The study of botany reveals that a sunflower seed is a small, one-seeded, and indehiscent fruit. The edible remnant which is taken out by removing the hull or the cover is known as sunflower kernel. Talking about the commercial usage of sunflower seeds, it is differentiated on the basis of the patterns on its husk. For instance, if the husk is dark black, the seeds are named as black oil sunflower seeds. The seeds are called striped sunflower seeds or 'stripers', when the husks are striped. The sunflower seeds are generally processed into sunflower oil using various oil mill machinery.

The crops of sunflower seeds are known as non-oilseed sunflower crops because of their low oil content. The striped sunflower seeds can be called as confectionery sunflower seeds as they are primarily used for the food purposes. There is another variety of sunflower seeds that is whitish and is currently not used for commercial purpose. The most common variety is plain black or black with white stripes.

So far as the processing of in-shell seeds goes, these are initially dried and later on may be dusted or roasted with salt for preserving their flavor. In-shell sunflower seeds are specifically popular in Mediterranean countries such as Turkey and Israel. Besides they are very common in countries like Bulgaria, China, Iran, Romania, Spain and US.

The hull of the sunflower seeds can be removed through mechanical processes to obtain the dehulled kernels. These kernels can be sold raw or as roasted product. Also, these are used with baked products like breads for adding flavor to them. Sunflower seeds are also offered as food for pet animals, birds and are available in small packets or boxes.

The health benefits of sunflower seeds are numerous. It is a rich source of linoleic acid, which is an essential fatty acid. It is also a great source of protein, vitamins like vitamin B and vitamin E, dietary fiber, iron, zinc and calcium. One of the distinguished advantage of sunflower seed is that it is rich in cholesterol-lowering phytosterols. The oil content in sunflower seeds is 32-40% which is quite lower as compared to the groundnut, Castor seed, coconut, palm oil seeds, sesame seeds and linseeds. There are also some of the edible oil seeds that have even lower oil content than the sunflower seed. For instance cotton seeds and soybean have oil content ranging from 18-22%. The palm fruit, another edible oilseed has oil content ranging in between 20-22%.

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The pacific islands forum meeting

CAIRNS, AUSTRALIA - AUGUST 05:  Australian Pri...
Image by Getty Images via @daylife

The pacific islands forum meeting was held in Port Vial,Vanuatu. Held in the month of August this meeting invited the top leaders of the pacific. A lot of steadfast arrangements were made for this event by the government of Vanuatu. The country did well to make the event a grand success, considering that it had before this event celebrated its thirtieth independence day.

Topics of discussions revolved around the climate changes in the pacific islands, and its security concerns. Challenges that were being wrestled by the islanders was brought to the spotlight. The Pacific Plan was a new proposal that was discussed extensively.

The Pacific plan is a multipurpose strategy to look into issues faced by the inhabitants of the islands. It offered inventive strategies to overcome challenges by greater regional cooperation frameworks. A number of pioneering start offs was envisioned in the pacific plan. All these initiatives were directed at providing development across all regions of the pacific islands.

Strong growth, good policies, and sustained economic activity drivers were identified. Issue related to poverty and unhygienic living conditions came under the scanner. To improve living standards the forum leaders developed a strategy that combined employment opportunities with emphasis on education.

The main aim of the pacific islands forum has always been to work in unison to support the cause of welfare of the people of the pacific islands. This is done by bringing together the different governments and enabling cooperation and bilateralism.

From the forum members, Australia and New Zealand stand prominently as economically developed countries. This is a good thing for the other countries in the Pacific Islands. Australia and New Zealand are great markets for the island countires to market their goods. Also, Australia and New Zealand have supplied their troops to maintain peacekeeping activities in certain island countries of the Pacific.

India has been a dialogue partner. So is China. A lot of other countries are dialogue partners in the forum as well.

Health concerns in the pacific islands

CAIRNS, AUSTRALIA - AUGUST 05:  Australian Pri...
Image by Getty Images via @daylife

Health concerns have been raised at the Pacific islands after the WHO (world health organization) issued an alert on the spread of epidemics. Islands have geographical challenges, in that it is predisposed to being epidemically quarantined. Because of its isolated geographical disposition, epidemic diseases might not get out of the geography easily.

Apart from infectious diseases, the WHO also spotted cardiovascular diseases on the rise in the pacific islands. Even obesity was on the rise. Since the islanders have a propensity to indulge in drugs and alcohol due to the tourist influxes, inhabitants now have addiction problems too.

Most diseases prevalent in the pacific islands are lifestyle-induced. Statistics indicate that the Pacific islands have the highest lifestyle-induced diseases. This is an alarming trend, and the WHO is taking steps to resolve this.

Recently the WHO held a workshop to help people realize the benefits of maintaining a healthy lifestyle. The workshop covered aspects of nutrition, and healthy lifestyle patterns. Intending to promote an increased level of awareness, this workshop was worth its efforts in spreading the message of healthy living.

Top ministers and politicians of the Pacific met in Vanuatu, in August 2010, to discuss this problem. They developed a guideline for applying a successful approach to resolve issues related to diet and lifestyle. Emphasizing the need to restrict minors to alcohol, the guideline will pave the way for a more controlled availability of lifestyle food and beverages.

WHO in coordination with the leaders of the Pacific islands, and other global healthcare consortiums are coming up with ways to tackle the problem. Aiming to block the access of alcohol and narcotics to children is the primary concern of the WHO. Young addicts are becoming common in the pacific islands. Given the influx of foreign nationals in most islands, the situation often times is something that is difficult to control. The health of the people of the Pacific islands need to be salvaged, before it is too late.

Bring A Note

Once we graduate from high school, we stop having to bring notes from mom and dad explaining absences; it is too bad that the last prime minister of the Pacific Islands nation of Vanatu didn’t have the same luxury. The situation is a bit more complicated, but at its core, Prime Minister Edward Natapei lost his job in early December because his office failed to submit correct paperwork explaining his absence.

He had left the country for a week to meet with commonwealth leaders in order to prepare from a quickly approach climate change summit in Copenhagen. Climate change, specifically global warming, has long been a driving issue for the former prime minister. He believes that their island nation is suffering drastically from global warming and has long sought to work on creating a plan aimed at addressing his nation’s climate problems.

One must wonder if, after years of service, the prime minister was forced out because of this very issue. It seems that the majority of the citizens do not rank global warming as a primary concern. Instead, the residents of Vanuatu are focused on life necessities. Sewage treatment, clean water and basic needs are more important. What they may be failing to recognize is that, at least according to some studies, climate change is directly impacting sea levels and weather patterns. For a nation like Vanuatu that relies heavily on tourism and agriculture for its survival, global warming could literally wipe them out.

The good news for Natapei is that it is likely he will still represent the nation at the climate control talks. Currently his vacated position is held by a caretaker and elections will be held to find a replacement. Until then and because of his extensive background in climate control, Natapei will be able to participate in the talks on behalf of his country.

Problem of Unsafe Water in the Pacific Islands

Mwamanongu Village water source, Tanzania. &qu...
Image via Wikipedia

Water-borne diseases are on the rise in the Pacific Islands. Countries in the Pacific Islands are now raising concerns of a potential mass-spread of an epidemic. The SPC Applied Geoscience and Technology Division (SOPAC) is coming forward to deal with this problem.

A lot of people die every year after consuming toxic water. Unsafe water is quite a bad thing to have in the picturesque countries of the Pacific Islands. Children are worst affected. Due to bad sanitation of the houses, children are getting infected faster. Hygienic imbalances are also creating perilous living conditions in the Pacific Islands.

Another contributing factor to this unhealthy condition is the spread of drought. Certain countries are experiencing prolonged periods of drought. Such situations aggravate matters, and make water storage a matter of survival. Water storage creates hygiene issues, in that it also creates a perfect setting for mosquitoes to breed.
SOPAC is now revving up plans to educate the people about safe ways to store water. They are also coming out with programmes to education people on how to make water clean and drinkable. Things like sanitation and general healthy living conditions are also being planned-out.

It seems that the only way out would be to educate people. As the saying goes that prevention is better than cure, education is in a way a preventive measure. Largely plagued by mass-illiteracy, some islands nations will offer challenging propositions to the volunteer organizations and SOPAC.

SOPAC had come out with a Drinking Water Safety Plan to encounter this problem. Successfully implemented in various countries of the Pacific Islands, the same is being envisioned across a lot of other countries.

To better dispense the program, communities living in the cities as well as the villages will be engaged into action. After providing them training, they will be given the tools and methodologies to conduct inspections. Trained people will then go forward and train others. In this way, a multi-level induction of training is achieved.

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Pacific Islands Forum Education Ministers’ Meeting

US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice (center...
Image via Wikipedia

The Pacific Islands education ministers’ meeting was held in Papua New Guinea, in the month of October 2010. The ministers’ meeting was held to take the education initiatives as enumerated in the Pacific Education Development Framework further by constructive actions.

Important ministers met to discuss educational initiative taken by the individual governments in the Pacific Islands. The meeting raised a lot of applause for Papua New Guinea’s initiative in the education space. The government of Papua New Guinea had offered scholarship to meritorious students. The forum members felt this was a great act to emulate by other countries in the Pacific Islands as well.

Acknowledging the fact that education was now the mainstay of the region, the forum ministers gave education the indispensability status that it should have always had. They felt that the development of the region was sustained of the basis of how much knowledge and skills the citizens of the country had. And this is only possible through sustained education programmes that supported meritocracy and inclusiveness.

The meeting was a perfect setting for the ministers to urge other members to work as a cohesive unit in successfully implementing the education framework. The Pacific Education Development Framework’s main aim is to incubate, and nurture the core values and sensibilities related to education. It aimed to provide children the necessary foundation and support to get access to primary education.

Realizing the fact that children of today are the custodians of the country tomorrow, the ministers lay a blueprint for implementation of the education framework. They felt that the education framework will help the youth participate in the development of their countries, maintain their cultural systems, and live enriching lives.

A plan was introduced to implement the education framework. The plan focused on things like an initial survey to assess the levels of literacy, followed by mapping educational initiative with the needs of the country, and then taking efforts to reach set educational goals, through coordinated action.

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Media Awareness in the Pacific Islands

Dagobert Lindlau (deutscher Journalist und Sch...
Image via Wikipedia

For many years, journalists in the Pacific Islands have been trying to create awareness of the media. Many residents of the Pacific Island territories do not pay attention to the media or the news coverage of their area or the whole Pacific Islands. There is a public outcry from journalist because of the lack of knowledge for residents of the Pacific islands on the media. Journalists have set out to make the residents aware of crisis in their territories.

Many journalists in the Pacific Islands are freelancers that report for various news sources for companies in other parts of the world. Many residents do not understand the obstacles of covering major conflicts such as militant wars, natural disasters, and the poor. Because residents do not have a respect for what journalists do and refuse to watch media coverage of events, journalists are trying to make them understand.

Most residents of territories in the Pacific Islands believe that all journalists are corrupt. They believe that journalists in the media threaten, harass, and give into extortion, which is why they do not believe the news coverage is credible. Journalist want the residents of the territories to understand that their coverage is not bias and they put themselves in danger every day to make sure that the residents understand what is going on in order to keep them out of harms way.

The neutrality of local journalist are questioned by the residents whereas foreign journalist are well respected and listened to by the residents. Most journalists believe that the lack of knowledge of journalists is their own fault because they have not educated the public about the laws that are set to protect the community from corruption by media. Journalists are working hard to create awareness starting in schools so the future generation of the territories will come to trust the media in the Pacific Islands.

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Journalism Awards in Pacific Islands Get a Makeover

CAIRNS, AUSTRALIA - AUGUST 05: Australian Prim...
Image by Getty Images via @daylife

In the Pacific Islands, journalism awards are getting a makeover to include more territories and more journalists. These awards are to encourage media that provides more coverage on public issues and to gain more coverage worldwide for the Pacific Island territories.

There are not many journalism awards available in the Pacific Islands. The makeover of the awards available is a step to increase the amount of awards available both locally and globally. The foundations set up to present the awards available in the Pacific Islands have been formed in memory of journalists who paved the way for the media in the territories to be widely recognized.

These past journalists are an example for future journalists because they represent the backbone of Pacific Island media and journalism by contributing creative and informed journalism of the territories gain national attention and put the Pacific Islands on the map as being more respected by other countries globally.

Every year, the awards are analyzed to ensure they are recognizing the right journalist and if they are creating awareness of the Pacific Islands. The awards have been successful through the years, but board members for each award do not believe they are doing enough. Journalism awards have been getting a makeover, which includes a monetary award that helps journalists travel to the United States and Europe to help create awareness of the Pacific Islands and their contributions to the world.

The Pacific Islands have not been recognized for their ideas on global policy that could provide solutions to the many problems faced by all nations. Journalism awards are presented to outstanding journalists that have created awareness of the territories and pressed the policy ideas that the territories have for global change. The award makeovers are an attempt to help those journalist take their coverage to the next level and get the Pacific Islands in the game of changing global policy.

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The Pacific Island News Report

CAIRNS, AUSTRALIA - AUGUST 05: New Zealand Pri...
Image by Getty Images via @daylife

The Pacific Islands Report offers daily news and commentaries about the Pacific Islands. The report is informational and offers the territories up-to-date information through the Internet, so everyone has the report available to them. The Pacific Island Report is a collaborative effort of the East-West Center in Hawaii and the University of Hawaii’s program of Pacific Island Studies.

The Pacific Island Report does not just focus on the news from the island of Hawaii, it showcases news reports from Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia to give a sense of what is going on throughout all of the Pacific Island territories. Pacific News Service, Radio Australia, and the Pasifik Nius are just a few of the programs available on the Pacific Island News Report. The online report offers news from Hawaii and the mainland that are specific to the Pacific Islands.

The online report is just one part of a bigger project on journalism that offers on-the-job training for students, journalists who are mid-career, and journalists who have only been in the business a few years. Internships are also available to journalists from the United States who desires to learn about the Pacific Islands or eventually work in the area.

The main goal of the Pacific Island Report and the programs that surround it is to create worldwide awareness of the Pacific Island territories. The islands are important to the United States and to the world because of their contributions and the area wants to make them known. The concerns or ideas of Pacific Islanders are not heard by the rest of the world even though their solutions to global issues could be significant to making a change. The news coverage of the Pacific Islands is sparse and sometimes ignored because they are remote and lack the communication operations to make themselves known to the world.

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Growth Factor Antibodies

Growth factors are a large family of proteins which are responsible for stimulating or inhibiting cellular proliferation and differentiation, angiogenesis, and neurotrophic effects. Growth factors typically bind to the extracellular domain of membrane growth factor receptors which activate the intracellular domain. This sets in motion a signaling cascade, eventually leading to a change in cellular proliferation and differentiation. Changes in these growth factor signaling pathways can lead to abnormal cellular growth.

Growth factors can cause an extremely wide array of changes upon binding to their receptors, and are implicated in many cellular processes. Growth factors such as platelet derived growth factor (PDF) and fibroblast growth factor (FGF) are involved in the cell cycle. Platelet derived growth factor (PDF) and fibroblast growth factor (FGF) are each required for progression through the G1 phase of the cell cycle.

ProSci has a wide array of growth factor antibodies, to many different groups of growth factors. These primary antibodies include antibodies against brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), epidermal growth factor (EGF), fibroblast growth factor (FGF), bone morphogenic protein-2 (BMP-2) as well as many growth factor receptors.

ProSci antibodies are appropriate for ELISA, western blot, and immunohistochemistry (IHC) applications as noted for each growth factor antibody.

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VW X Y Z All
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Product NameCatalog #App.ReactivityDescription
Vaspin Antibody38-184E, WBHBiotin - Anti-Human Vaspin
Vaspin Antibody38-183E, WBHAnti-Human Vaspin
VEGF AntibodyXP-5740-MEHAnti-VEGF, monoclonal
VEGF Antibody38-207E, WBRBiotin - Anti-Rat VEGF
VEGF AntibodyXP-5291BtE, WBHBiotin - Anti-Human VEGF - Rabbit
VEGF AntibodyXP-5292BtE, WBHBiotin - Anti-Human VEGF - Goat
VEGF AntibodyXP-5293BtE, WBMBiotin - Anti-Murine VEGF
VEGF Antibody38-206E, WBRAnti-Rat VEGF
VEGF AntibodyXW-7649WBHVascular endothelial growth factor
VEGF AntibodyXP-5291E, WBHAnti-Human VEGF - Rabbit
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General Questions

Does Roam Control work with custom ROMs?

Roam Control will work with most custom ROMs, but is not guaranteed to work with all of them.  If you find one that Roam Control is not compatible with, contact support to see if support can be added in a future release.

When I change the mode to “automatic”, why doesn’t it go back to a home signal.

When the phone is in "automatic" mode, it will eventually go back to a home signal if it's available.  That is the normal behavior of "automatic" mode - it supports both home and roaming signals, and the phone chooses which one to use.

What is your refund policy?

Refund requests made within 24 hours of purchase will be honored.  Any requests made after that will be handled on a case-by-case basis.

Will Roam Control with with GSM phones and networks?

No, the app will only with CDMA networks and phones (Sprint, Verizon, US Cellular, etc).

How do I tell if my phone is actually roaming?

Phones generally show a roaming triangle above the signal bars in the notification tray.  Some phones also show the current carrier under the "About phone" settings menu, or in a different menu.

Will Roam Control allow me to roam onto other 4G networks?

No, unfortunately the 4G networks are not compatible with each other.

What data speeds should I expect when roaming onto other networks?

Due to roaming agreements between carriers, you should generally expect to receive 1x data speeds when roaming.  There are certain areas around the country where you might get 3g data speeds when roaming. Note that it is possible to get 3g roaming speeds if you flash a custom PRL on your phone.

Will I be charged extra for roaming minutes or data?

It is your responsibility to read and understand your carrier's roaming policy.  Please go to your carrier's website for more information.

What does ‘rooted’ mean, and how do I do it?

Please read the following Wikipedia article to learn about rooting: For instructions on how to root your phone, please do a Google search to find rooting guides. Rooting methods differ from phone to phone, and there is no universal method.

Will Roam Control work everywhere in the US (including Puerto Rico)?

In general, yes, it will work in parts of the US (including Puerto Rico). However, Roam Control will not work with Samsung phones in the following areas: - Texas (outside of the Houston area) - Florida - Chicago and surrounding areas - Puerto Rico When Samsung phones are put into a "roam only" mode, they only roam on the 800mhz frequency band. The areas mentioned above only have 1900mhz towers, therefore Samsung phones will not get any roaming signal when in "roam only" mode. It's possible that this behavior can be fixed, however I'm still looking into it.

My EVO 3D takes a long time to lock onto a signal, and often has no signal.

This is an issue with the EVO 3D radio.  This behavior occurs during normal use of the phone as well, it's just not as obvious because it's not switching between roaming modes as often, and usually not while you're looking at the screen.

My phone does not get any signal when in “roam only” mode.

Chances are you have a Samsung phone.  Samsung phones have different behavior - when in "roam only", they only roam on the 800mhz frequency band.  There are areas in the US that are 1900mhz only, which means that Samsung phones will not get a signal in those areas.

My incoming calls go straight to voicemail when in “roam only” mode.

Roam Control puts the phone into a "roam only" mode and then the phone takes over from there. There isn't anything I can do about this, it appears to be more of a CDMA/network issue. A few things you can try: - Update your PRL - Update your profile - Try to disable data roaming - sometimes data can interfere with incoming calls - Call Sprint and tell them that your phone doesn't ring when roaming - perhaps they can do something on their end (re-activation, HLR reset, etc) Sometimes this issue resolves itself with time, sometimes not. If you experience this behavior and are unsatisfied, send contact support for a refund.

I’m getting a license failure when starting the app.

Please make sure your phone has a good signal, and for PayPal purchasers, make sure you are using the correct activation code (case sensitive). Try checking the license while connected to a wifi network as well.  Otherwise, please contact support.

I see an error message when using the app.

Please read the error and follow any instructions that are given.  You may need to try exiting and restarting the app, or uninstalling and re-installing the app directly from this website.  Otherwise, please contact support.


Books: 8 X 8 = Gliglish

HOPSCOTCH by Julio Cortazar. 564 pages. Pantheon. $6.95.

By the exacting standards of Julio Cortázar, a lazy reader is one who expects the author to do all the work. Such a reader assumes that a story will unwind consecutively, rationally, grammatically, before his indolent eyes. The sentences parse, the paragraphs link, the chapters march, good soldiers all, to a dramatically acceptable denouement. So much for the lazy reader. Author Cortázar wants nothing to do with him.

Path of Obstacles. Hopscotch is aptly named. Not since Ulysses have so many obstacles strewn the path of understanding....


The First Muslim

The Story of Muhammad

Lesley Hazleton - Author

Hardcover | $27.95 | add to cart | view cart
ISBN 9781594487286 | 336 pages | 24 Jan 2013 | Riverhead | 9.25 x 6.25in | 18 - AND UP
Additional Formats:
Summary of The First Muslim Summary of The First Muslim Reviews for The First Muslim An Excerpt from The First Muslim
The extraordinary life of the man who founded Islam, and the world he inhabited—and remade.

       Muhammad’s was a life of almost unparalleled historical importance; yet for all the iconic power of his name, the intensely dramatic story of the prophet of Islam is not well known. In The First Muslim, Lesley Hazleton brings him vibrantly to life. Drawing on early eyewitness sources and on history, politics, religion, and psychology, she renders him as a man in full, in all his complexity and vitality.
       Hazleton’s account follows the arc of Muhammad’s rise from powerlessness to power, from anonymity to renown, from insignificance to lasting significance. How did a child shunted to the margins end up revolutionizing his world? How did a merchant come to challenge the established order with a new vision of social justice? How did the pariah hounded out of Mecca turn exile into a new and victorious beginning? How did the outsider become the ultimate insider?
       Impeccably researched and thrillingly readable, Hazleton’s narrative creates vivid insight into a man navigating between idealism and pragmatism, faith and politics, nonviolence and violence, rejection and acclaim. The First Muslim illuminates not only an immensely significant figure but his lastingly relevant legacy.

"A rich biography… Those who read it will come away well prepared to understand the prophet whose message, 14 centuries later, is the creed of more than a billion and a half people.” –The San Francisco Chronicle

"This book offers a welcome chance to read [Muhammed's] life story in a more familiar and accessible form than the Islamic sources… The First Muslim succeeds. It makes its subject vivid and immediate." –Hari Kunzru, The New York Times Book Review

"Richly detailed and beautifully written... [Hazleton] is able to do with words what is almost never attempted in pictures... indispensable." –The Seattle Times

"Like her subject, Hazleton brilliantly navigates 'the vast and often terrifying arena in which politics and religion intersect,' revealing the deep humanity of faith." –More Magazine

"The book's focus is an effort to portray the prophet's unique circumstances and recognizable humanity… Hazleton's biography covers the broad strokes of his life with fairness—she doesn't gloss over his more fallible moments—and insight." –NPR

"This story is deep with details not only of Muhammad's life journey, but with historic information about the culture of the times in Arabia... filled with rich color of the locations, culture, and people; it is a book plentiful with tales of Muhammad's life that follow logically from orphan to religious leader, but more than that, it enriches us with the detail of a time and place in history." –The New York Journal of Books

“[A] humane, audacious biography… An elegant narrative crafted for open-minded readers… a vivid canvas of Arabian life in the early seventh century.” –Ha’aretz

"A genuine attempt to try to understand the human experience Muhammad went through…  Hazleton queries and questions in a way that will resonate with a non-academic audience trying to come to grips with the fastest growing religion on the planet. It is a welcome antidote to the barrage of hatred and distortion to which Islam has been subjected since the early Bush years, an opportunity for balance to be restored and for those of us who don’t subscribe to the extremes to regain the middle ground.” –Guernica

"Hazleton... is in the revelation business: She's out to consider Muhammad as a mortal human, a man who lived and died and was vulnerable... A world-class history teacher who contextualizes the realities of [his] far-off times... [she] can effortlessly distill years of research into a few conversational sentences." –The Stranger

"Vivid and engaging... a fluid and captivating introduction that will be invaluable for those seeking a greater understanding of Islam's message and its messenger." –Publishers Weekly

"Winning... a level-headed, elegant look at the life of the prophet amid the making of a legend." –Kirkus

“Beautifully written, The First Muslim respectfully humanizes the inimitable prophet of Islam and sees him whole." –Cornel West, Professor, Union Theological Seminary, and Professor Emeritus, Princeton University

“Hazleton sets her keen eye and her sculpted prose on one of the most fascinating and misunderstood figures in history. What she uncovers is a complex yet utterly relatable man whose personal trials and triumphs changed the course of history. This is a wonderful book.” –Reza Aslan, author of No God but God and How to Win a Cosmic War

"Hazleton has done the seemingly impossible: rendered into human proportions a man who is more often the subject of pious veneration or political vitriol. This is the most readable, engaging study of Muhammad I have ever come across." –G. Willow Wilson, author of Alif the Unseen and The Butterfly Mosque

"The First Muslim tells the mostly unknown story of the prophet Muhammad in a masterful, accessible, and engaging way.  Hazleton's empathetic touch softens her rigorous scholarship and research as she crucially demystifies both the man himself and the birth of Islam. An absolute delight (and indispensable) for believers and non-believers alike." –Hooman Majd, author of The Ayatollah Begs to Differ and The Ayatollahs' Democracy

“Thrilling in its depiction of long-ago events.” The Wall Street Journal

“Marvelous... [for] any reader interested in a story of human passion and consequence, told with consummate skill.” The Dallas Morning News

“Anyone seeking to understand today’s Middle East... can learn from this book.” The Seattle Times

“A Sunday school story it is not... Essential.” The Christian Science Monitor

Please alert me via email when:

The author releases another book


The Washington Accord

Members Login

The Washington Accord, signed in 1989, is an international agreement among bodies responsible for accrediting engineering degree programs. It recognizes the substantial equivalency of programs accredited by those bodies and recommends that graduates of programs accredited by any of the signatory bodies be recognized by the other bodies as having met the academic requirements for entry to the practice of engineering.

Download: The Overview of Washington Accord (pdf)


A lot of the research that helps rheumatologists provide better care comes from patients' participation in the NDB. Here is a recent video put out by the American College of Rheumatology, an organization that almost all of the NDB researchers and rheumatologists belong to, that highlights the importance of medical care and research in this area.


The attacker can specify his own plain text and encrypt or sign it. He can carefully craft it to learn characteristics about the algorithm.

If Vigenère cipher is used for example, it is very easy to extract the key length and recover the key by repeating one letter.

history|show excerpt|excerpt history


electric potential difference, Δ V

of a galvanic cell
Difference in the potentials of electrodes on the right and left of a galvanic cell. When Δ V is positive, positive charge flows from left to right through the cell.
The limiting value of E cell for zero current flowing through the cell, all local charge transfer and chemical equilibria being established, was formerly called emf (electromotive force). The name electromotive force and the symbol emf are no longer recommended, since a potential difference is not a force.
Green Book, 3rd ed., p. 71


Dablo Daares   &    Dablo Aasele

boardgames from Lapland

Dablo Daares derives from southern Lapland. Goal is either to capture the enemy king or reduce his forces so that only the king remains. All pieces move by single steps and can capture, by the short leap, in all directions. The soldier can only step in the three forward directions. Promotion does not occur. For the soldier, capture is mandatory. For the king, capture is optional. The king can only be captured by the enemy king.

A piece moves to an empty adjacent point. If an adjacent point is occupied by an enemy piece, of the same rank or lower, and the point directly behind is vacant, then one may jump over it and capture it, as in checkers. Several pieces may be captured like this in a single turn. Dablo Aasele follows the same rules.

As capture is mandatory for the soldier, it is sometimes possible to sacrifice one or more soldiers to enemy soldiers, thus to create a situation where the enemy king can be captured. However, it is necessary to hunt enemy soldiers with the king, although this exposes the king to combinations. A shortage of soldiers can lead to a lost game as it allows the opponent to continue exchanging soldiers until he wins according to the lone (bare) king rule. This game is strategically and tactically very interesting, and takes appropriately long time, too.

image Example of simple combination. Here black can win by moving the king to the left (e5-c5). This forces white to capture the soldier, which leaves the king en prise.

image Another typical combination. Black moves the soldier to nw (f2-e3), forcing the white soldier to capture. Thus, black can capture the enemy king in two consecutive jumps.

Dablo Daares (Dåres dablo/tablo/tavelbräde/kloter) is mentioned in connection with the village Daares (Dåres) in Vilhelmina, Lapland, in northern Sweden (Pettersson, 1999, p.402f). This implementation builds on a reconstruction by P. Michaelsen to which I've added the lone (bare) king rule and a combined mandatory/optional capture. There exists an incomplete description where a board with 144 fields are described. These are here interpreted as the triangles, thus relating the board to another Laplandian game Dablot Prejjesne. The Daares game is described as having one king and two rows of pieces on each side, and that capture occurs by the short leap. It is thus suggested that Dablo Daares belongs in the category of dablo games and is closely related to Dablot Prejjesne.

An interesting fact is that the board has the same type of pattern as the African game Kharbaga, and the capture rules are reminiscent of the Italian checkers variant Damone. The notion of forward moving soldiers that do not promote, but can capture in all directions, is known from Ossetian checkers. If the soldiers were able to go in all directions, then there is a lot of movement back and forth which would create monotony. Pettersson says that in certain parts of Lapland has the rule of forward movement only been introduced, at least for the soldiers. This is also borne out by Anta Pirak's description of "tablo" (1937, pp.17-18).

The 'absolute king' rule is reminiscent of Italian Damone variants, where capture of the Damones is sufficient for a win. This rule is corroborated by a note to Dablot Prejjesne from 1892 by Wiklund: "Den som först förlorat alla sina brickor, har tappat. Efter öfverenskommelse kan äfven den tappa, hvars kung blifvit öfverhoppat och slagen af den andres kung; vanliga brickor kunna då ej slå kungarna" ["The party who first loses all his counters has lost the game. According to agreement, the player also loses whose king is jumped over and thus captured by the other king, in which case normal counters cannot capture the king." (my transl.)]. There also seem to have existed smaller dablo variants where king capture was sufficient for a win. The suggested 'lone king' rule exists also in Shatranj. The soldier's mandatory capture remains a point of contention.

image This setup uses 33 pieces in five rows on each side. The below source says two rows of pieces on each side, but the dablo type of game functions finely with any number of pieces (or any size of board). Several variants have been implemented.

Dablo Aasele

image Sigrid Drake (1918, p.291) relates a variant from Aasele (Åsele), Swedish Lapland. It includes 18 pieces plus king on each side, on a 41 square board. It is also implemented, as Dablo Aasele.

Drake, S. (1918). Västerbottenslapparna under förra hälften av 1800-talet. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell.

Keyland, N. (1921). 'Dablot prejjesne och Dablot duoljesne'. Etnologiska Studier. Göteborg.

Pettersson, O.P. (1999). Nybyggares dagliga leverne. Umeå: DAUM.

Pirak, A. (1937). En nomad och hans liv. Stockholm: Nord.

Wiklund, K.B. (1892). Note: catalogue nr. 71978. Nordiska Museet (Stockholm, Sweden).

image  You can download my free Dablo Daares program here (updated 2010-03-14), but you must own the software Zillions of Games to be able to run it (I recommend the download version).

© M. Winther 2010


Social / Problems / Attitude Problems / Main

Attitudes are key towards all efforts, for without a will, there can be no way possible. However, there are a great number of attitudinal problems that are both difficult to tackle, but have a huge reach and impact on society. Some of the more prominent problems are mentioned in the indents. Browse through them to find out more!


Definition Plagiarism. Definition Of Plagiarism; Checklist For Students;.
Definition there is some difference of opinion over how much credit must be given when preparing a newspaper article or historical account generally, reference is made to. Definition of plagiarism; checklist for students; referencing and citing; turnitinuk; definition of plagiarism plagiarism is the use, without adequate acknowledgment, of the intellectual. What is plagiarism? back: plagiarism, believe it or not, comes from a latin verb that means, to nap if you plagiarize you re napping and.

In ing weeks, the mittee will continue to discuss a proposal that would redefine plagiarism in the honor manual photo by t sorbo the mittee.

A selection of articles related to plagiarism - definition dream sharing forum at global munity share your dreams and let others help you with the interpretation!. mit plagiarism when you present someone else s ideas -published or unpublished - as if they were your own. Definition of plagiarism (from viterbo university student planner and handbook, -2002) plagiarism includes but may not be limited to the intentional use of another.

Policies ori policy on plagiarism although there is widespread agreement in the munity on including plagiarism as a major element of the phs definition of scientific. Definition of paraphrasing paraphrasing is a close restatement of another person s argument using your own sentences when you paraphrase, you must still acknowledge your.

Paradise munity college s definition of plagiarism plagiarism includes, but is not limited to, the use of paraphrase or direct quotation of.

Whether you re a student preparing a research paper or a professional writer in search of a new career opportunity, it s important to be aware of the definition of plagiarism. Definition of plagiarism from the merriam-webster online dictionary with audio pronunciations, thesaurus, word of the day, and word games. This is how plagiarism is defined at indiana university in the student code of conduct, how to recognize plagiarism, school cation, indiana university bloomington.

Plagiarism: review the definition, me ng, pronunciation, explanation, synonyms, and antonyms of the term plagiarism in the online dictionary what is a letter word that starts.

Admission to graduate and professional studies and eligibility petitive fellowships general academic regulations & requirements definition of plagiarism. The definition of plagiarism varies by differing institutions and is considered a difficult concept to define plagiarism c nclude a range of possibilities including incorrect. Plagiarism: what it is and how to recognize and avoid it what is plagiarism and why is it important? in college courses, we are continually engaged with other people s.

Definition a simple definition of plagiarism is: copying some text and using it without indicating that it was copied or where it was copied from.

Definition: plagiarism involves using the work of another person and presenting it as one s own any of the following acts constitutes plagiarism unless the.

Swinburne university of technology s definition of plagiarism plagiarism is the action or practice of taking and submitting or presenting the thoughts, writings or other work. Plagiarism using ideas, plots, text and other intellectual property developed by someone else while claiming it is your original work. Plagiarism is the act of taking credit for someone else s work to help you avoid plagiarism, here is a detailed discussion of different forms of plagiarism. Copy & paste this link to your blog or website to reference this page.

Definition taken from the latin words plagiaries, me ng plunderer, and plagium, me ng napping, plagiarism means "to steal and use (the ideas or writings of another. Do you have more to add? share your linguistic knowledge or observation.

e macdonald ross (2005) offers this review of the key features of this definition: " first - there is no reference to the student s intentions inadvertent plagiarism due to.

Find dictionary definitions, audio pronunciations, and spellings for plagiarism in the free online american heritage dictionary on yahoo! education..

definition plagiarism

©2009 Definition Plagiarism •


John Koch

throne/thrown (2008)

throne/thrown (2008) | Media List

Conceptualized by choreographer/director Vanessa Voskuil and filmmaker John Koch. Taking its impetus from W.B. Yeats' poem "The Second Coming," "throne/thrown" explores the search for the position in one's life by which to conduct one's authority over it. Directed and conceived by Vanessa Voskuil (2006 Sage Award for Outstanding Design) and John Koch (writer/director of "Je Ne Sais Quoi" and Cinema Revolution founder), "throne/thrown" strives to create a frenetic, visually compelling, and cinematically moving experience. Shot in HDV video. Click here to view the film online.


Re: Dumb How to play chords question

On Nov 30, 12:13 pm, Musicman59 <cwestbro...@xxxxxxxxx> wrote:
Being a sax player I know how to play the notes, but an not sure what
to do with guitar chords.

so you have a measure with various quarter and eighth notes with the
chord box listed above the measure.

How is one supposed to determine whether to strum and hold the chord
for the entire measure or strum it to the beat of the song, say four
times for a 4/4 song.

If I can figure this one out I may just be able to deal with this
guitar business.

Thx from a crusty old musician trying to learn something new...

Dear Crusty,

You aren't very clear here, but I'm guessing you are talking about
ordinary sheet music that usually consists of a double staff piano
part and above that a single staff melody and above that little guitar
chord diagrams with the name of the chords written in. This is
opposed to say a chart from a big band where you can have chord names
with strokes written in for strums or actual guitar music where the
actual notes you are to play are written out.

Generally the sheet music is like a "fake book" but the fake book is
missing the piano parts. That leaves you with melody and chord names.
So your question, I take it is how does one know when to strum the
chords or what rhythms to use? One basic hint, is that the chord
names are written on the page where the harmony changes to that chord
in the music. It's not precisely accurate but it usually gives you a
pretty good idea. The changes in the chords as you go through the song
are called the "changes" (duh) of the song. Generally sheet music is
designed for someone to sing the song with some accompaniment, either
piano or guitar. So the guitar part is really designed to be pretty
simple so the singer can just strum along with themselves as they

Figuring out how to strum (you are essentially playing rhythm guitar
to accompany your singing) is in many ways like the way a drummer
figures out what rhythms to play when there is no drum music. Your
strums are essential the "drum" part and set the rhythm of the song.
The chords you play set the harmony that goes with the melody. The
melody is what you sing. OK? So how do drummers do it? Not only
ambidextrously but also with a collection of standard beats that they
know go with various types of songs. You have to do likewise. For
hints you listen to the recording(s) of the tune in question. What do
other people use for basic beats? You also get to make up your own if
you are in the mood. It's really all about art so there are no
"correct" answers here. If your rhythms work and sound good then they
ARE good. If not, try something else. Since you already play you must
have some kind of ear for music already. And the next thing about
playing drums has to do with accents and fills (remember that your
strums are like drums?) A fill is a rhythmic pattern that is used to
fill and and carry over held notes in the melody. Accents are just
what you think they mean. On a guitar, especially a lead guitar, fills
and other melodic patterns are called "licks". Licks often give a
characteristic quality to a song that makes it instantly recognizable.
Some of those can't hurt but at your starting noob stage, fills are
probably more important than licks. Fills would be accents and changes
in your strumming patterns rather than the melodic phrases of lead
guitar licks.

Since you already play horns I may have over-simplified things here or
perhaps not understood your questions, but I've tried to start very
basic so we are all on the same page. So my answer to what I think is
your question is that you strum according to a rhythmic pattern that
fits the song. You do not strum just one time for each chord symbol
UNLESS that fits the music. A strumming pattern might be each 1/4 note
4/4 or 1 and 3 of 4/4 (downbeats) or even 2 and 4 of 4/4 (upbeats or
called "backbeats" on drums) or it might even be a "slow-quick-quick"
1, 3, 4, 1, 3, 4etc. uneven rumba rhythm. Just listen to lots of
music and you'll get the idea.

Good luck.

Relevant Pages

  • Re: Harmonies
    ... but a different note sounded much better when playing with the band. ... his chord, but not the root. ... that's more prominent on his guitar than in the same chord on the album, ... Whatever I'm doing doesn't seem to detract from the song. ...
  • Re: So, What Are You All Working On?
    ... My original, solo, acoustic, instrumental 6-string guitar composition called ... I ran into a chord formation that has given me fits. ... wondering what else this song has in store for me. ... I'd do it with a thumb pull-off ... ...
  • Re: Voice Leading / Chord Melody
    ... producing harmony in chord melody arrangements. ... because you loose the independance of the seperate voices. ... That type of writing evolved ... of the guitar and i had no finger-style chops at the time. ...
  • Re: How to write a song
    ... Jeremy's sit down and create the chord structure idea is what I'm ... of the tune and not suck. ... What makes a 'good' song ... guitar instrumental. ...
  • Re: Voice Leading / Chord Melody
    ... because you loose the independance of the seperate voices. ... That type of writing evolved from a prior era where chords were not really seen as being entities in their own right but rather as the result of counterpoint between two or more lines of music. ... In classical harmony there is very little cross relation between voices, i.e. where a a diatonic and a chromatic version of notes with the same letter name coexist within a chord. ... I especially had no idea how this applied to guitar playing because the stuff I was writing always exceeded the range of the guitar and i had no finger-style chops at the time. ...


The laws against Online-Bullying by GretaThis is a featured page

Online Bullying can be much more severe in its ways than actual bullying because the targets feel they have no escape. Also, because of the wide scope of the Web, there can be many more witnesses to the bullying.

Online bullying can be adressed by civil law and criminal law, based on the situation.

Civil law:This is the type of law that deals with property rights, personal dignity and freedom from injury. Under civil law, there are three categories of online bullying:

1.An online bully may take on in defamation. This is when the bully causes harm to someone’s reputation by spreading false information about that person. In general, defamation that appears temporarily is called backstabbing, and defamation that appears permanently is called lying.
To be aspersive a statement must: do harm to someone’s reputation, have a clear and obvious statement, and be seen by people other than the person making the statement and the target.
In libel cases, the target can lay a case against the person making the statement. If the case is successful, the person making the statement will have to pay damages (money) to the target.
A person involved of lying may defend himself or herself by saying that the statement was true, that it was afair commentor that he or she innocently reproduced the statement without knowing what it was.

2.A criminal may be creating an unsafe environment by making the target feel that she or he cannot go to school without facing violence, teasing or exclusion. Schools and workplaces are required to provide a safe environment for their students or employees, and must take any appropriate action to do so. A school, therefore, might punish a student for online behaviour that is making it hard for other students to learn in a safe environment. In Ontario, the Safe Schools Act has been changed to specifically include online behaviour: students can now be suspended or expelled for cyberbullying, even if it is done outside the school.

3.A person is responsible for any consequences that he or she might thought or guessed it would happen. Therefore, a criminal who suggests that a depressed and sad student should kill herself would be accountable if the student actually did kill herself, as long as the criminal had reason to believe it was a likely decision.

Criminal law: This is the law that determines which actions are crimes against the state. In criminal law, there are two approaches to online bullying:

1.Harassment is a crime under the Criminal Code. Harassment is when something a person says or does makes someone fear for his or her safety, or for the safety of others. Even if the criminal did not attempt to frighten someone, she or he can be charged with harassment if the target feels threatened. Criminal harassment is punishable by up to 10 years in prison.

2.Defamatory libel is a crime under the Criminal Code. It is most often treated as a crime if the libellous statement is conduct against a person in authority and could seriously harm his or her reputation. Defamatory libel is punishable by up to 5 years in prison.

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Oral Cancer - Confronting the Enemy

The Human Toll

Rick Bender is sometimes called "the man without a face," a description he feels suitably describes his appearance. After 14 years of using spit (or smokeless) tobacco, he was diagnosed with oral cancer and underwent surgery that resulted in the loss of part of his tongue, half his jaw, and partial use of his right arm. Rick Bender is evidence of the damage oral cancer can do to a face, a person, a life.

Oral or pharyngeal cancer will be diagnosed in an estimated 34,000 Americans this year, and will cause more than 8,000 deaths. The disease kills one person every hour -- more people than cervical cancer, Hodgkin's disease, or malignant melanoma. When the definition of oral cancer is expanded to include laryngeal cancer, which shares risk factors with oral cancer, the number of cases in the United States, per year, climbs to 41,000 and the number of deaths to 12,500. Oral cancer is the sixth most common cancer worldwide and the third most common in developing nations.

Some might say the old adage, "the cure is worse than the disease," applies to existing treatments for oral and pharyngeal cancers. Victims of oral cancer not only deal with the debilitating side-effects of radiation and chemotherapy but with the very visible evidence of surgery. Surgery to treat oral cancer is often extensive and disfiguring and may involve removing parts of the face, tongue, cheek, or lip -- causing changes in appearance that can be especially difficult to live with in a society that values physical beauty. Chemotherapy and radiation to the head and neck cause their own problems: jaw pain, mouth sores, and salivary glands that cease to function, resulting in difficulty chewing, swallowing, and talking. Recovering the ability to speak clearly and adjusting to new oral prostheses are additional challenges.

As with any cancer, the threat of death is an overriding fear. Most disturbing about oral and pharyngeal cancer is the survival rate. In the United States it is approximately 50 percent, a statistic that has not changed appreciably over the past 20 years. Oral cancer is unusual in that it carries a high risk of second primary tumors. Patients who survive a first cancer of the oral cavity have up to a 20-fold increased risk of developing a second primary oral cancer. The heightened risk can last 5-10 years, sometimes longer. Until researchers learn more about this phenomenon, second primary tumors will remain a specter faced by all oral cancer patients.

Additionally, oral cancer, like many diseases, continues to take a disproportionate toll on minorities. Incidence peaks in African Americans 10 years earlier than in the general population, in whom the disease is usually diagnosed between ages 65-74. The difference in survival rates between whites and African Americans is staggering -- 55 percent of whites survive five or more years, while only 34 percent of African Americans live that long. African American males suffer the highest incidence and lowest survival rates of any group. Oral cancer is the fourth most common cancer among African American men in the United States.

What We Know...About How Cancer Develops

We've known for a long time that cancer cells, unlike normal cells, multiply uncontrollably, ignoring the usual signals to stop. We also know that cancer cells can metastasize -- migrate from their original site and set up shop in another part of the body, where they continue to multiply unchecked.

But over the past two decades cancer research has uncovered much more. We now know that all neoplastic transformations (cancers) result from mutations, or changes, in genes that control cell growth and behavior. These genes normally restrict cell proliferation and direct the cell to repair DNA damage, or failing that, to self-destruct, a process called apoptosis, or cell 'suicide.' The mutated genes free the cell from these controls, allowing it to divide continuously and to pass on the mutation(s) to its progeny.

What causes these mutations? Many factors come together to cause each type of cancer. Genetic mistakes can be inherited or they can be acquired as a result of exposure to chemicals, radiation, or viruses. Random mistakes also occur each day in the course of duplicating the three billion units in our DNA during cell division. No one mutation is enough to make a cell cancerous. Multiple genetic changes, in specific classes of genes, are needed to transform a normal cell into a neoplastic cell that grows out of control. A small percentage of people inherit a susceptibility for certain types of cancer, putting all their body's cells one step closer to the disease.

What We Know...About Oral Cancer

Scientists now understand that oral cancers, which are included in the category of head and neck cancers, result from a multistep process of accumulated genetic mutations caused by many factors. Tobacco and alcohol use, diet, viruses, and a possible genetic susceptibility may all work together in various combinations to cause these cancers.

Using tobacco -- including cigarettes, pipes, cigars, and spit tobacco-is a well-established risk factor for oral cancer, as it is for some other cancers. Tobacco in any form contains carcinogens and nicotine, an addictive chemical that can keep the user hooked. A popular betel quid-spit tobacco mixture, used throughout India, has been implicated in the high rate of oral cancer in that part of the world.

Excessive alcohol consumption can also increase a person's chance of developing oral cancer. One theory suggests that alcohol generates metabolites, or byproducts of metabolism, that are carcinogenic to humans; the major metabolite of ethanol is acetaldehyde, a recognized animal carcinogen. Alcohol also might "grease the wheels" for tobacco by acting as a solvent and making it easier for carcinogenic agents to penetrate the oral tissues.

Rick Bender-
In his own words

Rick Bender appeared in a videotape titled "Dangerous Game," produced by the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, the National Cancer Institute, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. In addition to Rick, the videotape featured major league baseball players and trainers who talked about the dangers of using spit tobacco, also called smokeless tobacco. The video was distributed to major and minor league baseball teams, and was made available to high schools as part of a package that includes pamphlets for students and a teachers' guide.

"The ulcer grew to about the size of a dime shortly after the first of the year there in '89. I then pretty much resolved to myself that, 'hey, Rick you've got cancer.' They had to take a third of my tongue -- they took all the lymph glands out of the side of my neck to biopsy them to make sure the cancer hadn't progressed into my lymph system, which, luckily, knock on wood, it hadn't. They ended up having to cut my jaw just to get to my tongue.

Using both tobacco and alcohol produces a much greater risk for oral cancer than using either substance alone. It is estimated that approximately 75 percent of all oral and pharyngeal cancers in the United States are caused by smoking and drinking, with most of these cases caused by tobacco and alcohol working synergistically.

Viruses, too, are thought to be involved in the development of these cancers. The human papillomavirus (HPV), particularly the HPV-16 and HPV-18 strains, and the herpes viruses are now considered possible contributors to some cases of oral cancer. DNA from HPV and certain herpes viruses, including Epstein-Barr, cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex, has been detected in oral cancer biopsies. Genes encoded within these viruses are implicated in the initiation of the multiple steps required for a normal cell to become malignant. Interestingly, scientists have recently linked a new virus with AIDS-related Kaposi's sarcoma (KS), a cancer that has a preference for the head and neck. Oral lesions are present in about half of KS cases and the hard palate and gingiva are the most commonly affected areas. The newly identified virus, called human herpesvirus 8, has been found in all forms of KS, suggesting it might be involved in the sarcoma's development. A direct causal role, however, has not yet been established.

Research also suggests that a diet lacking fruits and vegetables could contribute to oral cancer, an idea postulated about other cancers as well. These foods contain antioxidants that trap harmful molecules, a process that can help prevent cancer-causing genetic mutations. The consumption of Cantonese salted fish from early childhood on has been associated with oral cancer in some Asian countries.

It [chewing tobacco] was an addiction. Today, I don't consider it a nasty habit as much as it is a dangerous habit -- a very dangerous habit. When I first started chewing, it was billed as a safe alternative to smoking. That's so far from the truth it's not even funny. It's just real far from the truth.

If somebody's chewing now -- quit. Quit now before it's too late. Don't wait till something like happened to me happens to them or a sore comes along--whether it's cancerous or not -- to quit. Quit now. Quit now before it's too late."

--Rick Bender works with state health departments, associations, and the spit tobacco consortium NSTEP (National Spit Tobacco Education Program) to educate youngsters about the dangers of using spit tobacco. He travels the country talking to schoolchildren about his experiences with spit tobacco use and his battle with oral cancer.

NIDCR and NCI continue their efforts to warn adults and children that spit tobacco is not a safe alternative to cigarettes.

Virtually all oral cancers are squamous cell carcinomas, cancers of the epithelial cells that line many parts of the body, including the mouth. These cancers can develop in any part of the oral cavity or oropharynx. The most common sites are the tongue, the lips, and the floor of the mouth. Cancers of the hard palate are uncommon in the United States. Research has shown that changes in oral epithelial cells often are manifested as lesions called leukoplakia, a white patch, or erthyroplakia, a red patch, which can be early signs of oral cancer.

Research is revealing what goes on beneath the cell surface -- at the genetic level -- to set the cancer process in motion. Scientists now realize that multiple mutations in specific classes of genes contribute to head and neck cancer. The two classes most fully characterized to date are proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. Proto-oncogenes code for proteins that stimulate cell division; altered forms, called oncogenes, can cause stimulatory proteins to be overactive, with the result that the cell divides more rapidly than usual. Scientists have so far identified the oncogenes (EGFR)/c-erb 1, ras family, c-myc, int-2, hst-1, PRAD-1 (CCND1 or cyclin D1), and bcl-1 as possible participants in head and neck cancers.

Tumor suppressor genes code for proteins that inhibit cell division. When these genes mutate, the corresponding protein may no longer be produced correctly and cell division may occur when it should not. Inactivated tumor suppressor genes that are suspected in head and neck cancer include Rb, p16 (MTS1 or CDKN2), and p53, whose failure is already implicated in approximately 60 percent of all human cancers. p53 has been of great interest to cancer researchers since it was discovered that the molecule could stop tumors from forming when it is functioning properly. Located on the short arm of chromosome 17, p53 works by recognizing damage to a cell's DNA and stopping the process of cell growth and division until the damage is repaired. If that fails, p53 can launch the cell's 'suicide' software, causing the cell to undergo apoptosis.

As more and more genetic events are implicated in head and neck cancers, scientists are now converging on the next question: in what order do those events occur to cause tumor development? One team has already proposed part of the answer by developing a preliminary genetic progression model for head and neck cancers.

The National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research: Asking the Questions, Seeking the Answers

Knowing the order and manner of genetic events involved in head and neck cancers has obvious appeal. Health professionals and patients can now look forward to confronting cancer on the molecular level -- where it originates -- instead of waiting to deal with its aftermath. It may one day be possible to detect the disease at its earliest stage using biomarkers found in blood and saliva; develop better tests for tracking the progression of cancer; and design therapies based on fixing or replacing mutated genes.

Through its grants program -- including the Oral Cancer Research Centers co-funded with the National Cancer Institute -- and in projects conducted on the NIH campus, NIDCR is seizing the opportunity to explore the range of topics related to oral and pharyngeal cancer. This article describes only a few of NIDCR's ongoing efforts and a handful of findings by NIDCR researchers and others in this burgeoning field.

Viruses, Variations, and Environment-Studies on Oral Cancer Etiology

For many years the human papillomavirus (HPV) has been suspected as a possible culprit in the etiology of oral cancer. Two types of the virus, HPV-16 and HPV-18, are found in oral cancer tissues more frequently than in normal tissues. Scientists are still not sure, though, how HPV might contribute to the development of oral cancer.

Recently, a team of NIDCR-funded investigators at the State University of New York Health Sciences Center in Syracuse discovered mutations in the long control region (LCR) of HPV-16 and HPV-18 taken from oral cancer cell lines. This region of the virus plays an important role in regulating the expression of two viral genes called E6 and E7. Earlier research implicated overexpression of these two genes in the development of cervical cancer, and the oral cancer researchers suspect the same phenomenon might be at play producing oral neoplasms. They speculate that the LCR mutations disturb the normal balance between up- and down-regulation of E6 and E7, leading to their overexpression and thus to oral cancer. Future research by these scientists and others will focus on trying to locate concrete molecular evidence of E6 and E7 overexpression in oral cancer cells. Taken together, these studies will eventually help confirm, or rule against, HPV's involvement in oral cancer development.

Animal and cell line studies have led two other groups of NIDCR grantees to make discoveries about genetic variations that might play a part in oral cancer development. At the Harvard School of Dental Medicine one group has identified, isolated, and partially characterized an oral tumor suppressor gene. Discovered in the hamster oral cancer model, the gene is dubbed 'doc-1' for 'deleted in oral cancer.' The mutation of this gene in malignant hamster oral keratinocytes leads to a reduction of its expression and protein production, while re-expression of the gene results in the reversion of malignant phenotypes to normal.

Importantly, the scientists now have data to support the existence of a human version of doc-1. They also have evidence that the gene seems to work by regulating cell cycle progression, as do other tumor suppressor genes such as Rb and p53. Studies are currently under way to determine whether doc-1 is a tissue-specific tumor suppressor or whether it might be involved in the development of other cancers as well.

A team of NIDCR-supported scientists at the University of Pittsburgh has shown that genetic variations occurring in head and neck cancers have been extended to include the FHIT gene, which was not previously associated with these malignancies. The finding that 22 of 26 squamous cell carcinoma lines showed aberrations in this gene strongly indicates that its function may be important in the development and progression of these neoplasias. Studies on the FHIT gene are continuing, and the scientists hope their findings will add to the knowledge of underlying genetic variations related to oral cancer.

A country halfway around the world and a U.S. island territory are the sites of two NIDCR studies correlating environmental and biological factors with oral cancer. In Taiwan, researchers are studying families with multiple members affected by nasopharyngeal cancer (NPC). The study capitalizes on recent investigations of NPC in Taiwan that found strong evidence of a genetic susceptibility to the disease and identified dietary factors that might contribute to its development. The current project is providing scientists with an ideal opportunity to investigate the association of NPC with environmental factors such as diet and to identify and characterize susceptibility genes for the disease. The molecular genetic work resulting from this study will almost certainly have implications for research into other subtypes of oral and pharyngeal cancer.

Closer to home, a case-control study of oral cancer is continuing in Puerto Rico, chosen as a study site because of its high oral cancer mortality rate for males. One of the study's strengths is that it is population-based, with cases derived from the island's central cancer registry. Biological specimens and information on diet and the use of tobacco and alcohol have already been collected from the 800-plus participants, and data analysis has begun. The idea is to discover how behavioral factors and genetic variations influence the development of oral cancer.

Diagnosing the Disease

Currently, diagnosing oral cancer relies on studying the histopathology of tissues through biopsy. X-ray technologies, like computed tomography, and other imaging techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging are sometimes used to detect the location and extent of the primary tumor. These techniques can help determine the stage of the tumor based on its size and whether it has spread. But cancer that can be evaluated by these imaging technologies has already taken root. Now, scientists are looking for ways to find cancer before it becomes clinically evident. To this end, many investigators are searching for markers at the molecular level that could warn of impending cancer.

In one such search for biomarkers, scientists at the University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, an NIDCR Oral Cancer Research Center, are looking for alterations in short sequences of DNA called "microsatellites" on p53 and five other genes that might signal oral cancer. By examining cell samples from archived tissue of normal and dysplastic epithelium and invasive lesions, they plan to determine the most consistent biomarkers for each stage of oral cancer. In another phase of the study, the researchers will use tissue from recently diagnosed oral cancer patients to correlate genetic biomarkers with disease stage, tissue changes, tumor aggressiveness, and key epidemiological factors over several years.

One molecule already suspected as a predictor of head and neck cancers is telomerase. This enzyme helps a cell to reproduce chromosomal ends and circumvent the mechanism that counts and limits the total number of times the cell can reproduce. When cells become immortal they appear to bypass this safeguard and are able to replicate without limit. Telomerase is absent from most healthy cells, but present in almost all tumor cells. Scientists at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore have recently found evidence of telomerase activity in oral rinses collected from head and neck cancer patients. Further research is necessary to discover whether telomerase is a marker consistently associated with head and neck squamous carcinoma. If so, telomerase activity may one day be used to detect the presence of cancer cells in the oral cavity and upper aerodigestive tract.

Until reliable biomolecular markers are identified, clinicians must rely on visual examination of oral tissues to detect precancerous lesions. Research by NIDCR, however, has indicated that less than 15 percent of American adults report they have ever had the head and neck examination that could reveal early signs of cancer. In an effort to improve this situation, NIDCR is focusing on encouraging dentists and other health care practitioners to perform this simple, potentially lifesaving, screening examination.

NIDCR's National Oral Health Information Clearinghouse (NOHIC) distributes a poster titled, "Detecting Oral Cancer: A Guide for Health Care Professionals," which offers a step-by-step pictorial guide on how to conduct the exam. Additionally, NOHIC has developed a companion slide show based on the poster. The slide show is distributed with a script and copies of the poster, patient education pamphlet titled, "What You Need to Know About Oral Cancer," and 'tips card' that lists signs and symptoms of the disease. NOHIC sends these materials to dentists, physicians, nurse practitioners, and other health care providers around the country.

Degrading and Invading-Studying Metastasis

Metastasis is a complex series of steps in which cancer cells leave the original tumor site and migrate to other parts of the body via the bloodstream or lymph system. To do so, malignant cells break away from the primary tumor and attach to and degrade proteins that make up the surrounding extracellular matrix (ECM), which separates the tumor from adjoining tissue. By degrading these proteins, cancer cells are able to breach the ECM and escape. When oral cancers metastasize, they commonly travel through the lymph system to the lymph nodes in the neck.

In studying oral cancer metastasis, scientists at the NIDCR-NCI Oral Cancer Research Center at the University of Alabama at Birmingham are focusing on matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), a group of enzymes implicated in the metastatic process. Currently, they are looking at the MMP collagenase, an enzyme that can degrade collagen -- one of the ECM proteins. In healthy tissue, collagenase is activated only at appropriate times, and reacts with collagen to aid in wound healing, in fighting infection, and in the normal turnover of cells. In cancer, however, collagenase becomes active at the wrong time and enables cells to escape from the parent tumor.

Early data from the collagenase studies suggest that many oral tumor cells can produce the active form of the enzyme. In one of their experiments, the scientists used purified collagen in a tissue culture dish as an extracellular matrix model and then placed human oral tumor cells on top of the collagen. Upon removing the tumor cells, the scientists found a hole eaten through the collagen layer -- evidence, they say, that activated collagenase was present underneath the tumor cells. The researchers ultimately hope to prevent collagenase activation in tumor cells and pre-empt the metastatic process.

At the University of California, San Francisco, another NIDCR-NCI Oral Cancer Research Center, researchers are studying a viscous molecule called hyaluronic acid (HA), a building block of the "glue" that anchors cells to one another. The molecule is present on the surface of cancer cells as well, and allows them to become motile and to create space into which they can move, two requirements for metastasis. Saliva's HA-rich environment gives cancer cells further opportunity to fulfill these two requirements, and may be the reason oral cancers can be so aggressive, the scientists say. In some cancers, high levels of HA and its receptor, CD44 (in certain forms), have been correlated with advanced metastatic behavior. In these latest NIDCR studies, the scientists will evaluate whether HA and CD44 are predictors of oral cancer metastasis by documenting their levels in cell culture and in human biopsy specimens. The scientists say these potential biomarkers may be of enormous value in identifying patients at increased risk for developing malignancy, and also in predicting which lesions might be particularly aggressive. Additional studies are aimed at trying to determine whether hyaluronidase, an enzyme that breaks down HA, can inhibit oral cancer metastasis.

One compound that has already shown anti-metastatic activity is a non-antimicrobial tetracycline analogue called CMT-3. Current research on this molecule evolved from earlier NIDCR studies on periodontal disease that found tetracyclines could inhibit collagenase activity independently of their antibiotic property. In recent laboratory tests, NIDCR-funded researchers at the State University of New York at Stony Brook found that CMT-3 inhibits cancer cells from degrading and crossing synthetic basement membrane. The analogue also showed promise in a rat model of prostate cancer in which it reduced tumor size in some animals, caused tumor remission in others, and inhibited metastasis to the lung. Additional safety and efficacy studies, now under way, are necessary steps in moving toward the planned clinical testing of this compound. Further anti-metastasis studies could lead to application of CMT-3 in treating many cancers, including oral cancer.

Curbing a Killer

Traditionally, surgery and radiation were the only treatments thought to be effective against oral cancer, with chemotherapy used as a palliative measure. Within the last decade scientists have found that certain drugs do indeed work against oral cancer. Researchers are now using radiation and chemotherapy in tandem, giving cancer a 'one-two' punch in an effort to knock it out. One of the newest drugs in the oral cancer treatment armamentarium is paclitaxel (Taxol, Bristol-Myers Squibb Co.), which has shown some success in treating other cancers. Currently, clinical researchers are studying paclitaxel as a treatment for oral cancer, using the drug by itself and in combination with other chemotherapeutic agents and radiation therapy.

Long before drugs are used in the clinic, they undergo extensive testing for safety and efficacy. Countless compounds initially thought to have some activity against cancer ultimately fail. But a few, like paclitaxel, do not. So researchers continue to screen thousands of compounds searching for those that show evidence of antitumor activity. Recently, NIDCR and the National Cancer Institute have become partners in the effort to identify natural or synthetic agents that demonstrate activity against squamous cell carcinoma. NIDCR is now testing the ability of certain agents -- already shown to have antitumor activity by an NCI cell line assay -- to diminish growth of squamous cell carcinoma lines in vitro and in vivo . The scientists hope to confirm the efficacy of these compounds and move them a step closer to clinical testing.

Discriminating virus. Lacking the protein that shuts down p53, the mutant adenovirus can't reproduce in p53-bearing cells (top), but destroys cancer cells lacking p53 (bottom).

Courtesy ONYX Pharmaceuticals

Other research is focused on inventing new systems to test potentially therapeutic compounds. NIDCR-funded investigators at the M.D. Anderson Cancer Center are developing a unique tissue slice organ culture (TSOC) that consists of normal, premalignant, and malignant human oral tissue slices kept alive in the laboratory. The advantage of the TSOC is that it preserves tissue organization, cell interaction, and cell function more so than do cultured cell lines. Because the model essentially mimics in vivo conditions, it is ideal for testing numerous agents in various amounts and combinations. Oral cancer research has been hindered by the methods usually employed to investigate growth and differentiation of normal and premalignant oral cells. Culturing normal oral cells is complicated, and no successful method for culturing genuine premalignant oral cells exists. The scientists hope to establish the TSOC system as the standard for examining normal, premalignant, and malignant oral tissues.

Using the TSOC the scientists are looking at the ability of vitamin A analogues (retinoids) and sodium butyrate, a four-carbon fatty acid, alone or in combination, to reverse aberrations in cell growth and differentiation. Scientists already know that one retinoid, called isotretinoin, can reverse premalignant oral lesions; however, the analogue has side effects that preclude its prolonged use. One of the research goals is to identify other retinoids with similar or better efficacy than isotretinoin, and analyze them to determine whether they may have fewer side effects. If so, these compounds could be candidates for clinical testing. The scientists also hope to investigate whether butyrate might be effective in preventing or treating oral malignancies.

Complementing the vast array of laboratory experiments are clinical studies aimed at testing new cancer treatments or helping to improve the quality of life for patients living with the disease. At the University of Chicago and Northwestern University, another NIDCR-NCI Oral Cancer Research Center, scientists in one clinical study are looking at the chemotherapeutic effects of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) in combination with radiation therapy. One problem with using this drug has been that the enzyme dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase (DPD) can degrade 5-FU and lower its level in the body below a therapeutic range. To circumvent this problem, the scientists are testing 5-FU in combination with a chemical that blocks DPD action, which might keep the cancer-fighting drug at its therapeutic level. Scientists will correlate the activity of 5-FU with enzyme activity and with patient response and survival. By conducting studies aimed at elucidating the idiosyncrasies of this powerful drug, the researchers hope to learn how to use it most effectively against oral cancer.

In patients with advanced cancer, one of the primary goals is to reduce the symptoms of large tumors and preserve organ function, thus maintaining or improving quality of life. This is the focus of another study at the University of Chicago-Northwestern University. Clinicians are analyzing the effects of high-dose radiotherapy combined with chemotherapies on tongue strength and swallowing function in patients with advanced cancer. Using the latest imaging techniques, scientists are able to observe even minute changes in organ function.

Suppose there were a mutant cold virus that killed only cancer cells? Or a genetic 'cocktail' whose ingredients could provoke tumor-specific immune activity? Or what if there were a technique that allowed clinicians to replace a damaged p53 gene with a normal version? In fact, these are all therapies under study by head and neck cancer researchers right now. They are examples of a new approach to cancer treatment known as 'biotherapy.' Biotherapies are biological, based on the molecules and genes involved in the cancer process. A decided advantage of these therapies is that unlike chemically based chemotherapy or physically based radiotherapy -- which can harm healthy cells as well as tumor cells -- biotherapies can target tumor cells but leave other cells relatively unscathed. How successful will these therapies turn out to be? Ongoing research, like that described below, will eventually be able to give us the answer.

One biotherapy being studied at ONYX Pharmaceuticals has shown success in the clinical setting. The technique consists of a mutant adenovirus that selectively infects and kills only cells that are deficient in p53, such as tumor cells. (Lacking the E1B protein that shuts down p53, the mutant adenovirus can't reproduce in cells with normal p53; but it can replicate in and thus kill cells that do not have functioning p53. See diagram) ONYX has tested this adenovirus in a small number of patients with head and neck cancer who had not responded to surgery, radiation, and in some cases chemotherapy. The adenovirus treatment produced significant destruction of tumors in some patients and lesser improvement in several others. Scientists do not yet know if the tumor cells are dying because of direct viral assault or from attack by the immune system on virus-infected cells.

A different kind of biotherapy uses a type of molecule called a ribozyme, which is able to bind to and destroy RNA. NIDCR oral cancer researchers at SUNY in Syracuse have developed ribozymes that destroy the RNA of tumor-associated human papillomavirus and have devised a method for introducing them into cancer cells in vitro to inhibit tumor cell growth. Of major importance was their finding that the tumor suppressor protein, p53, usually absent in HPV-containing tumor cells, could be detected in the cells into which ribozymes had been introduced. These results imply that the ribozyme inhibited the HPV gene product(s) involved in the breakdown of p53. These studies provide a strong basis for current investigations designed to determine if ribozymes can inhibit tumor formation in an animal model by the administration of HPV-positive tumor cells.

To Be or Not To Be...Cell Suicide As Cancer Therapy?

Apoptosis, or cell 'suicide,' is a backup system that prevents runaway division by alerting a cell to DNA damage and initiating self-destruction. Although apoptosis is bad for the cell, it is ultimately good for the body, which this way rids itself of damaged genetic material. Learning more about apoptosis is key to fully understanding cancer, and ultimately to developing strategies based on harnessing this process as a cancer therapy.

At the University of Chicago, NIDCR- and NCI-funded scientists are studying whether alterations in the susceptibility of tumor cells to undergo apoptosis contribute to the development, progression, or recurrence of oral and pharyngeal cancer. Their current studies focus on the bcl-2 gene family. Within the family are genes that code for proteins that suppress cell death, such as bcl-2 and bcl-xl, while others promote apoptosis. So far, the scientists have correlated overexpression of bcl-xl in human oral cancer tissue with a poor prognosis, and overexpression of bcl-2 with a more hopeful outcome. These findings are consistent with their earlier work on breast cancer. Those studies showed that bcl-xl overexpression was associated with a higher tumor grade and increased number of positive lymph nodes, and tumors expressing bcl-2 were of a lower grade and a smaller size.

For their latest studies on bcl-xl, the scientists created a transgenic mouse model that overexpresses the protein in the mouth, throat, and skin. When the animals' skin was exposed to known carcinogens, approximately 70 percent of them developed invasive skin cancer, whereas only 18 percent of the control group developed the disease. The scientists are now beginning studies of the oral mucosa using a similar transgenic model. Can a cell be tricked into dying? Ultimately, the scientists hope to be able to answer this question as they learn more about the apoptotic process and the so-called 'cell survival genes' that code for proteins like bcl-xl.

A three-gene 'cocktail' is the focus of a unique gene therapy strategy set to be tested soon by NIDCR grantees at Johns Hopkins University. The herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase (HSV-tk) "suicide" gene and genes for two cytokines -- interleukin-2 (IL-2) and granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) -- will be delivered via an adenovirus into a mouse model of oral cancer. The scientists speculate the therapies will act synergistically. Here is why: The HSV-tk therapy causes oral cancer cells to commit 'suicide' in the presence of certain anti-herpetic drugs such as ganciclovir. As that occurs, the tumor cells release cellular debris and antigens recognized by immune cells. The HSV-tk/ganciclovir therapy, then, not only works to reduce tumor size, but also sets the stage for tumor-specific immune activity by IL-2 and GM-CSF. In turn, the two cytokines stimulate specific immune cells that are able to recognize and help destroy tumor cells.

Further along in the research pipeline is an apoptosis-based therapy using the p53 gene. Clinical investigators at the M.D. Anderson Cancer Center and Introgen Pharmaceuticals, Inc., recently completed a study on the safety of p53 gene therapy in a small number of patients with head and neck cancer. The study was a dose-escalation trial in which the investigators used an adenovirus to deliver normal p53 gene into the patients' tumors. All the patients had advanced, recurrent cancers of the head and neck and had failed conventional treatment. The researchers found that the gene therapy was not only free of serious side effects, it actually resulted in tumor regression in some patients. With its safety now documented, scientists can move the p53 treatment to the next stage of clinical testing.

Where Do We Go From Here?

Clearly, our exploration into the fundamental mechanisms of cancer must continue -- for every step in the cancer development process is a potential target for new therapies. Basic research has already paid off in many ways, showing us that specific classes of genes are involved in cancer development, that environmental factors can trigger genetic mutations, and that cancer cells spin out of control and proliferate unchecked. Within the next few years NIDCR studies on cell signaling, cell cycle regulation, tumor angiogenesis, and a myriad of other topics might further elucidate how cancer develops and spreads, information that is paramount to learning how to stop the disease.

We must also continue to educate -- spreading the word that many cases of oral cancer can be avoided by changing certain behaviors. Quitting tobacco use, stopping excessive drinking, and eating a diet rich in fresh fruits and vegetables are all things people can do now to reduce their risk of developing the disease. Clinicians, too, can help save lives by performing the simple head and neck examination, and by talking to patients about cancer's early warning signs.

Oral cancer is a disease whose survival rate has not improved appreciably in decades, a disease that has a high rate of second primary tumors, and a disease that leaves its mark on survivors in the form of facial disfigurement. Through basic, translational, clinical, and community-based research, and through public and professional education, NIDCR is continuing its fight against oral cancer, working to ensure that no one need ever suffer from this devastating disease.

Any reference to a commercial company does not imply, nor should it be viewed as an endorsement of the company, or any of its products or services by NIH or NIDCR.

Oral Health & Wellness Content provided by NIH

Online Editor: Sims, Jane
Online Medical Reviewer: Eakle, Stephan W., DDS
Date Last Reviewed: 12/15/2010
Date Last Modified: 12/15/2010
The views represented by this article are that of the author and not of Delta Dental. This article is provided for information only. Please consult with a licensed dentist to discuss the best way for you to improve or maintain your oral health.

In all cases, specific group contract provisions, benefits, limitations and exclusions take precedence over oral health recommendations given here. We recommend that you contact your dental benefits carrier to determine the specific limitations and exclusions for your group.

© 2001- Delta Dental. All rights reserved.


Government ND ch 2

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Created by:

lowreya  on October 17, 2011

government, am. history

Government ND Lowreya

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Government ND ch 2

Magna Charta
"Great Charter" 1215 Granted Englishmen the -Right of trial by jury -King must consult a group of nobles to raise taxes

Cards (new!)

Space Race

Order by

Parliament the lawmaking branch of the british government
Petition of RightA document drawn up by Parliament's House of Commons listing grievances against King Charles I and extending Parliament's powers while limiting the king's. It gave Parliament authority over taxation, declared that free citizens could not be arrested without cause, declared that soldiers could not be quartered in private homes without compensation, and said that martial law cannot be declared during peacetime.
English Bill of Rights1689 document declaring Parliament would choose who ruled England, that the ruler could not tax without Parliamentary consent, that the ruler could not suspend Parliament, that the ruler was subject to all laws, that Parliament was to meet frequently, that MPs were guaranteed freedom of speech, and that cruel and unusual punishment was illegal.
Common Law a system of law based on precedent and customs
Precedent An act or statement that may serve as an example or justification for a later one
Charter a written document granting land and the authority to set up colonial governments
Proprietor An owner of a store or other business.
Assembly a lawmaking body of government made up of a group of citizens
Burgess n. In colonial times, a member of the lower house of the legislature of Maryland or Virginia.
Mayflower CompactThis document was drafted in 1620 prior to settlement by the Pilgrims at Plymouth Bay in Massachusetts. It declared that the 41 males who signed it agreed to accept majority rule and participate in a government in the best interest of all members of the colony. This agreement set the precedent for later documents outlining commonwealth rule.
Fundamental Orders In 1639 the Connecticut River colony settlers had an open meeting and they established a constitution called the Fundamental Orders. It made a Democratic government. It was the first constitution in the colonies and was a beginning for the other states' charters and constitutions.
Salutary Neglect an english policy of relaxing the enforcement of regulations in its colonies in return for the colonies' continued economic loyalty.
Albany Plan of Union plan proposed by Benjamin Franklin in 1754 that aimed to unite the 13 colonies for trade, military, and other purposes; the plan was turned down by the colonies and the Crown
Stamp Act A tax that the British Pariliament placed on newspapers and official documents sold in the American Colonies
Bicameral based on two legislative bodies
Unicameral composed of one legislative body
Bill of Rights a statement of fundamental rights and privileges (especially the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution)
Ratification Method of enacting a constitution or amendment into law
Quorum The minimum number of members who must be present to permit a legislative body to take official action
Virginia Plan Initial proposal at the Constitutional Convention made by the Virginia delegation for a strong central government with a bicameral legislature dominated by the big states.
New Jersey Plan New Jersey delegate William Paterson's plan of government, in which states got an equal number of representatives in Congress
Federalists supporters of the stronger central govt. who advocated the ratification of the new constitution
Antifederalists opponents of a strong central government who campaigned against the ratification of the Constitution in favor of a confederation of independant states

First Time Here?

Set Champions


giusy - italy - sixteen
where would i be, if you didn't believe?

AU MEME: “When Selena see Justin with another girl, her discovers being betrayed, and gets mad for revenge, and takes revenge on Justin killing him.”

Title: Let It Be
Artist: Justin Bieber
Album: Let It Be
Plays: 48590

let it be (live in nyc) - justin bieber

I don’t let anyone’s insecurities, emotions, or opinions bother me. I know that if I am happy, that’s all that matters to me. And it’s okay to be selfish like that sometimes, when it comes to your well-being. Do what makes you happy, and don’t care what others think.