une plate-forme permettant le partage des modèles et des ensembles de données nécessaires à l'apprentissage automatique, permettant notamment l'entraînement de nouveaux modèles, y compris de grands modèles. Hugging Face, en 2023, emploie 80 salariés en France. En 2024, la plateforme collaborative Hub de l'entreprise stocke 1,3 million de modèles d'intelligence artificielle, 450 000 jeux de données, 680 000 espaces, avec environ 1 milliard de requêtes par jour.


Impacts environnementaux de l'intelligence artificielle

Les impacts environnementaux de l’intelligence artificielle peuvent varier considérablement. Les méthodes d'Intelligence artificielle générative ont une empreinte carbone et une consommation d’eau importantes. Néanmoins, certains scientifiques estiment que l'intelligence artificielle (IA) pourrait permettre de résoudre certains problèmes environnementaux.


Ingénieur en intelligence artificielle

Un ingénieur en intelligence artificielle est un professionnel spécialisé dans la conception, le développement et la mise en œuvre de programmes basés sur l'intelligence artificielle (IA). Ces programmes informatiques sont capables de raisonner de manière similaire à l'homme afin de répondre à des tâches complexes.


Intelligence

L'intelligence est l'ensemble des processus trouvés dans des systèmes, plus ou moins complexes, vivants ou non, qui permettent d'apprendre, de comprendre  ou de s'adapter à des situations nouvelles. La définition de l'intelligence ainsi que la question d'une faculté d'intelligence générale ont fait l'objet de nombreuses discussions philosophiques et scientifiques. L'intelligence a été décrite comme une faculté d'adaptation (apprentissage pour s'adapter à l'environnement) ou au contraire, faculté de modifier l'environnement pour l'adapter à ses propres besoins. Dans ce sens général, les animaux, les plantes (intelligence primaire faite d’instinct et de réflexes conditionnés) ou encore certains outils informatiques (apprentissage automatique, intelligence artificielle) font preuve d'intelligence. L'acquisition de la  parole articulée et de l'écriture, qui aident au développement du raisonnement, font de l'intelligence humaine la référence.
L'intelligence peut être également perçue comme la capacité à traiter l'information pour atteindre des objectifs.
L'intelligence est étudiée, entre autres, par la psychologie cognitive, la psychologie du développement, l'anthropologie (évolution), l'éthologie cognitive (intelligence animale), les neurosciences (biologie) ou encore la génétique.
Chez les animaux, ce sont principalement les systèmes de communication endocriniens et neuronaux qui produisent l’intelligence.


Intelligence artificielle

L'intelligence artificielle (IA) est l'ensemble des systèmes informatiques capables d'effectuer des tâches typiquement associées à l'intelligence, telles que l'apprentissage, le raisonnement, la résolution de problèmes, la perception ou la prise de décision. L'intelligence artificielle est également le champ de recherche visant à développer de tels systèmes.
L'IA est un domaine de l'informatique qui s'appuie sur des fondements mathématiques (statistiques, algèbre linéaire, probabilités) et des concepts issus des sciences cognitives. Elle vise à résoudre des problèmes à forte complexité logique ou algorithmique. Par extension, dans le langage courant, l'IA inclut les dispositifs imitant, simulant ou remplaçant l'homme dans certaines mises en œuvre de ses fonctions cognitives.
Les applications de l'IA couvrent de nombreux domaines, notamment les moteurs de recherche, les systèmes de recommandation, l'aide au diagnostic médical, la compréhension du langage naturel, les voitures autonomes, les chatbots, les outils de génération d'images, les outils de prise de décision automatisée, les programmes compétitifs dans des jeux de stratégie et certains personnages non-joueurs de jeu vidéo.
Le champ de recherche, établi en 1956, a connu des périodes d'optimisme et de déception au cours du XXe siècle. Dès 2012, l'utilisation de processeurs graphiques a permis de largement accélérer les réseaux de neurones artificiels, favorisant l'adoption de l'apprentissage automatique au détriment d’approches reposant sur des règles explicitement programmées. Cette tendance s'est renforcée en 2017 avec l'apparition de l'architecture transformeur et des grands modèles de langage, qui sont entraînés sur de grandes quantités de texte issu d'internet. En 2022, l'IA générative a été largement popularisée avec la sortie de ChatGPT. Des modèles de génération de musique, d'images ou de vidéos ont également vu le jour.
L'IA suscite des inquiétudes concernant l'emploi, la désinformation, son impact environnemental et la protection des données personnelles. Certains estiment que les progrès en intelligence artificielle pourraient représenter un risque existentiel.

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Catégorie:Portail:Sciences humaines et sociales/Articles liés


Intelligence artificielle agentique


Intelligence artificielle amicale


Intelligence artificielle dans la santé


Intelligence artificielle de remédiation


Intelligence artificielle des objets


Intelligence artificielle digne de confiance


Intelligence artificielle distribuée


Intelligence artificielle frugale


Intelligence artificielle générale


Intelligence artificielle générative


Intelligence artificielle symbolique


Intelligence synthétique


Liste des entreprises d'intelligence artificielle


Maroc Digital 2030


Mistral AI


Modèle du monde (intelligence artificielle)


Modèle frontière (intelligence artificielle)


Opposition à l'intelligence artificielle


Philosophie de l'intelligence artificielle


Risque existentiel posé par l'intelligence artificielle


Règlement sur l'intelligence artificielle


Réglementation de l'intelligence artificielle


Réseau de neurones artificiels


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Skynet (Terminator)


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Steven Spielberg


Watson (intelligence artificielle)


Yann Le Cun


Éthique de l'intelligence artificielle


Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein (* 14. März 1879 in Ulm; † 18. April 1955 in Princeton, New Jersey) war ein theoretischer Physiker. Er gilt als einer der bedeutendsten Physiker der Wissenschaftsgeschichte und weltweit als einer der bekanntesten Wissenschaftler der Neuzeit. Seine Forschungen zur Struktur von Materie, Raum und Zeit sowie zum Wesen der Gravitation veränderten maßgeblich das zuvor geltende newtonsche Weltbild. 1999 wurde Albert Einstein in einer durch die Fachzeitschrift Physics World durchgeführten Umfrage unter führenden Physikern vor Isaac Newton, James Clerk Maxwell, Niels Bohr und Werner Heisenberg zum bedeutendsten Physiker aller Zeiten gewählt.
Einsteins Hauptwerk, die Relativitätstheorie, machte ihn weltweit bekannt. Im Jahr 1905 erschien seine Arbeit mit dem Titel Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper, deren Inhalt heute als Spezielle Relativitätstheorie bezeichnet wird. 1915 publizierte er die Allgemeine Relativitätstheorie. Auch zur Quantenphysik leistete er wesentliche Beiträge. „Für seine Verdienste um die Theoretische Physik, besonders für seine Entdeckung des Gesetzes des photoelektrischen Effekts“, erhielt er den Nobelpreis des Jahres 1921, der ihm 1922 überreicht wurde. Seine theoretischen Arbeiten spielten – im Gegensatz zur weit verbreiteten Meinung – beim Bau der Atombombe und der Entwicklung der Kernenergie nur eine indirekte Rolle.
Einstein gilt als Inbegriff des Forschers und Genies. Er nutzte seine außerordentliche Bekanntheit auch außerhalb der naturwissenschaftlichen Fachwelt bei seinem Einsatz für Völkerverständigung, Frieden und Sozialismus.


Allgemeine Relativitätstheorie

Die allgemeine Relativitätstheorie (; kurz ART) beschreibt die Wechselwirkung zwischen Materie (einschließlich Feldern), Raum und Zeit. Sie deutet Gravitation als geometrische Eigenschaft der gekrümmten vierdimensionalen Raumzeit. Die Grundlagen der Theorie wurden maßgeblich von Albert Einstein entwickelt, der den Kern der Theorie am 25. November 1915 der Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften vortrug. Zur Beschreibung der gekrümmten Raumzeit bediente er sich der Differentialgeometrie.
Die allgemeine Relativitätstheorie erweitert die spezielle Relativitätstheorie und das Newtonsche Gravitationsgesetz und geht bei hinreichend kleinen Raumzeitgebieten bzw. Massedichten und Geschwindigkeiten in diese über. In zahlreichen Tests der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie wurde sie experimentell bestätigt und gilt in der von Einstein formulierten Form als einzige allgemein anerkannte Gravitationstheorie.
Ungeklärt ist ihre Beziehung zur Quantenphysik, dem zweiten Grundpfeiler der modernen Physik des 20. Jahrhunderts. Daher gibt es noch keine vereinheitlichte Theorie der Quantengravitation.


Am Anfang war das Licht

Am Anfang war das Licht ist ein umstrittener Dokumentarfilm des österreichischen Regisseurs Peter-Arthur Straubinger zum Thema Lichtnahrung. Straubinger besucht mehrere Personen, die angeben, sich nur von Licht zu ernähren, und sucht nach möglichen Erklärungen, ob und wie Lichtnahrung funktionieren könnte.
Im Film vertreten Protagonisten die Behauptung, dass es möglich sei, sich von „feinstofflicher Energie“ zu ernähren. Wissenschaftlich nicht anerkannte Hypothesen werden vorgestellt, die das angebliche Phänomen „Lichtnahrung“ erklären sollen. Weiters deutet der Film Themen wie Quantenphysik und Bewusstsein um und hinterfragt das, von Esoterikern so genannte, klassisch materialistische Weltbild.
Mit über 101.000 Kinobesuchen war der Film die erfolgreichste Dokumentation des Jahres 2010 in Österreich und die international erfolgreichste österreichische Kinoproduktion 2010.


Amit Goswami

Amit Goswami (* 4. November 1936 in Indien) ist ein indisch-amerikanischer Physiker. Er war Professor am Institut of Theoretical Science der University of Oregon. Er hat sich in zahlreichen wissenschaftlichen Arbeiten mit der Verbindung von Quantenphysik und Bewusstsein befasst und bemüht sich um eine Synthese der „Neuen Physik“ mit der Spiritualität und den Traditionen der indischen Philosophie. Er ist Verfasser zweier Standardwerke über die Geschichte der Physik (The Physicists’ View of Nature), davon eines über die Quantenmechanik. Zu seinen bekanntesten Werken gehört Das bewusste Universum (engl. The Self-Aware Universe, erschienen 1993), in dem er die Hypothese vertritt, dass sich die Paradoxien der modernen Wissenschaften lösen lassen, wenn man davon ausgeht, dass das Universum nicht aus Materie, sondern aus Bewusstsein besteht. Goswami trat unter anderem auch im Film What the Bleep do we (k)now!? auf. In Zusammenarbeit mit seiner Frau Maggie Goswami entstand das Buch The Cosmic Dancers: Exploring the Physics of Science Fiction. Sie leben gemeinsam in Eugene, Oregon (USA).


Anton Zeilinger

Anton Zeilinger (* 20. Mai 1945 in Ried im Innkreis) ist ein österreichischer Quantenphysiker und Hochschullehrer an der Universität Wien. Im Jahr 2022 wurde ihm gemeinsam mit Alain Aspect und John Clauser der Nobelpreis für Physik zuerkannt. Zeilinger erhielt den Nobelpreis für Experimente mit verschränkten Photonen und allgemein verschränkten Quantenzuständen, wobei er unter anderem Quantenteleportation nachwies. Er gilt als ein Pionier der Quanteninformationswissenschaft.


Atominstitut

Das Atominstitut, früher Atominstitut der österreichischen Universitäten, ist ein Institut der Fakultät für Physik der Technischen Universität Wien.
Mit seinem 1962 in Betrieb genommenen Forschungsreaktor TRIGA Mark II ist es heute die einzige in Österreich verbliebene Einrichtung, die über einen laufenden Kernspaltungsreaktor verfügt (siehe auch Liste der Kernreaktoren in Österreich). Aktuell wird das Institut von Marcus Huber als Institutsvorstand geführt. Das Institut befindet sich in Wien 2., Stadionallee 2, unmittelbar neben der Stadionbrücke über den Donaukanal. Der Haupteingang für Fußgänger trägt die Adresse Schüttelstraße 115.


Atomorbital

Ein Atomorbital (zu englisch atomic orbital) ist in den quantenmechanischen Modellen der Atome die räumliche Wellenfunktion eines einzelnen Elektrons in einem quantenmechanischen Zustand, meist in einem stationären Zustand. Sein Formelzeichen ist meist

        φ

    {\displaystyle \varphi }

 (kleines Phi) oder

        ψ

    {\displaystyle \psi }

 (kleines Psi). Das Betragsquadrat

          |

        ψ
        (

              r
              →

        )

            |

            2

    {\displaystyle |\psi ({\vec {r}})|^{2}}

 als Dichtefunktion wird interpretiert als die räumliche Verteilung der Aufenthaltswahrscheinlichkeit, mit der das Elektron am Ort

              r
              →

        =
        (
        x
        ,
        y
        ,
        z
        )

    {\displaystyle {\vec {r}}=(x,y,z)}

 gefunden werden kann (Bornsche Wahrscheinlichkeitsinterpretation der Quantenmechanik). Zusammen mit der Angabe, ob der Spin zu einer festen Achse oder zum Bahndrehimpuls des Elektrons parallel oder antiparallel ausgerichtet ist, beschreibt ein Orbital den Elektronenzustand vollständig.
In den älteren Atommodellen nach Niels Bohr (Bohrsches Atommodell, 1913) und Arnold Sommerfeld (Bohr-Sommerfeldsches Atommodell, 1916) beschreibt ein Orbital eine genaue, durch die Quantisierungsregeln ausgewählte Elektronenbahn. Diese Vorstellung wurde in der Quantenmechanik zugunsten einer diffusen Verteilung der Aufenthaltswahrscheinlichkeit des Elektrons aufgegeben. Das quantenmechanische Atomorbital erstreckt sich für gebundene Elektronen vom Atomkern im Zentrum nach außen bis ins Unendliche, wobei die Aufenthaltswahrscheinlichkeit außerhalb weniger 0,1 nm typischerweise sehr klein ist und für größere Abstände asymptotisch weiter gegen null geht. Der wahrscheinlichste Abstand vom Atomkern ist für das innerste Orbital gleich dem Radius der 1. Bohrschen Kreisbahn.
Anschaulich stellt man ein Orbital gewöhnlich durch die Oberfläche des kleinstmöglichen Volumens dar, in dessen Inneren sich das Elektron mit großer Wahrscheinlichkeit aufhält. Man erhält damit Körper, die ungefähr der Größe und Form der Atome entsprechen, wie sie sich in chemischen Molekülen, kondensierter Materie und der kinetischen Gastheorie bemerkbar machen.
Die gebräuchlichsten Atomorbitale sind die, die sich für das einzige Elektron des Wasserstoffatoms als Lösungen der Schrödingergleichung des Wasserstoffproblems ergeben und 1926 erstmals veröffentlicht wurden. Sie haben verschiedene Formen, die mit

          ψ

            n
            l

              m

                l

        (

              r
              →

        )

    {\displaystyle \psi _{nlm_{l}}({\vec {r}})}

 bezeichnet werden, wobei der untere Index aus der Hauptquantenzahl

        n
        ,

    {\displaystyle n,}

 der Bahndrehimpulsquantenzahl

        l

    {\displaystyle l}

 und der magnetischen Quantenzahl

          m

            l

    {\displaystyle m_{l}}

 besteht.
Im Orbitalmodell für Atome mit mehreren Elektronen nimmt man an, dass die Elektronen sich unter Berücksichtigung des Pauli-Prinzips auf die Orbitale verteilen. Ein solcher Zustand heißt Elektronenkonfiguration und stellt oft eine brauchbare Näherung für die Struktur der Atomhülle dar, obwohl diese durch zusätzliche Elektronenkorrelationen noch komplizierter ist.
Zur Beschreibung von Elektronen in Molekülen werden Molekülorbitale als Linearkombination von Atomorbitalen gebildet. Elektronen in Festkörpern werden durch Orbitale beschrieben, die die Form von Blochwellenfunktionen haben.
In diesem Artikel wird nur auf gebundene Elektronen in Atomen eingegangen. Eine Vereinfachung des Orbitalmodells ist das Schalenmodell.


Boltzmann-Konstante

Die Boltzmann-Konstante (Formelzeichen

        k

    {\displaystyle k}

 oder

          k

              B

    {\displaystyle k_{\mathrm {B} }}

) ist ein Umrechnungsfaktor von thermodynamischer („absoluter“) Temperatur in Energie.
Die Bedeutung der Boltzmann-Konstante liegt darin, dass die Größe

          k

              B

        T

    {\displaystyle k_{\mathrm {B} }T}

 ein charakteristisches Maß für den Mittelwert der verschiedenen Energien ist, die in regelloser Weise zwischen den einzelnen Teilchen oder ganzen Teilsystemen eines makroskopischen physikalischen Systems bei der Temperatur

        T

    {\displaystyle T}

 im Zustand des thermischen Gleichgewichts übertragen werden. Diese Größe

          E

              t
              h
              e
              r
              m

        =

          k

              B

        T

    {\displaystyle E_{\mathrm {therm} }=k_{\mathrm {B} }T}

 ist universell, d. h. unabhängig von sämtlichen Eigenschaften der einzelnen Teilchen des Systems oder seiner kleineren oder größeren Teilsysteme; sie wird auch als thermische Energie bezeichnet. Nach der genauen Definition ist die Wahrscheinlichkeit

        p

    {\displaystyle p}

, mit der ein bestimmtes Teilchen oder Teilsystem aufgrund des ständigen Energieaustauschs mit den übrigen Teilen des Systems einen bestimmten Zustand der Energie

        E

    {\displaystyle E}

 einnimmt, im thermischen Gleichgewicht bis auf einen Normierungsfaktor gleich dem Boltzmann-Faktor

            e

            −
            E

              /

              k

                  B

            T

    {\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{-E/k_{\mathrm {B} }T}}

. Dies gilt sowohl in der klassischen Physik als auch in der Quantenphysik.
Im Bereich der klassischen Physik, wo die Energie kontinuierlich variieren kann, gibt

          k

              B

        T

    {\displaystyle k_{\mathrm {B} }T}

 (direkt oder mit einem einfachen konstanten Faktor) auch den Durchschnittswert der Energie der einzelnen Teilchen oder Teilsysteme an. Zum Beispiel ist

          k

              B

        T

    {\displaystyle k_{\mathrm {B} }T}

 gleich der durchschnittlichen potentiellen Energie der Luftmoleküle, Aerosole und Staubkörnchen in der Atmosphäre, während ihre mittlere kinetische Energie gleich

              3
              2

          k

              B

        T

    {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3}{2}}k_{\mathrm {B} }T}

 ist. Die Wärmekapazität einer Gasmenge ist daher in der klassischen Physik direkt proportional zur Teilchenzahl und zur Boltzmann-Konstante sowie unabhängig von der Temperatur. In der Quantenphysik, wo es zu einem bestimmten Energiewert

        E

    {\displaystyle E}

 gegebenenfalls gar keinen Zustand oder jedenfalls nicht die der klassischen Physik entsprechende Anzahl von Zuständen gibt, kann der zusätzliche Faktor temperaturabhängig sein. Das macht sich vorrangig bei tieferen Temperaturen bemerkbar, wenn die typische thermische Energie

          k

              B

        T

    {\displaystyle k_{\mathrm {B} }T}

 im Bereich solcher Energielücken liegt.


Christopher Nolan

Sir Christopher Edward Nolan CBE (* 30. Juli 1970 in London) ist ein britisch-US-amerikanischer Filmregisseur, Drehbuchautor und Filmproduzent. Nach seinem Spielfilmdebüt 1998 mit Following erhielt er 2002 für Memento erstmals eine Oscarnominierung als bester Drehbuchautor. Internationale Bekanntheit erlangte Nolan durch seine Neuinterpretation der Comicfigur Batman in der The-Dark-Knight-Trilogie. Durch diese Erfolge war es ihm möglich, für spätere Filme wie Inception, Interstellar oder Tenet mit hohen Filmbudgets zu arbeiten. Für das Drama Dunkirk wurde Nolan 2018 erstmals als bester Regisseur für den Oscar nominiert und im Jahr 2024 für Oppenheimer mit dem Oscar, Golden Globe und dem BAFTA jeweils für die beste Regie wie auch für den besten Film ausgezeichnet.
Christopher Nolan zählt zu den wenigen Autorenfilmern in Hollywood. Insbesondere in der frühen Phase seiner Karriere arbeitete er häufig gemeinsam mit seinem jüngeren Bruder Jonathan an den Drehbüchern, während er seine Filme bis heute in enger Zusammenarbeit mit seiner Frau Emma Thomas produziert. In seinen Werken nimmt das Thema der Zeit einen dominierenden Platz ein und wird in verschiedenen Variationen dargestellt. Nolans Arbeit wird von einigen Kritikern in der Tradition eines innovativen Filmemachers wie Stanley Kubrick gesehen.
Seit 2025 bekleidet Nolan das Amt des Präsidenten der Directors Guild of America.


Das elegante Universum

Das elegante Universum (veröffentlicht unter dem Titel Was Einstein noch nicht wusste) ist ein 2003 erschienener US-amerikanischer Kino- und Dokumentarfilm basierend auf dem veröffentlichten Buch des Physikers Brian Greene The Elegant Universe. Der Film besteht aus drei Teilen, die sich allesamt mit der umstrittenen Stringtheorie und deren Versuch, die Quantenphysik und Einsteins allgemeine Relativitätstheorie zu vereinen, beschäftigen.


Dichtefunktionaltheorie (Quantenphysik)

Die Dichtefunktionaltheorie (DFT) ist ein Verfahren zur Bestimmung des quantenmechanischen Grundzustandes eines Vielelektronensystems, das auf der ortsabhängigen Elektronendichte beruht. Die Dichtefunktionaltheorie wird zur Berechnung grundlegender Eigenschaften von Molekülen und Festkörpern, wie beispielsweise von Bindungslängen und -energien, verwendet.
Die große Bedeutung dieser Theorie liegt darin, dass sie keine Lösung der vollständigen Schrödingergleichung für das Vielelektronensystem erfordert. Sie benötigt erheblich weniger Rechenleistung und macht Berechnungen von Systemen mit deutlich mehr als zehn Elektronen überhaupt erst möglich.
Für die Entwicklung der Dichtefunktionaltheorie wurde 1998 der Nobelpreis für Chemie zur Hälfte an Walter Kohn vergeben.


Doppelspaltexperiment

Beim Doppelspaltexperiment treten kohärente Wellen, zum Beispiel Licht- oder Materiewellen, durch zwei schmale, parallele Spalte und werden auf einem Beobachtungsschirm aufgefangen, dessen Distanz zum Doppelspalt sehr viel größer ist als der Abstand der beiden Spalte. Durch Beugung der Wellenausbreitung am Doppelspalt entsteht ein Interferenzmuster. Bei Wellen mit einheitlicher Wellenlänge, z. B. beim monochromatischen Licht eines Lasers, besteht das Muster auf dem Schirm aus abwechselnd hellen und dunklen Streifen (Maxima bzw. Minima), wenn der Abstand der beiden Spalte  nicht kleiner ist als die Wellenlänge.
Das Experiment gehört zu den Schlüsselexperimenten der Physik. Thomas Young führte es als erster mit Licht durch und publizierte seine Ergebnisse 1803. Es führte zur Anerkennung der Wellentheorie des Lichts gegenüber der damals noch vorherrschenden Korpuskeltheorie. In der Quantenphysik dient das Doppelspaltexperiment häufig dazu, den Welle-Teilchen-Dualismus zu demonstrieren. Es wurde nicht nur mit Licht, sondern auch mit Elementarteilchen, Atomen  und Molekülen durchgeführt. Die auch dabei auftretenden Interferenzmuster belegen, dass materielle Körper ebenfalls Welleneigenschaften haben. Die Wellenlänge dieser Materiewellen ist die De-Broglie-Wellenlänge.


GHZ

GHZ steht für:

die Geothermische Heizzentrale Neubrandenburg
GHZ-Experiment, einen Begriff aus der Quantenphysik
GHz steht für:

Gigahertz, eine Milliarde Schwingungen/Vorgänge pro Sekunde
Ghz steht für:

Großherzog


Hannes Pichler (Physiker)

Hannes Pichler (* 1986 in Brixen) ist ein italienisch-österreichischer Physiker. Seit 2020 ist er Professor für Theoretische Physik an der Universität Innsbruck.


Heisenbergsche Unschärferelation

Die Heisenbergsche Unschärferelation (auch Unbestimmtheitsrelation, seltener Unschärfeprinzip oder Unbestimmtheitsprinzip) ist eine Aussage der Quantenphysik, nach der zwei komplementäre Eigenschaften eines Quantensystems nicht gleichzeitig scharf definierte Werte haben können. Das bekannteste Beispiel für ein Paar solcher Eigenschaften sind Ort und Impuls desselben Teilchens oder Körpers. Genauer sagt die Unschärferelation aus, dass es für das Produkt der Unschärfen beider Größen eine universelle untere Grenze gibt, die durch die Planck-Konstante gegeben ist.
Die Unschärferelation ist nicht die Folge technisch behebbarer Unzulänglichkeiten der entsprechenden Messinstrumente, sondern prinzipieller Natur. Für kein Quantensystem lässt sich im Formalismus der Quantenmechanik ein Zustand angeben, in dem zwei komplementäre Größen scharf definierte Werte haben.
Die Unschärferelation kann als Ausdruck des Wellencharakters der Materie betrachtet werden. Sie wurde 1927 von Werner Heisenberg entdeckt und gilt als eine der Grundlagen der Kopenhagener Deutung der Quantenmechanik.
Auch für Messungen von Energie und Zeit fand Heisenberg 1927 eine Unschärferelation in ähnlicher Form, aber anderer Bedeutung, weil die Zeit in der Quantenmechanik als Parameter auftritt und keine messbare Eigenschaft eines Zustands ist. Daher wird die Energie-Zeit-Unschärferelation in einem eigenen Artikel gesondert dargestellt.


Interpretationen der Quantenmechanik

Interpretationen der Quantenmechanik beschreiben die physikalische und metaphysische Bedeutung der Postulate und Begriffe, aus welchen die Quantenmechanik aufgebaut ist. Besonderes Gewicht hat dabei die Interpretation derjenigen Konzepte, die nicht nur einen Bruch mit etablierten Vorstellungen der klassischen Physik bedeuten, sondern auch deren Anschauung oftmals zuwiderzulaufen scheinen, wie z. B. das des Welle-Teilchen-Dualismus.
Neben der Kopenhagener Interpretation wurden seit Entwicklung der Quantenmechanik in den 1920er Jahren eine Vielzahl alternativer Interpretationen entwickelt: Diese Interpretationen unterscheiden sich in ihren Aussagen über den Determinismus, die Kausalität, die Frage der Vollständigkeit der Theorie, die Rolle von Beobachtern und über eine Reihe weiterer metaphysischer Aspekte. Auch 100 Jahre nach der Entwicklung der Quantenmechanik sind sich Physiker uneinig über die Interpretation der Quantenmechanik.


Interstellar

Interstellar ist ein US-amerikanisch-britischer Science-Fiction-Film unter der Regie von Christopher Nolan aus dem Jahr 2014. Der Film spielt in einer dystopischen Zukunft, in der die Menschheit die Erde verlassen muss und ein neues Zuhause auf einem anderen Planeten sucht.
Nolan überarbeitete das Drehbuch seines Bruders Jonathan, das dieser 2007 für die Produzentin Lynda Obst und Paramount Pictures verfasst hatte, und produzierte Interstellar mit Obst und Emma Thomas. Die Finanzierung und Vermarktung übernahmen Paramount Pictures und Warner Bros. gemeinsam. Der spätere Physiknobelpreisträger Kip Thorne wirkte als wissenschaftlicher Berater sowie Executive Producer mit.
Der Film feierte seine Premiere am 26. Oktober 2014 in Los Angeles. Er startete am 5. November 2014 in den Vereinigten Staaten in ausgewählten Kinos und einen Tag darauf in den deutschsprachigen Ländern. Von der Filmkritik wurde Interstellar unterschiedlich aufgenommen, insbesondere wurde die visuelle Umsetzung von wissenschaftlichen Theorien hervorgehoben. Für seine visuellen Effekte wurde Interstellar mit dem Oscar und dem British Academy Film Award ausgezeichnet. An den Kinokassen war der Film mit einem weltweiten Einspielergebnis von 758 Millionen US-Dollar ein Erfolg.


Joe Dispenza

Joe Dispenza (* 1962) ist ein Referent, Chiropraktiker und Autor aus den Vereinigten Staaten.


Komplementarität

Komplementarität ist ein Begriff der Erkenntnistheorie für zwei (scheinbar) widersprüchliche, einander ausschließende, nicht aufeinander reduzierbare Beschreibungsweisen oder Versuchsanordnungen, die aber in ihrer wechselseitigen Ergänzung zum Verständnis eines Phänomens oder Sachverhaltes im Ganzen notwendig sind. Diesen Begriff hatte der Physiker Niels Bohr als Komplementaritätsprinzip in die Quantenphysik eingeführt und anschließend auf viele Gebiete übertragen. Deshalb wurde der Begriff vieldeutig und bezeichnet häufig nur noch ein grundsätzliches „Sowohl-als-auch“.
Zwei komplementäre Eigenschaften gehören zusammen, sofern sie dieselbe Referenz haben, also dasselbe „Objekt“ betreffen, jedoch kausal nicht voneinander abhängig sind. Die zwei verwendeten Methoden unterscheiden sich grundsätzlich im Verfahren und können in der Regel nicht gleichzeitig, sondern nur nacheinander eingesetzt werden.


Komplementär

Komplementär (von französisch complémentaire „ergänzend“) steht für:

gegensätzliche, aber sich ergänzende Eigenschaften eines Objekts oder Sachverhalts, siehe Komplementarität
das von Niels Bohr in der Quantenphysik geprägte und dann für die Erkenntnistheorie verallgemeinerte Komplementaritätsprinzip
einander ergänzende Messgrößen (komplementäre Observablen)
Komplementär (Gesellschaftsrecht), der unbeschränkt haftende Gesellschafter in einer Kommanditgesellschaft
Komplementation, die funktionelle Ergänzung zweier Gene
der den betrachteten Einzelstrang einer Nukleinsäure-Doppelhelix ergänzende gegenüberliegende Strang umgekehrter Polarität

Siehe auch:

Komplement (Begriffsklärung)
Liste aller Wikipedia-Artikel, deren Titel mit Komplementär beginnt
Liste aller Wikipedia-Artikel, deren Titel Komplementär enthält


Kopenhagener Deutung der Quantenmechanik


Korrespondenzprinzip


Lamb-Verschiebung


Laplacescher Dämon


Laurent Simons


Lebensdauer (Quantenphysik)


Luise Kinseher


Max Planck

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Metastabilität


Oppenheimer (2023)


Parallelwelt


Physik


Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt


Plancksches Strahlungsgesetz


Quant


Quantenheilung


Quantenmechanik


Quantenoptik


Quantenphysik


Quantenverschränkung


Richard Feynman


Schrödingers Katze


Temperatur


Term (Begriffsklärung)


Universum


Vera F. Birkenbihl


Welle-Teilchen-Dualismus


What the Bleep do we (k)now!?


Zustand (Physik)


Časlav Brukner


Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt was a cradle of civilization concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in the eastern part of North Africa. It emerged from prehistoric Egypt around 3150 BC (according to conventional Egyptian chronology), when Upper and Lower Egypt were united by Menes, who is believed by the majority of Egyptologists to have been the same person as Narmer. The history of ancient Egypt unfolded as a series of stable kingdoms interspersed by the "Intermediate Periods" of relative instability. These stable kingdoms existed in one of three periods: the Old Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age; the Middle Kingdom of the Middle Bronze Age; or the New Kingdom of the Late Bronze Age.
The pinnacle of ancient Egyptian power was achieved during the New Kingdom, which extended its rule to much of Nubia and a considerable portion of the Levant. After this period, Egypt entered an era of slow decline. Over the course of its history, it was invaded or conquered by a number of foreign civilizations, including the Hyksos, the Kushites, the Assyrians, the Persians, and the Greeks and then the Romans. The end of ancient Egypt is variously defined as occurring with the end of the Late Period during the Wars of Alexander the Great in 332 BC or with the end of the Greek-ruled Ptolemaic Kingdom during the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BC. In AD 642, the Arab conquest of Egypt brought an end to the region's millennium-long Greco-Roman period.
The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the Nile's conditions for agriculture. The predictable flooding of the Nile and controlled irrigation of its fertile valley produced surplus crops which supported a more dense population and thereby substantial social and cultural development. With resources to spare, the administration sponsored the mineral exploitation of the valley and its surrounding desert regions, the early development of an independent writing system, the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects, trade with other civilizations, and a military to assert Egyptian dominance throughout the Near East. Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite scribes, religious leaders, and administrators under the control of the reigning pharaoh, who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people in the context of an elaborate system of religious beliefs.
Among the many achievements of ancient Egypt are: the quarrying, surveying, and construction techniques that supported the building of monumental pyramids, temples, and obelisks; a system of mathematics; a practical and effective system of medicine; irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques; the first known planked boats; Egyptian faience and glass technology; new forms of literature; and the earliest known peace treaty, which was ratified with the Anatolia-based Hittite Empire. Its art and architecture were widely copied and its antiquities were carried off to be studied, admired, or coveted in the far corners of the world. Likewise, its monumental ruins inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for millennia. A newfound European and Egyptian respect for antiquities and excavations that began in earnest in the early modern period has led to much scientific investigation of ancient Egypt and its society, as well as a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy.

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Ancient Egypt in the Western imagination

The culture of ancient Egypt has fascinated outsiders from its own day well into the modern day, long after that culture was subsumed first by Greco-Roman, then Christian, then Muslim currents. And while the concept of the "Western world" owes its origin to Christian writers of early medieval Europe and Asia Minor, those same writers were keen to imagine themselves as part of—or heirs to—a cultural continuum that began with classical antiquity and evolved to include the Biblical history of the Jews.
In Western cultures' collective imaginings, the idea of "ancient Egypt" has developed and changed over millennia no less than those cultures themselves changed. From classical and late antiquity through the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, and into the modern era, this imagined "Egypt" has served as a powerful symbol, variously representing profound antiquity, esoteric wisdom, evil, the exotic, or timeless grandeur.
An essential factor in ancient Egypt's enduring mystery and remoteness was that scribes no longer studied to acquire literacy in Egyptian hieroglyphs, resulting in the script being totally inscrutable from roughly the 5th century CE until their decipherment in the early 19th century, during which Egypt's own recorded history was rendered inaccessible. The continuing engagement of nations and societies that constitute "the West" with Egypt has shaped their art, literature, architecture, philosophy, and popular culture. This influence in turn reflects those societies' contemporary intellectual currents, colonial ambitions, and religious and spiritual ideas in addition to—or instead of—an understanding grounded in historical fact.


Ancient Egyptian afterlife beliefs

Ancient Egyptian afterlife beliefs were centered around a variety of complex rituals that were influenced by many aspects of Egyptian culture. Religion was a major contributor, since it was an important social practice that bound all Egyptians together. For instance, many of the Egyptian gods played roles in guiding the souls of the dead through the afterlife. With the evolution of writing, religious ideals were recorded and quickly spread throughout the Egyptian community. The solidification and commencement of these doctrines were formed in the creation of afterlife texts which illustrated and explained what the dead would need to know in order to complete the journey safely.
Egyptian religious doctrines included three afterlife ideologies: belief in an underworld, eternal life, and rebirth of the soul. The underworld, also known as the Duat, had only one entrance that could be reached by traveling through the tomb of the deceased. The initial image a soul would be presented with upon entering this realm was a corridor lined with an array of fascinating statues, including a variation of the hawk-headed god, Horus. The path taken to the underworld may have varied between kings and common people. After entry, spirits were presented to another prominent god, Osiris. Osiris would determine the virtue of the deceased's soul and grant those deemed deserving a peaceful afterlife. The Egyptian concept of 'eternal life' was often seen as being reborn indefinitely. Therefore, the souls who had lived their life elegantly were guided to Osiris to be born again.
In order to achieve the ideal afterlife, many practices had to be performed during one's life. This may have included acting justly and following the beliefs of the Egyptian creed. Additionally, the Egyptians stressed the rituals completed after an individual's life has ended. In other words, it was the responsibility of the living to carry out the final traditions required so the dead could promptly meet their final fate. Ultimately, maintaining high religious morals by both the living and the dead, as well as complying to a variety of traditions, guaranteed the deceased a smoother transition into the underworld.
Egyptians hoped to perform their jobs and partake in their hobbies in the afterlife. Rivers and natural locales with fertile soil for farmers were thought to exist in the afterlife, and drawings on tomb walls of objects such as boats were thought to make them appear in the afterlife for previous users or owners.


Ancient Egyptian agriculture

The civilization of ancient Egypt was indebted to the Nile River and its dependable seasonal flooding. Thus, relying on the Nile River for its periodic flooding. The river's predictability and fertile soil allowed the indigenous Egyptians to build an empire on the basis of great agricultural wealth. Egyptians are credited as being one of the first groups of people to practice agriculture on a large scale. This was possible because of the ingenuity of the Egyptians as they developed basin irrigation. Their farming practices allowed them to grow staple food crops, especially grains such as wheat and barley, and industrial crops, such as flax and papyrus.


Ancient Egyptian architecture

Spanning over three thousand years, ancient Egypt was not one stable civilization but subject to change and periods of great upheaval, commonly split into periods by historians. Likewise, ancient Egyptian architecture is not one style, but a set of styles differing over time but with some commonalities.  Nonetheless, religious and funerary architecture, which is the great majority of what survives, was generally conservative in taste.
The best known example of ancient Egyptian architecture are the Egyptian pyramids and the Sphinx, while excavated temples, palaces, tombs, and fortresses have also been studied. Most buildings were built of locally available mud brick and limestone by paid laborers and craftsmen. Monumental buildings were built using the post and lintel method of construction. Many buildings were aligned astronomically. Columns were typically adorned with capitals decorated to resemble plants important to Egyptian civilization, such as the papyrus plant.
Ancient Egyptian architectural motifs have influenced architecture elsewhere, reaching the wider world first during the Greek Orientalizing period and again during the nineteenth-century Egyptomania.


Ancient Egyptian conception of the soul

The ancient Egyptians believed that a soul (kꜣ and bꜣ; Egypt. pron. ka/ba) was made up of many parts. In addition to these components of the soul, there was the human body (called the ḥꜥ, occasionally a plural ḥꜥw, meaning approximately "sum of bodily parts").
According to ancient Egyptian creation myths, the god Atum created the world out of chaos, utilizing his own magic (ḥkꜣ). Because the earth was created with magic, Egyptians believed that the world was imbued with magic and so was every living thing upon it. When humans were created, that magic took the form of the soul, an eternal force which resided in and with every human. The concept of the soul and the parts which encompass it has varied from the Old Kingdom to the New Kingdom, at times changing from one dynasty to another, from five parts to more. Most ancient Egyptian funerary texts reference numerous parts of the soul:

Collectively, these spirits of a dead person were called the Akh after that person had successfully completed its transition to the afterlife. Rosalie David an Egyptologist  at the University of Manchester, explains the many facets of the soul as follows:

The Egyptians believed that the human personality had many facets—a concept that was probably developed early in the Old Kingdom. In life, the person was a complete entity, but if he had led a virtuous life, he could also have access to a multiplicity of forms that could be used in the next world. In some instances, these forms could be employed to help those whom the deceased wished to support or, alternately, to take revenge on his enemies.


Ancient Egyptian cuisine

The cuisine of ancient Egypt encompasses the food and drink consumed by the ancient Egyptians throughout a span of over three thousand years, which retained many consistent traits until well into Greco-Roman times. The staples of the ancient Egyptian diet were bread and beer, which were supplemented with vegetables, legumes, fruits, meat, and seasonings prepared in a multitude of ways.


Ancient Egyptian deities

Ancient Egyptian deities are the gods and goddesses worshipped in ancient Egypt. The beliefs and rituals surrounding these gods formed the core of ancient Egyptian religion, which emerged sometime in prehistory. Deities represented natural forces and phenomena, and the Egyptians supported and appeased them through offerings and rituals so that these forces would continue to function according to maat, or divine order. After the founding of the Egyptian state around 3100 BC, the authority to perform these tasks was controlled by the pharaoh, who claimed to be the gods' representative and managed the temples where the rituals were carried out.
The gods' complex characteristics were expressed in myths and in intricate relationships between deities: family ties, loose groups and hierarchies, and combinations of separate gods into one. Deities' diverse appearances in art—as animals, humans, objects, and combinations of different forms—also alluded, through symbolism, to their essential features.
In different eras, various gods were said to hold the highest position in divine society, including the solar deity Ra, the mysterious god Amun, and the mother goddess Isis. The highest deity was usually credited with the creation of the world and often connected with the life-giving power of the sun. Some scholars have argued, based in part on Egyptian writings, that the Egyptians came to recognize a single divine power that lay behind all things and was present in all the other deities. Yet they never abandoned their original polytheistic view of the world, except possibly during the era of Atenism in the 14th century BC, when official religion focused exclusively on an abstract solar deity, the Aten.
Gods were assumed to be present throughout the world, capable of influencing natural events and the course of human lives. People interacted with them in temples and unofficial shrines, for personal reasons as well as for larger goals of state rites. Egyptians prayed for divine help, used rituals to compel deities to act, and called upon them for advice. Humans' relations with their gods were a fundamental part of Egyptian society.


Ancient Egyptian funerary practices

The ancient Egyptians had an elaborate set of funerary practices that they believed were necessary to ensure their immortality after death. These rituals included mummifying the body, casting magic spells, and burials with specific grave goods thought to be needed in the afterlife.
The ancient burial process evolved over time as old customs were discarded and new ones adopted, but several important elements of the process persisted. Although specific details changed over time, the preparation of the body, the magic rituals, and grave goods were all essential parts of a proper Egyptian funeral.


Ancient Egyptian literature

Ancient Egyptian literature was written with the Egyptian language from ancient Egypt's pharaonic period until the end of Roman domination. It represents the oldest corpus of Egyptian literature. Along with Sumerian literature, it is considered the world's earliest literature.
Writing in ancient Egypt—both hieroglyphic and hieratic—first appeared in the late 4th millennium BC during the late phase of predynastic Egypt. By the Old Kingdom (26th century BC to 22nd century BC), literary works included funerary texts, epistles and letters, hymns and poems, and commemorative autobiographical texts recounting the careers of prominent administrative officials. It was not until the early Middle Kingdom (21st century BC to 17th century BC) that a narrative Egyptian literature was created. This was a "media revolution" which, according to Richard B. Parkinson, was the result of the rise of an intellectual class of scribes, new cultural sensibilities about individuality, unprecedented levels of literacy, and mainstream access to written materials. The creation of literature was thus an elite exercise, monopolized by a scribal class attached to government offices and the royal court of the ruling pharaoh. However, there is no full consensus among modern scholars concerning the dependence of ancient Egyptian literature on the sociopolitical order of the royal courts.
Middle Egyptian, the spoken language of the Middle Kingdom, became a classical language during the New Kingdom (16th century BC to 11th century BC), when the vernacular language known as Late Egyptian first appeared in writing. Scribes of the New Kingdom canonized and copied many literary texts written in Middle Egyptian, which remained the language used for oral readings of sacred hieroglyphic texts. Some genres of Middle Kingdom literature, such as "teachings" and fictional tales, remained popular in the New Kingdom, although the genre of prophetic texts was not revived until the Ptolemaic period (4th century BC to 1st century BC). Popular tales included the Story of Sinuhe and The Eloquent Peasant, while important teaching texts include the Instructions of Amenemhat and The Loyalist Teaching. By the New Kingdom period, the writing of commemorative graffiti on sacred temple and tomb walls flourished as a unique genre of literature, yet it employed formulaic phrases similar to other genres. The acknowledgment of rightful authorship remained important only in a few genres, while texts of the "teaching" genre were pseudonymous and falsely attributed to prominent historical figures.
Ancient Egyptian literature has been preserved on a wide variety of media. This includes papyrus scrolls and packets, limestone or ceramic ostraca, wooden writing boards, monumental stone edifices and coffins. Texts preserved and unearthed by modern archaeologists represent a small fraction of ancient Egyptian literary material. The area of the floodplain of the Nile is under-represented because the moist environment is unsuitable for the preservation of papyri and ink inscriptions. On the other hand, hidden caches of literature, buried for thousands of years, have been discovered in settlements on the dry desert margins of Egyptian civilization.


Ancient Egyptian medicine

The medicine of the ancient Egyptians is some of the oldest documented. From the beginnings of the civilization in the late fourth millennium BC until the Persian invasion of 525 BC, Egyptian medical practice went largely unchanged and included simple non-invasive surgery, setting of bones, dentistry, and an extensive set of pharmacopoeia. Egyptian medical thought influenced later traditions, including the Greeks.


Ancient Egyptian multiplication

In mathematics, ancient Egyptian multiplication (also known as Egyptian multiplication, Ethiopian multiplication, Russian multiplication, or peasant multiplication), one of two multiplication methods used by scribes, is a systematic method for multiplying two numbers that does not require the multiplication table, only the ability to multiply and divide by 2, and to add. It decomposes one of the multiplicands (preferably the smaller) into a set of numbers of powers of two and then creates a table of doublings of the second multiplicand by every value of the set which is summed up to give result of multiplication.
This method may be called mediation and duplation, where mediation means halving one number and duplation means doubling the other number. It is still used in some areas.
The second Egyptian multiplication and division technique was known from the hieratic Moscow and Rhind Mathematical Papyri written in the seventeenth century B.C. by the scribe Ahmes.
Although in ancient Egypt the concept of base 2 did not exist, the algorithm is essentially the same algorithm as long multiplication after the multiplier and multiplicand are converted to binary. The method as interpreted by conversion to binary is therefore still in wide use today as implemented by binary multiplier circuits in modern computer processors.


Ancient Egyptian philosophy

Ancient Egyptian philosophy refers to the philosophical works and beliefs of Ancient Egypt. There is some debate regarding its true scope and nature.


Ancient Egyptian race controversy

The question of the race of the people of ancient Egypt was raised historically as a product of the early racial concepts of the 18th and 19th centuries, and was linked to models of racial hierarchy primarily based on craniometry and anthropometry. A variety of views circulated about the racial identity of the Egyptians and the source of their culture.
Some scholars argued that ancient Egyptian culture was influenced by other Afroasiatic-speaking populations in North Africa, the Horn of Africa, or West Asia, while others pointed to influences from various Nubian groups or populations in Europe. In more recent times, some writers continued to challenge the mainstream view, some focusing on questioning the race of specific notable individuals, such as the pharaoh represented in the Great Sphinx of Giza, the native Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamun, the Egyptian queen Tiye, and the Greek Ptolemaic queen Cleopatra VII.
Mainstream Western scholars reject the notion that Egypt was a "white" or "black" civilization; they maintain that applying modern notions of black or white races to ancient Egypt is anachronistic. In addition, scholars reject the notion—implicit in a black or white Egypt hypothesis—that ancient Egypt was racially homogeneous; instead, skin colour varied between the peoples of Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt, and Nubia, who rose to power in various eras of ancient Egypt. Within Egyptian history, despite multiple foreign invasions, the demographics were not shifted substantially by large migrations. Other scholars have suggested there may have been a gradual period of demographic change from Syria via the eastern Delta region.
International scholarship reflected in the General History of Africa, a multi-volume historical project of UNESCO, have expressed a comparable position. A majority of the scholars that contributed to the Volume II edition (1981) considered Egypt an indigenous African civilisation with a mixed population that originated largely in the Sahara and featured a variety of skin colours from north and south of the Saharan region. In the view of Egyptian scholar and featured editor Gamal Mokhtar, Upper Egypt and Nubia held "similar ethnic composition" with comparable material cultures. An updated Volume IX publication launched in 2025 maintained that Egypt had both African and Eurasian populations. The review section which focused on the 1974 "Peopling of Egypt" symposium stated that accumulated research over three decades had confirmed the migration from Southernly African along with Saharan populations into the early Nile Valley. Upper Egypt was now positioned as a origin point of pharaonic unification, with supporting archaeological, anthropological, genetic, and linguistic sources of evidence having identified close affinities between Upper Egypt and other sub-Saharan African populations.


Ancient Egyptian religion

Ancient Egyptian religion was a complex system of polytheistic beliefs and rituals that formed an integral part of ancient Egyptian culture. It centered on the Egyptians' interactions with many deities believed to be present and in control of the world. About 1,500 deities are known. Rituals such as prayer and offerings were provided to the gods to gain their favor. Formal religious practice centered on the pharaohs, the rulers of Egypt, believed to possess divine powers by virtue of their positions. They acted as intermediaries between their people and the gods, and were obligated to sustain the gods through rituals and offerings so that they could maintain Ma'at, the order of the cosmos, and repel Isfet, which was chaos. The state dedicated enormous resources to religious rituals and to the construction of temples.
Individuals could interact with the gods for their own purposes, appealing for help through prayer or compelling the gods to act through magic. These practices were distinct from, but closely linked with, the formal rituals and institutions. The popular religious tradition grew more prominent over the course of Egyptian history as the status of the pharaoh declined. Egyptian belief in the afterlife and the importance of funerary practices is evident in the great efforts made to ensure the survival of their souls after death – via the provision of tombs, grave goods and offerings to preserve the bodies and spirits of the deceased.
The religion had its roots in Egypt's prehistory and lasted for 3,500 years. The details of religious belief changed over time as the importance of particular gods rose and declined, and their intricate relationships shifted. At various times, certain gods became preeminent over the others, including the sun god Ra, the creator god Amun, and the mother goddess Isis. For a brief period, in the theology promulgated by the pharaoh Akhenaten, a single god, the Aten, replaced the traditional pantheon. Ancient Egyptian religion and mythology left behind many writings and monuments, along with significant influences on ancient and modern cultures. The religion decentralized following the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BC and was suppressed during the Christian period. Practices such as mummification halted, and the ancient Egyptian religion was considered to have fully died in the 530s. Following the Arab conquest of Egypt under Amr ibn al-As, Egyptians started to convert to Islam.

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Archaeology of ancient Egypt

The archaeology of ancient Egypt is the study of the archaeology of Egypt, stretching from prehistory through three millennia of documented history. Egyptian archaeology is one of the branches of Egyptology.
Napoleon's invasion of Egypt in 1798 led to the Western passion for Egyptian antiquities. In the modern era, the Ministry of State for Antiquities controls excavation permits for Egyptologists. The field can now use geophysical methods and other applications of modern sensing techniques. John Romer, Zahi Hawass, Sarah Parcak, Toby Wilkinson are some of the prominent Egyptologists making excavations in Egypt today.


Art of ancient Egypt

Ancient Egyptian art refers to art produced in ancient Egypt between the 6th millennium BC and the 4th century AD, spanning from Prehistoric Egypt until the Christianization of Roman Egypt. It includes paintings, sculptures, drawings on papyrus, faience, jewelry, ivories, architecture, and other art media. It was a conservative tradition whose style changed very little over time. Much of the surviving examples comes from tombs and monuments, giving insight into the ancient Egyptian afterlife beliefs like the Egyptian mummies.
The ancient Egyptian language had no word for "art". Artworks served an essentially functional purpose that was bound with religion and ideology. To render a subject in art was to grant it permanence; thus, ancient Egyptian art portrayed an idealized and unrealistic version of the world. There was no significant tradition of individual artistic expression since art served a wider and cosmic purpose of maintaining order (Ma'at).


Cats in ancient Egypt

In ancient Egypt, cats were represented in social and religious scenes dating as early as 1980 BC. Several ancient Egyptian deities were depicted and sculptured with cat-like heads such as Mafdet, Bastet and Sekhmet, representing justice, fertility, and power, respectively. The deity Mut was also depicted as a cat and in the company of a cat.
Cats were praised for killing venomous snakes, rodents and birds that damaged crops, and protecting the Pharaoh since at least the First Dynasty of Egypt. Skeletal remains of cats were found among funerary goods dating to the 12th Dynasty. The protective function of cats is indicated in the Book of the Dead, where a cat represents Ra and the benefits of the sun for life on Earth. Cat-shaped decorations used during the New Kingdom of Egypt indicate that the domesticated cat became more popular in daily life. Cats were depicted in association with the name of Bastet.
Cat cemeteries at the archaeological sites Speos Artemidos, Bubastis, and Saqqara were used for several centuries. They contained vast numbers of cat mummies and cat statues that are exhibited in museum collections worldwide. Among the mummified animals excavated in Giza, the African wildcat (Felis lybica) is the most common cat followed by the jungle cat (Felis chaus). In view of the huge number of cat mummies found in Egypt, the cat was certainly important for the country's economy; it is speculated that cats were bred for the purpose of sacrifice and mummification, requiring a trading network for the supply of food, oils and resins for embalming them.


Clothing in ancient Egypt

Ancient Egyptian clothing comprises the garments, jewelry, footwear, and wigs worn by individuals in Egypt from the end of the Neolithic period (prior to 3100 BC) to the collapse of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in 30 BC. Fashions in ancient Egypt changed slowly over time and were influenced by foreign styles. Recognizable aspects of ancient Egyptian clothing include white linen kilts, sheath dresses, bag-tunics, and mantles; usekh collars; sandals; and wigs.


Dance in ancient Egypt

Dancing played an important role in the lives of the ancient Egyptians. However, men and women are never depicted dancing together. The trf was a dance performed by a pair of men during the Old Kingdom. Dance groups were accessible to perform at dinner parties, banquets, lodging houses, and even religious temples. Some women from wealthy harems were trained in music and dance. They danced for royalty accompanied by male musicians playing on guitars, lyres, and harps. Yet, no well-bred Egyptian would dance in public, because that was the privilege of the lower classes. Wealthy Egyptians kept slaves to entertain at their banquets and present pleasant diversion to their owners.


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Adaptable robotics

Adaptable Robotics refers to a field of robotics with a focus on creating robotic systems capable of adjusting their hardware and software components to perform a wide range of tasks while adapting to varying environments. The 1960s introduced robotics into the industrial field. Since then, the need to make robots with new forms of actuation, adaptability, sensing and perception, and even the ability to learn stemmed the field of adaptable robotics. Significant developments such as the PUMA robot, manipulation research, soft robotics, swarm robotics, AI, cobots, bio-inspired approaches, and more ongoing research have advanced the adaptable robotics field tremendously. Adaptable robots are usually associated with their development kit, typically used to create autonomous mobile robots. In some cases, an adaptable kit will still be functional even when certain components break.
Adaptable robotics systems successfully adapt to their environment using techniques such as modular design, machine learning, and sensor feedback. Using this, they have revolutionized various industries and can address many real-world challenges in the medical, industrial, extraterrestrial, and experimental fields. There are still many challenges to overcome in adaptable robotics, which presents opportunities for growth in the field.


Aerial robotics

Aerial robotics or aerial robot may also refer to:

Aerobot, an aerial robot for space exploration
Unmanned aerial vehicle, an aerial robot for transportation
Jetliner, an aerial robot with human pilot


Agility Robotics

Agility Robotics, Inc. is a privately held American humanoid robotics and engineering company. The company was founded in 2015 as a spin-off from Oregon State University and currently provides automation solutions, based around its humanoid robot Digit.


Amazon Robotics

Amazon Robotics LLC, formerly Kiva Systems, is a Massachusetts-based company that manufactures mobile robotic fulfillment systems. It is a subsidiary of Amazon.com. Its automated storage and retrieval systems have been used in the past by companies including Gap, Walgreens, Staples, Gilt Groupe, Office Depot, Crate & Barrel, Amazon and Saks Fifth Avenue.


American robotics

Robots of the United States include simple household robots such as Roomba to sophisticated autonomous aircraft such as the MQ-9 Reaper that cost 18 million dollars per unit. The first industrial robot, robot company, and exoskeletons as well as the first dynamically balancing, organic, and nanoscale robots originate from the United States.


Android (robot)

An android is a humanoid robot or other artificial being, often made from a flesh-like material. Historically, androids existed only in the domain of science fiction and were frequently seen in film and television, but advances in robot technology have allowed the creation of similar robots in real life.

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Arbe Robotics

Arbe Robotics Ltd. is an Israeli technology company that develops 4D imaging radar chipsets and perception solutions for advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) and autonomous vehicles. Headquartered in Tel Aviv, it is listed on the Nasdaq Stock Market and the Tel Aviv Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol ARBE.


Autel Robotics

Autel Robotics is a Chinese consumer and commercial aerial drone manufacturer. Founded in 2014, the company is headquartered in Shenzhen, China. It was formerly a subsidiary of Autel Intelligent Technology (AIT), until it was spun off when AIT went public in 2020.


Autonomous robot

An autonomous robot is a robot that acts without recourse to human control. Historic examples include space probes. Modern examples include self-driving vacuums and cars.
Industrial robot arms that work on assembly lines inside factories may also be considered autonomous robots, though their autonomy is restricted due to a highly structured environment and their inability to locomote.

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Clearpath Robotics

Clearpath Robotics, Inc. (also known as Clearpath) was founded in 2009 by a group of four University of Waterloo graduates, and remains headquartered in Waterloo Region, Canada. The original goal of Clearpath was to streamline field robotics research for universities and private corporations, but the company has since expanded and is now also manufacturing and selling the OTTO line of self-driving vehicles for industrial environments.


Cloud robotics

Cloud robotics is a field of robotics that attempts to invoke cloud technologies such as cloud computing, cloud storage, and other Internet technologies centered on the benefits of converged infrastructure and shared services for robotics. When connected to the cloud, robots can benefit from the powerful computation, storage, and communication resources of a modern data center in the cloud, which can process and share information from various robots or agents (other machines, smart objects, humans, etc.). Humans can also delegate tasks to robots remotely through networks.
Cloud computing technologies enable robot systems to be gain capability whilst reducing costs through cloud technologies. Thus, it is possible to build lightweight, low-cost, smarter robots with an intelligent "brain" in the cloud. The "brain" consists of data center, knowledge base, task planners, deep learning, information processing, environment models, communication support, etc.


Developmental robotics

Developmental robotics (DevRob), sometimes called epigenetic robotics, is a scientific field which aims at studying the developmental mechanisms, architectures and constraints that allow lifelong and open-ended learning of new skills and new knowledge in embodied machines. As in human children, learning is expected to be cumulative and of progressively increasing complexity, and to result from self-exploration of the world in combination with social interaction. The typical methodological approach consists in starting from theories of human and animal development elaborated in fields such as developmental psychology, neuroscience, developmental and evolutionary biology, and linguistics, then to formalize and implement them in robots, sometimes exploring extensions or variants of them. The experimentation of those models in robots allows researchers to confront them with reality, and as a consequence, developmental robotics also provides feedback and novel hypotheses on theories of human and animal development.
Developmental robotics is related to but differs from evolutionary robotics (ER).  ER uses populations of robots that evolve over time, whereas DevRob is interested in how the organization of a single robot's control system develops through experience, over time.
DevRob is also related to work done in the domains of robotics and artificial life.


Domestic robot

A domestic robot or homebot is a type of service robot, an autonomous robot that is primarily used for household chores, but may also be used for education, entertainment or therapy. While most domestic robots are simplistic, some are connected to Wi-Fi home networks or smart environments and are autonomous to a high degree. There was an estimated 37.9 million service robots in 2025, which is expected to rise to about 50 million in 2027.


Ecovacs Robotics

Ecovacs Robotics (Chinese: 科沃斯; pinyin: Kēwòsī) is a Chinese technology company. It is best known for developing in-home robotic appliances. The company was founded in 1998 by Qian Dongqi and is headquartered in Suzhou, China. According to Global Asia, Ecovacs Robotics had more than 60% of the Chinese market for robots by 2013. In 2023, Nikkei Asia had reported that the market capitalisation of Ecovacs Robotics has grown to near $6.38 billion, which is "roughly 5 times" that of the market capitalisation of rivalling US based iRobot, who manufactures the Roomba.


Educational robotics

Educational robotics teaches the design, analysis, application and operation of robots. Robots include articulated robots, mobile robots or autonomous vehicles. Educational robotics can be taught from elementary school to graduate programs. Robotics may also be used to motivate and facilitate the instruction other, often foundational, topics such as computer programming, artificial intelligence or engineering design.


Evolutionary robotics

Evolutionary robotics is an embodied approach to Artificial Intelligence (AI) in which robots are automatically designed using Darwinian principles of natural selection. The design of a robot, or a subsystem of a robot such as a neural controller, is optimized against a behavioral goal (e.g. run as fast as possible). Usually, designs are evaluated in simulations as fabricating thousands or millions of designs and testing them in the real world is prohibitively expensive in terms of time, money, and safety.
An evolutionary robotics experiment starts with a population of randomly generated robot designs. The worst performing designs are discarded and replaced with mutations and/or combinations of the better designs. This evolutionary algorithm continues until a prespecified amount of time elapses or some target performance metric is surpassed.
Evolutionary robotics methods are particularly useful for engineering machines that must operate in environments in which humans have limited intuition (nanoscale, space, etc.). Evolved simulated robots can also be used as scientific tools to generate new hypotheses in biology and cognitive science, and to test old hypothesis that require experiments that have proven difficult or impossible to carry out in reality.


FIRST Robotics Competition

The FIRST Robotics Competition (FRC) is an international high school robotics competition operated by FIRST. Each year, the organization designs a game around various tasks, and teams of high school students, coaches, and mentors build robots to play it. Tasks have included shooting balls into goals, hanging on bars, placing objects in predetermined locations, and balancing robots on field elements. Teams are given a set of parts during the annual Kickoff; they are encouraged to purchase or fabricate specialized components.
FIRST Robotics Competition is one of five robotics competition programs organized by FIRST, along with FIRST LEGO League Discover, FIRST LEGO League Explore, FIRST LEGO League Challenge, and FIRST Tech Challenge.
The program aims to inspire students to be science and technology leaders. It urges participants to demonstrate two values: "Gracious Professionalism", or help, empathy, and respect for other teams; and "Coopertition", the idea that teams can cooperate and compete at the same time.
In 2024, the 33rd year of the competition, robots were built by 3,468 teams in 28 countries, comprising more than 86,700 students and 27,700 mentors. Events included 62 Regional Competitions, 98 District Qualifying Competitions, and 11 District Championships. More than 600 teams received invitations to attend the FIRST Championship tournament. In addition to on-field competition, teams and team members competed for awards recognizing entrepreneurship, creativity, engineering, industrial design, safety, controls, media, quality, and exemplifying the core values of the program. The COVID-19 pandemic dampened participation during the 2021 season.


Fog robotics

Fog robotics can be defined as an architecture which consists of storage, networking functions, control with fog computing closer to robots.


Gemini Robotics

Gemini Robotics is an advanced vision–language–action model developed by Google DeepMind in partnership with Apptronik. It is based on the Gemini 2.0 large language model. It is tailored for robotics applications and can understand new situations. There is a related version called Gemini Robotics–ER, which stands for embodied reasoning. The two models were launched on March 12, 2025.
On June 24, 2025, Google DeepMind released Gemini Robotics On-Device, a variant designed and optimized to run locally on robotic devices.
On July 30, 2026, Google DeepMind announced Gemini Robotics ER 2, an upgrade to its embodied reasoning model featuring real-time video understanding, task progress tracking, lower-latency orchestration via the Gemini Live API, tool integration, and multi-robot collaboration. With this release, the model was made publicly available to developers via the Gemini API and Google AI Studio.
Access to earlier Gemini Robotics models was initially restricted to trusted testers, including Agile Robots, Agility Robotics, Boston Dynamics, and Enchanted Tools.


Geography of robotics

Robotics is the branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation, structural disposition, manufacture and application of robots. Robotics is related to the sciences of electronics, engineering, mechanics, and software.


Hanson Robotics


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Horizon Robotics


Humanoid robot


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List of robotics companies


Nao (robot)


Neura Robotics


Optimus (robot)


Pepper (robot)


Rehabilitation robotics


Rethink Robotics


Robot

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2026 in climate change

This article documents notable events, research findings, scientific and technological advances, and human actions to measure, predict, mitigate, and adapt to the effects of global warming and climate change—during the year 2026.


The 2027 United Nations Climate Change Conference or Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC, more commonly known as COP32, is the upcoming 32nd session of the United Nations Climate Change Conference, to be held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.


Abrupt climate change

An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance. The transition rate is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing, though it may include sudden forcing events such as meteorite impacts. Abrupt climate change therefore is a variation beyond the variability of a climate. Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse, Younger Dryas, Dansgaard–Oeschger events, Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum. The term is also used within the context of climate change to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime. Such a sudden climate change can be the result of feedback loops within the climate system or tipping points in the climate system.
Scientists may use different timescales when speaking of abrupt events. For example, the duration of the onset of the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum may have been anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years. In comparison, climate models predict that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions, the Earth's near surface temperature could depart from the usual range of variability in the last 150 years as early as 2047.


Antarctica

Antarctica ( ) is Earth's southernmost and least-populated continent. Situated almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle and surrounded by the Southern Ocean (also known as the Antarctic Ocean), it contains the geographic South Pole. Antarctica is the fifth-largest continent, being about 40% larger than Europe, and has an area of 14,200,000 km2 (5,500,000 sq mi). Most of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet, with an average thickness of 1.9 km (1.2 mi).
Antarctica is, on average, the coldest, driest, and windiest of the continents, and has the highest average elevation. It is mainly a polar desert, with annual precipitation of over 200 mm (8 in) along the coast and far less inland. About 70% of the world's freshwater reserves are frozen in Antarctica, which, if melted, would raise global sea levels by almost 60 metres (200 ft). Antarctica holds the record for the lowest measured temperature on Earth, −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F). The coastal regions can reach temperatures over 10 °C (50 °F) in the summer. Native species of animals include mites, nematodes, penguins, seals and tardigrades. Where vegetation occurs, it is mostly in the form of lichen or moss.
The ice shelves of Antarctica were probably first seen in 1820, during a Russian expedition led by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev. The decades that followed saw further exploration by French, American, and British expeditions. The first confirmed landing was by a Norwegian team in 1895. In the early 20th century, there were a few expeditions into the interior of the continent. British explorers Douglas Mawson, Edgeworth David, and Alistair Mackay were the first to reach the magnetic South Pole in 1909, and the geographic South Pole was first reached in 1911 by Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen.
Antarctica is governed by about 30 countries, all of which are parties of the 1959 Antarctic Treaty System. According to the terms of the treaty, military activity, mining, nuclear explosions, and nuclear waste disposal are all prohibited in Antarctica. Tourism, fishing and research are the main human activities in and around Antarctica. During the summer months, about 5,000 people reside at research stations, a figure that drops to around 1,000 in the winter. Despite the continent's remoteness, human activity has a significant effect on it via pollution, ozone depletion, and climate change. The melting of the potentially unstable West Antarctic ice sheet causes the most uncertainty in century-scale projections of sea level rise, and the same melting also affects the Southern Ocean overturning circulation, which can eventually lead to significant impacts on the Southern Hemisphere climate and Southern Ocean productivity.


Bolivia

Bolivia, officially the Plurinational State of Bolivia, is a landlocked country located in central South America. Its geography primarily consists of an Andean region to the west and tropical lowlands to the east and north. The country has a diverse environment, including the vast Amazonian plain, the Gran Chaco, temperate valleys, the high-altitude Altiplano plateau, snow-capped peaks, and mountains, encompassing a wide range of climates and biomes across its regions and cities. It includes part of the Pantanal, the largest tropical wetland in the world, along its eastern border. Bolivia is bordered by Brazil to the north and east, Paraguay to the southeast, Argentina to the south, Chile to the southwest, and Peru to the west. The seat of government is La Paz, which contains the executive, legislative, and electoral branches of government, while the constitutional capital is Sucre, the seat of the judiciary. While most population and urban centers lie in the Andean region, the largest city and principal industrial center is Santa Cruz de la Sierra, located in the eastern tropical lowlands.
The sovereign state of Bolivia is a constitutionally unitary state divided into nine departments. Bolivia's geographic Andean-lowland divide is matched by economic and cultural differences such as those associated with the camba and colla demonyms. One-third of the country is within the Andean mountain range. With an area of 1,098,581 square kilometers (424,164 sq mi), Bolivia is the fifth-largest country in South America after Brazil, Argentina, Peru, and Colombia, and, alongside Paraguay, is one of two landlocked countries in the Americas. It is the largest landlocked country in the Southern Hemisphere, and has inland ports accessing the Atlantic Ocean through two river systems: Acre-Purus-Amazon and Paraguay-Paraná. Bolivia had a population of 11.4 million as of the latest census in 2024. It is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Mestizos, and the descendants of Europeans and Africans. Spanish is the official and predominant language, although 36 indigenous languages also have official status, of which the most commonly spoken are Guaraní, Aymara, and Quechua.
Centuries prior to Spanish colonization, much of what would become Bolivia formed part of the Tiwanaku polity, which collapsed around 1000 AD. The Colla–Inca War of the 1440s marked the beginning of Inca rule in western Bolivia. The eastern and northern lowlands of Bolivia were inhabited by independent non-Andean Amazonian and Guaraní tribes. Spanish conquistadores, arriving from Cusco, Peru and Asunción, Paraguay, forcibly took control of the region in the 16th century.
During the subsequent Spanish colonial period, Bolivia was administered by the Real Audiencia of Charcas. Spain built its empire in large part upon the silver that was extracted from Cerro Rico in Potosí. Following an unsuccessful rebellion in Sucre on May 25, 1809, sixteen years of fighting would follow before the establishment of the Republic, named for Simón Bolívar. Over the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries, Bolivia lost control of several peripheral territories to neighboring countries, such as the Acre territory after Brazil's 1899–1903 takeover, and the country's Pacific coastal region which Chile seized in 1879.
Bolivia was ruled by an oligarchy composed of land-owning and mining interests until the Bolivian National Revolution of 1952 established universal suffrage, nationalized lucrative tin mining and made a limited land reform. 20th century Bolivia experienced a succession of military and civilian governments with the last non-elected military ruler leaving office in 1982.
Modern Bolivia is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), Organization of American States (OAS), Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization (ACTO), Bank of the South, the Union of South American Nations (USAN), and Southern Common Market (Mercosur). Bolivia remains a developing country, and the second-poorest in South America, though it has slashed poverty rates. Its main economic resources include agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining, and goods such as textiles and clothing, refined metals, and refined petroleum. Bolivia is very geologically rich, with mines producing tin, silver, lithium, and copper. The country is also known for its production of coca plants and refined cocaine. In 2021, estimated coca cultivation and cocaine production was reported to be 39,700 hectares and 317 metric tons, respectively.

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Causes of climate change

The scientific community has been investigating the causes of current climate change for decades. After thousands of studies, the scientific consensus is that it is "unequivocal that human influence has warmed the atmosphere, ocean and land since pre-industrial times." This consensus is supported by around 200 scientific organizations worldwide. The scientific principle underlying current climate change is the greenhouse effect, which provides that greenhouse gases pass sunlight that heats the earth, but trap some of the resulting heat that radiates from the planet's surface. Large amounts of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane have been released into the atmosphere through burning of fossil fuels since the industrial revolution. Indirect emissions from land use change, emissions of other greenhouse gases such as nitrous oxide, and increased concentrations of water vapor in the atmosphere, also contribute to climate change.

The warming from the greenhouse effect has a logarithmic relationship with the concentration of greenhouse gases. This means that every additional fraction of CO2 and the other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has a slightly smaller warming effect than the fractions before it as the total concentration increases. However, only around half of CO2 emissions continually reside in the atmosphere in the first place, as the other half is quickly absorbed by carbon sinks in the land and oceans. Further, the warming per unit of greenhouse gases is also affected by feedbacks, such as the changes in water vapor concentrations or Earth's albedo (reflectivity).
As the warming from CO2 increases, carbon sinks absorb a smaller fraction of total emissions, while the "fast" climate change feedbacks amplify greenhouse gas warming. Thus, the effects counteract one another, and the warming from each unit of CO2 emitted by humans increases temperature in linear proportion to the total amount of emissions. Further, some fraction of the greenhouse warming has been "masked" by the human-caused emissions of sulfur dioxide, which forms aerosols that have a cooling effect. However, this masking has been receding in the recent years, due to measures to combat acid rain and air pollution caused by sulfates.

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Climate

Climate is the long-term weather pattern in a region, typically averaged over 30 years. More rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from months to millions of years. Some of the meteorological variables that are commonly measured are temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and precipitation. In a broader sense, climate is the state of the components of the climate system, including the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere and biosphere and the interactions between them. The climate of a location is affected by its latitude, longitude, terrain, altitude, land use and nearby water bodies and their currents.
Climates can be classified according to the average and typical variables, most commonly temperature and precipitation. The most widely used classification scheme is the Köppen climate classification. The Thornthwaite system, in use since 1948, incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it. The major classifications in Thornthwaite's climate classification are microthermal, mesothermal, and megathermal. Finally, the Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region.
Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates. Paleoclimatologists seek to explain climate variations for all parts of the Earth during any given geologic period, beginning with the time of the Earth's formation. Since very few direct observations of climate were available before the 19th century, paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables. They include non-biotic evidence—such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores—and biotic evidence—such as tree rings and coral. Climate models are mathematical models of past, present, and future climates. Climate change may occur over long and short timescales due to various factors. Recent warming is discussed in terms of global warming, which results in redistributions of biota. For example, as climate scientist Lesley Ann Hughes has written: "a 3 °C [5 °F] change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300–400 km [190–250 mi] in latitude (in the temperate zone) or 500 m [1,600 ft] in elevation. Therefore, species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones."