Egypt: Tour Egypt Monthly: The Ecological Context of Ancient Egyptian Predynastic Settlements

Feature Article

The Ecological Context of Ancient Egyptian Predynastic Settlements

by Michael Brass

The Lower Egyptian Cultural-Ecological Sequence

Merimda Beni Salama

The Fayum

If indeed such a para-agricultural mode of life existed in the Fayum, a symbiotic relationship may also have existed with the more fully agricultural communities in the Valley and the Delta. The tentative steps towards the beginning of agricultural life at Kom W, and indeed the Fayum as a whole, could well have been hindered by the pitfalls of pursuing agriculture along the Fayum lake shores. Coupled with this was the high productivity and stability of the marsh fauna and flora that would have attracted the inhabitants towards fishing, hunting and gathering.

Approximately contemporary with Merimda's final occupation (c. 4300 BC) is an assemblage of habitation sites and cemeteries, collectively termed El-Omari, and which survive down into early Dynastic times. These assemblages are situated nearby and in the mouth of the Wadi Hof (between Cairo and Helwan), most likely cultivable land then.

The main settlement is situated on a gravel terrace that slopes down to the Wadi Hof estuary. A smaller site, contemporary with the estuary community, has been discovered near two natural rain catchments on one of Jebel Hof's tallest terraces. It is hypothesised that the latter, and other high settlements, were established as naturally defended outpost of the former and other lower habitations.

The Merimda, Fayum and El-Omari occupations thus provide clear evidence of functional cultural settlements in Lower Egypt before 4000 BC. Yet there are few sites (apart from El-Omari) spanning 4000 - 3700 BC, a period when large and functionally complex societies were flourishing in Upper Egypt, the most important being at Hierakonpolis.

The Upper Egyptian Cultural-Ecological Sequence

Throughout Ancient Egyptian history, the majority of settlements were located on the Nile floodplain while the Upper Egyptian cemeteries were often positioned slightly beyond the edge of the cultivated land, in the desert margins. As a consequence, many settlement sites (with the exception of those constructed on reasonably high ground or, in the example of Kom Ombo, on tells - the residential debris of previous sedentary communities) have either been covered by silt or simply washed away as the river changed course, thus providing an explanation for the low ratio of Upper Egyptian Predynastic living-sites in relation to their known cemeteries. Another reason is probably due in part to earlier excavators priorities. The Predynastic cemeteries, containing much grave goods (some of which were made from exotic materials), attracted greater interest to excavate than habitation sites either disturbed by digging for sebakh (organic remains utilized as fertilizer) or else wiped out by the more recent expanding floodplain agriculture.

The Nile floodplain was lower between c. 8 000 - 5 000 BC than it is in modern times and this, coupled with the valley also being narrower then (averaging c. 2km in many areas), has resulted in even the cemeteries positioned along the then flooded land margins having been buried under more recent alluvium deposits.

Until the early 1960s, Middle Egypt (to the north of Badari and south of Memphis) was believed to have been uninhabited in Predynastic times. However, work conducted by the geologist Karl Butzer has revealed that cemeteries dating to this period in time were probably either wiped out by shifts in the channel of the Nile or are buried beneath substantial sand and alluvium deposits. Those surviving Predynastic living-sites are all positioned on embankments that are several metres above the modern alluvium level. Their survival is therefore fortuitous. Butzer further hypothesizes that the low settlement density in the region between Memphis and the Upper Egyptian sites may also have been the result of the large natural Middle Egyptian flood basins that "would have required massive labour to bring under control". By contrast, the flood basins from Abydos southwards, in Upper Egypt, were smaller and thereby more easily controllable than those from further north and the Delta.

Interpretations differ concerning the exact nature of these first complex societies. Kemp hypothesizes that a "primate" settlement pattern existed, i.e. the majority of the population lived in the towns, thus leading to functional changes towards rapid centralization and economic functional differential. The same data, however, has been analyzed by Hassan who has proposed a "rank" system, i.e. economic and socio-political systems with comparatively little authoritative or administrative centralization, and which were first and foremost symbolic of a new order of life as well as centres for the sacred shrine and deities. The "rank" system, whereby settlements were strategically placed in order to maximize control over the valley inhabitants, came into being as a result of the linearity and narrowness of the floodplain that limited the available cultivable land and thereby also the potential for the growth of pre-industrial settlements in a way that, by comparison, the Mesopotamian settlements were not.

It seems at first glance an ecological paradox that Upper Egypt was the initial heartland of cultural complexity and not Lower Egypt with its wide fertile lands and richer diversity in resources due to its contact with the Mediterranean lands. Yet the Upper Egyptian flood basins were smaller in size and therefore easier to control for agricultural purposes. The early state formation model of Carneiro could well thus be relevant in this context, as he hypothesizes that a sharp population rise in restricted agricultural environments leads to pressure on the available resources and military competition over land ensues.

The Badari

The Badari area is located on the Nile east bank, roughly 30km to the south of Assyut, where Badarian (4800 - 4000 BC) settlements and graves extend 33 km southwards in the Mostagedda and Matmar region. There are 41 cemeteries and 40 settlement locations in the low desert that overlooks the floodplain beneath the high desert limestone plateau cliffs. The dwellings of the Badarians were similar to those Lower Egyptian sites mentioned.

A connection can be seen between the cemeteries, and the floodplain and desert-edged settlements that suggests the Badarians were seasonal occupiers of the plain. The Badarian settlement areas are modest and deposits are thin, which suggests that villages did not exist for long periods on the same site. The 40 habitation site strip from Badari-Mostagedda can be subdivided up into three subregional settlement clusters and various subclusters. The fact that these sites were short-lived suggests lively inter-action between ecological and social influences. The floodplain narrows here and this would have stinted the development of large individual settlement. This would have coupled with the stochastic fluctuations small populations are subjected to - the inhabitants of a community joining that of another community when their settlement population numbers decline.

The settlements at Hierakonpolis differ from the usual Predynastic communities, settled mostly on the low desert escarpments paralleling the floodplain, by extending both parallel and perpendicular to the river banks.

Hierakonpolis contains the entire Nagada I - III cultural sequence (c. 4000 - 3100 BC), stretching back to the end of the Badarian. Excavations by Hoffman have led him to conclude that the initial settlement at Hierakonpolis was by colonists from more northern unspecified sectors of Upper Egypt. Hoffman also hypothesizes that there was a "population explosion" between 3800 and 3400 BC, with the central sector of the settlement supporting between 5000 - 10 000 inhabitants. The growth he attributes to the regions ecological diversity and incredible agricultural potential. This Nagada Ic - IIa period was also one of regional expansion, with clustered rectangular house settlements and Hierakonpolis becoming a centre for pottery production.

The Neolithic Subpluvial (resulting from the southward shift of the Mediterranean rainbelts) lasted from c. 7000 - 3000 BC, the rainfall estimates for the Hierakonpolis region ranging from 5cm to 25cm per year. Even 5cm of rainfall would have resulted in a regular seasonal runoff from the surrounding highlands for the Great Wadi at Hierakonpolis, enriching the surrounding environment enabling plant and animal life to prosper in this semi-desert.

The rainfall would have been between January and February, meaning that the inhabitants of the district of Hierakonpolis practiced two different agricultural regimes: "dry" farming in the Wadi and basin irrigation on the floodplain. As the floodplain and the Wadi are separated by a substantial distance, and taking into account that each regime requires its own special cultivation technique as well as the cultivation taking place in both places at the same time (late March and early April being the harvesting period), the local predynastic society was most likely divided into two units - one living in the desert borderlands of the Wadi by a combination of farming, hunting and herding, and the other existing either on or nearby the floodplain in areas like the Nagada II town practicing basin irrigation agriculture (which began during this period) as well as fishing and plying their trade along the Nile.

The decline in rainfall at the end of the Neolithic Subpluvial signified the end of the wadi-based constituent of the Hierakonpolis regional subsistence economy between c. 3300 - 3100 BC. This increasing desiccation led to a settlement shift of the desert regional inhabitants that boosted the floodplain population density and thus the numbers of the available labour force and the base through which local big-men could increase in importance (similar to Carneiro's state-formation model previously mentioned). This increase in hierarchical power could have been achieved by a number of different variants, likely acting in tandem with one another - providing Nile transportation for trade goods; as intermediaries for local and regional trade exchanges; acting as judges in cases involving land, water and dower disputes; able military leadership; and resources for religious and elite secular building constructions.

Apart from the socio-economic consequences, resulting in the quickening emergence of an elite, the Saharan pastures were effectively eliminated to a great extent with the desiccation which rendered the remainder of the Nile floodplain and the Delta attractive inducements for military expeditions, conquest and thereby the expansion of the city-state of Hierakonpolis - during a time of low Nile floods - into one of the world's first nation-states, Ancient Egypt.

The currently known distributions of Predynastic settlements are determined by geological rather than by cultural factors. The ecology of the Nile Valley and Delta also determined the placement of sites within a particular region, like Merimda on a terrace or the divided Hierakonpolis society in its formative stages. Yet the unparalleled transport navigability of the Nile, with each settlement located within a few kilometres of one another, also provides an explanation for most of Ancient Egypt's political and religious Dynastic unity.

However, it is in this lead-up to the unification of the Nile city-states under Hierakonpolis that the environment plays one of its most important roles. The end of the Neolithic Subpluvial (thus ruling out expansion into the desert) and the pressure brought to bear by the decreased Nile floods (thereby putting strain on agricultural production), in tandem with the increased population, made the rest of the Valley and the Delta look increasingly attractive for various means of expansion.

Bard, K. A.; The Egyptian Predynastic: A Review of the Evidence; Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 21, No. 3, 1994

Brewer, D. J. & Wenke, R. J.; Transitional Late Predynastic - Early Dynastic Occupations at Mendes: A Preliminary Report. In Van den Brink, D.; The Nile Delta in Transition: 4th-3rd Mill. BC; Proceedings of Seminar held in Cairo Oct. 1990; IES 1992

Carneiro, R. L.; A Theory of the Origin of the State; Science, Vol. 169, 1970

Grimal. N.; A History of Ancient Egypt; Oxford: Blackwell

Hassan, F. A.; The Predynastic of Egypt; Journal of World Prehistory, Vol. 2, No. 2, 1988

Hoffman, M. A.; Egypt Before the Pharaohs; New York: Barnes & Noble

Shaw, I. & Nicholson, P.; British Museum Dictionary of Ancient Egypt; London: British Museum Press

Trigger, B. G. et al.; Ancient Egypt: A Social History; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Wenke, R. J.; Egypt: Origins of Complex Societies; Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 18, 1989

Wenke, R. J.; The Evolution of Early Egyptian Civilization: Issues and Evidence; Journal of World Prehistory, Vol. 5, No. 3, 1991

Michael Brass is teaching a course on human evolution, which will be conducted over the internet. The course runs from 1 April 1 June 2001. The cost is 30 or $50(US). This web-based course will consist of the following four highly intensive and university-standard lessons: 1. Introduction to archaeology: its emergence, theory and dating techniques 2. Our early hominid ancestors, Homo and its dispersals 3. Trends towards food production and early state formation 4. The late prehistoric and early historic periods of the Near East, India, China, the Americas and Africa. Course materials are provided and the course is open to everyone. For further details on how to register for the course, e-mail

About Michael Brass,

Archaeology BsocSci(Hons) & History BA degrees from the University of Cape Town. "Ancient Egypt and World Prehistory" http://www.users.directonline.net/archaeology

Who are we?


Sunday marked day two of the Kutztown Folk Festival.

This year,  the festival has extended hours. This year it's open until 8 o'clock.

The fair features homemade treats, including many prepared without using electricity.

"We put up an ox, cook it on an open fire, cook it all day, we'll cut it down the end of the day, finish the meat off and serve it next door," said Greg Stewart, the"Ox-Man."

Every summer, the Kutztown Folk Festival draws in thousands of visitors hungry for a taste of Pennsylvania Dutch culture.

The festival runs through Sunday, July 6, open from 10 a.m. to 8 p.m. each day, except for closing day, when the gates close at 5 p.m.

The festival is held at the Kutztown Fairgrounds located at 225 North Whiteoak Street in  Kutztown, Berks County.


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approach to begin to address. [1/9 definitions]
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To this end, you may send a detailed email to our PROIBITED CONTENT DEPARTMENT, specifying the date, your name, the URL address of the content in question, a description of the content in question, and the username of the person who uploaded it. The email must be sent via the contact web form. . Upon receipt by VideoWeed of notice of the aforementioned violations, the content in question will be reviewed and may be removed from the Website. Additionally appropriate authorities may be notified.


Some 600 Scientologists from 28 nations traveled to Indonesia, eastern India, Thailand and Sri Lanka to provide relief in the wake of the 2004 tsunami.
Scientology Volunteer Ministers use techniques developed by L. Ron Hubbard to help victims of disaster overcome trauma and grief.

Within days, some 600 Scientologists from 28 nations arrived in the region where they ultimately brought help to 300,000 people. Their work served as a model for the organization and administration of Scientology Disaster Response operations in subsequent major catastrophes.

The initial corps of volunteers worked with police, military and emergency response personnel to restore order and bring calm to the chaotic scene. They took on whatever job was needed—distributing food and supplies, organizing shelters, helping in hospitals, even assisting with the gruesome work of identifying the dead.

Once the immediate crisis was over, the Volunteer Ministers began the task of providing trauma relief to the countless victims who came to them for help.

With hundreds of thousands dead or missing, nearly everyone the volunteers met had lost loved ones. They began providing Scientology assists—simple techniques that help speed recovery from stress and trauma.

Sri Lankan fishermen had abandoned their work, terrified that another wave might hit. Using simple Scientology techniques, the Volunteer Ministers helped the fishermen come to grips with what had just happened, get back to work and begin to rebuild their lives.

One woman had not slept since the wave hit several days earlier. She was terrified. Every time she closed her eyes, it was as though the wave was there again. After working with a Volunteer Minister for only a few minutes, she was able to close her eyes, sleep, and return to her home to care for her family.

As 600 Volunteer Ministers would be able to reach only a fraction of the hundreds of thousands devastated by the cataclysm, they began to train others: Doctors, nurses, Buddhist monks, Muslim clerics, teachers, police, officials and family members. In all, some 50,000 learned these procedures and in turn brought help to tens of thousands more.

Some of the volunteers who fell in love with the region and its people stayed on to help with the process of rebuilding communities. Others established permanent centers where the local Volunteer Ministers they trained could train others and coordinate actions after the initial corps of foreign Volunteers Ministers returned home.

Some, such as the Australian Volunteer Ministers contingent, have returned time and again, helping the region contend with the ravages of typhoons, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

As these countries are prone to natural disaster, Volunteer Ministers have also provided disaster response workshops to thousands of individuals and local groups to help them prepare for and minimize the effect of future cataclysms.

Their help was not overlooked. The acknowledgement they received from the Sri Lanka Prime Minister’s Office is an index of the value of their work:

“The Volunteer Ministers are a remarkable group of individuals whose purpose is truly to help improve conditions. Their focus is one of organization and coordination. Their self-sufficiency and ability to direct all relief efforts is an indispensable asset to our country at this time. They work with government and community leaders, and aid in the coordination of all relief efforts. Their first concern is the effectiveness of the professionals. This is a highly qualified and dedicated team that is an immense asset to our country.”


Depth Dependent Elemental Compositions of Particulate Organic Matter (POM) in the Ocean

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Schneider, B. , Schlitzer, R. , Fischer, G. and Nöthig, E. M. (2003): Depth Dependent Elemental Compositions of Particulate Organic Matter (POM) in the Ocean , Global biogeochemical cycles, 17(2).1029/2002GB001871 , 10 .
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Supplementary Information:

The production and downward transport of particulate organic matter (POM) creates vertical nutrient and carbon gradients controlling the CO2 exchange between ocean and atmosphere. C:N:P element ratios of POM determine relative magnitudes of downward phosphorus, nitrogen and carbon fluxes. Despite observational evidence for variable element ratios, it is common practice to use the constant Redfield ratios for biogeochemical modeling, which might lead to an underestimation of downward carbon fluxes. To determine elemental ratios of POM and their impact on the marine carbon cycle, we assembled C/N data for particulate material from different sources into a single data collection for joint evaluation. The dataset contains 10200 C/N values, encompassing all major oceans and trophic levels. This dataset shows that C/N ratios are highly variable with values below the traditional Redfield ratio (C/N=6.6) to values greatly exceeding it. On a global mean, C/N ratios of marine sinking particles from the surface water amount to 7.1, and there is a systematic increase of C/N ratios with depth of 0.2 units per 1000 m. The discrepancy with results from dissolved nutrient fields (constant ratios close to Redfield's value) can be explained by implicit depth averaging caused by depth variations of the surfaces under consideration. Due to preferential remineralization of N, the C/N ratio of the dissolving component (seen on dissolved nutrient fields) is smaller than the C/N ratio of the remaining particles. For flux estimations, variable C/N ratios should be implemented in biogeochemical models to correctly represent relative strengths of carbon and nitrogen fluxes.

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Restore The Fourth

1984 Day Sees 'Restore the Fourth' Protests Across the Country

Sunday was "1984 Day" across the United States, a day of protest against the recently disclosed NSA snooping programs. The name is a play on the date 8/4 and a nod to George Orwell's famous book on a surveillance state. Restore the Fourth, an activism organization born on Reddit, chose the day to call for protests against the NSA in 20 cities across the country.

Hundreds of 'Restore the Fourth' NSA Protestors March in New York City

Approximately 300 protestors demonstrating against the National Security Administration's surveillance programs marched three miles from New York City's Union Square south to Federal Hall onThursday. The march was one of 50 such protests organized in cities across the country. The Restore the Fourth protests originated on Reddit less than a month ago. The name is a reference to the Fourth Amendment, which protects American citizens against unreasonable searches and seizures.

Thousands to Join 'Restore the Fourth' Anti-NSA Rallies


Where is the Bemuda Triangle

No one wants to go to the Bermuda Triangle because everyone knew about this mysterious place. And if any one would like go and want to explore the mystery of the Bermuda Triangle then his first question is that where is the Bermuda Triangle? I want to go that place to solve the mystery. But after knowing the facts and reality about the place of the Bermuda Triangle the person refuses his challenge and cancel his journey of to go to Bermuda Triangle Traveling.
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The area covers the Bermuda Triangle is the highly levitating water of the Atlantic Ocean. The Bermuda Triangle generally accepted and spans one triangle corner from the coast of Miami Florida, second corner from Bermuda and third from San Juan PUETO RICO. It's covering roughly 500 thousand Square Miles area where mysterious incidents of disappearing of boat, planes and ships are happens. Florida is the state of USA and Miami is the beach of Florida. The Islands of Bermuda also referred to as the Bermudas or the Somers Isles is a British Overseas Territory in the North Atlantic Ocean, located off the east coast of the United States. Countries near Bermuda include Turks and Caicos Islands, Bahamas, British Virgin Islands and U.S. Virgin Islands. San Juan is the capital and most populous municipality in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, an unincorporated territory of the United States.

What is the Bemuda Triangle

Many of the people in the world are well known with the name of the Bermuda Triangle. But they didn't know what incidents are happened at that place. The people want to know that what is the Bermuda Triangle?
What is Bermuda Triangle, What is the Bermuda Triangle, The Bermuda Triangle,
The Bermuda Triangle also known devil's triangle is a mysterious place in the Atlantic Ocean. It is roughly the triangular shape. Many stories are famous about the Bermuda Triangle that it sucked Planes and Boats into its dark water. No one predicate perfectly that what happened with the Planes and Boats, where they disappear. All things and persons disappears forever when enters in the Bermuda Triangle's water area.

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August 30, 2014

India's 500 MW Fast Breeder Reactor should be commissioned in 2015 and other India Nuclear News

India's indigeneously built Fast Breeder Reactor at Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu is likely to be commissioned next year, Parliament was informed today. The 500 MW reactor which is part of the second stage in India's three stage nuclear program is complex technology mastered by India.

Soft long landing forecast for China's economy

[CNBC] Dan Steinbock, a research director of International Business at India China and America Institute (USA), visiting fellow at Shanghai Institutes for International Studies (China) and in the EU-Center (Singapore) provides his analysis of China's economy.

Nanoscale assembly line of biological molecules

Production line three times thinner than a hair

Assembling molecules step-by-step

Lab on a Chip - Nanoshuttles propelled by motor proteins sequentially assemble molecular cargo in a microfluidic device

NASA research shows Hybrid-Electric Propulsion can Achieve 4 times Increase in Cruise Efficiency for a VTOL Aircraft

Engineers at NASA's Langley Research Center in Hampton, Va., are studying the concept of vertical takeoff and landing electric engine drones with models such as the unmanned aerial system GL-10 Greased Lightning. The GL-10, which has a 10-foot wingspan, recently flew successfully while tethered. Free-flight tests are planned in the fall of 2014.

NASA has a 21 page study - Benefits of Hybrid-Electric Propulsion to Achieve 4x
Increase in Cruise Efficiency for a VTOL Aircraft

Google X reveals Project Wing its two year old drone package delivery program

[The Atlantic] For two years, Google has been working to build flying robot drone that can deliver products across a city in a minute or two. Project Wing is a secret drone program that’s been running for two years at Google X.

Andreas Raptopoulos and his company Matternet were launched from Singularity University. Matternet has been working to build a business around delivering medicines and other high-value goods in places without roads. They’ve tested in Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Bhutan.

[Wall Street Journal] has also testing delivery drones and those were featured in a 60 minutes segment in December 2013. Domino's Pizza tested delivering pies via drone in 2013.

Wired shows a picture of a fleet of Google X drones.

August 29, 2014

Ukrainian president says 15000 russian soldiers have invaded

[Newsweek] Ukrainian President Petro Poroshenko said that Russian forces had been deployed in Ukrainian territory amid claims that around 15,000 Russian soldiers have been sent to the Donetsk region.

Reports of intensifying Russian military activity on its border with eastern Ukraine have increased in the last 12 hours with Reuters reporting spotting two Russian military armored columns near the Ukrainian-Russian border, one of them firmly on Ukrainian territory, the other driving back into Russia with wounded soldiers.

As fighting has intensified, the Ukrainian town of Novoazovsk was captured by separatist forces this morning according to the Ukrainian Defence and Security Council’s social media.

[] A British government source told CNN on Friday that Russia has moved 4,000 to 5,000 military personnel -- a figure far higher than one U.S. official's earlier claim of 1,000 troops. Some 20,000 troops are on border and "more may be on the way," the source added.

The Ukrainain president is thus saying that the bulk of the Russian troops that were on the border have crossed over.

The UK source, giving his government's analysis of Russian troop movements, surmised that right now "the primary role of the current Russian deployments inside Ukraine is probably to assist, support and take the pressure off the separatist forces in order to maintain pressure on Kiev to decentralize.

"However, we are not ruling out more ambitious plans, including a land corridor from the Russian border to Crimea."

ARPA-E will provide $30 million for nuclear fusion research

ARPA-E is making up to $30 million in funding available (DE-FOA-0001184) for

Accelerating Low-cost Plasma Heating and Assembly (ALPHA)

ALPHA seeks to support innovative R&D on low-cost tools to aid in the future development of fusion power.

An ARPA-E program seeks to develop and demonstrate low-cost tools to aid in the development of fusion power, with a focus on approaches to produce thermonuclear plasmas in the final density range of 10^18-10^23 ions per cubic centimeter. The program goal is to create a toolset that will allow a significant reduction in facilities costs for fusion development and to enable rapid learning through a high shot rate at a low cost-per-shot.

IBM Watson Ushers in a New Era of Data-Driven Accelerated Science Discoveries including faster progress versus cancer and other disease

- Next Milestone in Cognitive Computing is Accelerating Scientific and Industrial Research
- Baylor College of Medicine Speeds Understanding of the Biology of Diseases
- Johnson and Johnson, Sanofi and New York Genome Center Launch Life Science Research Projects

August 28, 2014

Neutral Particle Beam Magsails for fast interplanetary delivery of small cargos

At Centauri Dreams, James Benford looks more closely at particle beam driven magsails. He has found a problem for interstellar missions but promise for interplanetary missions and an interplanetary infrastructure.

The first column shows a fast interplanetary probe, with high interplanetary-scale velocity, acceleration 100 m/sec2, 10 gees, which a nonhuman cargo can sustain. Time required to reach this velocity is 27 minutes, at which time the sail has flown to 135,000 km. The power required for the accelerator is 24GW. If the particle energy is 50MeV, well within state-of-the-art, then the required current is 490A. How long would an interplanetary trip take? If we take the average distance to Mars as 1.5 AU, the probe will be there in 8.7 days. Therefore this qualifies as a Mars Fast Track accelerator.

An advanced probe, at 100 gees acceleration, requires 0.78 TW power and the current is 15 kA. It takes only 34 hours to reach Mars. At such speeds the outer solar system is accessible in a matter of weeks. For example, Saturn can be reached by a direct ascent in the time as short as 43 days.

A very advanced probe, an Interstellar Precursor, at 1000 gees acceleration, reaches 0.8% of light speed. It has a power requirement 34 TW and the current is 676 kA. It takes only 8 hours to reach Mars. At such speeds the outer solar system is accessible in a matter of days. For example, Saturn can be reached by a direct ascent in the time as short as a day. The Oort Cloud at 2,000 AU, can be reached in 6 years.

James Benford replied to some of the Centauri Dream commenters in another Centauri Dream article.

Google Lunar Xprize has big Milestones through October 2014 and for the grand prize in late 2015

To win the grand prize of the Google Lunar Xprize ($20 million), private teams (with no more than 10% in government funding) must:

* Land a robot safely on the Moon
* Move 500 meters on, above, or below the Moon’s surface; and
* Send back HDTV Mooncasts for everyone to enjoy

….And this must all be completed before the December 31st, 2015 deadline! There are other prizes, too, for missions like surviving the lunar night and visiting an Apollo site.

XPRIZE and Google have incorporated Milestone Prizes into the Google Lunar XPRIZE in order to reward teams who achieve key milestones on their way to ready their subsystems for launch.

The Milestone Prizes, totalling US$6 million, are for demonstrating (via actual testing and analysis) robust hardware and software to overcome key technical risks in the areas of imaging, mobility and lander systems — all three being necessary to achieve a successful Google Lunar XPRIZE mission. Milestone Prizes are available in each of those three categories and the prize value and maximum number of winning teams for each are summarized below.

There are still 16 active teams. There are five leading teams who are finalists for at least one of the milestone prizes.

Astrobotic and Moon Express would be considered the leaders are they are finalists in all three milestone prizes. Astrobotic also has booked a rocket launch on a Spacex Falcon 9 for October 2015. They are the primary payload and have sold secondary payload space to defray costs. If Astrobotic and Moon Express succeed they plan to perform lunar missions for NASA and other space agencies.

In April 2011, Astrobotic received a $599,000 two-year contract to develop a scalable gravity offload device for testing rover mobility in simulated lunar gravity under NASA's Small Business Technology Transfer Program (STTR).

On April 30, 2014 NASA announced that Astrobotic Technologies was one of the three companies selected for the Lunar CATALYST initiative. NASA is negotiating a 3 year no-funds-exchanged Space Act Agreement (SAA). The Griffin Lander may be involved

Astrobotic plans on further robotic missions to the moon and Mars.
Astrobotic Griffin Lander

Moon Express is working with Autodesk Moon Express will send a series of robotic spacecraft to the Moon for ongoing exploration and commercial development. The opportunity is simply driven by advances in technology. What used to require the unlimited budgets of a superpower, are now within reach of private enterprise.

In mid-2012, Moon Express announced that it will work with International Lunar Observatory Association (ILOA) to put a shoebox-sized astronomical telescope on the Moon. Additional details were released in July 2013, including that there would be two telescopes: a 2 meters (6 ft 7 in) radio telescope as well as an optical telescope. The preferred location is 5 kilometers (3.1 mi)-high Malapert crater, with current plans to land the mission no earlier than 2018.

As of November 2012, MoonEx has 20 employees, plans to stage a public demonstration in the fall of 2013, and has announced that they will be ready to land on the Moon by early 2015.

In December 2013, MoonEx unveiled the MX-1 lunar lander, a toroidal robotic lander that uses high-test hydrogen peroxide as its rocket propellant to support vertical landing on the Lunar surface.

On April 30, 2014 NASA announced that Moon Express Inc. was one of the three companies selected for the Lunar CATALYST initiative. NASA is negotiating a 3 year no-funds-exchanged Space Act Agreement (SAA)

Moon Express MX-1 Lunar Lander

Undersea tunnels and high speed rail will bring people and freight to mostly 8 hours trips or less from Beijing within China

Wang Mengshu, the rail expert, said all provincial capitals will be linked to Beijing via high-speed rail, and that travelling times will be reduced to eight hours, except on routes between Beijing, Urumqi and Lhasa.

Any two of these provincial capitals will also be linked by high speed rail, he added.

Wang pointed out the coastal railway stretching from northeast China via 11 provincial regions to south China's Hainan province, covering a length of 5700 kilometres, as a crown achievement.

The coastal railway will traverse Bohai and Qiongzhou straits via an underwater channel. Once complete, it will become a main route for energy transportation, he added.

China is also mulling a railway that stretches from China to Singapore via Thailand and Malaysia

August 27, 2014

US oil production again reaches a new post mid-1980s record

US total all liquids oil and crude oil daily production again reached new post mid-1980s peaks. Crude oil production was at 8.63 million barrels per day. It is about 320,000 barrels per day from passing the mid-1980s peak. The overall US peak production was in 1970 at about 9.6 million barrels per day.

North Dakota oil 1.09 million barrels in June 2014. North Dakota oil production is believed to be about 1.2 million barrels per day in August.

North Dakota and Texas oil production is driving the increases in US oil production.

New Cray GPU supercomputer will provide a petaflop of power in 4 Cabinets

Cruising at Mach 3 or a bit more with a supercativation submarine

What power is needed to get to mach 3 constant velocity for a supercativating submarine ? A Supercativating submarine could in theory achieve about 3600 miles per hour but powering the propulsion is a technical challenge.

Goatguy provides the energy for water displaced, times its density, times ½, times its outward radial velocity squared would be the amount of energy invested every second in the slipstream bubble's frontal profile. Maybe more, but this is kind of a minimum. The drag for supercativiation is 200,000 times less so the water displacement is an approximation.

The 1,000 meter per second bullet with a 20° cone uses 1,500,000 J/s (watts) of energy to perpetually keep its 1000 m/s velocity. That is due entirely to the displaced water, and its outward radial velocity dependent on the angle-of-attack of the frontal cone. There's no provision for invested-energy recycling (allowing the collapse of the bubble to propel the tail, to whatever degree water dynamics allows such action), but I'm betting the situation isn't much better at that end, either. Maybe what, get back 70% of the energy? That'd be nice. So, maybe 500,000 W to keep the bullet flying.

And that's a bullet with a cross section of π × 0.0045² m². Now wait a moment: here's the bad news … at the cross-section of a useful human scale sub (5 meters across, which is pretty cramped, considering all that nuclear reactor equipment and such needs also to be on board), the ratio is (D/d)² or (5 ÷ 0.0045)² = 300,000× larger. 300,000 × 500,000 W = 150 billion watts. Assuming that you get back 70% of the invested displacement energy.

German Type VII U-boat submarines were 4.7 meter across at the beam for their pressurized hull

The longest submarine was the USS Triton which were 136 meters long.

A MUCH pointier cone (4°, it only requires 4 gigawatts of motive energy. Well, at 1°, where the ship is 100× longer than it is wide (500 meters long, for a 5 meter wide ship.), you're still looking at 500 megawatts of energy to keep the thing chugging along at Mach3.

I do not think the 1° submarine is unreasonable.

August 26, 2014

DARPA 5 beyond GPS technologies for position, navigation and timing

DARPA aims to safely make engineered biological systems more robust and stable to enable new groundbreaking capabilities

The development of increasingly sophisticated techniques and tools to sequence, synthesize and manipulate genetic material has led to the rapidly maturing discipline of synthetic biology. To date, work in synthetic biology has focused primarily on manipulating individual species of domesticated organisms to perform specific tasks, such as producing medicines or fuels. These species tend to be both relatively fragile (requiring precise environmental conditions to survive) and relatively unstable (subject to losing their engineered advantages through genetic attrition or recombination). The costs of maintaining required environmental controls and detecting and compensating for genetic alterations are substantial and severely limit the widespread application of synthetic biology to U.S. national security missions.

To help address these challenges, DARPA has created the Biological Robustness in Complex Settings (BRICS) program. BRICS seeks to develop the fundamental understanding and component technologies needed to increase the biological robustness and stability of engineered organisms while maintaining or enhancing the safe application of those organisms in complex biological environments. The goal is to create the technical foundation for future engineered biological systems to achieve greater biomedical, industrial and strategic potential.

DARPA’s Biological Robustness in Complex Settings (BRICS) program seeks to develop the fundamental understanding and component technologies needed to increase the biological robustness and stability of engineered organisms while maintaining or enhancing the safe use of those organisms in complex biological environments. The goal is to create the technical foundation for future engineered biological systems to achieve greater biomedical, industrial and strategic potential.

Supercavitation projectiles potentially have 200,000 less drag than a regular object in water

Here is a summary of supercavitation an article from Caltech written in 2001.

This relates to a recent report that chinese researchers have made progress overcoming a few of the problems for implementing supercativation.

For ships traveling faster than 60 miles per hour, propeller-induced cavitation is unavoidable. Supercavitation offers a solution.

In supercavitation, the small gas bubbles produced by cavitation expand and combine to for mone large, stable, and predictable bubble around the supercavitating object. The bubble is longer than the object, so only the leading edge of the object actually contacts liquid water. The rest of the object is surrounded by low-pressure water vapor, significantly lowering the drag on the super-cavitating object. Modern propellers intentionally induce supercavitation to reap the benefits of lower drag.

A super cavity can also form around a specially designed projectile. The key is creating a zone of low pressure around the entire object by carefully shaping the nose and firing the projectile at a sufficiently high velocity. At high velocity , water flows off the edge of the nose with a speed and angle that prevent it from wrapping around the surface of the projectile, producing a low-pressure bubble around the object. With an appropriate nose shape and a speed over 110 miles per hour, the entire projectile may reside in a vapor cavity.

Since drag is proportional to the density of the surrounding fluid, the drag on a super-cavitating projectile is dramatically reduced, allowing supercavitating projectiles to attain higher speeds than conventional projectiles. In water , a rough approximation predicts that a supercavitating projectile has 200,000 times less skin friction than a normal projectile. The potential applications are impressive.

Water has 1000 times more drag than air. Supercaviation has the potential for an enclosed object in water to attain higher speed. The speed of sound is 5 times higher in water than in air.

Shanghai to San Francisco in 100 minutes by Chinese supersonic supercavitating submarine with molten salt nuclear reactors

Here we will describe the advances that the chinese researchers have made towards practical supercavitating submarines and the need for molten salt nuclear reactors to power them. Molten salt nuclear reactors are under commercial development in Canada, China and other countries. Molten salt reactors could achieve 50 times the power density of current nuclear reactors used in nuclear submarines.

A 650 MW thermal integrated molten salt reactor with a supercritical CO2 turbine would have about 400 MWe of power with about 200 tons of weight. This would be about 2 kW per kg.

There have been other molten salt designs with about 18 KW of power per liter. Those are early generation designs and the engineers believe that they can ultimately achieve power density of about 100 kW per liter.

On the issue of wildlife in the ocean, the submarines would need to find a depth where there is less sealife. There would also be the need for satellite and other technology to scan the path ahead. Also, beacons could be placed that make sealife clear out for a specified safe path.

CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing corrects Duchenne muscular dystrophy in mice

Potential of CRISPR Gene editing

George Church believes that CRISPR gene editing can be used to modify the human genome. Initially it will cure many human diseases. Later it will be used to enhance human health by altering genes for longevity.

George Church is a giant in gene sequencing, synthetic biology and DNA science. In the October, 2012 Discover Magazine, George Church described some ideas he has for achieving physical immortality (indeterminant lifespans) via Synthetic biology.

Optomec Receives Order from FAPS Institute to Enable Printing of ‘Artificial Muscles’

Aerosol Jet Print Engine will be used to develop automated manufacturing of bio-electronic actuators for robotic and prosthesis applications

Optomec, a leading provider of production grade additive manufacturing systems , today announced that the Factory Automation and Production Systems (FAPS) Institute at Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU) has purchased an Aerosol Jet Quad Print Engine. The versatile print engine will be used to develop an automated production environment for the manufacturer of artificial muscles (also known as Dielectric Elastomer Actuators –DEAs) that can be used in robots, games and medical applications. Because the production of DEAs require printing of ultra thin layers of elastomer film, silicone and electrodes, the ability of Aerosol Jet technology to print a variety of materials and at dimensions below 10-microns make it ideally suited for the artificial muscle application.

Carnival of Nuclear Energy 223

1. From ANS Nuclear Cafe - Unintended Anti-Nuclear Consequences Lurking in the EPA Clean Power Plan" by Remy Devoe

A detailed analysis of the U.S. EPA Clean Power Plan indicates that 15 states are incentivized to shut down all their nuclear units and replace them with carbon-intensive natural gas. This would be a most detrimental consequence -- but the comment period on the EPA carbon rule is open until October 16th and nuclear experts and advocates are urged to comment

2. ANS Nuclear Cafe - Proposed Revisions to Nuclear Plant Release/Public Exposure Regulations: ANS Response to EPA" by Jim Hopf

In January the U.S. EPA proposed reviewing its regulations on public radiation exposure limits from nuclear power plant operations – Jim Hopf examines the American Nuclear Society’s response, and his own.

Moving to Canada will allow Burger King to pay 26.5% taxes instead of 35%

Burger King (BKW) could lower its tax bill through a merger with Canadian coffee and doughnut chain Tim Hortons (THI) and moving its headquarters to Ontario, Canada.

NBF Note - Taxes at the local and state level still have to be paid. This will not change the fact that franchises in California have to pay all California taxes for any money made in the state. US Federal taxes have to be paid for money made in the United states. This has implications on overseas revenue, which is one of the main reasons for this merger.

Proximal micromagnets increases the speed of quantum manipulation in silicon without adding measurable noise

Researchers report the fabrication and operation of a qubit in a double-quantum dot in a silicon/silicon–germanium (Si/SiGe) heterostructure in which the qubit states are singlet and triplet states of two electrons. The significant advance over previous work is that a proximal micromagnet is used to create a large local magnetic field difference between the two sides of the quantum dot, which increases the manipulability significantly without introducing measurable noise.

The integrated micromagnet provides a promising path toward fast manipulation in materials with small concentrations of nuclear spins, including both natural silicon (Si) and isotopically enriched 28S.

"The next steps in our research are to increase both the magnitude of the field difference between the quantum dots, and the number of qubits by increasing the number of quantum dots," Coppersmith tells "Both steps are being implemented in new devices that have been designed and are currently being fabricated. We're also working on other qubit implementations in silicon quantum dots all of which use electrical initialization, manipulation and readout, and therefore have the potential advantages of integrability and scalability." Moreover, Eriksson points out that being able to control local magnetic fields in a nanoelectronic device could be very useful for spintronics.

Arxiv - Two-axis control of a singlet-triplet qubit with an integrated micromagnet

Researchers demonstrate coherent quantum control around two axes of the Bloch sphere of a singlet-triplet qubit in a silicon quantum dot. The relatively large magnetic field difference between the dots required to achieve two-axis control is implemented using a proximal micromagnet. By measuring the inhomogeneous spin coherence time T∗2 at many different values of the exchange coupling J and two different ∆B fields, we provide evidence that the dominant limits on T∗2 arise from charge noise and from coupling to nuclear spins.

August 25, 2014

DARPA project to develop revolutionary miniaturization and assembly methods at scales a 100,000 times smaller than current state-of-the-art technology

DARPA has created the Atoms to Product (A2P) program to help overcome the challenges of working at the nanoscale to 100 microns. The program seeks to develop enhanced technologies for assembling atomic-scale pieces. It also seeks to integrate these components into materials and systems from nanoscale up to product scale in ways that preserve and exploit distinctive nanoscale properties.

DARPA’s Atoms to Product (A2P) program seeks to develop enhanced technologies for assembling atomic-scale items, and integrating these components into materials and systems from nanoscale up to product scale in ways that preserve and exploit distinctive nanoscale properties.

Comically Obvious Scammers Reduce the False Positives in Identifying Super-Gullible Rubes

GDP comparisons of the US, Europe, China, India, and Japan from 1980 to 2018

Professor Wendell Cox has used the 2013 IMF economic statistical data to make comparisons between the US, Europe, China, India, and Japan from 1980 to 2018.

There was a Worldbank adjustment of purchasing power parity based on a new 2011 survey. This result boosted the purchasing power parity (PPP) levels of China and India by about 24%.

Europe has lost about 25-30% PPP GDP relative to the United States from 1980 to 2014 and is expected to lose more from 2014 to 2018.

Europe's GDP performance is 15% behind Japan's 1990s lost decade economic performance

Japan's decades post 1990 are known as 'the lost decades' but GDP per capita growth was comparable to that in the US and Europe. Japan never really experienced any major decline in production or anywhere near double digit unemployment.

Europe is currently progressing through a lost decade that is showing worse GDP performance for the 7 years since the financial crisis began.

Seeking Alpha describes how he eurozone is resembling Japan's lost decades ever closer on a host of metrics, including demographics, growth, inflation, yields and debts. In some respects, the eurozone crisis actually resembles the Great Depression of the 1930s.

The Euroarea as a whole is still at about zero GDP growth since 2007. Europe would need about 15% GDP growth over the next three years to catch up to Japan's economic performance from 1990-2000.

Europe will need more than 2.0% GDP growth for several years to catch up to Japan lost decades sometime after 2020.

Carnival of Space 368

The Carnival of Space 368 is up at Photos to Space.

Space io9 - Engineers unfolded the James Webb Space Telescope's spine in the world's largest clean room in preparation for decking it with mirrors like a giant, glittering Christmas tree.

August 24, 2014

Goals and Predictions from the SENS 2014 Rejuvenation Biotechnology Conference

At the SENS 2014 Rejuvenation Biotechnology Conference, I spoke with George Church.

Peter Diamandis discussed his Human Longevity Inc startup which he co-founded with Craig Venter.

Human Longevity Inc has the Goal of adding 30-40 years of healthy lifespan.

They are data driven company.

Human genome and phenotype data, microbiome, full body MRI, metabolomics, proteomics
that makes the premier human health database.

Cellgene is an investor and made their stem cell lines available.

San Francisco Bay Area had a 6.0 earthquake at 3:20 AM, The 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake was 6.9

There was a 6.0 earthquake near Napa, California.

Nearby Cities

6km (4mi) NW of American Canyon, California
9km (6mi) SSW of Napa, California
13km (8mi) NNW of Vallejo, California
14km (9mi) SE of Sonoma, California
82km (51mi) WSW of Sacramento, California


Jonathan Harvey

Materials Contributed through SERC-hosted Projects

Other Contributions (2)

Glacier Fluctuations Since the Last Glacial Maximum in Southwest Alaska part of Vignettes:Vignette Collection
Glacier fluctuations since the last glacial maximum in southwest Alaska Introduction During the last glacial maximum (LGM), alpine glaciers in the western cordillera expanded, coalesced, and flowed onto newly-emergent continental shelves (Figure 1). During and after deglaciation, rising seas again submerged these shelves, obscuring the deposits left in the termination zones of these glaciers. Luckily for geologists, outlet glaciers also flowed into unglaciated lowlands on the landward side of the cordillera. The deposits associated with these land-terminating glaciers are relatively well-preserved, and can be used to reconstruct the extent of glaciation during the LGM, as well as the timing and style of deglaciation. Ongoing research in southwest Alaska provides an excellent learning example of the use of these geomorphic records to reconstruct landscape history. Geomorphic evidence of the last glacial maximum in southwest Alaska The Alaska Range is a rugged mountain range in south-central Alaska, home to Mt. McKinley (Denali), the highest peak in North America (6194 m). It is also the northernmost extent of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet, a continuous ice cap that formed along the Pacific coast of North America during the LGM. The western flank of the Alaska Range is an area of ongoing study of glacier dynamics during and following the LGM. Well-preserved moraines and associated glacial deposits record and permit reconstruction of the events that occurred there. The most prominent depositional glacial landforms in the area are the terminal moraines emplaced by piedmont glaciers during their late Wisconsin maximum extent. Over many hundreds of years, glacial till melting out of the ablation zone of the glaciers accumulated at their snouts to form broad, 1- to 2-km-wide hummocky ridges. Melting of ice blocks buried within the moraine resulted in the formation of hundreds of small kettle lakes on this landform. These moraines are visible in elevation data and satellite imagery and can be traced for hundreds of miles along the western flank of the Alaska Range (Figures 2, 3). Upstream from the terminal moraine, a series of similar landforms are present. These are recessional moraines, recording the long process of retreat following the LGM. These moraines were built by glaciers that either temporarily readvanced during overall retreat, or simply paused long enough to build a significant moraine. In many locations in southwest Alaska, at least four recessional moraine-building events, or stades, are recognized, often correlatable from valley to valley. Determining the age of glacial landforms How can we constrain the ages of the LGM and subsequent recessional stades? Because very little vegetation was present during the last glacial maximum, radiocarbon is rarely able to produce more than broadly-defined minimum and maximum ages. Optically-stimulated luminescence has the advantage of not requiring organic matter–it dates sand grains directly. However, OSL has not been thoroughly tested on glacial deposits in Alaska, and it only works on those grains that were sufficiently exposed to sunlight before deposition. Cosmogenic radionuclide (CRN) dating is a tool that is well-suited to determining the age of a glacial moraine. By measuring the levels of cosmogenic isotopes (isotopes produced by the interaction of high-energy particles from space with minerals on earth) in boulders on the crest of a moraine, geologists can determine how long the boulder has been exposed. However, workers must be careful to select only those boulders that appear to be relatively stable. Boulders that have shifted or rolled since deposition will have received less cosmogenic radiation, resulting in ages younger than the age of the landform. An additional source of uncertainty is shielding of cosmic rays by seasonal snowcover. This source of uncertainty can be reduced by sampling only those boulders that protrude well above the surrounding moraine surface. CRN Samples taken from boulders on the LGM terminal moraine on the western flank of the Alaska Range suggest that the moraine stabilized between 19-23 ka. The actual age of the LGM is likely toward the older end of this range, because the moraine boulders were probably subject to shifting for several hundred years after deposition. The recessional moraines are as yet undated. However, other forms of evidence provide insight. Radiocarbon dates from the base of cores taken from several kettle lakes along the shores of Lake Clark indicates that the glacier front had retreated into mountain valleys by 15 ka. Deglaciation was probably complete in southwest Alaska by around 11 ka. Neoglaciation Temperatures were at or above modern levels during the earliest Holocene, a period dubbed the Holocene Thermal Maxmimum. Most glaciers were probably smaller during this period than they are today. By the mid-Holocene (~5 ka), global temperatures were once again dropping, causing glaciers to advance beyond their early Holocene minima. This renewed glacial activity is referred to neoglaciation. On the western flank of the Alaska Range, 2-4 moraines of probable mid- to late-Holocene age are present. These relatively small moraines are overwhelmed and partially buried by a much larger, more voluminous moraine immediately downvalley of modern glacier termini (Figure 4) This younger moraine is often sharp-crested, unvegetated, and up to 100 m high. Field observations indicate that it is ice-cored, suggesting that its apparent volume may be transient. Dating of the older neoglacial moraines could best be accomplished with cosmogenic radionuclides. However, CRNs are not as effective for the younger, ice-cored moraine. Instead, its age is best constrained with lichenometry. Lichenometry is a method wherein the age of a moraine is estimated by comparing the largest lichens growing on moraine boulders with a known lichen growth rate. Though this method is somewhat imprecise (uncertainty ~ +/- 20%), lichen sizes on the youngest, ice-cored moraines suggest that they date to the culmination of the Little Ice Age (LIA) toward the end of the 19th century.

Arroyo Cutting in the Southwestern U.S. part of Vignettes:Vignette Collection


On the Passivity Criterion for LTI N-Ports

S. Boyd and L. O. Chua

International Journal of Circuit Theory and Applications, 10(4):323-333, October 1982.

Existing proofs of the passivity criterion for linear, time-invariant, distributed N-ports are either incorrect or too involved, requiring the use of advanced mathematics such as distribution theory. This paper presents a simple but completely rigorous proof using only basic real and complex analysis. For the sake of completeness we have included simple proofs of the Paley-Wiener theorem and the Poisson formula for the half plane. We show that solvability, a non-intuitive technical assumption made in rigorous theories of LTI passive networks, is virtually always satisfied. Finally, we gave a passivity criterion applicable to N-ports described by general co-ordinates, from which passivity criteria for any specific representation (e.g. impedance, admittance, hybrid, transmission, scattering, etc.) can be trivially derived.


Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 1473-1490, 2011
© Author(s) 2011. This work is distributed
under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Oxygen isotopic signature of CO2 from combustion processes
M. Schumacher1,2,3, R. A. Werner3, H. A. J. Meijer1, H. G. Jansen1, W. A. Brand2, H. Geilmann2, and R. E. M. Neubert1

Abstract. For a comprehensive understanding of the global carbon cycle precise knowledge of all processes is necessary. Stable isotope (13C and 18O) abundances provide information for the qualification and the quantification of the diverse source and sink processes. This study focuses on the δ18O signature of CO2 from combustion processes, which are widely present both naturally (wild fires), and human induced (fossil fuel combustion, biomass burning) in the carbon cycle. All these combustion processes use atmospheric oxygen, of which the isotopic signature is assumed to be constant with time throughout the whole atmosphere. The combustion is generally presumed to take place at high temperatures, thus minimizing isotopic fractionation. Therefore it is generally supposed that the 18O signature of the produced CO2 is equal to that of the atmospheric oxygen. This study, however, reveals that the situation is much more complicated and that important fractionation effects do occur. From laboratory studies fractionation effects on the order of up to 26%permil; became obvious in the derived CO2 from combustion of different kinds of material, a clear differentiation of about 7‰ was also found in car exhausts which were sampled directly under ambient atmospheric conditions.

We investigated a wide range of materials (both different raw materials and similar materials with different inherent 18O signature), sample geometries (e.g. texture and surface-volume ratios) and combustion circumstances. We found that the main factor influencing the specific isotopic signatures of the combustion-derived CO2 and of the concomitantly released oxygen-containing side products, is the case-specific rate of combustion. This points firmly into the direction of (diffusive) transport of oxygen to the reaction zone as the cause of the isotope fractionation. The original total 18O signature of the material appeared to have little influence, however, a contribution of specific bio-chemical compounds to individual combustion products released from the involved material became obvious.

Citation: Schumacher, M., Werner, R. A., Meijer, H. A. J., Jansen, H. G., Brand, W. A., Geilmann, H., and Neubert, R. E. M.: Oxygen isotopic signature of CO2 from combustion processes, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 1473-1490, doi:10.5194/acp-11-1473-2011, 2011.
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Galaxy will infuse intelligence onto the Gbots and leveraging its networks; the Bots will permeate into any required geographic destination and will be capable of making intelligent decisions and actions. This action renders the entire process of system support real time and automated.

This technology from Pacific Controls marks the transition from using agents for time consuming repetitive work to utilizing them for intelligent and complex labor. Utilizing Gbots for end to end facility management also moves away from the pedestrian goal or task directed behavior to an environment sensing reactive behavior.


Greek Cuisine

Greek Cuisine

The people of Greece share a passion for food and drink that dates back to ancient times, and that passion is reflected in their rich culinary traditions.

The simple, well-seasoned preparation of quality fresh ingredients truly defines Greek cuisine.

The temperate Mediterranean climate is ideal for growing olives, and olive oil is an indispensible ingredient in Greek cooking.

Garlic, spices and herbs such as oregano, thyme, basil, rosemary and mint are widely used, as are the lemons that grow abundantly throughout the region.

Because Greece comprises a number of islands and a lengthy coastline, fresh fish and seafood are frequent staples of the Greek menu. Lamb, which is often served roasted with garlic, lemon and herbs, is the predominant meat. However, many dishes are focused around poultry, pork and beef as well.

The Greeks are very fond of vegetables, and eggplant, artichokes, tomatoes and green peppers are among the favorites. Avgolemono, the most famous of Greek sauces, is an egg-lemon sauce that can be served over meat fish and vegetables. Also popular is a tomato sauce delicately flavored with cinnamon and a delicious thickened garlic sauce (skorthalia) often served with hot or cold seafood. Feta cheese, a slightly salty soft, crumbly cheese made from goat's milk, is frequently added to salads and combined with meats and vegetables. Kaseri is another popular cheese, similar to cheddar in both texture and taste.

Phyllo (filo) dough is the Greek all-purpose pastry dough. It can be used in savory dishes like the traditional baked spinach and feta cheese pie (spanakopita) or in desserts like Baklava, which consists of layers of pastry and ground nuts drizzled with a spiced honey syrup and baked.

There are a number of wines available from the land of Bacchus, from light dry Riesling styles to Burgundy style reds and Muscat dessert wines, but the traditional Greek country wine is called Retsina. Retsina is a dry white wine flavored with pine resin that many say is an acquired taste. Ouzo, the most popular drink in Greece, is a clear liquor made from a combination of pressed grapes, herbs and berries, including aniseed, licorice, mint, wintergreen, fennel and hazelnut. It is usually served as an aperitif but sometimes can be mixed into cocktails as a predominant licorice flavor.

Mediterranean cuisine can enthrall the palate with a myriad of fresh flavors and exotic spices, and Greek cuisine is no exception. From olive oil to ouzo, Greek cuisine is a healthful and exciting culinary adventure.

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A Fast Track for Space Launches

Joshua Lucas Email 10.12.99
With just the flick of a switch, NASA researchers have accelerated model spacecraft along a magnetically charged track from zero to 60 mph in less than half a second.

"This new track will help to determine if maglev [magnetic levitation] technologies offer a realistic alternative for reducing the cost of access to space," said Sherry Buschmann, manager of launch technologies at the Marshall Space Center in Huntsville, Alabama.

Like the high-speed trains that use high-strength magnets to lift and propel cars a couple of inches above a guideway, the new liftoff technology could electromagnetically drive space vehicles along a track at speeds up to 600 mph, then shift to rocket engines for launch into orbit.

"The weight of propellant is a major culprit in the high cost of conventional rocket launches. But because maglev uses electricity for launch assist, the weight of the vehicle at liftoff is about 20 percent less than a typical rocket, resulting in tremendous savings in the cost of getting to space," Buschmann said.

Magnetic levitation of the carrier and vehicles on the track require about 200 kilovolt amps of electricity -- roughly equivalent to the energy in 2,000 100-watt light bulbs. The concept has been validated in experiments on a 20-foot electromagnetic track at the University of Sussex in Brighton, England.

"Electricity is both inexpensive and environmentally safe," Buschmann said. "Each launch using a full-scale maglev track would consume only about US$75 worth of electricity in today's market."

The new, experimental track at Marshall is an advanced linear induction motor. Common in fans, power drills, and sewing machines, induction motors produce thrust in a straight line instead of spinning in a circular motion to turn a shaft of gears. When the coils of the linear induction motor are energized by alternating current, a magnetic field is created, providing thrust that pushes an aluminum carrier along the maglev track. A horseshoe-shaped carrier containing a 5-foot, 30-pound spacecraft model is levitated about one half inch above the track as it accelerates at six times the force of gravity.

The track is 50 feet long, about 2 feet wide, and about 1.5 feet high, and is mounted on concrete pedestals. It consists of 10 identical, 5-foot-long segments that weigh about 500 pounds each. Most of the weight is the iron used in the motor.

"We've known that linear induction can produce thrust," said Bill Jacobs, maglev lead engineer at Marshall. "Now, with larger-scale experiments, we want to demonstrate that control can be maintained at high speeds along the maglev track. To limit energy use, we are evaluating methods for distributing power to small sections of the track at a time."

Even though the testing is in its infancy, maglev may one day make it possible for private companies to reach space. A 400-foot demonstration track is planned at Marshall within the next year.

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Enemy Army Figures are friendly at heart

The Enemy Army Figures by Tyler Jackson may form a fictional army, but their basis is very much real. The figures are all unique, but rather than choosing an entirely fictional setting for the Enemy Army, Tyler modeled them as unique characters based on his friends. That probably would make these figures friendly at heart, yet somehow making them look sinister enough to be the “Enemy Army.” Characteristic personalities of the figures are driven by interests of the people they were modeled after. The sculptures have each been crafted from Sculpey, painted and mounted on a plexiglass shelf. A total of 45 were created, and they’ve all sold out.

[Thanks, Tyler]


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With development of the Spinner unmanned ground vehicle, an NREC-led team delivered technical breakthroughs in mobility, mission endurance and payload fraction.

DARPA created the Unmanned Ground Combat Vehicle (UGCV) program to develop vehicle prototypes based on novel designs unrestrained by the need to accommodate human crews. The resulting prototypes demonstrate advanced configurations and technology that are applicable to the US Army’s UGV design programs.

Spinner’s impressive field results in the final phase of UGCV convinced DARPA to award a large follow-on program named UPI that integrates PerceptOR autonomy with the Spinner platform.


Stop Motion Turns Historical Illustrations Into A Magical Fantasy World [Video]

Surreal paper adventure reinterprets famous images.

The French artist Gustave Doré might have been dead for over 100 years, but his illustrations are more alive than ever. Vincent Pianina and Lorenzo Papace of Le Petit Écho Malade used papercraft to create an animated short film that guides you through a strange and terrifying world.

Accompanied by the music of Ödland, the video demonstrates the beauty of Doré’s work in a way has never been seen before. The video follows the protagonist through a strange city at night, into the catacombs, and even up a mountain that looks like it belongs on another planet. Words can only do so much to describe this truly magical experience.

The video was created to promote an ongoing exhibition for the artist called “Gustave Doré (1832–1883): Master of Imagination.” It’s currently being held at Musée d’Orsay in Paris until 11th May, 2014.

Petit Écho Malade

Source: Laughing Squid


― Haruki Murakami, South of the Border, West of the Sun (via loveless-people)
Anonymous: How do I get over someone who was never even mine

Still trying to figure this one out

well well well. if it isn’t my old friend, the dawning realization that i fucked up real bad

I have 206 bones, 1200 muscles, about 21 organs, 4,5 litres of blood running around, 32 teeth and a soul… and I still feel empty when you’re not here.
― m.o (s-altatori)


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Who was Commodus?

Emperor Commodus

Marcus Aurelius Commodus Antoninus, the son of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius and his wife-cousin Faustina, was born in Lanuvium in 161 AD. Commodus was named Caesar at the age of 5, and co-Augustus at the age of 17, spending most of his early life accompanying his father on his campaigns against the Quadi and the Marcomanni along the Danubian frontier. His father died, possibly of the plague, at a military encampment at Bononia on the Danube on 17 March 180, leaving the Roman Empire to his nineteen-year-old son. Upon hearing of his father's death, Commodus made preparations for Marcus' funeral, made concessions to the northern tribes, and made haste to return back to Rome in order to enjoy peace after nearly two decades of war. Commodus, and much of the Roman army behind him, entered the capital on 22 October, 180 in a triumphal procession, receiving a hero's welcome. Indeed, the youthful Commodus must have appeared in the parade as an icon of new, happier days to come; his arrival sparked the highest hopes in the Roman people, who believed he would rule as his father had ruled.

The coins issued in his first year all display the triumphant general, a warrior in action who brought the spoils of victory to the citizens of Rome. There is a great deal of evidence to support the fact that Commodus was popular among many of the people, at least for a majority of his reign. He seems to have been quite generous. Coin types from around 183 onward often contain the legend, Munificentia Augusta[[5]], indicating that generosity was indeed a part of his imperial program. Coins show nine occasions on which Commodus gave largesses, seven when he was sole emperor. According to Dio, the emperor obtained some of this funding by taxing members of the senatorial class. This policy of munificence certainly caused tensions between Commodus and the Senate. In 191 it was noted in the official Actus Urbis that the gods had given Commodus to Populus Senatusque Romanus. Normally the phrase Senatus Populusque Romanus was used. While the Senate hated Commodus, the army and the lower classes loved him. Because of the bad relationship between the Senate and Commodus as well as a senatorial conspiracy, Rome "...was virtually governed by the praetorian prefects Perennis (182-185) and Cleander (186-9)."

Commodus began to dress like the god Hercules, wearing lion skins and carrying a club. Thus he appropriated the Antonines' traditional identification with Hercules, but even more aggressively. Commodus' complete identification with Hercules can be seen as an attempt to solidify his claim as new founder of Rome, which he now called the Colonia Lucia Annia Commodiana. This was legitimized by his direct link to Hercules, son of Father Jupiter. He probably took the title of Hercules officially some time before mid-September 192.

While the literary sources, especially Dio, Herodian, and the Historia Augusta, all ridicule the antics of his later career, they also give important insight into Commodus' relationship to the people. His most important maneuver to solidify his claims as Hercules Romanus was to show himself as the god to the Roman people by taking part in spectacles in the amphitheater. Not only would Commodus fight and defeat the most skilled gladiators, he would also test his talents by encountering the most ferocious of the beasts.[[16]] Commodus won all of his bouts against the gladiators. The slayer of wild beasts, Hercules, was the mythical symbol of Commodus' rule, as protector of the Empire.

During his final years he declared that his age should be called the "Golden Age." He wanted all to revel in peace and happiness in his age of glory, praise the felicitas Commodi, the glorious libertas, his pietas, providentia, his victoria and virtus aeterna. Commodus wanted there to be no doubt that this "Golden Age" had been achieved through his munificence as Nobilissimus Princeps. He had declared a brand new day in Rome, founding it anew in 190, declaring himself the new Romulus. Rome was now to be called Colonia Lucia Annia Commodiana, as noted above, and deemed "the Immortal," "the Fortunate," "the Universal Colony of the Earth." Coins represent the archaic rituals of city-[re]foundation, identifying Commodus as a new founder and his age as new days.

Also in 190 he renamed all the months to correspond exactly with his titles. From January, they run as follows: Lucius, Aelius, Aurelius, Commodus, Augustus, Herculeus, Romanus, Exsuperatorius, Amazonius, Invictus, Felix, Pius. According to Dio Cassius, the changing of the names of the months was all part of Commodus' megalomania. Commodus was the first and last in the Antonine dynasty to change the names of the months.

The legions were renamed Commodianae, the fleet which imported grain from Africa was called Alexandria Commodiana Togata, the Senate was deemed the Commodian Fortunate Senate, his palace and the Roman people were all given the name Commodianus.The day that these new names were announced was also given a new title: Dies Commodianus. Indeed, the emperor presented himself with growing vigor as the center of Roman life and the fountainhead of religion. New expressions of old religious thought and new cults previously restricted to private worship invade the highest level of imperial power.

If Eusebius of Caesarea is to be believed, the reign of Commodus inaugurated a period of numerous conversions to Christianity. Commodus did not pursue his father's prohibitions against the Christians, although he did not actually change their legal position. Rather, he relaxed persecutions, after minor efforts early in his reign. Tradition credits Commodus's policy to the influence of his concubine Marcia; she was probably his favorite, but it is not clear that she was a Christian. More likely, Commodus preferred to neglect the sect, so that persecutions would not detract from his claims to be leading the Empire through a "Golden Age."

During his reign several attempts were made on Commodus' life. After a few botched efforts, an orchestrated plot was carried out early in December 192, apparently including his mistress Marcia. On 31 December an athlete named Narcissus strangled him in his bath, and the emperor's memory was cursed. This brought an end to the Antonine Dynasty.

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Multi-locus population genetics - How does selection alter haplotype frequencies?

How important is epistatic selection?

In organisms which reproduce sexually there is little deviation from linkage equilibrium in nature. The main evidence comes from gel electrophoretic surveys of protein polymorphisms, to see directly whether genes at different loci are associated.

Research was done with the fruitfly Drosophila . Some evidence of linkage disequilibrium was found, but the results suggested the level is low and most loci are in linkage equilibrium. One conclusion from this result would be that, although epistatic interactions are important in particular cases, like Papilio , they may not be of general importance at least in the evolution of sexually reproducing species.

More holistically minded biologists would disagree. The amount of interaction between loci that must go on during the development of a complex, organic body is so high that they would expect epistatic fitness interactions to be common.

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Spider-Man: Web Of Shadows Xbox 360 Cheats

Rating 4

View tokens on your radar

Collect 1,000 Spider Tokens or Reach level 10. They will display as red dots on your radar.

Rating 4

Complete Story, Act One (50 points) - Complete Act One.
Complete Story, Act Two (50 points) - Complete Act Two.
Complete Web of Shadows (75 points) - Complete Game.
Ultimate Spider-Man (50 points) - Purchase all Upgrades.
Obsessive Spider-Man (25 points) - Complete 60 Bonus Goals.
Excessive Spider-Man (15 points) - Complete Half of All Optional Goals.
Max Out Spider-Man (75 points) - Max Out Spider-Man.
Heroic Accumulation (25 points) - Find Half of all Collectibles.
First One Hundred (15 points) - Find 100 Collectibles.
50 Hit Combo - Spider Silk (10 points) - Execute 50 Hit Combo "Spider Silk".
100 Hit Combo - Ownership (25 points) - Execute 100 Hit Combo "Ownership".
250 Hit Combo - Neighborly (50 points) - Execute 250 Hit Combo "Neighborly".
Great Power (10 points) - Thwart 25 City Crimes.
Great Responsibility (25 points) - Thwart 100 City Crimes.
Defeat 100 Enemies (20 points) - Defeat 100 Enemies.
Defeat 500 Enemies (35 points) - Defeat 500 Enemies.
No Sweat (50 points) - Defeat 1000 Enemies.
The Bigger They Come... (5 points) - Defeat First Tech Mech.
Eviction (5 points) - Pull Tech Mech Pilot from his seat.
Encountered (5 points) - Parry then Counter Attack one enemy.
Over the Counter (10 points) - Parry then Counter Attack 100 enemies.
Bowling Ball (5 points) - Web Swing-Kick 5 Enemies in a single pass.
Trampoline (25 points) - Web-Strike Bounce 20 Enemies in succession.
Overkill (20 points) - Perform all three types of attacks (Ground, Air, Wall) on a single enemy 10 times.
Ground Combo Skill (15 points) - Defeat 50 Enemies using only Ground Combos.
Air Combo Skill (15 points) - Defeat 50 Enemies using only Air Combos.
Wall Combo Skill (15 points) - Defeat 50 Enemies using only Wall Combos.
Hero (20 points) - Red Suit Conclusion earned.
Mary Jane and Spider-Man (20 points) - Mary Jane Conclusion achieved.
Black Cat and Spider-Man (20 points) - Black Cat Conclusion achieved.
Antihero (20 points) - Black Suit Conclusion earned.
Bad Kitty (15 points) - Black Cat defeated.
Defeat Venom, Round One (15 points) - Defeated Venom once.
Grounded (15 points) - Electro defeated.
Declawed (15 points) - Wolverine defeated.
Defeat Symbiote Vulture (20 points) - Symbiote Vulture defeated.
Defeat Symbiote Black Cat (20 points) - Symbiote Black Cat defeated.
Defeat Symbiote Wolverine (20 points) - Symbiote Wolverine defeated.
Defeat Symbiote Electro (20 points) - Symbiote Electro defeated.
Winged (15 points) - Vulture defeated.
Defeat Venom, Round Two (20 points) - Defeated Venom twice.
Id (5 points) - Spent time with Black Cat.
Vice (5 points) - First Black Suit Choice.
Super-ego (5 points) - Black Cat Spurned.
Virtue (5 points) - First Red Suit Choice.

Rating 1

New Game +

To unlock New Game +, watch the credits after completing the game. When you return to the main menu, select "New Game +".

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Wolverine's quiz

Use the following answers for Wolverine's quiz:

1. Richard and Mary
2. Ned Leeds
3. Battleworld
4. Daredevil
5. A Mutant
6. May Parke

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Unlockable Costumes

Unlock the following costumes by performing the corresponding tasks:

Armor Spider-man - Complete act 2
Ben Reily - Complete 25 city events
Cosmic Spider-Man - Complete act 1
Iron Spidey - Collect 150 spider tokens
Spider Carnage - Defeat 500 enemies
Spider-Man 2099 - Complete 50 city events

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Use both superhero and villain strikes

Spider-Man uses both his red and blue/black suits, and his alignment meter will progress toward either his good or bad side. Look at the photo in the lower left-hand corner of the screen as well as the alignment meter in the pause menu. While the alignment picture is displaying the red and blue suit, only superheroes will help him, and conversely while the black symbiote is displayed, only villains will help. As long as the picture is one color, it does not matter what suit you use until the meter color crosses the middle. If you maintain a very close middle ground, you can effectively utilize both the superheroes and villains. Get both red and black points until your alignment meter is precisely in the middle. You might notice as you defeat one enemy using a suit that Spidey's picture will change in the lower left hand corner of the screen. Even if you have a hero summoned, if you quickly switch to the black suit and defeat more of the enemies until the photo changes, that hero will still stay with you until you dismiss him or your special meter runs out. The same holds true for villains and switching back to the red suit. The alignment affects whom you can summon, not who you have already called in. Use this strategy to defeat your enemies, get the most experience points, and unlock all the moves.

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Symbiote Electro strategy

Swing-kick Symbiote Pods for an instant kill (or close to it), which makes the boss fight with Symbiote Electro a lot easier.


Posts tagged ‘Teddy Roosevelt’

Too Easy to Make War

Since I am on the subject today of topics my thinking has changed on over the last 30 years, I will link this post from Kevin Drum arguing that we need to make war hard again.  I have not read Rachel Maddow's book and am unlikely to, if for no other reason than style issues, but I must say that I have come around to the point Drum derives from it

If you can get past that, though, there's a deadly serious argument here that deserves way more attention than it gets. The book is, basically, a series of potted histories that explain how we drifted away from our post-Vietnam promise to make sure we never again went to war without the full backing and buy-in of the American public. Maddow's premise is that, just as the founders intended, our aim was to make war hard. Presidents would need Congress on their side. The Abrams Doctrine ensured that reserves would have to be called up. Wars would no longer unfold almost accidentally, as Vietnam did.

And for a while that was the case. ...

Maddow's argument is that we need to start rolling back these changes of the past two decades. When we go to war, we should raise taxes to pay for it. We should get rid of the secret military. The reserves should go back to being reserves. We should cut way back on the contractors and let troops peel their own potatoes. And above all, Congress should start throwing its weight around again. It's fine to criticize presidents for accreting ever more power to themselves, but what do you expect when Congress just sits back and allows it happen? Our real problem is congressional cowardice: they don't want the responsibility of declaring war, but they also don't want the responsibility of stopping it. So they punt, and war becomes ever more a purely executive function.

I am mostly in agreement with this (though I am not sure why soldiers rather than contractors should peel potatoes).  War has become way too easy -- though I would argue that Drum needs to look in a mirror a bit here.  He has been a huge supporter of Obama using executive powers to end-around Congressional opposition on things like the budget.  It's hard for him to credibly turn around and say that this same executive end-around Congress is bad in war-making.   I will be consistent and say it's bad for both.

I have not read the book, so perhaps this is covered, but I would argue that there are external factors driving this change in addition to internal factors.

The current Presidential ability to fight small wars without much Congressional backing is not entirely unprecedented.  Teddy Roosevelt did much the same thing with his gunboat diplomacy.  There were two external conditions that allowed TR to get away with this that are similar to conditions that obtain today.  One, we had a decisive economic and technological advantage over the countries we were pushing around (e.g. Columbia).  And two, there was no superpower willing to challenge us when we meddled in small countries, particularly in Latin America where the major European powers were willing to let us do whatever we wanted.

I would argue that these conditions again obtain since the fall of the Soviet Union, and allow the US to lob around cruise missiles (the gunboat diplomacy of the 21st century) with relative impunity.


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What's causing the pain in my hip?

I have a pain in my hip nearly all of the time.

At first it only came on if I ran, then it got more persistent, but was controlled by the Arthrotec. Now it hurts despite Arthrotec.

I have great difficulty getting in and out of my car. I have to put my backside in first followed by my legs.

It stops me from playing golf and if I do try it is impossible the next day.

The pain is worse on standing up or leaning forwards and causes me to limp. I also can't carry anything heavy.

I have suffered from back pain in the past, what could be causing the pain in my hip?

I'm sorry to hear of your persistent hip problem, anything that stops you from playing golf is serious indeed!

Without examining you it is difficult to tell the exact cause, but generally speaking pain in and around the hip joint can be referred from the lower back or related to the hip itself.

You mention that you have had back pain in the past and therefore it is possible that your hip pain is related to 'wear and tear' in the lower spine.

This can irritate nerves as they come out from the spinal cord on their journey down into the lower limbs, the pain being felt at hip level.

The fact that you have so much difficulty getting into a car indicates a reduced ability to actively flex your left hip, which could be the root of the problem.

If the pain is due to the hip, it is most likely related to osteoarthritis of the joint.

Another cause of pain in this region is inflammation of the soft tissues surrounding the joint, which can lead to the swelling of a small bag of fluid or 'bursa'. This condition is known as trochanteric bursitis.

There are other, rarer causes of pain, relating to disturbances of bone metabolism and/or bony destruction.

In order to clarify the diagnosis I would suggest that you arrange an examination and X-ray.

Any pain that is persisting for so long and affecting your daily life despite Arthrotec treatment deserves to be assessed further.

Yours sincerely

The NetDoctor Medical Team

Last updated 26.09.2014


Biology Concepts 1

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Can you name the Biology Concepts 1?

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which process is utilized in asexual reproduction
genetic law states 2 alleles are present per trait and they seperate during meiosis
division of cytoplasm is called
which parent determines gender of an offspring
speciation not with physical barriers
mistakes during meiosis are called
tuang child was a member of this species
scientist who discovered homo habilis and homo erectus
a map of an individuals chromosomes
body parts that dont show linkage but are used for the same purpose
which mutation is the driving force of evolution
a karyotype is performed on a cell that is in which portion of the cell cycle
scientist who found first evidence of Australopithecus africanus in south africa
claimed famine, disease, and war were needed to control human population
is a zygote a exact copy of the 2 parents
when in mitosis do chromosomes first become visible
speciation brought by a physical barrier
behavorial isolation is an example of what speciation
geologist who theorized the world was old
what is the end result of mitosis
all alleles in a population make up a
the DNA is replicated during which part of a cells life cycle
species of lucy
selection towards either P or Q
sickle cell anemia is an example of what selection
human ancestors developed in
autosomes become mutated more than sex chromosomes
when in mitosis do chromosomes line up at the equator of the nucleus
which process makes identical copies of a parent cell
human cell with 46 chromosomes
this is done by meiotic cells to combine maternal and paternal chromosomes DNA
dominant allele
when in mitosis does the DNA coil into a tighter formation
scientist who discovered evolution by natural selection
if the diploid number for a species of fungi is 22 then the haploid gamete number would be
were outcompeted by modern humans 40,000 years ago
at which meiotic stage is the process stopped if there is an empty spindle fiber
when is it decided which gamete will recieve the paternal or maternal copy of each homologous chromosome
reproductive isolation when parts dont work together is called
which process is involved in production of haploid cells
sister chromatids are seperated during which phase of meiosis
a mistake in meiosis
which process(crossing over,phrophase 2, anaphase 1, telophase 2) has nothing to do with genetic determination for future offspring
what blood type is dominant
when in mitosis does cleavage begin to divide the nucleus into 2 nuclei
blood type that can recieve blood fromn anyone
the actual genetic make-up of an individual
the different expressions of a single gene
body structures that have no purpose
which process is identical in male and female animals
in Hardy-Weingberg equations the recessive allele is represented by a
the actual genetic info. that is stored in chromosomes is made up of
universal donor
which gender will show many more sex linked phenotypes
first known to make tools, Handy man
bipedal mammals that are members of the family of man
who is the father of genetics
organism with 2 different alleles is
single phenotypic trait that is controlled by more than one pair of alleles is a
after which phase of meiosis would the cells be considerede haploid
if the heterozygous phenotype shows both dominant and recessive alleles
first to leave africa and stand upright
the part of the cell cycle when the cell is not dividing is called
most of the cells growth occurs during
which is not an example of artifical selection
scientist who theorized the passing on of required traits
change in allele frequency that happens for a reason
an individuals non-sex chromosomes
is meiosis different between males and females
which process involves formation of diploid cells
ratio of different genes in a population is
human gamete has how many chromosomes
the 2 paired sides of the chromosome that hold the genetic information
heterozygous phenotype is a blend of dominant and recessive
charles darwins book
selection towards PQ
what is our closest relative alive today
the only hoiminid alive today
newly feritlized egg
traits that have more than 2 possible allels are considered to be
when in mitosis do the centomeres split and the sister chromatids pull apart
the physical appearance of an individual
body parts that show linkage but are used for different functions
what is seperated during meiosis I
most common mutation
what are used to remove excess DNA when making an egg cell
the part of the cell cycle when the cell is dividing is called
which process is used to produce gametes
random change in availability of a gene in a population
this genetic law states that any one trait is inherited alone and not connected to others
Homologous chromosomes are seperated during
individual who inherits an extra chromosome
what happens during meiosis that leads to addition or deletion of chromosomes
haploid sex cells
which part of meiosis is the process of mitosis most similar to
probabilities are closer to expected ratios what kind of sample
reproductive isolation due to timing is
which genetic law states that one allele will completely cover another
scientist who discovered lucy
what is not part of mitosis(interphase,prophaes,metaphase,anaphase)
individual gene that affects more than one phenotypic trait is called
diagram of the genetic relationships within a family
mitosis is the division of
the middle part of a chromosome that holds the genetic information
scientist who defined species as a group of individuals that could breed with one another and produce viable offspring
how many autosomes are in most of your cells

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Created Jun 7, 2010ReportNominate
Tags:biology, definition, concept