A Detailed Look at Computer Forensics

The professional world has become smaller and much more accessible. The barriers that previously existed between corporations and professionals located in different parts of the world no longer seem to exist. Huge technological advancements relating to information and communications have taken place in a myriad of industries, businesses and homes. And like many other countries, the United States of America has also been impacted by these advancements. America is primarily into management and information processing instead of making goods, which as a result has impacted the personal and professional lives of its citizens. Our funds get banked and transferred electronically almost on a daily basis, and emails have become more common than traditional letters. According to CommerceNet Research Council 2000 estimates, the global online population is approximately 349 million.

In this era of information technology (IT), law enforcement requirements are making huge leaps as well. Some conventional crimes, relating to commerce and finance, are being upgraded technologically on a continual basis. Electronic trails have replaced paper trails. Crimes relating to data manipulation and theft are detected every day. Crimes pertaining to violence also aren’t immune to information age and its effects. A costly and serious terrorist act is now much likelier to emerge from online sources than nuclear bombs. A serial killer’s diary could be documented on a hard disk or floppy disk drive instead of paper.

Similar to how industries have shifted from being primary manufacturers to information processing units, criminal activities have also predominantly adopted the cyber path, getting rid of the traditional physical dimensions. This means any evidence and investigation relating to criminal activity is now likely to be carried out on the Internet.

Computer Forensic Science

The computer forensic science field was made to address the law enforcement’s articulated and particular requirements, thereby reaping the benefits of the electronic evidence format. The science entails acquiring, retrieving, preserving, and presenting information that has been electronically processed and amassed on various forms of computer media. The forensic discipline has had a major impact on quite a few prosecutions and investigations as well, quite similar to what DNA technology was able to achieve back in the day.

At its base, computer forensic science differs from the majority of conventional forensic disciplines. The examined computer material and techniques at the examiner’s disposal are the results of a private sector that’s driven by the market. Along with this, contrasting regular forensic analyses, it’s commonly required to conduct computer examinations virtually at any physical space, and not just within controlled settings. Instead of making interpretative conclusions, like in several forensic disciplines, this forensic science variant develops direct data and information. This direct data collection type has a range of consequences for both the forensic scientist-investigator relationship and forensic computer examination’s work product.

Primarily, computer forensic science refers to a demand response for service coming from the community of law enforcement. In 1984, FBI laboratory and similar law enforcing agencies started developing programs for computer evidence examination. To appropriately address the increasing demand of prosecutors and investigators in a programmatic and structured way, the FBI made CART or Computer Analysis and Response Team and made it accountable for computer analysis. Though CART’s positioning within the FBI is unique, its organization and functions are replicated in several similar law enforcement firms in America and quite a few other nations.

An initial issue that the law enforcement addressed was detecting resources within the firm that can be utilized for examining computer evidence. Often, the resources could be found scattered across the firm. Currently, shifting these examinations to a controlled or laboratory environment is gaining precedence. The U.S. Secret Service conducted a survey in 1995 indicating 48 percent of the firms were having computer forensic labs and close to 68 percent seized or recouped computer evidence was moved to the professionals in these laboratories. Though these statistics can be motivating enough to facilitate a monitored programmatic response for computer forensic requirements, the survey also reported that close to 70 percent of the law enforcement firms were carrying out the work sans a written procedure manual in place.

Computer forensic exams are carried out in data processing departments, forensic labs, and the squad room of a detective, in some cases. Assigning personnel to perform these exams is often based on the expertise available, and also the departmental policy. Irrespective of the exams’ location, a reliable and valid forensic exam is needed. The requirement acknowledges no boundaries relating to bureaucracy, politics, jurisdiction or technology.

Efforts are ongoing for developing exam standards and structuring computer forensic exams. In 1991, an ensemble comprising 6 global law enforcement firms interacted with many American federal law enforcement establishments. It was unanimously agreed that computer forensic science standards were not up to the mark. The conference convened again in 1995, in Baltimore, Maryland; in 1996, in Australia; and in 1997, in Netherlands. This ultimately resulted in the International Organization on Computer Evidence taking shape. Also, Scientific Working Group on Digital Evidence (SWGDE) became a thing to address the problems synonymous with several federal law enforcement establishments.

A Fresh Relationship

Disciplines of forensic science have dramatically impacted multiple criminal investigations, offering compelling testimonies during trials. To improve objectivity and reduce the bias perception, forensic science has traditionally stayed at arms distance from the majority of the real investigation. Only specific investigation details that are required for the examination end up getting used. The details could entail possible contamination sources at the scene of crime or individuals’ fingerprints that are not associated with the investigation but have come in physical contact with the evidence. The science depends on the scientists’ ability to draft a report using the scientific examination’s objective results. The actual case could have a small role to play in the exam process. In fact, a DNA exam for a rape case could be carried out without knowing the name of the victim, subject, or the crime’s specific circumstances.

Computer forensic science can be effective if it is driven by the data unearthed at the time of investigation. With a personal microcomputer’s average storing capacity nearing 30 gigabytes, and 60 GB or more storage potential systems readily available for wide-scale use, it is highly impossible or not practical to examine all the stored computer files. Also, since computers provide such varied and wide uses in a household or company, searching each file may be going against the law. Computers of physicians or lawyers won’t just comprise evidence pertaining to fraud but also privileged patient and client information. Centrally stored computer server data could have an incriminating email made by the subject and also innocent third party emails.

As aforementioned, scanning each and every computer file is difficult and practically impossible. Similarly, reading and assimilating the information within the files would not be easy too. For instance, printed text information amounting to the size of 12 GB would create a paper stack as high as 24 stories. Therefore, for practical reasons, this type of forensic science gets most effectively used when just the investigation’s probative data and details are given to the forensic examination team. The examiner can use this data to make a keyword list that culls probative, specific, and case-related data from huge file groups. Though the examiner could be legally in the position to search for each file, several judicial constraints such as time limitations won’t provide approval. In most cases, the examination must only be limited to well-identified probative data.

Forensic Output

Historically, forensic science has given results that are known to be both reliable and valid. For instance, DNA analysis tries to make specific identifying data corresponding to a person. To endorse the findings, forensic DNA scientists gather extensive information on DNA profiles upon which the conclusions are based. By comparison, computer forensic science produces or extracts the data. The computer examination’s purpose is finding case-related information. For supporting computer forensic exam results, procedures are required to make sure the information stored on computer files aren’t altered during the exam process. Unlike many forensic disciplines such as DNA analysis, computer forensic science doesn’t interpret statements for the actual information’s reliability, accuracy, or discriminating power.

Beyond the forensic item and pertinent information related to the case, there is one more major difference between computer forensic science and traditional forensic science. Conventional forensic analysis could be controlled within a laboratory and the progresses could be made incrementally, logically and in understanding with widely accepted practices of forensic science. Comparatively, market and technology drives computer forensic science, usually outside laboratory setting, with the exams presenting distinct variations in all situations possible.

Common Objectives

Keeping the dissimilarities aside, scientific conclusions of both conventional forensic analyses and computer forensic science information are unique forensic examinations. Generally, all the good and legal traditional forensic sciences practice requirements are shared. Both would be furnished in the court during adversarial and at times extremely probing scenarios. Both should produce reliable and valid results from state-of-art detailed, peer-reviewed and documented procedures, and protocols that are accepted by the concerned scientific community.

As laboratories start examining further computer-related proof, they should substantiate policies relating to computer forensic exams and develop procedures and protocols from these policies. The policies must reflect the community-wide, broad objective of offering reproducible and valid results, despite the submissions emanating from different sources and presenting unique examination problems. As the lab shifts to protocol development from policy statement, every individual procedure should be documented properly and must be robust enough to resist challenges to the methodology and results.

However, unlike a few conventional forensic counterparts, computer forensic science can’t depend on getting similar proof with each submission. For example, once the contaminants of a DNA are cleared and the DNA is decreased to its basic form, it becomes generic. Thereon, the forensic DNA analysis protocols could be applied similarly for all submissions. The system of criminal justice expects a reliable and valid output using the DNA protocols. For the below mentioned rationales, computer forensic science could seldom expect the same standardized repetitive testing elements in the majority of its submissions.

  • Operating systems that define a computer’s identity and functioning vary across makers. For instance, personal computer techniques that incorporate the DOS (disk operating system) environment may not necessarily be similar to operating systems, like UNIX, which are ideal for multiple users.
  • Unique application programs.
  • Storage techniques could be distinct to both the media and device.
  • Typical computer exams should recognize the diverse and fast-changing world wherein the examiner functions.

Analyzing Computer Evidence

Computer evidence portrayed by physical items like boards, chips, storage media, central processing units, printers, and monitors could be easily and accurately described as a unique physical evidence format. The description, logging, disposition, and storage of physical proof are understood well. Forensic labs have detailed strategies that describe acceptable techniques for handling physical proof. The evidence doesn’t represent any specific challenge, provided there is no physical component to computer evidence. But the proof, while being stored in the physical things, is latent and only exists in an abstract electronic form. The output being reported from the exam is the discovery of this latent data. Though forensic labs are extremely good at maintaining the controlled physical items’ integrity, computer forensics also needs methods for ensuring the equity of the data in the physical items. The challenge with computer forensic science is developing techniques and methods that offer reliable and valid results while safeguarding the real proof from being harmed.

To further complicate matters, almost no computer evidence exists in solitude. It is the stored data’s output, the application used for creating and storing it, and the system directing these pursuits. To some extent, it is also an output of the software applications used in the lab for extraction.

Computer forensic science problems should be tackled within a rapidly altering and emerging environment’s context. However, even with the environmental changes, both international and national law enforcement establishments acknowledge the requirement for typical technical approaches and standards. Due to this, a model should be erected that functions long-term even when the temporary changes are not the exceptions but the rules. The model described is a hierarchical three-level model that consists of the following:

  • An overarching examination principles concept
  • Practices and policies
  • Techniques and procedures

Exam principles are big concepts that apply to the test almost always. They’re the consensus approaches relating to what’s important among laboratories and professionals. They are representative of collective technical practice, along with forensic computer examiner experience.

Organizational practices and policy are guiding rules that apply to forensic exams. They’re designed for ensuring workplace efficiency and quality. Within computer forensic science, they are the ideal lab practices that help plan, perform, record, monitor and report examinations to ensure the work product’s integrity and quality.

Techniques and procedures are hardware and software solutions for particular forensic issues. These techniques and procedures are detailed directives for particular software applications and also a step-by-step manual for describing the whole exam procedure.

As a complete example, a laboratory could need the exams being carried out, if feasible, on the original evidence’s copies. The requirement is an exam principle. It is representative of a logical method adopted by the whole computer forensic group, and it relies on the principle of safeguarding the original proof from unintentional or accidental manipulation or damage. The principle is premised on the truth that digital corroboration could be precisely replicated for creating an accurate and true copy.

Drafting the copy and making sure it is accurate and authentic comprises the principle’s subset – i.e., practice and policy. Each examiner and agency should decide on a case-by-case principle implementation strategy. The factors affecting the decision include the data set’s size, method used for creation, and the media it’s available on. In specific cases, comparing the listed files’ creation dates and size could be sufficient. In other cases, application of mathematically rigorous and technically robust techniques like message digest (MD) calculation or cyclical redundancy check (CRC) could be required.

MD and CRC are computer algorithms producing the data’s unique mathematical representations. The algorithms are devised for both the copy and original and then put through comparison to determine identity. The tool selection should be based on the evidence’s character instead of just the laboratory policy. It is likely that the examiners would require multiple options for performing this function.

An examiner that duplicates proof should first determine the right verification level for weighing time constraints against the bigger file varieties. These algorithms’ discriminating power and mathematical precision typically correlate directly to the total time required for calculating them. In case there were a million files to be replicated, computational and time constraints would probably be a huge determining attribute for every file (not more than 1 kb size). The scenario will likely lead to the need to use a less discriminating and precise, but faster data integrity algorithm.

After having determined the best way to assure the completion and accuracy of the copy process, next is the main task. It’s a subset of practice and policy, or techniques and procedures. These almost represent a standard cookbook method for protocol development. These are complete and comprise necessary detailed steps, which could be used for copying the information, verify the operation’s completion, and ensure production of an accurate and true copy.

Again, as per Figure 1 illustration, a principle could generate multiple policies, which could accept several different techniques. The route taken by the examiner in every case is technologically sound and properly documented for the specific case. However, it could not be the identical route the examiner adopts with another case. Conventional forensic exams, like the DNA exam of blood recouped from a crime spot, make way for a standardized and routine string of steps that could be repeated with every case. Generally, there isn’t anything as common computer proof procedures. The proof is likely to differ substantially each time the laboratory receives a submission, and a tailored examination plan would likely be mandatory as well. Though this scenario could present a recurring account of management controls and checks within the lab setting, the consideration should be looked into and enhanced if this rising forensic discipline needs to stay a reliable and effective tool within the criminal justice setup.

Reliable and valid techniques for recovering information from computers captured as criminal investigation evidence are becoming rudimentary for global law enforcement agencies. These techniques should be robust technologically to ensure recovery of all probative data. They should be legally defensible too for ensuring no part of the original proof gets edited and no information is deleted from or added to the original. The forensic regulation of acquiring, safeguarding, recovering, and exhibiting electronically processed and digitally stored information is known as computer forensic science.

This article looks into the problems enveloping the need for developing laboratory computer forensic science protocols that adhere to critical legal and technological objectives. Computer forensic scientists must develop long-term affiliations with criminal justice establishments they serve. The following are the reasons behind such relationships:

  • While putting efforts to reduce the amount of information that should be retrieved and to make their exams more effective and efficient, scientists of computer forensic science should have particular know-how of the investigative details. This requirement is clearly more sought after than standard forensic science requests, placing more emphasis on case data.
  • Courts require more data than seized equipment. This needs merged efforts between computer forensic scientists and law enforcement officers to make sure the needed technical resources for search warrant execution are good enough for addressing both the complexity and scope of the search.
  • Computers could logically comprise both data detected in the warrant along with the information that could be protected constitutionally. Probably, a computer forensic scientist is the most qualified individual to direct both the prosecutor and investigator on how to detect technical answers for these intricate scenarios.

Making computer examination customs for the purpose of forensic computer study is unique for multiple reasons:

  • Unlike a few standard conventional studies that try to amass maximum data possible from a proof sample, the intent with computer forensic analysis is recovering any probative data from a huge volume of heterogeneous data.
  • Computer forensic science should consider the market-driven reality of computer forensic science, and the field should quickly adapt to fresh innovations and products with reliable and valid analysis and examination methods.
  • A computer forensic exam’s work product also differentiates itself from the majority of conventional forensic work items.

Traditional forensic science tries developing a string of reliable and accurate facts. For instance, the blood DNA gathered at a scene of crime could be matched to a particular individual for establishing the truth that the shed blood belonged to the particular individual. Generally, computer forensic science doesn’t make any interpretive statement regarding the obtained information’s reliability or accuracy and usually only renders the recovered data.

The protocols for computer forensic science must be laid down in a hierarchical way, as that would ensure the overarching principles stay constant and don’t fluctuate unnecessarily. However, examination techniques could quickly adapt to the computer setup that needs to be examined. The computer forensic protocols approach could differ from the ones created for several other disciplines of forensic science. However, making room for a unique forensic exam is necessary.

Recovering and Examining Computer Forensic Evidence

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Tag Archive: National Geographic Kids

IMG_0069My 3rd graders just wrapped up a couple of weeks on volcanoes!  I started out by reading them The Magic School Bus: Volcanoes and Earthquakes. From there I brought in vinegar and baking soda where the kids were able to make a mini volcanic explosion in the classroom.  Let’s face it, I would have loved to have made a big mess, but it was a tablespoon of vinegar and a tablespoon of baking soda.  Don’t worry–it still got plenty of “whoa’s”, “ooooo’s” and “ahhhh’s”.

The students then read National Geographic Kids: Volcanoes and read about the different kinds of volcanoes, the difference between lava and magma, what happens when lava cools quickly or slowly, and the different kinds of lava.  On note cards they had to write about geysers, cinder cone volcanoes, stratovolcanoes, shield volcanoes, and calderas.  They each then made their own diagram of one of the volcanoes they wrote about.

Each day they asked if they could make another volcanic explosion.  They were disappointed I wasn’t THAT cool to do daily explosions!

IMG_0359My 3rd graders continue their quest of studying rocks and minerals.  We started reading Rocks and Minerals from National Geographic Kids (LOVE this book, by the way!) and read the first half of the book.  The first half goes over how rocks are made (the “rock cycle”) and goes into more depth on minerals, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.

IMG_0357After the kids finished the first half of the book (“20 pages, Ms. Acuff!!!?!?! How are we going to get through all of that?!?!?!) We did some analysis on a box of rocks I have.  They had to decide if the rock was a mineral, igneous, sedimentary, or a metamorphic rock based on the information they had from their book and by looking at the rock.

Next we’ll continue by writing about the different kinds of rocks and analyzing more rocks.  They are looking forward to being able to crack open their own geode and writing about it.

2nd grade: Mother Sea Turtle

IMG_5838My 2nd graders recently read Mother Sea Turtle which talks about the journey a sea turtle goes from hatching, growing up, and returning to lay eggs.  I read to the students about sea turtle migration and the life cycle of a sea turtle and the process of laying an egg…again National Geographic Kids makes it so easy with their amazing non-fiction books about Sea Turtles and Animal Migration.

The kiddos were so sad that mother sea turtle doesn’t take care of her little hatchlings.  They have to fend for themselves and many of them don’t survive, but instinctively they all return to the same beach they were born to lay their eggs.

After we read all of our stories, the kids took the mentor text books I read and their Mother Sea Turtle book and mapped out the life cycle of the sea turtle or the process of laying/hatching an egg.  They did such a fantastic job of sorting out the information and putting it in a step by step life cycle model.

IMG_0304One of my group of 2nd graders has been learning about dinosaurs and the process paleontologists go through in locating and extracting dinosaur bones.  As I’ve learned with this group, their questions and curiosity often lead us in IMG_0301a direction I wasn’t really expecting, but always takes us to a place of great learning.

This group was particularly interested in the locating of dinosaur bones more so than dinosaurs.  I read a mentor text initially (National Geographic Kids’ Dinosaurs–you know how I love those books) and the direction of the rest of the lesson went in the opposite direction of what I had planned.  We still continued on with the book All About Dinosaurs, which I planned for, but then we went into research mode.

We learned there is a more lengthy process to extracting dinosaur bones than we thought, including me.  We made IMG_1623this into an anchor chart.

  1. Prospecting–looking around for a possible dig site.  (This may include waiting a lengthy time to get permits to dig.  The paleontologist we researched about had to wait a year to get the proper permits.  Wow!)
  2. Quarrying–digging around the fossil to expose it.
  3. Vinacing–putting plastic onto the bone to stabilize it.  (None of us knew this happened!)
  4. Mapping–mapping, logging, documenting the area.
  5. Jacketing–wrapping and protecting the bone in plaster. (This was new for us, too!)
  6. Extracting–moving the bone to a new place to be transported to a museum/research area.

The kids were having a difficult time grasping the concept of how they know where to find dinosaur bones, which paleontologists don’t really know.  They can take a good guess and go off of where other bones have been located, but there’s no real way of knowing.  To make this concept a little more concrete I baked a pan of brownies (real brownies this time–they asked!) and put in different candies varying from twizzlers, tootsie rolls, nerds, mini oreos, etc. in various sizes just like would happen with a dinosaur bone.  I brought in the brownies and showed them the pan.  I asked them where the “bones” where.  They all shrugged their shoulders at me.  I had them draw a “map” of the brownies, which IMG_0302was just a rectangle.  I divided the pan into equal parts and gave them all a large portion of brownie.  From there, 2nd graders had to follow the steps paleontologists follow in locating bones.  They had to carefully expose “bones” and then map out in their writing journals where they found items.  And, of course, after all the scientific research had been completed, brownies were consumed.  This was a fun process and lots of giggles as new “bones” were discovered from each child.

Students then wrote about the step-by-step process they had to go through while extracting their “bones” during the brownie activity.  We had a great time learning and researching with each other–and I learned just as much as the kiddos did.

IMG_0281If you are a follower of my blog then you probably read about my 3rd graders reading National Geographic Kids Rocks and Minerals last semester.  It was a big hit with my 3rd graders and thought I could use it with my 2nd graders.  I had mapped IMG_1294out what I wanted to do with them and had planned to do a lot of the same stuff, but one of the things I realize the longer I teach is how much teaching evolves as you do something and how the interests and questions of the kids somewhat guides the way you teach.

We started out with an indepth study on where we find rocks and then the differences between Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic rocks along with the rock cycle and minerals.  The more we read the more students were asking about different rocks, minerals, and gemstones.  They were so curious about the difference among rocks.

The thing I have really noticed about this set of five 2nd graders, which I truly appreciate, is how hands-on they are and how curious they are.  I am constantly taking notes of questions they have that arent answered in our readings that I have to research and bring back to them or that we research together.  So with all these questions I thought it was necessary that we research about the different types of rocks and then do an indepth analysis and categorization of different rocks/minerals/gemstones.

IMG_0274I ordered a pack of 20 rocks/gemstones from Amazon and once they arrived students were given one rock at a time to analyze, categorize, and write about.  They were given 2 minutes to study the rock before then needing to write about it.  Although they didn’t get a chance to write about all 20 rocks in the box due to time, they were able to write about several of them.

After they had analyzed and written about their rocks they were able to discuss what they had noticed with another group member.  The chattering about rocks was so focused that I had a hard time getting them to STOP talking about rocks.

I was even impressed when on day 2 of rock analysis one of the 2nd graders brought in her own rocks she found outside and wanted everyone in the group to take one and analyze it for themself.  IMG_0275Wow!

Since the kids were so enthusiastic about studying different rocks I ordered some geodes online as well and thought it would be fun for students to crack their own geodes and be able to study and write about those as well and then be able to take them home.

Today we were able to take the rocks outside and hammer away at some geodes.  We had one particular geode that we had a difficult time cracking open.  After several attempts there were lots of cheers when it finally cracked open.  We cracked open 2 geodes (picture at the top) and the comments I kept hearing were 1. I wasn’t expecting them to be ugly on the outside, but pretty on the inside, and 2. I had no idea they were going to be sparkly and have so many different colors.

IMG_0279Students were able to discuss their findings with a group member before selcting a geode piece to take home with them.  One of the students noticed that the geode left marks on the cement which turned into a coversation about how the cement was made out of rocks and how the geode was less hard which allowed the cement to scratch it.  This was based off our learning that diamonds are the hardest rock and can scratch steel.  I have really enjoyed these last couple of weeks as we’ve been researching, writing, reading, and exploring the world around us.


LED Lighting — Whats All the Rage?

“L-E-D”. When it comes to lighting, you’re hearing these three letters over and over again… you see it posted all over lighting websites, and its starting to bug you. It seems to be an exciting new trend…some kind of new innovative light…but you have no idea what it is. You’d like to know what everybody’s talking about- what’s all the rage?

Led display

LED’s — Light Emitting Diodes — Simply put, LED’s are diodes that…(huh?) hang on, I’ll explain: a diode is the simplest sort of semiconductor device. (what’s that?) wow, you’re impatient: A semi-conductor is a material with the ability to conduct electrical current. Basically, instead of emitting light from a vacuum (as in an incandescent bulb) or a gas (as in a CFL), LED emits light from a piece of solid matter, its semi-conductor. Stated very simply, an LED produces light when electrons move around within its semiconductor structure.

They tell you when to stop and go. They have ruled your driving, saved your life countless times, and that little red man made you wait around till you were able to cross the street. That’s right — the red, yellow and green on the traffic lights are Led lights right in front of your nose. In fact, Light Emitting Diodes have been around for some time, conceptualized in 1907. However, it wasn’t until the 1960s that practical applications were found and LED’s were first manufactured. LED used to be used exclusively for traffic signals, brake lights and headlights on luxury cars, and indicator lights on appliances. You probably didn’t even know that LED lights were lighting up your digital clocks, flashlights and telling you when you’ve got a new voice message on your cell phone. Expensive at the start, as applications grew, benefits were discovered and manufacturing costs went down. According to the American Lighting Association (ALA), lighting manufacturers have invested considerable time, effort and research into adapting this super energy-efficient technology for household use. The technology has advanced enough to win approval from the government’s popular and well-respected Energy Star� program. So here’s why:

  • They do more for less. LED’s are efficient-producing a lot of light from a little power. For example, one 5-watt LED can produce more light (measured in lumens) than one standard 75-watt incandescent bulb. The 5-watt LED could do the job of the 75-watt incandescent at 1/15 of the energy consumption. LED’s save energy and, therefore, money. This is because in LED lights, 90% of energy is converted into light, while in incandescent bulbs 90% of energy goes to heat and only 10% to visible light.
    - They last longer. LED is virtually maintenance free — they don’t have a filament that will burn out, so they last much longer. A standard “long life” household bulb will burn for about 2,000 hours. An LED can have a useful lifespan up to 100,000 hours! By some sources, LED’s can last for as long as 40 years. Imagine not having to change a light bulb for years. There are LED products available this year that will make frequent light bulb changes so 20th century.
  • Pendant light
    - How it actually works… (skip this part if you don’t really care) Light is a form of energy that can be released by an atom. It is made up of many small particle-like packets, called photons, which are the most basic units of light. LED’s are specially constructed to release a large number of photons outward.When an electric charge strikes the semiconductor, a small electrical current, which is measured by watts (oh! so that’s what they mean by ‘has low wattage’!) is passed through the semiconductor material. this causes the electrons to move around, become “excited” and give off photons. Almost all of the energy emitted is light energy. In an ordinary diode, such as incandescent bulbs, the semiconductor material itself ends up absorbing a lot of the light energy so it produces more heat energy than light energy.This is completely wasted energy, unless you’re using the lamp as a heater, because a huge portion of the available electricity isn’t going toward producing visible light. LED’s generate very little heat, relatively speaking. A much higher percentage of the electrical power is going directly to generating light, which cuts down on the electricity demands considerably. As you can see in the diagram,they are housed in a plastic bulb that concentrates the light in a particular direction. Most of the light from the diode bounces off the sides of the bulb, traveling on through the rounded end.
  • Pendant light
    - They are a better buy (in the long run). Up until recently, LED’s were too expensive to use for most lighting applications because they’re built around advanced semiconductor material. The price of semiconductor devices has plummeted over the past decade, however, making LED’s a more cost-effective lighting option for a wide range of situations. While they may be more expensive than incandescent lights up front, a 60-watt LED replacement bulb runs in the area of $100, and even the lower-output versions, used for things like spot lighting, will cost between $40 and $80. That’s compared to a $1 incandescent and a $2 fluorescent bulb.The reality is, even at $100 for a single bulb, LEDs will end up saving money in the long run, because you only need one or two every decade and you spend less money on home lighting, which can account for about 7 percent of your electric bill [source: Greener Choices]. But don’t worry, the scary price you need to pay upfront won’t last too long, the lighting industry in general expects LED costs to come down quickly. Lighting Science Group, a company that develops and manufactures LED lighting, estimates a 50 percent price reduction within two years.
    - It looks nice. The prime replacement for the incandescent light bulb would be the higher-efficiency compact fluorescent, or CFL. However, besides that there is toxic mercury in the design, it gives off a strange, sometimes unpleasant color that even gives some people headaches. Not the LED- its light is easy to see even in bright sunlight and can produce the same soft, white light as a regular bulb. (Although Energy Star does recommend looking for the Energy Star label when shopping for LED bulbs, since the organization tests for color stability as part of its certification criteria.) Here’s the coolest part about LED’s — they can be illuminated and change its light to many colors including a very recent addition of White and Blue. Other are Green, Red, Orange and Amber.
    - It’s Safe. LED requires low voltage DC electric current and can run on batteries, so it’s safe to the touch — it doesn’t get hot.
    - It’s Strong. LED’s are durable — they aren’t glass but small plastic bulbs.
    - It’s Swift. LED’s are easy to implement — they are just tiny bulbs that fit easily into modern electric circuits. Additionally, because of their size, more bulbs can be used on an electrical circuit.
    - The Rage. LED will lead and light up the future. The light bulb that has lit up our homes since the 1800s is officially on its way out. The inefficient incandescent, has fallen out of favor with the financially and ecologically concerned; starting in 2012, U.S. residents won’t be able to buy one even if they want to [source: Linden]. The government is taking the little energy suckers off the market.”This year 2010, will be the first year where LED’s will explode in the residential marketplace,” says architect Joe Rey-Barreau, education consultant for the ALA and an associate professor at the University of Kentucky’s School of Interior Design. “We are already seeing amazing LED developments in all parts of our lives, from Christmas lights to LED TVs. One area where LED’s will become predominant in 2010 is the category of desk and task lamps,” Rey-Barreau says. “Another major development will be in replacement bulbs, as the extreme long life of an LED bulb makes it ideal for replacing recessed lights in hard-to-reach areas such as vaulted ceilings in living rooms or kitchens”. If you aren’t sure yet if you want to devote a large portion of your living space to the technology, Rey-Barreau suggests trying under-cabinet lighting in the kitchen, a desk or task lamp or path lighting outside to see if you like the illumination it provides before investing in an entire ceiling of recessed fixtures or a large chandelier.


Halfway to the Grave (Night Huntress Series #1)

Halfway to the Grave - Jeaniene Frost 4th re-read(I think)Group read with the Dark SideThis book gets better and better with each re-read! I'll never have enough of this characters.Now 2 imagies that explain what this book means to me to perfection:Me(the cat) and the book(the lizard:D):


viernes, 6 de junio de 2014

Classification of air quality in European cities

The Romanian city of  Cluj-Napoca ranks first among 100 larger cities of the European Union in terms of air quality, according to a research published by French magazine We Demain together with Respire association.
Cluj-Napoca, which is located in the center of Romania’s historical province of Transylvania, is the country’s third largest city, with 304,500 people.
According to the research, Cluj-Napoca is one of the only two large cities in Europe where the average number of days of air pollution exceeding normal levels is zero. The other city is Edinburgh in Scotland, but Cluj wins due to lower average levels in the analyzed air pollution indicators.
The research takes into consideration three air polluting factors, which are small particles, nitrous dioxide and ozone and calculates the average number of days per year in which the level for these pollutants are exceeding the normal levels, which makes the air unhealthy to breathe.
However, the authors of the research show that the data measurements are imperfect which makes the data not that relevant for comparison. For example, Cluj has only two stations for measuring air pollution, while Berlin has 48 such stations. Berlin is ranked 65th with 83 days a year of exceeding levels for air pollution.
Read more at;


Monday, April 30, 2012

Disneyland - The Flight

Sorry about the delay in posting, I went through some back to back illnesses and then with the craziness of Disneyland prep and travel, I've gotten behind. I'm back now and so excited to share with you all the fun things that worked and didn't work on our trip to Disneyland.

So the flight.
We flew with a 7 year old boy, 5 year old girl, 3 year old girl (my niece) and a nearly one year old girl.

For the 3 older children here is what I did -
Each child got their own backpack for the flight. In the backpacks were packed the following:
 - Gum for ears, they chewed this during takeoff and the landing. It helped A LOT.
-  Snacks, the airline we flew is a "no-frills" type airline and you had to pay for snacks or drinks.
-  Drinks, you can't take liquids through security so I was just prepared to buy them drinks right    after we got through for the flight. You could also bring empty water bottles to fill with water at the drinking fountains. Your choice.
-  New toys, the two older girls got a Disney Princess set and my son got a new Lego set.
   They did not get the toys until right before we boarded the plane.
Here the kids are playing with their new toys right before we got on the plane.
The kids were THRILLED to get some new toys to play with. It really helped with the boredom of sitting still for two hours.
Playing with his new Lego Set
Now the nearly one year old. She was another story. I had to bring LOTS of snacks for her, I did not bring enough to entertain her. She was actually quite difficult, very wiggly and didn't want to be held or sit still after awhile.
First Flight
Here is what you should always bring when flying with an infant.
- clean empty bottles and formula - you'll have to get water usually past security
- snacks (I think a variety is good)
- small toys, books, sensory items to keep them entertained
- pacifier or be prepared with a bottle or to nurse during take off
- diapers and wipes
- change of clothes - one outfit at least
- blanket
- Lots of patience

I think we actually did pretty well, my kids were so happy to fly instead of drive all the way to Disneyland. It was a very exciting part of the trip for my kiddos.


Research Experience for Undergraduates 2015

NSF/DoD Summer Research Experience for Undergraduates in Trustable Computing Systems Departments of Electrical and Computer Engineering and Computer Science and Engineeringnsf1 May 26 – Jul 31, 2015

The 2015 REU class included the following students:

Carrick Bartle, California State University, Northridge

Convergent Encryption with Multi-Party Computation to Prevent Data Deduplication Side-Attacksbartle

To prevent “confirmation of file” attacks in cloud storage, each user could encrypt their files with unique keys, but that would eliminate the possibility of performing data deduplication. Carrick looked at a compromise between the two goals of greater security and storage savings: convergent encryption within a peer-to-peer network. Shee developed a tool that uses multi-party computation to deterministically generate file keys, which prevents “confirmation of file” attacks from outside the group while still allowing data deduplication within the group. The tool also employs rate checking to prevent brute-forcing from users within the group, and because the key generation process is distributed, there is no single point of failure. Carrick also refined a software application from previous work to measure duplicate data rates among cloud storage users to ascertain whether there’s a higher rate of duplicate data within peer groups (i.e. friends and family) than across unconnected users. If there is, convergent encryption within peer groups will be a viable strategy in protecting against these side-attacks while still achieving a relatively high rate of data deduplication.

Michael Diamond, Pomona College

An In-Database Approach for Role-Based Access Control in Mobile Applicationsdiamond

A 2014 Connecticut law requires greater reporting and tracking of concussions for students, and in response, UConn researchers designed “Connecticut Concussion Tracker”, an Android application to aid in this reporting. In this paper, we present issues with the app’s login security. Michael researched the limitations and vulnerabilities of two-factor authentication, the current industrial security standard, as well as what methods currently exist to expand on and strengthen two-factor authentication. We also explored how some of these methods could be implemented in Android. Additionally, he worked on implementing what is called “role-based access control” (RBAC) into the app. Within a RBAC system, there are different types of users that need specific levels of access based on their role. For instance, in the particular case of the “Connecticut Concussion Tracker” app, it is easy to imagine that a school nurse would need higher levels of access to information contained within the app than a parent would need. With this problem in mind, Michael helped design and implement a framework for a RBAC system that could be used not only for the “Connecticut Concussion Tracker” but also for any other application that both requires role-based security and is linked to a database.

Nathan Dunn, University of Massachusetts, Amherst

Counterfeit Integrated Circuits: Defect Detection and Record-Keepingdunn

The integrity of electronic components is becoming an increasing concern for businesses and governments as greater numbers of counterfeit integrated circuits infiltrate the global marketplace. To meet this increasing threat, tools are needed by researchers and businesses to both detect and track known counterfeit defects. Nathan worked on two methods to meet this objective. First, he introduced a web application that allows both researchers and businesses to share counterfeit defect images and data through an online database. Participants in this application may view previous examples of counterfeit defects across a variety of product types, as well as obtain statistics regarding the prevalence of known defects.Second, to assist in the automation of defect detection, Nathan developed an image processing method to identify scratches on the surfaces of recycled integrated circuits. By adapting previous work on damaged photo and film restoration, he utilized image frequency filtering and the Hough Transform to identify exterior damages. The proposed method found scratches on 4 of 4 sample defective sample, and avoided detecting scratches on a sample legitimate component. However, significant problems were encountered in detected scratches that were darker than the surrounding background.

Samuel Garfinkel, University of Connecticutgarfinkel
Edward Powell, Texas A&M Commerce

Electronic Poll Book Requirement Testing

Samuel and Edward investigated an Electronic Poll Book (EPB) in accordance with the State of Connecticut’s published requirements for such devices at the University of Connecticut Center for Voting Technology Research (VoTeR Center).

William Johnson, DePauw University

Embedded System Securityjohnson

As the number of connected devices in the Internet of Things (IoT) greatly expands, so too does the number of concerns regarding consumer safety and privacy. These devices are constantly connected to the Internet, presenting a prime target for malicious attackers. Yet these devices often lack modern security mechanisms. In this research, Will performed a penetration test on a target cable modem, which was running an embedded Linux OS. He explored a number of attack vectors in order to identify and exploit software, hardware, and networking vulnerabilities. The goal of this testing was not only to identify vulnerabilities, however, but also to identify possible countermeasures to mitigate these security threats. A number of these mitigations were specific to individual attack vectors, including removing debugging ports and unnecessary network daemons. Additionally, Will explored Linux Containers (LXC) in order to limit the scope of any successful security exploitations. He developed a memory utility to dynamically track the memory usage and file accesses of a process. With this utility it is possible to identify feasible limits on the resource usage of a process.

Amanda Murphy, Canisius College

Implementing Adaptive Trust Negotiation on Mobile Devices

Mobile security is a serious issue with the rising prevalence of mobile devices in the workplace. These devices are being used to not only communicate but also to connect to systems with sensitive information. Currently we can identify whether an individual should have access to a system by associating this user with data that is exclusive to them. We can give individuals usernames and passwords which they must remember or even use biometric data like a fingerprint. Still both of these methods have serious limitations and one of the most serious is that they cannot grant a new individual access in time critical situations. For example, an emergency room doctor may have a new patient whose in critical condition. In order to get this patient’s records the doctor would need to access the servers of a different Hospital but the doctor is not authorized to see this information. This situations calls for a system that can not only identify individuals but also grant new individuals access. To do this Amanda designed a client side mobile app which works off the principles of adaptive trust negotiation. The app can communicate with servers in a secure fashion and allows users to send their credentials so that the server can decided whether or not to authorize the user. It also stores the user’s credentials and allows a user to decide which credentials should be sent for each situation.

Somtochukwu Okwuosah, University of Connecticut

Analysis of SRAM cells for True Random Number Generation

okwuosahA True Random Number Generator (TRNG) refers to circuitry that when given an input, gives anoutput possessing the highest entropy possible. The use of SRAM as a TRNG is as a result of the fact that some cells within the SRAM are biased to either 0 or 1. In the case of strongly biased cells, they tend to either 0 or 1 all the time. However, some cells are neutrally biased; meaning they have a 50 percent probability of being either 0 or 1. In order for the values of these cells to be considered truly random, they have to have no discernable pattern. Thus, the cells should have a 50-50% distribution under all conditions. Somtochukwu analyzed the property of these neutral cells to determine how effective they can be as true random numbers. He tested the SRAM cells in varying environmental conditions to find the most effective conditions in which to determine what cells are neutral. We also developed metrics that we were able to use to locate those neutral cells. The location of these neutral cells is important to know because SRAMs have large arrays of cells which make it crucial to narrow down the search for such cells. Without such knowledge, more time and resources are spent on just finding these cells and finding the best conditions to test their neutrality. All of the SRAM testing was performed on a Spartan 3 FPGA board. Results are still being analyzed but Somtochukwu’s research should be able to provide specific conditions at which the SRAM needs to be tested, as well as code that identifies the neutral cells thereby eliminating the need for a brute force approach to locating the desired cells.

Astha Patni, University of Connecticut

Securing Processors against Buffer Overflow Attacks patni

The low performance, limited security and high modification costs associated with bounds checking programs are well known. Softbound + Compiler Enforced Temporal Safety (CETS) is a compile-time program combination which enforces complete spatial and temporal safety of C/C++ code while minimizing these costs; a revolutionary advancement in the field. Yet it still adds a runtime overhead reaching magnitudes of up to 10 times that of the original program with an in-order processor, making it an infeasible security measure for real-world systems. Astha investigated prefetching as a viable method to reduce the overall runtime overhead of Softbound + CETS. Softbound + CETS metadata was distinguished within three types of SPEC 2006 benchmarks using an in-order processor and found strong streams of metadata use with varying spatial locality. A hardware-based stream prefetcher integrated into our simulation software was able to reduce completion times by an average of 2.46 times (in-order core) and 1.87 times the improvement (out-of-order core) than with baseline tests.

Youyou Tian, Smith College
Jason Townsley, University of Arkansas

Evaluating the Functionality of Embedded User Interfaces in LayerCake

tonswleytianLayerCake is a modified version of Android that enables developers to securely embed user interfaces in Android applications. It was constructed by researchers at the University of Washington, who assert that LayerCake addresses the security concerns that come with embedding user interfaces while having minimal impact on overall system performance. Youyou and Jason tested the functionality of LayerCake by writing several applications that embed both custom and legacy applications. They also measured and compared the performance times of applications with embedded user interfaces with standard applications. In the process of testing LayerCake, they discovered an error that occurs when an embedded application attempts to attach a sub-window to itself, such as when a user opens a drop-down menu. As a result, LayerCakes ability to provide complete functionality for embedding is disrupted. Youyou and Jason also determined the causes of this error and explored possible solutions.


FAQs - Storm Water Management

What is Storm Water?

Storm water is the surface runoff of rain and snow melt. In undeveloped areas, such as forests and grassy areas, the surface flow of water is slowed by vegetation, allowing much of it to seep into the ground. Developed areas reduce this natural seepage by covering the area with building and impervious surfaces such as parking lots, decreasing the surface area of soil and vegetation. This results in increased amounts and faster flows of storm water runoff. Storm water drainage systems become necessary to prevent flooding.

What is Storm Water Management?

Storm water management is the process of controlling and processing runoff so it does not harm the environment or human health. Storm water management is a tool used to prevent water pollution.

What is meant by point source and nonpoint source pollution?

Point source is any discernible, confined and discrete conveyance, such as a pipe or channel used to discharge wastewater. Point sources are usually associated with a particular facility where the discharge can be traced directly back to the point of discharge. Nonpoint source is just the opposite. It could come from anywhere or everywhere. Storm water runoff is one example of nonpoint source pollution. Storm water runoff flows across yards, streets, parking lots, etc. picking up pollutants and depositing them in local waterways and lakes.

What does the Municipal Separate Storm Sewer System consist of?

Municipal Separate Storm Sewer System (MS4)” is any system where the storm water is conveyed separately from the sanitary sewer system. A great variety of natural and manmade structures and land forms are used to construct an MS4. These may include inlets, pipes, earth berms and ditches, box culverts and catch basins, grass or concrete channels and culverts under roadways. All or any of these may be used to carry storm water out of urban areas.

Where Does Moberly's Storm Water Flow To?

The City of Moberly covers approximately 12 square miles. Several creeks and their tributaries flow through the area. There are four major receiving streams that receive the storm water.  These are Coon Creek and its tributaries, Sweet Springs Creek and its tributaries, Sugar Creek and its tributaries and the Elk Fork of the Salt River.

The storm water generated in the southeastern part of the city, areas east of the Norfolk Southern Railroad and the area south of Sinnock Avenue, flow into the tributaries of Coon Creek. It then enters Coon Creek and is carried to the Elk Fork of the Salt River in Monroe County where it eventually enters Mark Twain Lake.

Storm water from the northeastern part of the City limits flows into the Elk Fork of the Salt River. This includes areas east of the Norfolk Southern Railroad and the areas north of Sinnock Avenue.

The northwestern part of the City flows into Sugar Creek, Sugar Creek Lake and their tributaries. This is the area west of Highway 63 and the Norfolk Southern Railroad and north of route EE.

Storm water from the southwestern side of Moberly, areas west of the Norfolk Southern Railroad and south of Route EE, flows into Sweet Springs Creek. Sweet Springs Creek enters the Middle Fork of the Chariton River southeast of Clifton Hill. The various branches of the Chariton River empty into the Missouri River.

Please contact City Staff with any further inquiries that you may have.


Monday, 17 October 2011

Evolutionary Comparison Finds Shocking History for Vertebrates

Wired UK (Oct, 12. 2011) - Evolutionary biologists from Cornell University have discovered that just about every vertebrate on Earth — including humans — descended from an ancient ancestor with a sixth sense: the ability to detect electrical fields in water.

About 500 million years ago there was probably a predatory marine fish with good eyesight, powerful jaws and sharp teeth roaming the oceans, sporting a lateral line system for detecting water movements and a well-developed electroreceptive system to sense predators and prey around it. The vast majority of the 65,000 or so living vertebrate species are its descendants.

A few hundred million years ago, there was a major fork in the evolutionary tree. One lineage led to the ray-finned fishes, or actinopterygians, and they’ve kept a weak electroreceptive system to this day. Sturgeon have receptors in the skin of their heads, for example, and the North American paddlefish has 70,000 receptors in its snout and head.

The other lineage led to lobe-finned fishes, or sarcopterygians, which in turn gave rise to land vertebrates. Some land vertebrates, including salamanders like the Mexican axolotl, still have electroreception. But in the change to terrestrial life, the lineage leading to reptiles, birds and mammals lost that electrosense and the lateral line.

The researchers took the axolotl (to represent the evolutionary lineage leading to land animals) and the paddlefish (as a model for the branch leading to ray-finned fishes) to find out the history of this sense. They found that electrosensors develop in precisely the same pattern from the same embryonic tissue in the developing skin, confirming that this is an ancient sensory system.

Also, the electrosensory organs develop immediately adjacent to the lateral line, providing compelling evidence “that these two sensory systems share a common evolutionary heritage,” said Willy Bemis, Cornell professor of ecology and evolutionary biology and a senior author of the paper.

Bemis and his colleagues will now be able to build a better picture of what the common ancestor of these two lineages looked like.

Clever Test Shows Meerkat Voices Are Personal

"Alan! Alan! Alan!
...oh it's not Alan. Jeff!!"
Wired Science (Oct, 12. 2011) - By using audio trickery to present meerkats with a puzzling situation, biologists have demonstrated that the adorable African critters recognize each other by voice.

Children Like Teamwork More Than Chimps Do

LiveScience (Oct, 13. 2011) - Chimpanzees and humans are fairly close cousins, evolutionarily speaking. But a new study finds they lack something that we have (besides written language and hairlessness): a desire to work together.

When all other things are equal, 3-year-old children prefer to do a task collaboratively rather than alone, while chimpanzees show no such preference, said study researcher Yvonne Rekers, a cognitive scientist at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Germany.

"We expected that difference between human and chimpanzee cooperation, because we can see it nowadays," Rekers told LiveScience. "Humans collaborate in a larger variety of contexts and in more complex forms."

However, that leaves the question: Why these differences in cooperation? Cognitive abilities may be at the root of some of them, Rekers said, but motivation could matter as well.

Working together

To investigate the motivations of both species, the researchers chose a task that both groups would willingly undertake: pulling a rope to get a food reward. The children in the study got gummy frogs as their treat, while the chimpanzees got bananas.

Fifteen chimps and 24 children were introduced to the same experimental set-up: a room containing both a single end of rope and a doubled-over rope with two available ends. The 3-year-olds and the chimps were all taught that by pulling both ends of the doubled-over rope at the same time, they could draw a food-laden board toward them, delivering a batch of gummy frogs or bananas.

Pulling the single rope would produce the identical food reward, but only with the help of another child or chimp in the room next door, who had to pull the opposite end of the rope at the same time. (The child or chimp acting as the potential partner in the experiment wasn't being tested; he or she had only the single end to pull. The potential partners were, however, highly motivated to pull that rope, because they too knew that a food reward would be coming their way.)

Cooperating kids

Despite the fact that the chimps got their food four to five seconds faster when they pulled the single end and worked with a partner than when they pulled both ends of the doubled rope by themselves, they were just as likely to choose the doubled rope, the researchers said. The chimps chose the single-ended rope 58 percent of the time, a number not significantly different than chance.

The 3-year-old children, by contrast, chose to pull the collaborative single rope in 78 percent of trials, even though it did not produce snacks any faster.

The children had all practiced the game beforehand and so knew how it worked. They, like the chimps, could see their potential partner through a opening between the two rooms. But to make their experience more like that of the chimps, the kids were encouraged not to speak during the experiment.

In order to keep all factors constant, a snack went to the cooperating child (the one not being tested) regardless of whether he or she was called upon to pull. That set-up, however, led Rekers and her colleagues to worry that perhaps the tested children were picking the collaborative work to prevent their partners from getting gummy frogs for doing nothing.

The researchers set up a second experiment with 12 new children in which the potential partner never received a reward — at least not within the sight of the tested child. The results were essentially unchanged, with 81 percent of kids choosing to work together. That finding suggested that the original result was not influenced by any desire to prevent freeloaders.

Rekers and her colleagues aren't sure whether this preference for cooperation is innate in humans or not, but one theory is that evolutionary pressures at some point nudged humans, but not chimps, into becoming cooperative foragers. The next step, Rekers said, is to study other primate species, such as bonobos.

She said she also plans to look into what children get out of working together.

"Is it just that they enjoy doing stuff together?" she said. "Or are they following other strategies or goals?"

Monday, 10 October 2011

Alison Gopnik: What do babies think?

TED (Oct, 10. 2011) - "Babies and young children are like the R&D division of the human species," says psychologist Alison Gopnik. Her research explores the sophisticated intelligence-gathering and decision-making that babies are really doing when they play.

Psychologists Decipher Brain’s Clever Autofocus Software

In order to see an object clearly, an accurate estimate of blur is important. Humans and animals instinctively extract key features from a blurry image, use that information to determine their distance from an object, then instantly focus the eye to the precise desired focal length, Geisler explains. “In some animals, that’s the primary way they sense distance,” he says. For example, the chameleon relies on this method to pinpoint the location of a flying insect and snap its tongue to that exact spot. Altering the amount of blur by placing a lens in front of its eye causes the chameleon to misjudge the distance in a predictable way.

But scientists didn’t know how biological visual systems estimate blur so well. Many researchers had thought the brain used a system of guessing and checking to get to the answer, much like the way a camera’s auto-focus system works. Basically, the camera changes the focal distance, measures the contrast in the image it sees, and repeats the process until it has maximized the contrast, Burge says.

“They’ve provided proof that there is enough information in a static image to determine if an object is too close or too far away,” says Larry Thibos, a professor of optometry and vision researcher at Indiana University, Bloomington. “We’ve known for 50 or 60 years that people are very good at knowing whether or not something is in focus. It’s taken this paper to show us how the visual system might accomplish this feat.”

“What we discovered is that the imperfections in the eye—things like astigmatism and chromatic aberration—actually help it to focus,” Geisler explains. That may help explain why people who have had their astigmatism corrected through laser eye surgery often have trouble focusing for several weeks afterward, Geisler says.

That sort of understanding may have an impact on medical decisions, Thibos says. “People might be tempted to try and perfect nature,” he says, “when maybe it’s better to be a little bit imperfect.”

Saturday, 8 October 2011

Problem solving Elephant (Oct, 8. 2011) -- An elephant at the National Zoo in Washington devised a problem-solving strategy to reach a branch with his trunk and grab a treat, zoo officials said.

Kandula, the zoo's youngest elephant, figured out how to roll a large cube underneath the branch and stand on it to secure his meal.

Scientists said that sort of spontaneous problem-solving had never been seen in elephants before, even though they can recognize themselves in mirrors, drop logs to collapse fences to get to food and even dig wells, The Washington Post reported.

"We knew elephants were intelligent," said Diana Reiss, who studies animal intelligence at City University of New York. But although as intelligent as dolphins and chimpanzees in some ways, researchers said, all attempts to get elephants to spontaneously solve a problem had previously failed.

In a study published in the journal PLoS One, researchers described hanging bamboo and fruit just out of reach of elephants at the National Zoo, placing a cube or aluminum tub nearby.

In the seventh session, researchers said, Kandula "just suddenly did it." And in the next session, Kandula rolled the cube all over the elephant compound, using it to reach a flower he wanted to sniff and to play with a toy hung from a tree, they said.

Thursday, 6 October 2011

Monkeys Use Mind Control

ScienceNOW (Oct, 6. 2011) - By implanting electrodes into both the motor and the sensory areas of the brain, researchers have created a virtual prosthetic hand that monkeys control using only their minds, and that enables them to feel virtual textures.

Although the monkeys are all adults, the motor and sensory regions of their brains are amazingly plastic, Nicolelis says: the combination of seeing an appendage that they control and feeling a physical touch tricks them into thinking that the virtual appendage is their own “within minutes.” And throughout this experiment, the monkey’s own general sense of touch didn’t seem to be affected. “The brain,” Nicolelis says, “is creating a sixth sense.”

Nicolelis says his group is currently working on fine-tuning the sensory feedback as well as exploring ways to link the brain and computer wirelessly. After many years of working on brain-computer interfaces, he says, “We’re getting very close to where they may be clinically useful” for paralyzed patients, not just in the lab, and for doctors as well. Touch feedback may allow surgeons, for instance, to perform microscopic surgery or countless other applications. “The brain,” Nicolelis says, “has evolved capabilities that go way beyond the body.”

Saturday, 1 October 2011

Ben Goldacre: Battling Bad Science

TED TALKS (Filmed July 2011, Posted Sept 2011) Every day there are news reports of new health advice, but how can you know if they're right? Doctor and epidemiologist Ben Goldacre shows us, at high speed, the ways evidence can be distorted, from the blindingly obvious nutrition claims to the very subtle tricks of the pharmaceutical industry.

Richard Dawkins Interview

Archaeologists find ancient 'child cave art' in the Dordogne

BBC Science (Sept. 30, 2011)


Pink Flower Pendant with Lace Necklace

Size (inches): 1.50 x 0.20 x 2.80

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This beautiful Pink Flower Fish Pendant with Lace Necklace is modern and fashionable. You can find the these Hand-crafted Necklaces in Fashion Jewellery.Ekriti is the destination for colorful and handcrafted fashion accessories for women.Our creative world of chic and handmade accessories offers the style-savvy customer exactly what she wants; to accessorize and nurture her free spirit, determination, creativity and individuality. This is made of Glass, Acrylic, Elastic, and Brass

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What Is So Special About Going to Summer Camp?

Childhood lasts only a dozen or so precious years, a time of learning, growing, play and seminal experiences that will shape the course of a life. Each year of childhood is divided into two times: the school year and summer vacation. And while the school year is crisp and crackling with possibility, books with unbent spines, shiny shoes, and maps of the world, the summertime is magic. Summers are when real discovery happens, when children may run, and swim, and climb all day outside under a warm sun until late in the evening. It is a time to explore, create, and be free in a way that we chase forever after it ends. The months of June, July, and August can be spent in myriad ways. So why choose a summer camp experience for your child?

Because we love our children dearly and are lucky to live in a time and place of affluence and relative peace, we dote on them, sometimes to their detriment. Children need space for themselves, away from parents. They need to form their own tribe, test chaos, figure things out, choose their own adventures and live them out without fear of our reactions. They need to fall and get themselves up, without parents scolding or offering advice. It is absolutely critical that they develop the skills to function autonomously and in relation to others. Summer camp is special because of all of the give and take that happens at camp when they learn how to live with others. And it all plays out in a completely safe and controlled environment.

+yogaYour children learn to function independently, to work as part of a cohort of peers, in an unparalleled setting of natural beauty, in a place that is charmingly rustic yet provides everything they could want, and is safe. Why send your child to camp? Their development depends on it.


Musician, Pianist, Composer, Vocalist, Artist

‘A Bahá’í Perspective’ Radio Interview

I recently had the privilege of giving a one hour radio interview with Warren Odess-Gillett from ‘A Bahá’í Perspective’.  The interview is now LIVE!

Visit this link to hear the podcast where I share what inspired several of my pieces from 5 CDs, how I started on my music journey, the themes of the albums I have released so far, what it was like being raised in Kenya as well as what religious life was like growing up there.

Do leave me a comment below and let me know if you have any questions about the music, the albums or the interview in general.  There was so much to talk about and not enough time.  I was only able to share 6 pieces from 5 albums out of the 8 albums released so far.

You can download the full podcast on iTunes here.

A Bahá'í Perspective - Elika Mahony

  1. I clicked on ‘listen to the podcast now’ but nothing happened. Oh dear. I do want to listen to it

  2. Hi Aaron, many thanks for trying to listen to the podcast. I believe you can also try and listen to it on iTunes or try a different browser. Let me know if you still have trouble listening to it.

  3. Looking forward to listening to this love Elly

  4. Really looking forward to listening to this Elika. Thank you! Sally Lazanas.


What Is LEED

 Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Building

To understand what part a Structural Engineering Design professional plays in LEED, one must understand what LEED offers. LEED, Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design is a program by which certification an area of expertise in green building.

LEED provides a rating scale for the system by which Structural Engineers construct, design, operate, and maintain green buildings. These structures are found in all residential, commercial, and industrial areas who desire to go green with environmentally reliable resources to run more efficiently, breaking away from traditional methods of energy.

What is an Energy Code?

There is a program, known as BECP, enacted by the President called the United States Department of Energy’s Building Energy Codes Program. This program supports more advanced energy codes for residential, commercial, and industrial areas who desire to go green. The focus is on increased efficiency in energy use. BECP works with local, state, national government agencies to support stronger building codes in energy. Responsibility lies in helping states adopt, implement and enforce these regulations.

What Part Do Structural Engineers Play in Energy Codes and LEED?

It is easy to understand the role that a Structural Engineering Design Professional plays in LEED and the Energy Code. This program is devoted to the cause for using less energy, at less cost, using less carbon in residential, commercial, and industrial fields. These professionals design a more efficient structure when rebuilding is in the process. The industrial sector throughout the United States uses nearly 50% of the energy in America. For there to be a solution to America’s energy problem there needs to be energy rules and regulations set into place and the Structural Engineer must abide by these codes.

engineersWhen these strict baseline laws are abided by, businesses show a minimum of energy efficiency. Industries find they use less energy, at a lower cost with less carbon output. BECP helps companies and homes go green. There are two strict codes, one for residential homes and the other for the commercial sector in which the Structural Engineer adheres. At structures, whether private residences, small businesses, or large corporations are built the goal is to create these structures using more energy efficient methods, such as but not limited to Savings Star products, with the goal being, 30% less energy used.

BECP supplies free user guides, training materials, videos, and manuals to make sure the Structural Engineer remains within compliance. Additionally, BECP trains and continuously educates professionals and the community about code requirements, the implementation, and the compliance of energy systems. BECP keeps all entities updated on energy code changes.

BECP sets a standard for architects, designers, engineers, and researchers on state and local codes. This agency offers clarity of code issues and informs people on the different energy systems working as a public advocate across the United States to exceed the minimum and necessary requirements. BECP helps to remove barriers to energy systems, contributes to implementing and assist in the compliance and enforcement of energy codes.


How to Troubleshoot Honda Accord Transmission Problems

by Alibaster Smith

The Honda Accord is one of Honda's most reliable automobiles. The Accord's transmission is generally reliable, but not bulletproof. The automatic transmissions are typically more prone to failure than standard or five-speed version's of the Accord. Even so, before you take the car to a shop or have anything fixed, it's best to know what the potential problems could be.

Start the engine and shift the Accord into "drive." If the Accord won't shift properly, it is most likely due to a faulty shift linkage. While this is uncommon, it can happen on Accords with over 100,000 miles. This is due to the bushings and the linkage itself wearing out from extended use.

Let your foot off the brake pedal while in gear. If the car doesn't creep forward, then your torque converter could be bad. This happens to high mileage Accords. Have your converter replaced by a qualified mechanic. For standard transmissions, you won't have this problem because there is no torque converter.

Check to see if your Accord stays in gear while driving. If your Accord won't stay in gear while you are driving, this can indicate a serious problem with an automatic transmission. For standard transmissions, this problem is most likely caused by a worn clutch disc. This is not a serious issue. However, in automatic transmissions, it can indicate anything from a worn clutch in the torque converter to broken or missing teeth on the planetary gear system that the Accord uses. Have the transmission serviced by a professional mechanic for both issues.

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White Walkers: Why the Most Exciting Revelations are Still to Come

From day one of the HBO’s adaptation of George R.R. Martin’s, ‘A Song of Ice & Fire,’ Game of Thrones viewers have been enthralled by the emerging presence of the series ultimate foes, the White Walkers. Moreover, the reason viewers have been so enthralled is simple. Unlike other fictional nemeses like Tolkien’s Sauron, the Walking Dead’s zombies and even the ’Others’ in J.J. Abrams Lost, the White Walkers have benefited from what can only be described as the most excruciating series build up of all time.

For almost four full seasons, the ever enigmatic White Walkers rarely appeared for more than merely snapshot scenes at the start and end of each season, scenes which usually left viewers with more questions than answers. However, up until recently, those who couldn’t wait for the return of Game of Thrones after season endings and episode cliffhangers have been able to learn more about White Walkers by turning to the original George R.R. Martin book series. The only problem? Things aren’t exactly that easy anymore.

With George R.R. Martin’s, ‘The Winds of Winter & A Dream of Spring’ still pending release, Game of Thrones fans are now having piece together who the White Walkers are and what their motives are all for themselves. The only question is, how much do we actually know already?

Who & What Are The White Walkers Really?

As Game of Thrones advanced into it’s fourth season with a typical side relish of gore and Westeros-based political intrigue, we actually managed to learn quite a lot about the still semi-mythic White Walkers.

From what we know of Game of Thrones legend and folklore, the original Nights King, leader of the White Walkers, was himself (possibly) the thirteenth Lord Commander of the Night’s Watch. Commanding during the so-called Age of Hero’s, it was this Lord Commander who apparently fell for a pale, cold, blue-eyed beauty, who for all intensive purposes has so far been described as a female White Walker herself.

Later married, the Nightfort subsequently descended into chaos with the thirteenth Lord Commander declaring himself and his new bride King & Queen of the North, before also going on to commit a string of atrocities ranging from the worship of false gods to full-scale human sacrifice.

Appalled, the Lord Commanders own brother, the true King of the North, united with the King Beyond the Wall against the Nightfort and freed the imprisoned Nights Watch. The Lord Commanders name was then erased from history. However, how this episode relates to the motivations of White Walkers at the present time is still something of a mystery.

The White Walker King

Is the White Walker King actually the thirteenth Lord Commander of the Night’s Watch? Many speculate that the fall of the Nightfort under the thirteenth Lord Commander might have seen him flee further north into White Walker territory. If true, the Lord Commander can presumably be credited as having brought order to the White Walkers before mobilizing the semi-supernatural beings into the force that they are today.

White Walkers & Wights in Game of Thrones

However, many enigmatic questions are still posed by the very existence of White Walkers in the first place. If after all, White Walkers have always been able to create subservient Wights by reanimating dead human cadavers, and if their only weakness really are Valyrian Steel and Dragon Glass, how have the Night’s Watch and the Wildlings beyond the wall been able to suppress the White Walkers for so long?

Sadly, these are questions which only ‘The Winds of Winter & A Dream of Spring’ will be able to answer. The biggest question in this regard, is, therefore, will George R.R. Martin’s latest masterpiece be ready on time and if not, how exactly will HBO attempt to develop the ongoing saga in its absence?


Polo 24 Hour Bar

save place
Breakfast of Champions
Having just arrived in London after taking a red eye I was ready for some local food while I waited to check into my hotel. I was staying by the Liverpool stop and wandered by Polo Bar—it looked more of a take out place but I walked in and there were a few tables filled with people and seemed like a local spot. The food was great and reasonably priced. They had the traditional English Breakfast and many other options to choose from. I also loved how the water was served from a local milk carton and the silverware was stored in tin cans.
Original flemings mayfair.jpg?1478188190?ixlib=rails 0.3


Cleansing and Detoxing

How often do you think about your kidneys and all they do for you? Most of us don’t pay enough homage to these exceptional organs that are constantly working on our behalf.
The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs, each about the size of a fist. They are located just below your rib cage, on either side of your spine.
They are working hard every single day to cleanse and detox your body by filtering anywhere from 180-200 quarts of blood. They collect excess fluid and waste and excrete them out as 1-2 quarts of urine daily.
This is just one reason it’s so important to stay hydrated, so that you can help them do their job. A healthy bladder of a hydrated person urinates between 6-9 times daily.
The kidneys are crucial organs because they have the job of keeping blood composition stable, which allows the body to function well. When your kidneys are in good shape, they:
Prevent the buildup of wastes and extra fluid in the body
Keep levels of electrolytes stable, such as sodium, potassium, and phosphate
Produce an active form of vitamin D that promotes strong, healthy bones (if you have chronic low vitamin D and you supplement with it, look to tune up kidney health)
Release hormones that help make red blood cells and regulate blood pressure
Most people think the entire organ does the cleansing, but that’s not actually the case. Each kidney is made up of about a million filtering units, which are called nephrons (hence why the kidney doctor is called a nephrologist). Each of the many, many nephrons filters a small amount of blood.

How They Work is Interesting...
The nephrons first filter fluid and waste, while preventing blood cells and large molecules like proteins from passing through. The filtered fluid then goes through a tube that adds needed minerals back into the bloodstream and removes wastes. Urine is the final product.
I tell you this not only because I find it fascinating and hope you do too, but because I hope it gives you reverence for the involuntary near-magical process that occurs in your body multiple times daily.
It’s these kinds of realizations that help us understand how powerful our bodies are (no matter your current state of health). Hopefully then, we’ll want to give back to these organs that do so much for us.
A simple, easy way to love your kidneys is by occasionally cleansing and protecting them with this "kidney love" cocktail.

The Recipe:

1 cup unsweetened cranberry juice
¼ cup chlorophyll
¼ cup raw apple cider vinegar
Juice of two freshly squeezed lemons
Optional: 3-5 drops of dark liquid stevia
You can make this and drink it daily for 7-14 days to give your kidneys the boost they deserve. And, this is a GREAT go-to at the very first sign of a bladder or urinary tract infection to help you knock it out fast and hopefully avoid antibiotics.

Why These Ingredients?

Cranberry Juice
Medical research backs up the link between cranberries and kidney health. Cranberries prevent bacteria (mostly e. coli) from attaching to the wall of the bladder. This means that infections cannot stick around inside your body.
Chlorophyll is just a general rock star for health and a health food that often gets overlooked. It has many benefits for the human body well beyond the kidneys: it’s essential to the process of photosynthesis known as “the building block for life”. Chlorophyll contains the trace element of iron (not actually iron, see below), which is helpful for anemia, low energy, and headaches.
“In 1913, Dr. Richard Willstatter, a German chemist found that the chlorophyll molecule is chemically similar to human hemoglobin – the red pigment found in our blood cells, except that its central atom is magnesium, whereas that of human blood is iron. Chlorophyll has an affinity for blood; indeed chlorophyll has been shown to increase oxygen uptake in the blood, which can increase energy, relieve fatigue and improve many blood disorders.”
Raw Apple Cider Vinegar
One of the staples in my diet, apple cider vinegar helps detoxify the liver because it helps break down fats. Apple cider vinegar also helps prevent kidney stones from forming and helps remove bad bacteria (e. coli is usually at the root of a urinary tract or bladder infection). So you can see, when you add apple cider vinegar and cranberry juice together, bad bacteria are up against quite a match because they work synergistically together.
Lemon Juice
Good old-fashioned lemon juice has been shown to increase citrate levels in the urine. Citrate is a known inhibitor of calcium stone disease. This means plain lemon juice is a powerful tool to discourage kidney stones from forming.

You might need this "cocktail" if you:
Are prone to urinary tract infections or bladder infections (or if you’ve had more than 3 in your life)
Have had more than 1 kidney infection in your life
Have chronic low vitamin D levels and supplementation is slow to work or ineffective
Are older than 50
Have diabetes
Have high blood pressure
Have a family member who has chronic kidney disease

Posted: Tue 11 Aug 2015


Calculate Road Distances in US
how to calculate distance between cities in US:

To find the distances between cities in US and other useful information such as average speed, driving time, the recommended breaks, fuel consumption, fuel price, type in the above fields the names of localities - FROM Chicago,IL TO Cottonwood-Heights,UT and then press ENTER key or click on DISTANCE button.

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After generating the route Chicago,IL - Cottonwood-Heights,UT could be changed by simply dragging the line with the mouse. The change can be applied to any intermediate points of that route as well as the points of departure and arrival.
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Women who have struggled with infertility have often been surprised when the impossible became possible, they were able to conceive due to  proper nervous system function. The focus of chiropractic is to allow the body to function properly.

Once conception has taken place the mother is going to undergo multiple changes physically and emotionally.  The health of a mother is vital to a healthy pregnancy.  Because of the physical and emotional changes, her nervous system needs to be able to adapt.

Some of the physical changes:

Poor Posture – due to the extra weight often leading to back pain.

Pelvic Imbalance – constricting the uterus and potentially causing a breech

birth due to intrauterine constraint.

Breech Baby – when the child is not head down Dr. Ware has been certified in the Webster technique for several years. This is a gentle technique of adjusting that allows for the baby to turn in the womb.

Improved labor – a majority of chiropractic clients report having shorter labor times and fewer difficulties with their pregnancy.


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Statistics is understood as one of the important and yet interesting subjects. Statistics is one of the subjects that include collecting, organizing and interpreting the available data. It is usually associated with statistical methods. There are different types of statistical subjects which include Descriptive Statistics and Inferential Statistics.

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The Descriptive Statistics are quantitative and the analysis of these statistics depends on the college data. It also includes measures of mean, median and mode, along with dispersion, Standard Score and P-value. The Inferential Statistics is understood as the process of drawing the inferences and conclusions from the data set. As understood it is realized that there are tons of concepts that are covered under Statistics, it is too hard to name one by one. However, it is understood that there are various types of analysis including multi-variate and regression analysis.

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comment by rd95
rd95  ·  73 days ago  ·  link  ·    ·  parent  ·  post: The Ugly Duchess

thenewgreen  ·  72 days ago  ·  link  ·

So your vote is for the painting that inspired the original duchess? It's pretty phenomenal, I'll give you that. Sort of what Eddie from the Iron Maiden albums would look like if he had skin and were a victorian era duchess.

StJohn  ·  72 days ago  ·  link  ·

It is an amazing painting. And I've been to Greek funerals, running the gauntlet of dozens of Greek grannies all dressed in black and pinching your cheeks… The painting isn't far off the mark.