Mycenaean Greece

The decipherment of the Mycenaean Linear B script, a writing system adapted for the use of the (Indo-European) Greek language of the Late Bronze Age,[12] demonstrated the continuity of Greek speech from the second millennium BC into the eighth century BC when a new Phoenician-derived alphabetic script emerged.[13] Moreover, it revealed that the bearers of Mycenaean culture were ethnically connected with the populations that resided in the Greek peninsula after the end of this cultural period.[14] Lastly, the decipherment marked the advent of an Indo-European language in the Aegean region in contrast to unrelated prior languages spoken in adjoining areas.[15] Various collective terms for the inhabitants of Mycenaean Greece were used by Homer in his 8th-century BC epic, the Iliad, in reference to the Trojan War.[16] The latter was supposed to have happened in the late 13th – early 12th century BC, when a coalition of small Greek states under the king of Mycenae, besieged the walled city of Troy.

Homer interchangeably used the ethnonyms Achaeans, Danaans and Argives, to refer to the besiegers.[16] These names appear to have passed down from the time they were in use to the time when Homer applied them as collective terms in his Iliad.[17] There is an isolated reference to a-ka-wi-ja-de in the Linear B records in Knossos, Crete dated to c. 1400 BC, which most probably refers to a Mycenaean (Achaean) state on the Greek mainland.[18]

In the official records of another Bronze Age empire, that of the Hittites in Anatolia, various references from c. 1400 BC to 1220 BC mention a country named Ahhiyawa.[21][22] Recent scholarship, based on textual evidence, new interpretations of the Hittite inscriptions, and recent surveys of archaeological evidence about Mycenaean-Anatolian contacts during this period, concludes that the term Ahhiyawa must have been used in reference to the Mycenaean world (land of the Achaeans), or at least to a part of it.[23][24] This term may have also had broader connotations in some texts, possibly referring to all regions settled by Mycenaeans or regions under direct Mycenaean political control.[21] Another similar ethnonym Ekwesh in twelfth century BC Egyptian inscriptions, has been commonly identified with the Ahhiyawans. These Ekwesh were mentioned as a group of the Sea People.[25]

Notwithstanding the above academic disputes, the mainstream consensus among modern Mycenologists is that Mycenaean civilization, exemplified in the Shaft Graves, originated and evolved from the local socio-cultural landscape of the Early and Middle Bronze Age in mainland Greece with influences from Minoan Crete.[27][28] Towards the end of the Middle Bronze Age (c. 1600 BC) a significant increase in the population and the number of settlements occurred.[29] A number of centers of power emerged in southern mainland Greece dominated by a warrior elite society,[2][27] while the typical dwellings of that era were an early type of megaron buildings. Some more complex structures are classified as forerunners of the later palaces. In a number of sites, defensive walls were also erected.[30]

Meanwhile, new types of burials and more imposing ones have been unearthed, which display a great variety of luxurious objects.[29][31] Among the various burial types, the shaft grave became the most common form of elite burial, a feature that gave the name to the early period of Mycenaean Greece.[29] Among the Mycenaean elite, deceased men were usually laid to rest in gold masks and funerary armor, and women in gold crowns and clothes gleaming with gold ornaments.[32] The royal shaft graves next to the acropolis of Mycenae, in particular the Grave Circles A and B signified the elevation of a native Greek-speaking royal dynasty whose economic power depended on long-distance sea trade.[33]

During this period, the Mycenaean centers witnessed increased contacts with the outside world and especially with the Cyclades and the Minoan centers in the island of Crete.[2][29] Mycenaean presence appears to be also depicted in a fresco at Akrotiri, on Thera island, which possibly displays many warriors in boar's tusk helmets, a feature typical of Mycenaean warfare.[34] In the early 15th century BC, commerce intensified with Mycenaean pottery reaching the western coast of Asia Minor, including Miletus and Troy, Cyprus, Lebanon, Palestine and Egypt.[35]

The eruption of Thera, which according to archaeological data occurred in c. 1500 BC, resulted in the decline of the Minoan civilization of Crete.[37] This turn of events gave the opportunity to the Mycenaeans to spread their influence throughout the Aegean. Around c. 1450 BC, they were in control of Crete itself, including Knossos, and colonized several other Aegean islands, reaching as far as Rhodes.[38][39] Thus the Mycenaeans became the dominant power of the region, marking the beginning of the Mycenaean 'Koine' era (from Greek: Κοινή, common), a highly uniform culture that spread in mainland Greece and the Aegean.[40]

From the early 14th century BC, Mycenaean trade began to take advantage of the new commercial opportunities in the Mediterranean after the Minoan collapse.[39] The trade routes were expanded further, reaching Cyprus, Amman in the Near East, Apulia in Italy and Spain.[39] From that time period (c. 1400 BC), the palace of Knossos has yielded the earliest records of the Greek Linear B script, based on the previous Linear A of the Minoans. The use of the new script spread in mainland Greece and offers valuable insight into the administrative network of the palatial centers. However, the unearthed records are too fragmentary for a political reconstruction of Bronze Age Greece.[41]

Excavations at Miletus, southwest Asia Minor, indicate the existence of a Mycenaean settlement there already from c. 1450 BC, replacing the previous Minoan installations.[42] This site became a sizable and prosperous Mycenaean center until the 12th century BC.[43] Apart from the archaeological evidence, this is also attested in Hittite records, which indicate that Miletos (Milawata in Hittite) was the most important base for Mycenaean activity in Asia Minor.[44] Mycenaean presence also reached the adjacent sites of Iasus and Ephesus.[45]

The presence of Ahhiyawa in western Anatolia is mentioned in various Hittite accounts from c. 1400 to c. 1220 BC.[44] Ahhiyawa is generally accepted as a Hittite translation of Mycenaean Greece (Achaeans in Homeric Greek), but a precise geographical definition of the term cannot be drawn from the texts.[49] During this time, the kings of Ahhiyawa were evidently capable of dealing with their Hittite counterparts both on a diplomatic and military level.[50] Moreover, Ahhiyawan activity was to interfere in Anatolian affairs, with the support of anti-Hittite uprisings or through local vassal rulers, which the Ahhiyawan king used as agents for the extension of his influence.[51]

In c. 1400 BC, Hittite records mention the military activities of an Ahhiyawan warlord, Attarsiya, a possible Hittite way of writing the Greek name Atreus, who attacked Hittite vassals in western Anatolia.[52] Later, in c. 1315 BC, an anti-Hittite rebellion headed by Arzawa, a Hittite vassal state, received support from Ahhiyawa.[53] Meanwhile, Ahhiyawa appears to be in control of a number of islands in the Aegean, an impression also supported by archaeological evidence.[54] During the reign of the Hittite king Hattusili III (c. 1267–1237 BC), the king of Ahhiyawa is recognized as a "Great King" and of equal status with the other contemporary great Bronze Age rulers: the kings of Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria.[55] At that time, another anti-Hittite movement, led by Piyama-Radu, broke out and was supported by the king of Ahhiyawa.[56] Piyama-Radu caused major unrest in the region of Wilusa and later invaded the island of Lesbos, which then passed into Ahhiyawan control.[57]

The Hittite-Ahhiyawan confrontation in Wilusa, the Hittite name for Troy, may provide the historical foundation for the Trojan War tradition.[58] As a result of this instability, the Hittite king initiated correspondence in order to convince his Ahhiyawan counterpart to restore peace in the region. The Hittite record mentions a certain Tawagalawa, a possible Hittite translation for Greek Eteocles, as brother of the king of Ahhiyawa.[57][59]

In c. 1250 BC, the first wave of destruction apparently occurred in various centers of mainland Greece for reasons that cannot be identified by archaeologists. In Boeotia, Thebes was burned to the ground, around that year or slightly later. Nearby Orchomenos shared the same fate, while the Boeotian fortifications of Gla were deserted.[60] In the Peloponnese, a number of buildings surrounding the citadel of Mycenae were attacked and burned.[61]

It appears that after this first wave of destruction a short-lived revival of Mycenaean culture followed.[63] Mycenaean Greece continues to be mentioned in international affairs, particularly in Hittite records. In c. 1220 BC, the king of Ahhiyawa is again reported to have been involved in an anti-Hittite uprising in western Anatolia.[64] Another contemporary Hittite account reports that Ahhiyawan ships should avoid Assyrian-controlled harbors, as part of a trade embargo imposed on Assyria.[65] In general, in the second half of 13th century BC, trade was in decline in the Eastern Mediterranean, most probably due to the unstable political environment there.[66]

None of the defence measures appear to have prevented the final destruction and collapse of the Mycenaean states. A second destruction struck Mycenae in c. 1190 BC or shortly thereafter. This event marked the end of Mycenae as a major power. The site was then reoccupied, but on a smaller scale.[61] The palace of Pylos, in the southwestern Peloponnese, was destroyed in c. 1180 BC.[67][68] The Linear B archives found there, preserved by the heat of the fire that destroyed the palace, mention hasty defence preparations due to an imminent attack without giving any detail about the attacking force.[63]

As a result of this turmoil, specific regions in mainland Greece witnessed a dramatic population decrease, especially Boeotia, Argolis and Messenia.[63] Mycenaean refugees migrated to Cyprus and the Levantine coast.[68] Nevertheless, other regions on the edge of the Mycenaean world prospered, such as the Ionian islands, the northwestern Peloponnese, parts of Attica and a number of Aegean islands.[63] The acropolis of Athens, oddly, appears to have avoided destruction.[63]

Alternative scenarios propose that the fall of Mycenaean Greece was a result of internal disturbances which led to internecine warfare among the Mycenaean states or civil unrest in a number of states, as a result of the strict hierarchical social system and the ideology of the wanax.[72] In general, due to the obscure archaeological picture in 12th–11th century BC Greece, there is a continuing controversy among scholars over whether the impoverished societies that succeeded the Mycenaean palatial states were newcomers or populations that already resided in Mycenaean Greece. Recent archaeological findings tend to favor the latter scenario.[63] Additional theories, concerning natural factors, such as climate change, droughts or earthquakes have also been proposed.[72] Another theory considers the decline of the Mycenaean civilization as a manifestation of a common pattern for the decline of many ancient civilizations: the Minoan, the Harrapan and the Western Roman Empire; the reason for the decline is migration due to overpopulation.[73] The period following the end of Mycenaean Greece, c. 1100–800 BC, is generally termed the "Greek Dark Ages".[74]

The unearthed Linear B texts are too fragmentary for the reconstruction of the political landscape in Mycenaean Greece and they do not support the existence of a larger Mycenaean state.[49][77] On the other hand, contemporary Hittite and Egyptian records suggest the presence of a single state under a "Great King".[78] Alternatively, based on archaeological data, some sort of confederation among a number of palatial states appears to be possible.[49] If some kind of united political entity existed, the dominant center was probably located in Thebes or in Mycenae, with the latter state being the most probable center of power.[79]

The Neolithic agrarian village (6000 BC) constituted the foundation of Bronze Age political culture in Greece.[80] The vast majority of the preserved Linear B records deal with administrative issues and give the impression that Mycenaean palatial administration was highly uniform with the use of the same language, terminology, system of taxation and distribution.[41][75] Considering this sense of uniformity, the Pylos archive, which is the best preserved one in the Mycenaean world, is generally taken as a representative one.[41]

The state was ruled by a king, the wanax (ϝάναξ), whose role was religious and perhaps also military and judicial.[81] The wanax oversaw virtually all aspects of palatial life, from religious feasting and offerings to the distribution of goods, craftsmen and troops.[82] Under him was the lāwāgetas ("the leader of the people"), whose role appears mainly religious. His activities possibly overlap with the wanax and is usually seen as the second-in-command.[82] Both wanax and lāwāgetas were at the head of a military aristocracy known as the eqeta ("companions" or "followers").[81][83] The land possessed by the wanax is usually the témenos (te-me-no). There is also at least one instance of a person, Enkhelyawon, at Pylos, who appears titleless in the written record but whom modern scholars regard as probably a king.[84]

In general, Mycenaean society appears to have been divided into two groups of free men: the king's entourage, who conducted administrative duties at the palace, and the people, da-mo[85] These last were watched over by royal agents and were obliged to perform duties for and pay taxes to the palace.[81] Among those who could be found in the palace were well-to-do high officials, who probably lived in the vast residences found in proximity to Mycenaean palaces, but also others, tied by their work to the palace and not necessarily better off than the members of the da-mo, such as craftsmen, farmers, and perhaps merchants. Occupying a lower rung of the social ladder were the slaves, do-e-ro, (cf. δοῦλος, doúlos).[86] These are recorded in the texts as working either for the palace or for specific deities.[81]

The Mycenaean economy, given its pre-monetary nature, was focused on the redistribution of goods, commodities and labor by a central administration. The preserved Linear B records in Pylos and Knossos indicate that the palaces were closely monitoring a variety of industries and commodities, the organization of land management and the rations given to the dependent personnel.[87][88] The Mycenaean palaces maintained extensive control of the nondomestic areas of production through careful control and acquisition and distribution in the palace industries, and the tallying of produced goods.[89][90] For instance, the Knossos tablets record c. 80,000–100,000 sheep grazing in central Crete, and the quantity of the expected wool from these sheep and their offspring, as well as how this wool was allocated.[90] The archives of Pylos display a specialized workforce, where each worker belonged to a precise category and was assigned to a specific task in the stages of production, notably in textiles.[91]

Nevertheless, palatial control over resources appears to have been highly selective in spatial terms and in terms of how different industries were managed.[92] Thus, sectors like the production of perfumed oil and bronze materials were directly monitored from the palace, but the production of ceramics was only indirectly monitored.[93] Regional transactions between the palaces are also recorded on a few occasions.[94]

The palatial centers organized their workforce and resources for the construction of large scale projects in the fields of agriculture and industry.[88] The magnitude of some projects indicates that this was the result of combined efforts from multiple palatial centers. Most notable of them are the drainage system of the Kopais basin in Boeotia, the building of a large dam outside Tiryns, and the drainage of the swamp in the Nemea valley.[95] Also noticeable is the construction of harbors, such as the harbor of Pylos, that were capable of accommodating large Bronze Age era vessels like the one found at Uluburun.[95] The Mycenaean economy also featured large-scale manufacturing as testified by the extent of workshop complexes that have been discovered, the largest known to date being the recent ceramic and hydraulic installations found in Euonymeia, next to Athens, that produced tableware, textiles, sails, and ropes for export and shipbuilding.[96]

The most famous project of the Mycenaean era was the network of roads in the Peloponnese.[95] This appears to have facilitated the speedy deployment of troops—for example, the remnants of a Mycenaean road, along with what appears to have been a Mycenaean defensive wall on the Isthmus of Corinth. The Mycenaean era saw the zenith of infrastructure engineering in Greece, and this appears not to have been limited to the Argive plain.[97]

Trade over vast areas of the Mediterranean was essential for the economy of Mycenaean Greece. The Mycenaean palaces imported raw materials, such as metals, ivory and glass, and exported processed commodities and objects made from these materials, in addition to local products: oil, perfume, wine, wool and pottery.[88] International trade of that time was not only conducted by palatial emissaries but also by independent merchants.[98]

Based on archaeological findings in the Middle East, in particular physical artifacts, textual references, inscriptions and wall paintings, it appears that Mycenaean Greeks achieved strong commercial and cultural interaction with most of the Bronze Age people living in this region: Canaanites, Kassites, Mitanni, Assyrians, and Egyptians.[98][99][100] The 14th century Uluburun shipwreck, off the coast of southern Anatolia, displays the established trade routes that supplied the Mycenaeans with all the raw materials and items that the economy of Mycenaean Greece needed, such as copper and tin for the production of bronze products.[101] A chief export of the Mycenaeans was olive oil, which was a multi-purpose product.[102]

Cyprus appears to be the principal intermediary station between Mycenaean Greece and the Middle East, based on the considerable greater quantities of Mycenaean goods found there.[103] On the other hand, trade with the Hittite lands in central Anatolia appears to have been limited.[98][104] Trade with Troy is also well attested, while Mycenaean trade routes expanded further to the Bosphorus and the shores of the Black Sea.[105] Mycenaean swords have been found as far away as Georgia in the eastern Black Sea coast.[106]

Commercial interaction was also intense with the Italian peninsula and the western Mediterranean. Mycenaean products, especially pottery, were exported to southern Italy, Sicily and the Aeolian islands. Mycenaean products also penetrated further into Sardinia,[107][108] as well as southern Spain.[109]

Sporadic objects of Mycenaean manufacture were found in various distant locations, like in Central Europe,[110] such as in Bavaria, Germany, where an amber object inscribed with Linear B symbols has been unearthed.[111] Mycenaean bronze double axes and other objects dating from the 13th century BC have been found in Ireland and in Wessex and Cornwall in England.[112][113]

Temples and shrines are strangely rare in the Mycenaean archaeological sites. Monumental cultic structures are absent at all the palatial centers, with the exception of Mycenae. However, the cultic center of Mycenae seems to have been a later (13th century BC) development.[114] Small shrines have been identified in Asine, Berbati, Malthi and Pylos,[115] while a number of sacred enclosures have been located near Mycenae, Delphi and Amyklae.[116] Linear B records mention a number of sanctuaries dedicated to a variety of deities, at least in Pylos and Knossos. They also indicate that there were various religious festivities including offerings.[117] Written Mycenaean records mention various priests and priestesses who were responsible for specific shrines and temples.[118] The latter were prominent figures in society, and the role of Mycenaean women in religious festivities was also important, just as in Minoan Crete.[119]

The Mycenaean pantheon already included many divinities that were subsequently encountered in Classical Greece,[120] although it is difficult to determine whether these deities had the characteristics and responsibilities that would be attributed to them in later periods.[121] In general, the same divinities were worshipped throughout the Mycenaean palatial world. There may be some indications for local deities at various sites, in particular in Crete. The uniformity of Mycenaean religion is also reflected in archaeological evidence with the phi- and psi-figurines that have been found all over Late Bronze Age Greece.[114]

Poseidon (Linear B: Po-se-da-o) seems to have occupied a place of privilege. He was a chthonic deity, connected with earthquakes (E-ne-si-da-o-ne: Earth-shaker), but it seems that he also represented the river spirit of the underworld.[122] Paean (Pa-ja-wo) is probably the precursor of the Greek physician of the gods in Homer's Iliad. He was the personification of the magic-song which was supposed to "heal" the patient.[123] A number of divinities have been identified in the Mycenaean scripts only by their epithets used during later antiquity. For example, Qo-wi-ja ("cow-eyed") is a standard Homeric ephithet of Hera.[124] Ares appeared under the name Enyalios (assuming that Enyalios is not a separate god).[125] Additional divinities that can be also found in later periods include Hephaestus, Erinya, Artemis (a-te-mi-to and a-ti-mi-te) and Dionysos (Di-wo-nu-so).[126][127][128][129] Zeus also appears in the Mycenaean pantheon, but he was certainly not the chief deity.[121]

A collection of "ladies" or "mistresses", Po-ti-ni-ja (Potnia) are named in the Mycenaean scripts. As such, Athena (A-ta-na) appears in an inscription at Knossos as mistress Athena, similar to a later Homeric expression, but in the Pylos tablets she is mentioned without any accompanying word.[130] Si-to po-ti-ni-ja appears to be an agricultural goddess, possibly related to Demeter of later antiquity,[124] while in Knossos there is the "mistress of the Labyrinth".[131] The "two queens and the king" (wa-na-ssoi, wa-na-ka-te) are mentioned in Pylos.[132][133] Goddess Pe-re-swa mentioned may be related to Persephone.[124][130] A number of Mycenaean divinities seem to have no later equivalents, such as Marineus, Diwia and Komawenteia.[121]

The palatial structures at Mycenae, Tiryns and Pylos were erected on the summits of hills or rocky outcrops, dominating the immediate surroundings.[141] The best preserved are found in Pylos and Tiryns, while Mycenae and the Menelaion are only partially preserved. In Central Greece, Thebes and Orchomenos have been only partially exposed. On the other hand, the palace built at the acropolis of Athens has been almost completely destroyed. A substantial building at Dimini in Thessaly, possibly ancient Iolcos,[142] is believed by a number of archaeologists to be a palace.[141] A Mycenaean palace has been also unearthed in Laconia, near the modern village of Xirokambi.[143]

The palatial structures of mainland Greece share a number of common features.[144] The focal point of the socio-political aspect of a Mycenaean palace was the megaron, the throne room.[141] It was laid out around a circular hearth surrounded by four columns. The throne was generally found on the right-hand side upon entering the room, while the interior of the megaron was lavishly decorated, flaunting images designed intentionally to demonstrate the political and religious power of the ruler.[145] Access to the megaron was provided through a court, which was reached from a propylon.[144] The iconography of the palatial chambers is remarkably uniform throughout Greece. For instance, in Pylos and Tiryns the paintings are focused on marine motifs, providing depictions of octopodes, fish and dolphins.[146] Around the megaron a group of courtyards each opened upon several rooms of different dimensions, such as storerooms and workshops, as well as reception halls and living quarters.[144] In general Mycenaean palaces have yielded a wealth of artifacts and fragmentary frescoes.[144]

Additional common features are shared by the palaces of Pylos, Mycenae and Tiryns;[144] a large court with colonnades lies directly in front of the central megaron,[147] while a second, but smaller, megaron is also found inside these structures.[144] The staircases in the palace of Pylos indicate that the palaces had two stories.[148] The private quarters of the members of the royal family were presumably located on the second floor.[149]

The construction of defensive structures was closely linked to the establishment of the palaces in mainland Greece. The principal Mycenaean centers were well-fortified and usually situated on an elevated terrain, like on the acropolis of Athens, Tiryns and Mycenae or on coastal plains, in the case of Gla.[150] Mycenaean Greeks in general appreciated the symbolism of war as expressed in defensive architecture, reflected by the visual impressiveness of their fortifications.[150]

Cyclopean is the term normally applied to the masonry characteristics of Mycenaean fortification systems and describes walls built of large, unworked boulders more than 8 m (26 ft) thick and weighing several metric tonnes.[151] They were roughly fitted together without the use of mortar or clay to bind them, though smaller hunks of limestone fill the interstices. Their placement formed a polygonal pattern giving the curtain wall an irregular but imposing appearance. At the top it would have been wide enough for a walkway with a narrow protective parapet on the outer edge and with hoop-like crenellations.[152] The term Cyclopean was derived by the latter Greeks of the Classical era who believed that only the mythical giants, the Cyclopes, could have constructed such megalithic structures.[150] On the other hand, cut stone masonry is used only in and around gateways. Another typical feature of Mycenaean megalithic construction was the use of a relieving triangle above a lintel block—an opening, often triangular, designed to reduce the weight over the lintel. The space was filled with some lighter stone.[152]

Cyclopean fortifications were typical of Mycenaean walls, especially at the citadels of Mycenae, Tiryns, Argos, Crisa and Athens, while smaller boulders are found in Midea and large limestone slabs are found at Gla.[152] In the Mycenaean settlements found in Epirus and Cyprus, Cyclopean-style walls are also present,[153][154] as well as in western Anatolia.[155] Besides the citadels, isolated forts were also erected on various strategic locations. The fortification systems also incorporated technical refinements such as secret cisterns, galleries, sally ports and projecting bastions for the protection of gateways.[150] On the other hand, the palace of Pylos, although a major center of power, paradoxically appears to have been left without any defensive walls.[156]

Mycenaean domestic architecture originates mainly from earlier Middle Helladic traditions (c. 2000–1650 BC) both in shape, as well as in location of settlement. The observed uniformity in domestic architecture came probably as a result of a shared past among the communities of the Greek mainland rather than as a consequence of cultural expansion of the Mycenaean Koine.[46] Moreover, varying sizes of mudbricks were used in the construction of buildings.[144]

The military nature of the Mycenaean Greeks is evident from the numerous weapons unearthed, the use of warrior and combat representations in contemporary art, and the preserved Greek Linear B records.[158][159] The Mycenaeans invested in the development of military infrastructure, with military production and logistics being supervised directly from the palatial centers.[159][160] According to the Linear B records in the palace of Pylos, every rural community (the damos) was obliged to supply a certain number of men who had to serve in the army. Similar service was also performed by the aristocracy.[161]

Mycenaean armies were initially based on heavy infantry, equipped with spears, large shields and in some occasion armor.[162] Later in the 13th century BC, Mycenaean warfare underwent major changes both in tactics and weaponry and armed units became more uniform and flexible, while weapons became smaller and lighter.[159] The spear remained the main weapon among Mycenaean warriors, while the sword played a secondary role in combat.[163] Other offensive weapons used were bows, maces, axes, slings and javelins.[163][164] The precise role and contribution of chariots on the battlefield is a matter of dispute due to the lack of sufficient evidence.[165] It appears that chariots were initially used as fighting vehicles during the 16th to 14th centuries BC, while later, in the 13th century BC, their role was limited to battlefield transport.[166]

The boar's tusk helmet was the most identifiable piece of Mycenaean armor in use from the beginning to the collapse of Mycenaean culture. It is also known from several depictions in contemporary art in Greece and the Mediterranean.[167][168] A representative piece of Mycenaean armor is the Dendra panoply (c. 1450–1400 BC) which consisted of a cuirass of a complete set of armor made up of several elements of bronze.[169] In general, most features of the later hoplite panoply of classical Greek antiquity, were already known to Mycenaean Greece.[170] "Figure-of-eight" shields were the most common type of Mycenaean shields.[171] During the Late Mycenaean period, smaller types of shields were adopted, either of completely circular shape, or almost circular with a part cut out from their lower edge.[172]

During the Late Mycenaean period (1400–1200 BC), Mycenaean vessels/pottery exhibited similarities spanning a significant area of the Eastern Mediterranean (i.e., from the Levant to Sicily) and possibly reflecting a form of economic and political union centered at Mycenae.[173] However, the pottery of Crete during this time remained distinct indicating a degree of autonomy on the island.[173] The Mycenaean Greeks produced in large quantities a variety of diversely-styled vessels such as stirrup jars, large bowls, alabastron, krater and stemmed cups (or kylikes) resembling champagne glasses.[173]

Stirrup jars (Linear B: ka-ra-re-u, khlareus; "oil vessel"), specifically, were first invented on the island of Crete during the 16th century BC and used widely by the Mycenaeans from 1400 BC onward for transporting and storing wine and oil; the jars were usually pear-shaped or globular. As for stemmed cups (or kylikes), they evolved from Ephyraean goblets and a large quantity was discovered at a site called the "Potter's Shop" located in Zygouries. Mycenaean drinking vessels such as the stemmed cups contained single decorative motifs such as a shell, an octopus or a flower painted on the side facing away from the drinker.[173] The Mycenaean Greeks also painted entire scenes (called "Pictorial Style") on their vessels depicting warriors, chariots, horses and deities reminiscent of events described in Homer's Iliad.[174] Other items developed by the Mycenaeans include clay lamps,[175] as well as metallic vessels such as bronze tripod cauldrons (or basins).[176] A few examples of vessels in faience and ivory are also known.[177]

Larger male, female or bovine terracotta wheelmade figures are much rarer. An important group was found in the Temple at Mycenae together with coiled clay snakes,[181] while others have been found at Tiryns and in the East and West Shrines at Phylakopi on the island of Melos.[182]

The painting of the Mycenaean age was much influenced by that of the Minoan age. Fragments of wall paintings have been found in or around the palaces (Pylos, Mycenae, Tiryns) and in domestic contexts (Zygouries).[183] The largest complete wall painting depicting three female figures, probably goddesses, was found in the so-called "cult center" at Mycenae.[184] Various themes are represented: hunting, bull leaping (tauromachy), battle scenes, processions, etc. Some scenes may be part of mythological narratives, but if so their meaning eludes us. Other frescoes include geometric or stylised motifs, also used on painted pottery (see above).

The usual form of burial during this period was inhumation (burial in the earth, covered by dirt and stones).[185] The earliest Mycenaean burials were mostly in individual graves in the form of a pit or a stone-lined cist and offerings were limited to pottery and occasional items of jewellery.[186] Groups of pit or cist graves containing elite members of the community were sometimes covered by a tumulus (mound) in the manner established since the Middle Helladic.[187] It has been argued that this form dates back to the Kurgan culture;[188] however, Mycenaean burials are in actuality an indigenous development of mainland Greece with the Shaft Graves housing native rulers.[189] Pit and cist graves remained in use for single burials throughout the Mycenaean period alongside more elaborate family graves.[190] The shaft graves at Mycenae within Grave Circles A and B belonging to the same period represent an alternative manner of grouping elite burials. Next to the deceased were found full sets of weapons, ornate staffs as well as gold and silver cups and other valuable objects which point to their social rank.[191]

In circa 1600 BC, the Mycenaean Greeks borrowed from the Minoan civilization its syllabic writing system (i.e., Linear A) and developed their own syllabic script known as Linear B.[196] The Linear B script was utilized by the Mycenaean palaces in Greece for administrative purposes where economic transactions were recorded on clay tablets and some pottery in the Mycenaean dialect of the Greek language.[196] The Linear B tablets were first discovered in Crete by English archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans c. 1900 and later deciphered by English architect and cryptographer Michael Ventris in 1952.[197][198] Ventris's discovery of an archaic Greek dialect in the Linear B tablets demonstrated that Mycenaean Greek was "the oldest known Greek dialect, elements of which survived in Homer’s language as a result of a long oral tradition of epic poetry."[196]

In the 8th century BC, after the end of the so-called Greek Dark Ages, Greece emerged with a network of myths and legends, the greatest of all being that of the Trojan Epic Cycle.[199] In general, the Greeks of classical antiquity idealized the Mycenaean period as a glorious period of heroes, closeness of the gods and material wealth.[200] The legends of Homer's Epics were especially and generally accepted as part of the Greek past and it was not until the 19th century that scholars began to question Homer's historicity.[199] At this time, German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann undertook the first modern archaeological excavations in Greece at the site of Mycenae in 1876.[201] Thus, Schliemann set out to prove the historical accuracy of the Iliad by identifying the places described by Homer.[199]

As part of the Mycenaean heritage that survived, the names of the gods and goddesses of Mycenaean Greece became major figures of the Olympian Pantheon of later antiquity.[202] Moreover, the language of the Mycenaeans offers the first written evidence of Greek,[203] while a significant part of the Mycenaean vocabulary can also be found in modern English.[204]

The Mycenaean Greeks were also pioneers in the field of engineering, launching large-scale projects unmatched in Europe until the Roman period, such as fortifications, bridges, culverts, aqueducts, dams and roads suitable for wheeled traffic. They also made several architectural innovations, such as the relieving triangle.[205] They were also responsible for transmitting a wide range of arts and crafts, especially of Minoan origin. The Mycenaean civilization was in general more advanced compared to the Late Bronze Age cultures of the rest of Europe.[206] Several Mycenaean attributes and achievements were borrowed or held in high regard in later periods; so, it would be no exaggeration to consider Mycenaean Greece as a cradle of civilization.[205]

A 2017 archaeogenetics study of mtDNA polymorphisms from Mycenaean and Minoan remains published in the journal Nature concluded that the Mycenaean Greeks were genetically closely related with the Minoans, and that both are closely related, but not identical, to modern Greek populations.[207] The same study also stated that at least three-quarters of DNA of both the Mycenaeans and the Minoans came from the first Neolithic-era farmers that lived in Western Anatolia and the Aegean Sea (Mycenaeans ~74–78%, Minoans ~84–85%) while most of the remainder came from ancient populations related to those of the Caucasus and Iran (Mycenaeans ~8–17%, Minoans ~14–15%).[207] Unlike the Minoans, the Mycenaeans had also "4–16% ancestry from a 'northern' ultimate source related to the hunter-gatherers of Eastern Europe and [Upper Palaeolithic] Siberia";[207] however, Lazaridis et al. admit that they "cannot model Mycenaeans as a mixture of Anatolian Neolithic and steppe populations [...] due to the fact that Mycenaeans have more Iran-related than EHG-related ancestry".[208] Among the Mycenaean samples was found one Y-DNA J2a1, and two mtDNA X2, one X2d and one H.[207]


Missing People Truth.org

| Part 8: Tribulation Salvation |

Can People be Saved During the Tribulation?

Yes. God is loving and merciful (Psalms 86:5), he hasn’t forsaken those who remain on earth after the rapture. During this seven year period He has appointed three specific entities to perform public ministries declaring His truth and the deception of the Antichrist to all mankind. Ministering to all people so that they may acknowledge the error of their ways and accept Jesus Christ before it’s too late. These three entities are:

[Evidence] The 144,000 Saints (Revelation 7:1-8)

God appoints 144,000 Jewish men as servants of God and seals them with His name on their foreheads, protecting them from the Antichrist and his minions. These men are tasked to proclaim the Word of God to all the nations and will begin their ministry during the first half of the tribulation.

[Evidence] The Two Witnesses (Revelation 11:3-13)

These two people, having been selected and sealed by God, will be easily identifiable to the whole world merely by their garments because “they will prophesy one thousand two hundred and sixty days, clothed in sackcloth.” (Revelation 11:3). Due to the specific timeframe that the two witnesses prophesy, being 3 ½ years, it’s anticipated that their ministry will predominantly span the second half of the tribulation.

As you can imagine these two witnesses will also be prime targets of the Antichrist, however so that all people may know that they speak the truth as prophets of God, He has provided them with some specific supernatural abilities being:

  • Fire Breathing:
  • Power over Rain, Waters & Plagues:

At the conclusion of their 3 ½ year ministry, God allows them to be killed by the Antichrist and their bodies will lie in the streets of Jerusalem 3 ½ days for the entire world to see (Revelation 11:7-9).

The sinful and unrepentant people of the earth will be very pleased with this outcome:

But the joy of the unrighteous will be short lived:

In the same hour there was a great earthquake, and a tenth of the city [Jerusalem] fell. In the earthquake seven thousand people were killed, and the rest were afraid and gave glory to the God of heaven.” (Revelation 11:11-13)

[Evidence] Angels Proclaim the Word of God (Revelation 14:6-11)

The Bible details several different angels making proclamations to the nations during the Tribulation, one of which is described as:

What about the people who didn’t know all this about God?

People who have never had the opportunity to know God’s Word, such as remote jungle tribes, still have a moral compass that they are accountable to - the conscience - which is God’s internal revelation to man, and He will judge them accordingly (Romans 2:12-16).

Even so, God has not left mankind without natural evidence of His existence. Do you really believe that the intelligent balance and incomprehensible complexity of everything you see on earth and in our universe evolved by natural selection and random occurrence?

[Evidence] The fingerprints of God are all around you.

Consider the humble butterfly, she begins life as a caterpillar then sheds her skin to become a chrysalis, self-dissolves into a soup like liquid, and then emerges just 10 days later as a beautifully adorned butterfly. Complete with respiratory, circulatory, digestive, reproductive, sensory, musculoskeletal and nervous systems; they have a brain, heart, eyes and can even taste. Furthermore, their many colours are not merely simple pigment, but actually light-interacting structures on their wing scales, meaning they diffract the incoming light waves to interfere with each other to form the patterns of colour we see.

Now ask yourself, how did this process evolve? Evolution posits it takes millions of years for a species to evolve, yet the humble caterpillar has got just 2-4 weeks (as a caterpillar) to work out how to pull off this complex 10-day caterpillar/soup/butterfly transformation process or she’s going to be extinct on her first attempt. Why? Because caterpillars don’t have reproductive systems, only butterflies do.

The evolutionists themselves are perplexed by this. Scientific American states: “The evolution of insect metamorphosis remains a genuine biological mystery even today”.

This is just one of the countless examples in the natural world that can’t be explained by evolution, because evolution is a concept created by man to explain the origins of our world with the absence of God. This is why anyone who objectively investigates evolution will ultimately conclude that it’s simply not possible. Why? Because God is most certainly not absent from our world.

“Indeed My hand has laid the foundation of the earth, and My right hand has stretched out the heavens; When I call to them, they stand up together.” (Isaiah 48:13)

[Evidence] Science Disproves Evolution and Validates Creation

If you still think evolution is possible, let’s get a little more technical. Take DNA, the same genetic information in every living organism on the planet. DNA is an exquisite ‘language’ composed of some 3 billion genetic letters storing information - the detailed instructions for assembling proteins - in the form of a four character digital code.

The amount of DNA information stored in a single human cell is roughly equivalent to 384 volumes of The Encyclopaedia Britannica. Humans have approximately 10 trillion cells, so if you were to line up all of the DNA double helix strands found in every cell in the human body it would stretch from the earth to the sun 100 times.

So what does this concept of cellular information storage have to do with evolution? Everything. In fact there’s an entire field of scientific study dedicated to this. It’s known as Information Science and is concerned with the analysis, collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval, movement, dissemination and protection of information - and one of the foundational Scientific Laws of Information (SLI) is:

“Universal information can only be produced by an intelligent sender” (SLI-4)

An intelligent sender is defined as:

  • is conscious
  • has a will of its own
  • is creative
  • thinks autonomously
  • acts purposefully

The theory of atheistic evolution posits that matter and energy alone have given rise to all things, including biological systems. To hold true, this theory must attribute the existence of all information ultimately to the interaction of matter and energy without reference to an intelligent or conscious source.

The simple fact that every living organism on the planet contains masses of information in their DNA disproves the very foundational basis of evolution via acutely indisputable scientific evidence. Not surprisingly, the proponents of evolution have no answer for the origins of information in DNA either.

When you take the time to objectively evaluate the evidence for yourself, the only rational answer is creation; any other conclusion one could reach lacks objectivity and is therefore self-deception. In fact God declares that He has made us and our environment like this, so extraordinary in so many ways, in order that mankind would be “without excuse” in ignoring His works and therefore Himself.

“For since the creation of the world His invisible attributes are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, even His eternal power and Godhead, so that they [mankind] are without excuse…” (Romans 1:20)

So in light of the above obvious evidence: Why do evolutionists - some of whom are very intellectually gifted - continue to adhere to their flawed theory? God continues:

“…because, although they knew [of] God [acknowledging His unexplainable creation], they did not glorify Him as God, nor were thankful, but became futile in their thoughts, and their foolish hearts were darkened.” (Romans 1:21)

Intelligence does not automatically translate into wisdom, because intelligence is only the mental capacity to understand, whereas wisdom is the knowledge of the truth. Anyone who chooses to ignore God has misdirected the focus of their intellectual gift; therefore God honours their decision by allowing their hearts to be “darkened” to the truth, resulting in a depraved mind and facilitating their trust in such feeble and fanciful theories. God’s next statement describes the outcome of such people:

In the next part we’ll explain the Battle of Armageddon, the Great White Throne Judgement of all mankind and what God has prepared for the believers in eternity.

« Previous Page « | MissingPeopleTruth.org | » Next Page »


Textile and Apparel “Made in the World”

While shopping in SoHo (NYC), Nicole Farese, a student from FASH455, found the label of a Splendid sweater reads “Made of Italian Yarn” and “Made in China”. Splendid is a casual wear store which is known for their high-quality clothing sold at a premium price.

Regional Supply Chain Remains an Important Feature of Global Textile and Apparel Trade (Updated: November 2017)

Regional supply chain (or production-trade network, RPTN) or refers to a vertical industry collaboration system between countries that are geographically close to each other. Within a regional supply chain, each country specialized in certain portions of production or value-added activities based on their respective comparative advantages to maximize the efficiency of the whole supply chain.

There are three primary textile and apparel (T&A) regional supply chains in the world today:1

Asia: within this regional T&A supply chain, more economically advanced Asian countries (such as Japan, South Korea, and China) supply textile raw material to the less economically developed countries in the region (such as Myanmar, Cambodia, and Vietnam). Based on relatively lower wages, the less developed countries typically undertake the most labor-intensive processes of apparel manufacturing and then export finished apparel to major consumption markets around the world.

Europe: within this regional T&A supply chain, developed countries in Southern and Western Europe such as Italy and Germany serve as the primary textile suppliers. Regarding apparel manufacturing in the European Union,  products for the mass markets are typically produced by developing countries in Southern and Eastern Europe such as Poland and Romania, whereas high-end luxury products are mostly produced by Southern and Western European countries such as Italy and France. Furthermore, a high portion of finished apparel is shipped to developed EU members such as UK, Germany, France, and Italy for consumption.

America: within the region, the United States serves as the leading textile supplier, whereas developing countries in North, Central and South America (such as Mexico and countries in the Caribbean region) assemble imported textiles from the United States or elsewhere into apparel. The majority of clothing produced in the area is eventually exported to the United States for consumption.

Data from the World Trade Organization (WTO) shows that regional supply chain remains an essential feature of today’s global textile and apparel trade.  Notably, three trade flows are worth watching:

First, Asian countries are increasingly importing more textiles from within the region. In 2016, around 91.2% of Asian countries’ textile imports came from other Asian countries, up from 86.8% in 2006. This change reflects the formation of a more integrated T&A supply-chain in Asia. The more efficient regional supply chain also helps improve the price competitiveness of apparel made by “factory Asia” in the world marketplace. Particularly in the past few years, T&A exports from Asia is posting substantial pressures on the operation of the T&A regional supply chains in the Western Hemisphere.

Second, the intra-region T&A trade in EU remains stable. In 2016, 64.1% of EU countries’ textile imports and 55.6% of EU countries’ apparel imports came from within the EU region. Over the same period, 73.3% of EU countries’ textile exports and 81.6 % of their apparel exports also went to other EU countries.

Third, the Western-Hemisphere T&A supply chain, which involves countries in North, South and Central America, is facing substantial challenges from the increasing competition from Asian T&A exporters. In 2016, only 29.0% of North, South and Central American countries’ textile imports and 18.6% of their apparel imports came from within the region, a record low in the past ten years. Meanwhile, in 2016 Asian countries supplied 60.1% of textiles and 73.7% of clothing imported by countries in the Western Hemisphere, a record high in history. Understandably, if regional free trade agreements, such as NAFTA and CAFTA-DR, no longer exist, it would be even more difficult for the Western-Hemisphere T&A supply chain to survive. The potential losers of the collapse of the Western-Hemisphere T&A supply chain will include not only US textile exporters but also apparel exporters in North, South and Central America. Notably, in 2016, 89.3% of apparel exported by countries in the Western Hemisphere were destined for the region.

Data Source: World Trade Organization (2017)

by Sheng Lu

Towards a More Inclusive Trading System

A timely, informative and intellectual discussion with Roberto Azevêdo, Director General of the World Trade Organization on the state of global trade and its governance. Some important key points during Roberto’s presentation/discussion:

  • Trade has proved to be one of the most powerful pro-growth, anti-poverty tools in history: In recent decades it has helped to lift one billion people out of poverty in developing countries. The World Bank found that income grew more than three times faster for developing countries that lowered trade barriers than for those that did not. in the US, estimates show that the gains from globalization have raised real household incomes by up to $10,000 annually.
  • Trade means more choice, lower prices and real dollar in the pocket for consumers: A joint study by UCLA and Columbia found that people with high incomes could lose up to 28% of their purchasing power if borders were closed to trade. But the poorest consumers, they could lose up to 63% of their spending power
  • Trade is imperfect: Despite the obvious overall gains, trade can have negative effects in some parts of the economy. And those effects can have a big impact on some people’s lives. But we would be betraying those very same people, and many, many more, if we turned against trade and allowed the negative arguments to go unanswered.
  • Trade protectionism is an ineffective and very expensive way of protecting jobs: In the latter part of the 20th century, the EU protected various industries — including steel, agriculture and textiles. The French economist Patrick Messerlin analyzed this approach. He found that the average cost per job saved was several hundred thousand euros, or about 10 times the corresponding wage in each of those industries. The US applied tariffs on Chinese truck tires in 2009. Around 1,200 jobs were saved, but this came at a cost of $1.1 billion in higher prices for consumers. That works out as a cost of about $900,000 per job. The Petersen Institute estimates that these higher prices also resulted in around 2,500 job losses in the tire retail sector due to slumping sales.
  • Trade protectionist solutions do not reflect the nature of the modern economy and the international nature of production: Most goods aren’t made in one country. Most exports have components which have been imported. So by restricting imports, a country can restrict its own ability to export. Trade protectionism is also a two-way street. It leads to retaliation and the domino-effect.
  • Unemployment is not strictly or mainly a trade issue, trade measures will NOT address this disorder: trade is a relatively minor cause of job losses. The evidence shows that well over 80% of job losses in advanced economies are not due to trade, but to increased productivity through technology and innovation.
  • The real economic revolution that is happening today: Studies suggest that almost 50% of existing jobs in the US are at high risk of automation. An International Labor Organization (ILO) study on Cambodia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Philippines and Thailand found that 56% of jobs are at high risk of automation. And that’s just on average. In some sectors over 80% of jobs are at risk. In Japan, there are 315 robots per 10,000 workers. In China that number is only 36 — but it is rising fast. In the US, the number is 164, which is still relatively low. But it is set to go up!

Questions for thinking:

  • How do we ensure that trade can continue to promote growth and lift people out of poverty?
  • How to RESPOND to the rising anti-trade sentiment in public discourse? Is trade protectionism the right approach?
  • How to ensure that the benefits of trade reach further and wider– in other words, how to create a more inclusive global trading system? How to harness the power of e-commerce to support inclusiveness?
  • How do we help small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) to leverage technology so that this marketplace doesn’t just become the preserve of the big players?
  • How can the trading system adjust to the shift from a world of few, large, known exporters to a world in which exporters are many, small and unknown? How can we ensure that this transition works for consumers?

WTO Reports World Textile and Apparel Trade in 2015

The World Textile and Apparel Trade in 2016 is now available

According to the newly released World Trade Statistical Review 2016 by the World Trade Organization (WTO), the current dollar value of world textiles (SITC 65) and apparel (SITC 84) exports totaled $291 billion and $445 billion respectively in 2015, but decreased by 7.2 percent and 8.0 percent from a year earlier. This is the first time since the 2009 financial crisis that the value of world textiles and apparel exports grew negatively.

However, textiles and apparel are not alone. The current dollar value of world merchandise exports also declined by 13 percent in 2015,to $16.0 trillion, as export prices fell by 15 percent. In comparison, the volume of world trade grew slowly at a rate of 2.7 percent, which was roughly in line with world GDP growth of 2.4 percent. WTO says that falling prices for oil and other primary commodities, economic slowdown in China, a severe recession in Brazil, strong fluctuations in exchange rates, and financial volatility driven by divergent monetary policies in developed countries are among the major factors that contributed to the weak performance in world trade.

Textile and apparel exports

China, the European Union and India remained the top three exporters of textiles in 2015. Altogether, they accounted for 66.4 percent of world exports. The United States remained the fourth top textile exporter in 2015. The top ten exporters all experienced a decline in the value of their exports in 2015, with the highest declines seen in the European Union (-14 percent) and Turkey (-13 percent). The smallest decline was recorded in China (-2 percent).

Top three exporters of apparel include China, the European Union and Bangladesh. Altogether, they accounted for 70.3 percent of world exports. Among the top ten exporters of apparel, increases in export values were recorded by Vietnam (+10 percent), Cambodia(+8 percent), Bangladesh (+6 percent) and India (+2 percent). The other major exporters saw stagnation in their export values (United States) or recorded a decline (all other top ten economies).

china's market share

Additionally, despite reported rising production cost, China’s market shares in world textile and apparel exports continued to rise in 2015 (see the figure above).

Textile and apparel imports

The European Union, China and the United States were the top three importers of textiles in 2015. However, altogether they accounted for only 37 percent of world imports, down from 52.8 percent in 2000. Because a good proportion of textiles made by developed countries (such as the United States) are exported to developing countries for apparel manufacturing purposes, the pattern reflects the changing dynamics of world apparel manufacturing and exports in recent years.

Because of consumers’ purchasing power (often measured by GDP per capita) and size of the population, the European Union, the United States and Japan remained the top three importers of apparel in 2015. Altogether, they accounted for 59 percent of world imports, but down from 78 percent in 2000. This indicates that import demand from other economies, especially some emerging markets, have been growing faster over the past decade.

world trade 2016

2016 U.S. Fashion Industry Benchmarking Study Released

The 2018 U.S. Fashion Industry Benchmarking Study is now available
usfia 2016 cover_Page_1

The report can be downloaded from HERE

Key Findings of the study:

I. Business environment and outlook in the U.S. Fashion Industry

II. Sourcing practices in the U.S. fashion industry

III. Trade policy and the U.S. fashion industry

For the benchmarking studies in 2014 and 2015, please visit: https://www.usfashionindustry.com/resources/industry-benchmarking-study

Global Apparel and Footwear Industry (Updated in June 2016)

The global apparel and footwear industry enjoys a 5 percent value growth in 2015. Asia Pacific remains the world’s largest apparel and footwear market, with market value increased by $30 billion USD in 2015.  In particular, the United States, China and India contributed more than half the absolute increased value.

Market growth in Western Europe remains stagnant in 2015. However, some countries performed better than others. For example, apparel and footwear sales continued to experience significant losses in Greece and Italy with 7 percent and 2 percent declines in 2015, respectively. France didn’t do very well either and size of the French market is expected to contract by $1.5 billion USD by 2020. In comparison, UK, Western Europe’s largest market, posted modest 1 percent growth in 2015. Performance in Germany remained overall stable.

The US market continues to perform well with healthy value growth of 4 percent in 2015. However, the performance of key players such as J Crew and Gap, both of which plan to close a significant number of physical stores and lay off employees, highlight the increasingly competitive trading environment. US consumers overall remain cautious and adopt a value- driven approach to buying clothes resulting in a continuous discounting cycle, negatively impacting profit margins and slowing growth for the industry as a whole. From 2013 to 2014, volume growth of apparel sales in the United States exceeded value, primarily due to discounting, the proliferation of fast fashion brands and greater availability of low prices online. However, value growth returned to a more robust position in 2015, as a strengthening economy, improvements in the labor market and rising wages support future growth.

Sportswear is maintaining its momentum, increased by 8 percent in market value from 2014 to 2015, faster than any other apparel product categories. Consumers no longer consider sport a task that needs to be checked off on a day-to-day basis but instead it has become a lifestyle. Athleisure remains a heavily prominent trend as more consumers adopt an active and healthy lifestyle, increasing the demand for athletic products that are technically advanced and fashionable. In response to the evolving athleisure trend, major sportswear brands have turned their attention to women’s sports apparel and footwear. With Skechers, Lululemon, Under Armour and Nike reporting growth of 33 percent, 20 percent, 19 percent and 12 percent, respectively, in 2015.

Currency weakness, political unrest and tough economic environments continue to result in slowing growth among the emerging markets. However, internet retailing & e-commerce is a spotlight. Apparel and footwear sales through internet retailing grew by 23 percent in 2015 globally and are expected to continue providing impressive growth for apparel brands to 2020. Global mobile internet retailing has grown at a rapid of 92 percent over 2011-2015, highlighting the increasingly vital role mobile is playing within the buying process. Notably, emerging markets are accounting for a significant proportion of growth and are expected to boast a higher market size than developed markets by 2018.

Data source: Euromonitor Passport

FASH455 Exclusive Interview with Herb Cochran, Executive Director of Amcham Vietnam

 (photo courtesy: Amcham Vietnam)

Interview Part

  • Availability of low cost labor
  • Availability of trained personnel
  • Stable government and political system

ASEAN survey

–The End–


Why does it taste a little bland when you had tuna at high-class sushi restaurant?

Tuna at top-end restaurants is light in flavor. Its Akami (red meat) has an indescribable acidity with a delicate harmony between the shari vinegar, the nikiri soy sauce, and wasabi. However, on the other side of the coin, it feels almost like a waste to eat it without a sense of luxury. Of course tuna with delicious akami, also has delicious fatty tuna (toro). And you’ll never get tired of it. It would be easy to polish off 10 pieces as a light snack. Contrary to popular belief, it’s not the high fat content that makes it so easy to eat. However, it is because of that popular belief that many people feel that the big chain store farmed fish with lots of fat is more delicious than luxury natural fish.

We hope this information will be helpful.

Revision date: April 16, 2019

Sushi trends

Foods made to go well with alcohol like ‘shiokara’ salted fish parts or dried mullet roe, don’t go well with shari (vinegar rice). Also, restaurants mainly serving alcohol and foods to pair with it are either bars or Japanese cuisine restaurants that may also serve sushi, but not Edo-style sushi. Many years ago sushi chefs would even get angry saying things like, “Sushi restaurants are not bars. If you want to drink, go next door!” Even Rosanjin wrote, “Sushi restaurants that served alcohol first appeared after WWII. Before the war sushi was served with tea.” In other words, Edo-style sushi restaurants originally didn’t serve alcohol. Perhaps it is true that the increase in sushi restaurants that feel like bars is a natural progression with time.

We hope this information will be helpful.

Revision date: July 9, 2018

What is “Sute-shari”?

If the chef lacks such training, they may take too much shari and you’ll see them return some to the rice tub. This is called “sute-shari” or “discarded shari”. This sute-shari is not a very appealing sight. But the reality is that even the world-famous Jiro* can be seen discarding shari in this way.

*Jiro Ono is the owner of Sukiyabashi Jiro, a sushi restaurant in Ginza that has earned the status of a three Michelin stars for 11 consecutive years.

We hope this information will be helpful.

Revision date: May 14, 2018

Why doesn’t rice stick to the sushi chef’s hands?

Of course not. This is actually thanks to the vinegar.

We hope this information will be helpful.

Revision date: March 19, 2018


Video - How to remember anything (Customer names, products, ANTYTHING)

Grand Master of Memory Mark Channon joins Will Barron on this episode of the Salesman Podcast to discuss how we can learn to remember customers faces, names and the little details that build massive rapport over time.

-- How To Remember Anything --

The show is kicked off with Mark explaining that all memory is creation. When you remember something you’re creating an image in your mind using your senses.

The more senses you can tie into the creation of that memory, the more likely you are going to be able to recall it further down the line.

“All memory is actually creation” – Mark Channon

Mark then shares his thoughts on the process of remembering someones face or name.

Being able to say “Hi name” to a potential customer that you meet at a conference or randomly at a business function builds huge rapport because it shows them that you have taken the time to remember their name on both a conscious and unconscious level.

“There’s more neurons dedicated to the visual system in the brain than any other sense.” – Mark Channon

The show is wrapped up with pointing out visualising what you want to remember is generally the easiest way to sink it deeper into your long term memory as that is simply how our brains are wired.

Guest info:

Mark Channon (London, UK) originally trained as an actor, before becoming one of the first 8 people in the world to become a Grand Master of Memory in the 1995 World Memory Championships.

He is also a Product Manager for the BBC and has created several shows, including a memory gameshow.

Is this article helpful for you?


2 Effects Climate Change Will Have On Aviation

Published: 08-26-2019
What is up with our skies?

We’ve previously written about manufacturing eco-friendly airplanes as a way to cut down on carbon emissions. But what about the climate change that is already occurring?

Climate change will bring about more extreme variation in the weather. The hots will be hotter; the colds will be colder. And the storms will be mightier.

In this article, we’ll cover the two effects climate change will have on flying so you can be prepared for what’s to come.

Atmospheric Wind Shear and Turbulence

Wind shear, aka wind gradient, is a noticeable change in wind direction or speed in a small area. On land, the differences can be a telltale sign of an oncoming thunderstorm or something more severe, such as a tornado.

Wind shear is typically something we can safely ignore on the ground. The same comfort cannot be condoned while flying.

Most of us are familiar with the horizontal version, aka when the wind goes abruptly faster or changes to a different cardinal direction. On the other hand, vertical wind shear is when the wind alters its projected altitude wildly.

These sudden up or down bursts of air typically cause turbulence. According to a study published by Nature, vertical shear occurrences have increased 15% from 1979 to 2017.

Co-author of the study, Paul Williams, a Professor at the University of Reading, stated “If that wind shear effect gets too strong and moving from one layer up to the next there is a big jump in speed, that is what causes turbulence”.

Williams went on to note “[I]t is impossible to change the temperature patterns without having an effect on the wind patterns.”

So pilots can expect increased turbulence and a few more worried passengers as a result.

Will More Flights Be Cancelled in Hotter Extremes?

Airplanes have an average max operating temperature of about 118 degrees Fahrenheit. This is primarily due to two issues: runway length and low air densities.

At higher temperatures, air molecules are further apart making it harder for an aircraft to attain lift. Which is why 40 flights out of Phoenix were cancelled back in 2017.

The only way to combat this issue is by building extremely long runways. And unfortunately, most airports do not have the extra space or the funds to accomplish this.

But let’s say they did. The next issue to overcome is time. Gaining enough speed to achieve lift in a low-density environment is likely much longer than the average take-off time we experience today. Throughout the day, these additional minutes slowly push back each subsequent flight until they’re either cancelled altogether or moved back indefinitely.

And this could reduce the number of total flights that require pilots.

With a changing planet, we can expect a number of unexpected changes that alter our lives and careers. What other climate-related changes do you expect? Let us know in our newly-redesigned forums.

Recently Updated Airline Profiles


Lahn Valley near Weilburg is a 13.5 kilometer lightly trafficked loop trail located near Weilburg, Hesse, Germany that features a river and is rated as moderate. The trail is primarily used for hiking, walking, trail running, and nature trips.

Distance: 13.5 km Elevation Gain: 355 m Route Type: Loop

kid friendly

nature trips

wild flowers

The tour starts at the train station of Weilburg in the beautiful Lahntal. Along the Lahntalwanderweg, go up to the heights and you will soon reach the unique Kubacher Kristallhöhle. The Kubacher Kristallhöhle ( is the only calcite crystal cave in Germany and with a height of 30 meters it has the largest hall of all crystal caves. After countless steps you reach the cave, which shines in great light. Walk into the idyllic Weiltal valley and take a leisurely stroll along the same brook to the confluence with the Lahn. Via the cycle path, you will reach Weilburg with the only ship tunnel in Germany. In the summer you can observe many canoeists, who operate the double chamber lock by hand to overcome a height difference of 4.65 m. Then they can continue their tour on the Lahn. After watching the hustle and bustle for a while, walk on and come to the station of the roll ship ( Here you can use muscle power to move a gondola attached to a wire rope across the river. Immediately afterwards you come to the Modellbaupark 1: 8 ( At the station you climb the diesel locomotive and pass several level crossings, passing lakes, old town passage, a church, police and fire station, petrol station and through a tunnel back to the station. Then hike up to the old town and Weilburg Castle, one of the largest and most important baroque palaces in Hesse. The castle of Konrad I was built in 1590 and then expanded in 1703 to its present appearance. It is worth seeing the castle garden and the ensemble on the market square with the castle church, the town hall and the magnificent Neptune fountain. Tip: In the old town of Weilburg you can still visit the interesting mining and city museum ( The hostel Weilburg ( is available for overnight stays.

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Intelligent Selection

Intelligent Selection is a feature that analyzes the performance of a recurring campaign or Canvas twice a day and automatically adjusts the percentage of users that receive each message variant. A variant that appears to be performing better than others will go to more users, while variants that are underperforming will be targeted at fewer users. Each adjustment is made using a statistical algorithm that makes sure we are adjusting for real performance differences and not just random chance.

By looking at performance data in real-time and shifting campaign traffic toward winning variants gradually, Intelligent Selection ensures that more users receive your best performing variant, without any sacrifice in statistical confidence. Intelligent Selection will also rule out underperforming variants and identify high performing variants faster than a traditional A/B test. With Intelligent Selection, you can test more frequently and with greater confidence that your users will see your best message.

Intelligent Selection is ideal for campaigns that are scheduled to send multiple times. As Intelligent Selection needs initial results to begin adjusting your campaign, a campaign that sends only once will not benefit. For those campaigns, an A/B test per the above instructions would be more effective.

Including a Control Group

When you create a multivariate or A/B test, you can reserve a percentage of your target audience for a randomized control group. Users in the control group will not receive the test, but Braze will monitor their conversion rate for the duration of the campaign. When viewing your results, you’ll be able to compare the conversion rates of your variants against a baseline conversion rate provided by your control group. This lets you compare not only the effects of your variants, but also compare the effects of your variants against the conversion rate that would result if you didn’t send a message at all.

The size of the control group for a campaign with Intelligent Selection will be based on the number of variants. If each variant is being sent to more than 20% of users, then the control group will be 20% and the variants will be split evenly across the remaining 80%. However, if you have multiple variants such that each variant is being sent to less than 20% of users, then the control group will have to become smaller. Once Intelligent Selection starts analyzing the performance of your test, the control group will grow or shrink based on the results.

Understanding Your Results

Congratulations on getting to this stage! However, receiving results is not the last step of the testing process. Now you need to understand what your results mean and apply these insights to your engagement strategy.

Understanding Confidence

An important part of your results is the confidence of your results. For example, what if the Control Group had a 20% conversion rate and Variant A had a 25% conversion rate? This seems to indicate that sending Variant A is more effective than sending no message. Having a confidence of 95% means that the difference between the two conversion rates is likely due to an actual difference in users’ responses, and that there is only a 5% likelihood that the difference has occurred by chance.

Braze compares each variant’s conversion rate against the control’s conversion rate with a statistical procedure called a Z Test. A result of 95% or greater confidence, as in the above example, indicates that the variant is, statistically speaking, better than the control. A confidence of 0-5% indicates that the control is better, and any value between 5% and 95% means there is no statistically rigorous winner.

In general, a confidence of at least 95% is necessary to show that your results are reflective of users’ actual preferences, and not due to chance. In rigorous scientific tests, 95% confidence (or otherwise commonly referred to as the “p” value being less than 0.05) is the common benchmark used to determine statistical significance. If you continually fail to achieve 95% confidence, try increasing your sample size or decreasing the number of variants. Confidence does not describe whether one variant is better than the others.

Statistically Insignificant Results — Now What?

A test that doesn’t have a confidence of 95% can still hold important insights. Here are a few things you can learn from a test with statistically insignificant results:

  • It’s possible that all of your variants had roughly the same effect. Knowing this saves you the time you would’ve spent making these changes. Sometimes, you may find that conventional marketing tactics, such as repeating your call to action, don’t necessarily work for your audience.

  • While your results may have been due to chance, they can inform the hypothesis for your next test. If multiple variants appear to have roughly the same results, run some of them again alongside new variants to see if you can find a more effective alternative. If one variant does better, but not by a significant amount, you can perform another test in which this variant’s difference is more exaggerated.

  • Keep testing! A test with insignificant results should lead to certain questions. Was there truly no difference between your variants? Should you have structured your test differently? You can answer these questions by running follow-up tests.

  • While testing is useful for discovering which type of messaging generates the most response from your audience, it’s also important to understand which alterations in messaging have only a negligible effect. This allows you to either continue testing for another more effective alternative, or save the time that may have been spent deciding between two alternate messages.

Whether or not your test has a clear winner, it can be helpful to run follow-up test to confirm your results or apply your findings to a slightly different scenario.

New Stuff!


Usage and Grammar

Q. I am editing a brief in which the author has used “and/or” multiple times. I know that this term should be avoided, but I’m not exactly sure why. Is it because it’s confusing and ambiguous? What is The Chicago Manual of Style’s stance?

Q. Would you use “less” or “fewer” with “CO₂ emissions”? To me, “emissions” seems like a measurable, uncountable substance, so I would say “less.” However, a quick search on Google Ngrams shows “fewer emissions” is more common. Which is correct? Or should it be “lower” instead? And if so, why?

Q. Hello. Is it appropriate to use ’s for “is”? For example: John’s running every day.

Q. Does “plus” function like “and” in making two nouns a plural subject? For example, would you say, “This idea plus others like it are gaining traction” or “is gaining traction”?

Q. Hi. My question has to do with whether a new entry in the 17th edition was accidental or deliberate. Paragraph 8.185 includes this sentence: “ ‘Aladdin’ is arguably the most well-known tale in A Thousand and One Nights.” I’m curious to know if this sentence simply slipped through or if Chicago defends the use of “most well-known”? I ask because Philip Corbett, standards editor for the New York Times, ran a blog called After Deadline as a teaching tool to point out grammatical and stylistic missteps that made it to print. He often called out writers for using “most well-known” in place of “best-known”: “The superlative form of the adverb ‘well’ is ‘best.’ So there’s no reason to describe something as ‘the most well-known’—make it ‘the best-known’ ” (After Deadline, August 4, 2008).

Q. The emigrate/immigrate distinction has been the subject of differing opinions in our office. Each time a case arises, we consult CMOS 5.250 and come up with different interpretations. Editing the following sentence, for example, we changed “immigrate” to “emigrate”: Justice Abella was born in a displaced persons camp in Stuttgart, Germany, and with her family immigrated to Canada in 1950. Several of us argue that it’s “immigrate” because she’s going to Canada; others say “emigrate” because she’s leaving a past home. Please let us know which is correct.

Q. Doesn’t “The US is the second-largest carbon dioxide emitter after China” make it sound like the US is actually the third-largest carbon dioxide emitter? I see these formulations, which include [number] plus [superlative] and a direct comparison, often, and they seem confusing. Wouldn’t it make more sense to say “The US is the largest carbon dioxide emitter after China” or “The US is the second-largest carbon dioxide emitter; China is the largest”?

Q. I’m troubled by this sentence: “She combed her hair, brushed her teeth, and was putting on her lipstick when the phone rang.” I think it should be reworded since the list does not have parallel construction. My friend disagrees. Is it correct as is, or is there a simple fix?

Q. Sometimes I have a hard time distinguishing between a predicate adjective and a past-tense verb being used in a passive-voice construction. For example, in “this dish was leftover,” is “leftover” an adjective, or should it be “was left over,” with “left” being a verb and “over” being an adverb?


Super Bowl Sunday is a big day for eating snack food. On this day, what kind of food do Americans eat eight million pounds (3.6 million kg) of?
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Why Real Estate needs to think beyond the digital twin concept

Digital twin is fast becoming a buzzword in the real estate industry. But what does it really mean?

While digital twin is still a buzzword as opposed to a reality for many real estate companies, it's important to understand the relevance of the term. There's another term you need to understand when exploring the concept of digital twins - building information modelling.

Digital Twin vs Building Information Modelling

someone creating a digital twin - cad

Here are a couple of simple definitions for each term:

  • Digital twin: according to Gartner, "a digital twin is a digital representation of a real-world entity or system"
  • Building information modelling (BIM): according to the NBS, BIM is "a process for creating and managing information on a construction project across the project lifecycle"

So if you're feeling pressured to look into both, don't worry - they overlap. When you think of BIM, you might be thinking of a 3D computer-aided design drawing (CAD). This is a common misconception and an underestimation of the power of building information modelling. CAD and 3D CAD has existed for decades. BIM has existed for a while too but it has only recently seen success with the existence of faster internet, cloud computing and government legislation.

Why is the digital twin concept so important?

structural model - where digital twin becomes bim

Buildings that don't have a digital twin are not made for the future. Yes, you'll be able to continue restoring old buildings based on drawings on paper. But will you be able to do so on time and on budget? Will you get planning permission to extend the building? These are problems that continue to drag the building industry down and ruin construction's reputation.

Real estate companies should care about this - and not only because they could make more money. Digital twins will enable more efficient, safer and more sustainable building. That in turn leads to better outcomes for the most important people: the people using the building.

Why is digital twin used over BIM in Real Estate?

digital twin vs bim design

In our opinion... because the digital twin concept sounds simple. The concept of BIM sounds complicated and specific. And it is! But that's why the real estate industry needs to get to grips with it.

The concept of digital twins is relatively simplistic in terms of building. The real estate industry should not shy away from more complicated terminology. BIM should not be considered solely as a "construction project" tool (as in the NBS definition). Real estate can focus on the benefits of BIM in managing information across the project lifecycle.

Digital twin is a way to describe any digital replica of any real-world entity. BIM is specific to buildings and the key to it is the "I" in "BIM": "Information". A digital version of a real-world building can be created using sophisticated technology and machines. However, we should be looking to create more than a digital version. We should be able to access a record of every aspect of a building's past, present and future - in one place.

Digital sisters

big sister and little sister

Real estate experts and professionals might say this is all too much information. This could have been said 20 or even 10 years ago. Now, with the rise of Airbnb, WeWork and the like, big data is a necessity to remain competitive.

Real estate companies should indeed work with forward-thinking architects and engineers to at least get digital twins of existing buildings. But they can and should go a step further. They should work with BIM experts to get an understanding of the details of these digital twins. This helpful infographic by BIMpanzee gives more context on 4D up to 7D BIM.

The final step is to get ahead of the digital twin. Real estate companies should be working with land developers to create the digital big sister. The physical sister will be born a few months to a few years later but will have the same DNA. Of course, the BIM creation would be done by experts. However, with AI-driven companies like Kreo, developers can start the BIM process themselves, setting the project on the right course for success.

Getting started with BIM

Download Kreo's eBook to learn how we are unleashing the potential of 4D & 5D BIM

Once Real Estate gets to grips with the digital twin concept versus BIM, they will need to start using this technology. The starting point is communication. One of the reasons BIM falls flat is because implementation requires a top down approach. If the client pushes the importance of BIM, the entire architecture, engineering & construction chain will be required to use it.

Once communication has started, BIM projects can begin. With Kreo Design, you can design residential and commercial BIM models without any training. Developers can complete the feasibility study process faster than ever before. You can get quantity takeoff and even initial cost and schedule estimates from this advanced concept design.

For digital twin projects running already, ensuring the accuracy of your digital model is crucial. This is time consuming and expensive unless you have the right technology available. Kreo Plan's AI can do a lot of the work for you - you just need the BIM model to start with. Kreo helps experts to spot and fix errors, standardise the data in the model and keep the data updated over time.

BIM technology goes hand in hand with digital twin technology. When we embrace both concepts, we will see better buildings, built faster and lasting for longer.

Watch our video below to get an overview of how Kreo uses AI and machine learning to make BIM possible. Book a free demo of Kreo to understand how it can help you.

PLAN. AI-powered BIM Construction software.

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Palight - products used for print
PVC products
PALIGHT foamed PVC sheets

A family of products used for print, display, fabrication and more

Palram has been producing PVC products since 1963, and is proud of its reputation as a global leader in this sector. Based on the knowledge and expertise accumulated during this time, Palram developed a line of products to meet a variety of application needs and budgets.  PALIGHT foamed PVC sheets (also known as cellular PVC) are significantly lighter and more cost-effective than other options such as solid PVC sheets. They also offer excellent rigidity and performance. PALIGHT is one of the many products that Palram has developed for the evolving and diversifying print, display, and fabrication market.

Free Foam and Celuka are the two predominant types of PVC manufacturing technologies. While both of them have been available for some time, Palram favors the Free Foam method as it produces a more consistent density throughout the panel.

The cellular structure of the panel’s core is dense and, if manufactured to Palram’s high standards, does not contain voids or large air bubbles. Celuka PVC typically has a less dense core structure but has a harder “skin” on the outer surface which can sometimes result in chipping when cut.

The image shown here has been highlighted with blue to illustrate the typical thickness of the harder skin. If you look at the edge of the Celuka product, you’ll see chipping has occurred. Fabrication and milling of Free Foam PVC are generally easier and result in a better finish than Celuka products.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are three-dimensional or 3D logo signs?
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Should products be pre-dried before thermoforming?
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Is the PE film suitable for thermoforming applications?
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When should I use multiwall polycarbonate and when solid polycarbonate?
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Multiwall polycarbonate should be used when the key design parameter is thermal insulation. Solid polycarbonate should be used when the key design parameter is acoustic insulation and glass-like appearance.

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Which materials can be used in the construction of my sign?
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What is an illuminated sign?
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A sign that is illuminated by an electrical light source (fluorescent\LED).

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How do I handle inkjet printable media before and after printing?
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What is the difference between a polypropylene sheet and PVC?
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Please provide more information.

S/S 20: Key Items Checklist

Climate change and sustainability were just two of the driving forces behind S/S 20’s key items. The season is more about mindful design and reinventing classics than delivering yet more disposable hot fashion trends. For silhouettes, it’s all about the vintage back catalogue, with 80s and 90s influences still resonating on the runways.


Cannabis Facility Selection

Starting a cannabis cultivation operation can be a daunting undertaking, especially if you have never been involved in the procurement a property, design of a facility, and the buildout of that building or space.

There are a couple of basic approaches to getting started. The first would be having a full understanding of what you plan to produce, how you want to produce it, and finding a facility to meet those needs. A second option is finding a facility and optimizing that facility’s inherent features to make the most of what is available. This is often the case due to limited availability of property that are compliant with local zoning regulations. In my experience reality falls somewhere in between when looking at existing property.

Building Selection

Once a plan for cultivation is in place, finding a property to implement the plan is next in line. The most obvious criteria are square footage and height of the building. You’ll need enough space to meet the production volume which you have already determined. You will also need enough interior height to fit in stands or tables, plants, lighting and HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning), all with their own unique variables depending on how you plan to grow.

The materials that the building is constructed with needs its own assessment. Will the materials hold up to humidity levels? Do they carry the risk of mold growth? Are they in good condition or will there be extensive repairs needed? Is there adequate insulation to maintain interior conditions optimized for the health of the plants? Is the building ‘leaky’ or is it sealed from the exterior environment? A leaky building not only will be less efficient on energy but also it carries the risk of pest infestation and must be dealt with appropriately.  Building conditions vary widely across these criteria and shortcoming can usually be dealt with but rehab to “fix” an existing problem comes at a cost and is usually paid for by the tenant or operator vs the owner or seller.

Space Layout

Having adequate space for operational needs other than actual cultivation can have a significant effect on the efficiency of operations. Other spaces that support the grow operations include administrative offices, employee break and restrooms (with or without showers), shipping and receiving, secure and general storage, as well as ancillary functions such as fertigation and supplemental nutrients such as CO2. Layout of actual rooms and functional spaces needs to be sensible, employee and product flows must be carefully considered.  Some facilities may get by with 10% of the overall space dedicated to operations other than cultivation, but likely 20%-30%, or more is realistic depending on individual circumstances. If workers are stumbling over each other or access corridors are congested, facility operations will be chaotic and inefficient. Workers need adequate access to tend to and observe plants, move material from one space to the other, to store materials in a safe and effective way. If plants are overpopulated in rooms, then yield can actually be reduced due to inadequate observations or maintenance. Utilization of movable tables can optimize the grow canopy while providing a means to access plants.

Code Compliance

A cannabis business moving into an existing space will almost always require a “Change of Use” in both Zoning and Building Code. This essentially means the entire space will need to be upgraded to comply with current codes. Even if the space was previously used for cannabis, most jurisdictions are viewing a new cannabis tenant as a “Change of Use.”

Building and life safety code also plays into using a building or space effectively. Will fire suppression systems be required or need to be ungraded? Are there enough exits available and are they adequately distributed? Building code sets area requirements depending on what the building materials are, how many stories, and what the use of the building is. Then consideration is placed on whether or not structural elements are fire protected or not. And so on.

An additional conversation needs to be had if oil extraction is to be done in the facility, especially if a hydrocarbon method is to be used. But we’ll leave that for another time, or article.

Utilities currently available to the facility always warrant strong consideration.

Electrical service capacity is likely to be the primary concern. Due to the loads required by lighting, existing facilities and properties are often undersized and in need of being upgraded. Grow room lighting at 1000w/light adds up quickly. A 10,000 square foot facility could have 300 light fixtures which will need approximately 1500Amps of 3-phase power, or 3000Amps at 1-phase for grow lights alone. HVAC, general lighting and other power requirements could double the needed amperage.

Water service in terms of volume typically is not an issue for facilities in urban industrial areas. A 1 ½” – 2” city water tap is typically adequate for cannabis irrigation. If peak flow is not adequate a strategy for storing water on-site or can be utilized to balance needs. Water filtration must also be considered. It is likely that public or well water will not meet requirements. Pre-testing your water source is recommended prior to implementing a filtration strategy. Hard water may warrant a different filtration strategy than that of soft water. Filtration methods will have an impact on yield as well as the energy input.

While most jurisdictions do not impose special restrictions on cannabis facilities, this should still be researched to understand if any regulations are in place that may need to be addressed during design and construction. Septic systems however do not do well with a high nitrogen effluent and should not be drained to the exterior surface in some jurisdictions.

Your design team can usually implement your plan in most buildings, but the initial understanding of  the pros and cons of an existing building is crucial. Oftentimes buildings that at first appear to be ideal can have significant drawbacks that require modifications. Initial budgets can quickly skyrocket if an unanticipated expense to correct or supplement a building’s shortcoming arises after budgets are set. Timeframe will likely be affected as well resulting in lost opportunity cost when entry into the market is delayed.

Few projects can have all issued covered at initial investigation but limiting the unknowns early in the process greatly increases the chances of success.