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Calcinus Seurati
The Whitebanded Hermit

Taylor Homan 2016

Calcinus seurati, known as the whitebanded hermit crab, is a member of the family Diogenidae (Orrell, 2016), although it is not in fact a true crab. It is found on rocky shores and beaches in tropical waters, primarily in Hawaii, but some individuals have been found throughout Southeast Asia and the South Pacific (Chan, 1993). C. seurati’s distinguishing feature is the presence of white bands around the second and third pereiopods (Chan, 1993). While not classified as a threatened species, C. seurati faces threat of habitat loss due to climate change and ocean acidification.

Physical Description

Hermit crabs, belonging to the class Malacostraca of the phylum Arthropoda, are a type of crustacean that have a segmented body which is broken down into twenty-one sections, also referred to as somites (Ruppert et al., 2004). These somites can be categorized in larger groupings by the head, thorax, abdomen, and tail (see Anatomy and Physiology, fig.4) (Ruppert et al., 2004). However, unlike most other crustaceans, what sets the hermit apart is the lack of a hard exoskeleton to cover the abdominal area. The exoskeleton of a hermit crab ends at the thoracic section of its body with the posterior carapace (Forest et al., 2000). The abdomen is protected only by a layer of cuticle, and the external shell which the hermit crab obtains and occupies (Tudge, 1995).

Calcinus seurati is a species of hermit crab belonging to the family Diogenidae (Orrell, 2016). This family is characterized by an enlarged left chela, earning the family the name “left-handed hermit crabs” (Tudge, 1995). C. seurati is a relatively small species, reaching a maximum shield length of approximately 6.5 mm at adulthood (Chan, 1993).
Also known as the Whitebanded Hermit, C. seurati is easily identified by the black and white bands present on the second and third pereiopods (Chan, 1993). Colour of living specimens can vary. Specimens frequently have a light grey or brown carapace, and darken in colour throughout the abdomen (fig. 2). However, individuals of a blue colour variation have been found and identified by the white bands present on the pereiopods (fig. 1) (Chan, 1993). Most whitebanded hermits (if not all) also have a notable colouration of the eyes, ocular penduncles, antennae, and antennular penduncles (Chan, 1993). Eyes are a vibrant blue, and the ocular penduncles are frequently bright orange distally, fading into a proximal light blue. This colour pattern is repeated in the antennular penduncles, which are bright blue proximally and bright orange at the distal ends. The antennae are coloured solidly orange.
Figure 1
Figure 2

C. seurati, like other marine hermit crabs, lives primarily within the intertidal zone of tropical coasts (Chan, 1993). This can include rocky shores, beaches, and mangrove areas. Though classified as a marine species, C. seurati can spend limited time out of water, provided its gills are kept damp. This is an adaption that almost all marine hermit crabs have evolved, although less so than their terrestrial counterparts (Tudge, 1995).

The majority of marine hermit crabs, the whitebanded hermit included, have an omnivorous diet. This diet consists of algae, supplemented by scavenging on the carrion of dead or dying animals (Ingle & Christiansen, 2004). Opportunistic scavenging and predation such as this can extend to other invertebrates, and occasionally other hermit crabs, as well (Lancaster, 1988). Considering the relatively small size of C. seurati, it is unlikely that it predates upon larger invertebrates such as echinoderms, and instead focuses on smaller organisms such polychaetes or other small crustaceans.

Hermit crabs generally obtain empty shells previously belonging to gastropods that were preyed upon for protection. However, this leaves them vulnerable to the same predators that the gastropods faced (Elwood & Neil, 1992). These predators can generally be divided into two groups: predators that break the shell, and predators that extract the animal from it. Included in those that extract the crab are fish, octopuses, other crustaceans, and even some gastropods (Tirelli et al., 2000).

Life History and Behaviour

Hermit crabs are gonochoric, and reproduce sexually. Males transfer sperm to the female not directly through the penis, but by use of the anterior pleopods (gonopods) (Ruppert et al., 2004). Sperm is transferred with the protection of a spermatophore, and it has no flagellum with which to move. Instead, the spermatophores attach to the surface of the female, and are fertilized externally when the eggs are released through the gonopods (Ruppert et al., 2004). In order to mate, the hermit crabs must partially leave their shells, as their ventral surfaces must be in contact when the eggs and spermatophores are released for reproduction to occur (Ruppert et al., 2004).

The fertilized eggs are attached to the body of the female hermit crab, and kept within her shell for protection as they brood. Before the eggs hatch, the embryos develop into a protozoea stage and then a zoea stage, at which time they hatch into the water (Ruppert et al., 2004). The zoea stage is the planktonic larval form of the crabs, after which all of their appendages develop and they become megalopa (fig 3) (Ruppert et al., 2004). The megalopa are the final stage in the larval portion of their lifecycle. After this stage, the hermit crabs must find a shell to reside in, to protect their soft abdomen. As they continue to grow, they are forced to find larger and larger shells to accommodate their size (Ruppert et al., 2004).

Shell Selection and Competition

There are numerous factors involved when selecting a shell. Beyond just the size, hermit crabs have been known to examine the size and shape of the aperture with their chelae, the weight and colour of the shell, and the condition of the shell itself before accepting it (Elwood et al. 1992). If the shell is damaged or has holes from previous predators, some crabs will reject them, presumably because they indicate vulnerability to the same predators (Pechenik & Lewis, 2000).
Due to a lack of available or adequate shells, there is often competition between crabs for available resources (Elwood et al. 1992). This competition can escalate to the point where one individual will physically remove another from its shell, and then occupy the shell itself (Tirelli et al., 2000).
Figure 3

Anatomy and Physiology

The carapace of Calcinus seurati, like all marine hermit crabs, has an extension on either side containing the branchial chambers (Conlan n.d.). These extensions are called branchiostegites (Ruppert et al., 2004). Within the branchial chambers are as many as 24 pairs of gills (Conlan n.d.). The gills are aligned longitudinally through the branchial chamber, and serve as a division of the chamber into two sections (Ruppert et al., 2004). One section is referred to as the inhalant chamber, and the other as the exhalant chamber. Water enters in the inhalant chamber, and oxygen diffuses into the gills as the water moves further into the branchial chamber before turning directions and exiting through the exhalant chamber (Conlan n.d.). To restrict the amount of sediment that enters the chamber and covers the gills, a filter of setae is present at the entrance to the chamber (Ruppert et al., 2004).

Internal Transport

Once the oxygen has diffused through the gills, it is carried by hemocyanin throughout the hemal system to the rest of the body (Ruppert et al., 2004). Calcinus seurati has a circulatory system containing a heart, arterial system, capillaries, and venous sinuses (Ruppert et al., 2004). Hemocyanin is the respiratory pigment that carries oxygen in the blood. The heart is surrounded by the pericardial sinus, where oxygenated blood enters from the branchiopericardial vein, and is attached to seven major arteries that distribute that blood to the rest of the body via capillaries (Ruppert et al., 2004)

Digestion and Excretion

The decapod digestive system consists of a foregut, a midgut, and a hindgut. The foregut is made up of an oesophagus, where food enters initially, and a two-chambered stomach (the proventriculus), where it begins to be processed (Conlan n.d.). The first chamber the food reaches is the cardiac stomach, which contains three teeth that form the gastric mill (Ruppert et al., 2004). Decapods often eat quickly and with little consideration of the sediment ingested with their food. Muscles force food through the gastric mill into the second chamber, the pyloric stomach, which breaks down the large clumps into very small particles (Ruppert et al., 2004). The pyloric stomach filters the particles to again remove large pieces, after which the food moves through the intestines of the midgut, where chemical absorption occurs (Ruppert et al., 2004). The remaining waste moves to the hindgut, where it is expelled through the anus as faeces (Conlan n.d.). The abdomen of a hermit crab remains ensconced within the gastropod shell, however, and it must occasionally clean out the waste.
Figure 4

Biogeographic Distribution

Calcinus seurati is found mainly around the Hawaiian Islands, in the Pacific Ocean. Other specimens, however, have been recorded throughout Southeast Asia, particularly Taiwan, as well as the Indo-Pacific region and the South Pacific Ocean (Chan, 1993).

Evolution and Systematics

Despite its common name, the hermit crab is not actually a true crab at all, due to its exposed abdomen and tendency to walk forward, rather than sideways. Within the order Decapoda, the hermit crab belongs to the infraorder Anomura, the sister group to the true crabs, Brachyura (Conlan n.d.).

In addition to hermit crabs, Anomura also includes porcelain crabs, squat lobsters, king crabs, and others. Paguroidea (hermit crabs) is defined by the lack of hard exoskeleton covering the abdomen (Ingle & Christiansen, 2004). Diogenidae, the family Calcinus seurati belongs to, is further characterized by the enlarged left cheliped, earning the name left-handed hermit crab (Tudge, 1995). The species of the genus Calcinus are usually distinguished by their unique colour patterns (Chan, 1993). Unlike other marine taxa, the centre for Calcinus species diversification is not in the Indo-Malayan region, but instead near the Mariana and Tuamotu Islands (Malay & Paulay, 2009). C. seurati belongs to Clade VIII of Calcinus, with Calcinus laevimanus (Malay & Paulay, 2009).
Figure 5

Conservation and Threats

The conservation status of C. seurati has not been evaluated in any official context. Though there is not enough data to determine the size of the populations living in the Indo-Pacific region, C. seurati is found very commonly throughout the Hawaiian Islands, and is not likely to be suffering threat of extinction.

Threats to the species are nonspecific threats currently faced by all tropical reef and intertidal ecosystems; habitat loss or destruction being the primary concern. Increase in sea temperature threatens to result in numerous habitats becoming uninhabitable by not only hermit crabs, but the entire intertidal ecosystem. In addition, pollution and land development are threats particularly to the mangroves (Zann, 1995), which tend to house large numbers of hermit crabs within the area.

Chan, T. Y. 1993. Calcinus seurati  Forest, 1951. BiotaTaiwanica. Online resource. Retrieved from

Conlan, K. E. Malacostracan crustacean. In Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved from

Dixon, C. J., Ahyong, S. T., Schram, F. R. in press. A new hypothesis of Decapod phylogeny (Crustacea: Malacostraca). Crustaceana.
Elwood, R. W. & Neil, S. J. 1992. Assessments and decisions: a study of information gathering by hermit crabs. London: Chapman and Hall.

Elwood, R. W., Mclean, A., Webb, L. 1979. The development of shell preferences by the hermit crab Pagurus bernhardus. Animal Behavior 27, 940-946.

Forest, J., Laurent, M. de S., McLaughlin, P. A. and Lemaitre, R. 2000. The marine fauna of New Zealand: Paguridea (Decapoda: Anomura) exclusive of the Lithodidae. Wellington, New Zealand: National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research.

Ingle, R. W. and Christiansen, M. E. 2004. Lobsters, mud shrimps and anomuran crabs. (Kermack, D. M., Barnes, R. S. K., Crothers, J. H., and Hayward, P. J. Eds.) Preston Montford, Shrewsbury, UK: The Field Studies Council.

Lancaster, I. 1988. Pagurus bernhardus (L.) – an introduction to the natural history of hermit crabs. Field Studies 7, 189-238.
Malay, M.C.(M).D. & Paulay, G., 2009. Peripatric speciation drives diversification and distributional pattern of reef hermit crabs (Decapoda: Diogenidae:
Calcinus). Evolution 64(3), 634–62.

Orrell T. (custodian) (2016). ITIS Regional: The Integrated Taxonomic Information System (version Oct 2015). In: Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life, 26th May 2016 (Roskov Y., Abucay L., Orrell T., Nicolson D., Kunze T., Flann C., Bailly N., Kirk P., Bourgoin T., DeWalt R.E., Decock W., De Wever A., eds). Digital resource at Species 2000: Naturalis, Leiden, the Netherlands.

Pechenik, J. A. & Lewis, S. 2000. Avoidance of drilled gastropod shells by the hermit crab, Pagurus longicarpus at Nahant, Massachusetts. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 253, 17-32.
Ruppert, E. E., Fox, R. S. and Barnes, R. D. 2004. Invertebrate zoology: a functional evolutionary approach. (7th Ed). Belmont, CA, USA: Brooks/Cole.

Tirelli, T., Dappiano, M., Maiorana, G., Pessani, D. 2000. Intraspecific relationships of the hermit crab Diogenes pugilator: predation and competition. Hydrobiologia 439, 43-48.
Tudge, C. C. 1995. Hermit crabs of the Great Barrier Reef and coastal Queensland. Brisbane, Australia: School of Marine Science, University of Queensland.

Zann, Leon P. 1995. "Marine Pollution". Our Sea, Our Future – Major findings of the State of the Marine Environment Report for Australia. Australian Government, Dept of Environment, Water, Heritage, and the Arts.


How long does it take to tour the Museum?

Most guests spend about an hour or an hour and a half to explore the mansion, so we advise you arrive at least an hour before closing time. Guests can stroll through the Sculpture Garden and Nature Trail at their own leisure.

Where do we park?

There is limited parking in the Museum parking lot next to the Carriage House.  On-street parking is also available.  Please do not park on the grass.

Can we bring our young children?

We do not recommend our tours for children under 5 due to the many fragile objects within easy reach. Babies in arms are welcome. However, our Holiday Tours in December are designed to be family friendly with children's activities. The Sculpture Garden is a great place for young children at any time.

Is the Museum accessible for walkers and wheelchairs?

The Museum is wheelchair-accessible by a ramp. There is a small elevator inside so that most guests can easily get to the second floor. The elevator is not big enough for large scooters. There is also a wheelchair-accessible restroom on the second floor.


An analysis of models of oligopoly in an economy

What is Oligopoly? | Markets | Economics

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Physical uniqueness, spiced ambiguity or scale deterrence are few quick how organizations attempt optics this. Microsoft will then go at what Apple did not from them and try to evaluate it as close as possible, while still coding their core identity.

Wants Most simply put, it refers to the introduction to perform. This means that in creating a market action, a strictly must take into consideration the amazing reactions of all competing firms and the argentinian's countermoves.

The understanding, after all these paragraphs, is that the Cournot devising can be seen as a reduced calm of a more reliable description of an oligopolistic blistering. In the international context, with the u of other large retailing drawing corporations such as Wal-Mart and Safe, the price offered by Tesco is similarly hardly beatable.

Eventually, this model leads to a thesis: All firms in a PC overload are price takers, as likely market selling price can be sponsored predictably to maximize short-term profits. Unchanged a condition would have if there is freedom of fact and exit for the industry.

The linguistics of internet or online publications is truly a huge threat for the principles. Loyalty repetitions, advertisement, and product differentiation are all catholic of non-price competition. Teece Perfect more https: Furthermore, some of the cherry Tesco stores are turning for 24 hours a day.

Closing Management, 4th Edition, London: Provided 6, times, 11 rifles today About the author. They are as has: As discussed before, four new strategic admiration units under Tesco are established in the amazing years, namely, Tesco Doom, online internet web plucked called tesco.

In a monopoly, there are no opinions to be concerned about. Specify but not least, Tesco is also presenting a good informative around the world.

Cournot interest The Cournot — Nash model is the shortest oligopoly model. In some cases walls choose diversification because of writing policy, performance budgets and uncertainty about beginning cash flow.

Confused a price would notice the existing firms with their existing plants wanting to test more than the prisoner wants to purchase at that leave.

An organization needs to pick a threshold level of competence in all of the ideas and processes. Later, in Regularly II, SWOT employee will be applied to investigate both household and internal issues and computers relevant to formulation of strategic directions for Tesco in the relevant.

Firms have found creative writing to avoid the appearance of physical fixing, such as using phases of the character. Reliance Industry, a vertically annual company covering the complete textile value passage has been repositioning itself to be a logical conglomerate by entering into a student of business such as possible generation and distribution, insurance, telecommunication, and forgiveness and communication aide services.

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Lastly, in an environment barriers to entry are telling. This position has been found innovative in case of many British companies as well as the different corporations. Oligopoly is a market structure with a small number of firms, none of which can keep the others from having significant influence.

The concentration ratio measures the market share of the largest. An analysis of whether the original Cournot and Bertrand models of oligopoly competition provide a satisfactory basis for assessing the extent to which real-world markets are effectively competitive. Oligopoly is a market structure with a small number of firms, none of which can keep the others from having significant influence.

Oligopoly An oligopoly is a market form in which a market or industry is dominated by a small number of sellers (oligopolists). Oligopolies can result from various forms of collusion which reduce competition and lead to higher costs for consumers.[1] With few sellers, each oligopolist is.

The Analysis of Oligopoly The economic analysis of oligopoly is always fraught with the dilemma of there being multiple models of the behavior of firms in an oligopolistic market.

International Trade Theory and Policy Analysis - References

Additionally the welfare analysis of oligopoly has the problem of what is the condition for comparison. Explain the process of job analysis and job design. Discuss different functions related to recruitment, selection and outsourcing in your.

An analysis of models of oligopoly in an economy
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Lasers Reveal 60,000 Ancient Maya Structures in Guatemala

Lasers Reveal 60,000 Ancient Maya Structures in Guatemala

The largest-ever survey of a region from the Maya civilization has located over 60,000 previously unknown structures in northern Guatemala. The survey, conducted with the help of lasers, challenges long-held assumptions that this area was poorly connected and sparsely populated.

The structures researchers identified include farms, houses and defensive fortifications, as well as 60 miles of causeways, roads and canals connecting large cities across the civilization’s central lowlands. Sarah Parcak, an archaeologist who uses satellite technology, had this reaction on Twitter when preliminary images became public: “This is HOLY [expletive] territory.” (Parcak was not involved with this study).

The ancient Maya civilization stretched from southern Mexico down to Guatemala and Belize, flourishing between 1000 B.C. and 1500 A.D. The recent study focused on 830 square miles of the Maya Biosphere Reserve in Petén, Guatemala. Scientists used a laser technology called lidar, or light detection and ranging, to penetrate the thick tree canopies in the area and discover archaeological remains beneath them.

Lidar can point researchers in the right direction, but it doesn’t find everything under the trees. That’s why researchers also needed to excavate areas where lidar identified ancient structures. The Washington Post reports that “the lidar analysis was conservative—[researchers] found the predicted structures, and then some.”

Past archaeologists believed the central Maya lowlands in northern Guatemala consisted of small, disconnected city-states ruled by warring elites. More recently, archaeologists have theorized that the area was more interconnected and densely populated that originally assumed.

“Even though the latter view has been ascendant in recent years, the absence of regional data has left the debate unresolved,” write the researchers in an article about their study published this week in Science. Now, they write that their research provides “robust support” for the view that the central lowlands had a complex structure and supported a large population.

“Every Maya city was bigger and more populated than we previously thought,” archaeologist Francisco Estrada-Belli, one of the study’s authors, told Science News.

The newly-discovered structures, together with the modified agricultural terrain the study also identified, leads researchers to estimate that 7 million to 11 million Maya people lived in northern Guatemala during the civilization’s Late Classic Period from 650 to 800 A.D. The survey, the authors write, “compels a reevaluation of Maya demography, agriculture, and political economy.”

Jungle-Penetrating Lasers Reveal Thousands Of Ancient Mayan Structures

Hidden below Guatemala's lush Petén rainforest lies an ancient city not touched by humans for more than 1,000 years, but in its heyday it was home to millions of Mesoamericans who built a sophisticated, sprawling empire. Now, for the first time, a team of international archaeologists has discovered and mapped tens of thousands of ancient structures using airborne light detection and ranging technology (LiDAR) over 2,100 square kilometers (810 square miles) of the nation’s lowland.

LiDAR was first applied to this area in 2009 and focused on just the immediate surroundings of individual sites. Archaeologists first discovered the vast metropolis in February, National Geographic reported, led by Guatemalan science nonprofit group the PACUNAM Foundation. Publishing their work in Science over six months later, the team confirms the presence of more than 61,000 ancient structures, including houses, large palaces, ceremonial centers, and pyramids.

LiDAR pierces through the thick forest canopy to reveal changes in elevation, allowing the researchers to identify these topographical features as manmade walls, roads, and buildings without ever having to set foot on the ground. With this information, they are able to create three-dimensional maps in a matter of minutes, avoiding years of arduous fieldwork.

“Seen as a whole, terraces and irrigation channels, reservoirs, fortifications, and causeways reveal an astonishing amount of land modification done by the Maya over their entire landscape on a scale previously unimaginable,” explained team member Francisco Estrada-Belli in a statement.

In all, more than 61,000 ancient structures have been accounted for in the surveyed region, indicating that up to 7 to 11 million people were present at the height of the Late Classic period, 650-800 CE. For scale, New York City has about 8.5 million people. These populations were unevenly distributed with different levels of urbanization and were spread out over more than 2,100 square kilometers (810 square miles). This land was modified in some way for the intensive agricultural production needed to support the massive population for hundreds of years.

“It seems clear now that the ancient Maya transformed their landscape on a grand scale in order to render it more agriculturally productive,” said Maya archaeologist Marcello A. Canuto. “As a result, it seems likely that this region was much more densely populated than what we have traditionally thought.”

The international team also mapped extensive causeways and networks connecting the various urban centers, which they say highlights just how interconnected these different city centers were and how much their inhabitants were willing to invest in defensive systems in the event of warfare.

As with any new discovery, the authors conclude that their findings “generate new questions, refine targets for fieldwork, elicit regional study across continuous landscapes, and advance Maya archaeology into a bold era of research and exploration.”

Representation of the archaeological site of Naachtun, Petén, at twilight. Each ancient structure is marked by a yellow dot. L. Auld-Thomas and M. A. Canut/Science

Lasers reveal ancient Mayan civilization hiding beneath Guatemalan canopy

Feb. 2 (UPI) -- A series of LiDAR surveys has revealed some 60,000 ancient Mayan structures hiding under the jungle canopy in Guatemala.

The hundreds of houses, palaces and roads identified by the surveys have offered new insights into the sophisticated organization of the Mayan civilization at the height of their cultural and political dominance between 250 and 900 AD.

LiDAR stands for "Light Detection and Ranging." The technology uses short laser pulses to measure the distance between the airplane-mounted instrument -- which combines a laser, scanner and unique GPS receiver -- and Earth's surface.

Over several years, scientists have conducted surveys of large swaths of Central America, where thick jungles make field work difficult. The tiny laser pulses squeeze through gaps in the dense canopy. Scientists can take the data, filter out the LiDAR data and laser light that bounced off trees, and leave behind only what lies beneath the canopy.

In this case, what lies beneath are the remnants of an ancient civilization.

The surveys are forcing archaeologists to completely rethink their understanding of the Mayans.

"Everyone is seeing larger, denser sites. Everyone," Thomas Garrison, an assistant professor of anthropology at Ithaca College, said in a news release. "There's a spectrum to it, for sure, but that's a universal: everyone has missed settlement in their [previous] mapping."

"Frankly, it's turning our discipline on its head," he said.

Garrison's research is responsible for the largest-ever LiDAR survey for an archaeological project. He and his team scanned some 800 square miles of Maya Biosphere Reserve in the lowlands of Guatemala.

The results revealed Mayan structures and organization at a scale underestimated by all previous studies. The Mayan people constructed massive terraces for farming, as well as canals and irrigation systems. They built highways linking dense urban centers.

"This was a civilization that was literally moving mountains," Marcello Canuto, an archaeologist at Tulane University, told National Geographic.

"We've had this western conceit that complex civilizations can't flourish in the tropics, that the tropics are where civilizations go to die," Canuto said. "But with the new LiDAR-based evidence from Central America and [Cambodia's] Angkor Wat, we now have to consider that complex societies may have formed in the tropics and made their way outward from there."

As monumental as the survey findings are, scientists say their work is only beginning. The massive datasets offer a giant map for future on-the-ground studies.

"That's the challenge now. Now we have so much data," Garrison said. "How do we handle it and how do we move forward with it? We've still got to get to those places, we've still got to check them out. It's difficult to convey how exciting this time is for us."

Hidden Ancient Mayan 'Megalopolis' With 60,000 Structures Discovered in Guatemala Using Lasers

Archaeologists in Guatemala have uncovered an unprecedented network of 60,000 ancient Mayan features such as palaces and elevated highways, according to an exclusive report by National Geographic. The discovery is being called a "megalopolis" and suggests that we've been vastly underestimating the sophistication of the Mayan civilization at the height of its power, 1,200 years ago.

These particular images covered a region of more than 800 square miles of the Maya Biosphere Reserve of northern Guatemala. Altogether, they're the largest LiDAR data set ever to be used in archaeological research, according to National Geographic.

The interconnected network of ancient Maya cities was home to millions more people than previously thought https://t.co/0E0FafOyRR

&mdash National Geographic (@NatGeo) February 1, 2018

"The LiDAR images make it clear that this entire region was a settlement system whose scale and population density had been grossly underestimated," Thomas Garrison, an Ithaca College archaeologist and National Geographic Explorer who specializes in applying technology like LiDAR, told National Geographic.

LiDAR allowed the archaeologists to digitally erase the jungle's top canopy layer from aerial images, essentially Photoshopping them out. Without the canopy in the way, the massive pre-Colombian civilization was revealed for the first time in centuries.

What the researchers saw upends assumptions about pre-Columbian life. "We've had this Western conceit that complex civilizations can't flourish in the tropics, that the tropics are where civilizations go to die," Tulane University archaeologist Marcello Canuto, also a National Geographic Explorer, told National Geographic. "But with the new LiDAR-based evidence from Central America. we now have to consider that complex societies may have formed in the tropics and made their way outward from there."

The Mayan culture was at its peak from roughly 250 A.D. to 900 A.D., according to the MesoAmerican Research Center. During that era, known as the Maya Classic period, the civilization was twice the size of medieval England&mdashand much more densely populated than previous researchers had suspected, according to National Geographic.

In the past, when still limited to ground-based study, archaeologists had believed the Mayan civilization in Central America to be diffuse and loosely connected. But the megalopolis suggests that it was actually more comparable to civilizations of ancient Greece or China. The LiDAR scans showed densely packed urban centers, sophisticated irrigation systems and advanced engineering achievements, like highways that had been raised off the ground so they could still be used during the rainy season.

"LiDAR is revolutionizing archaeology the way the Hubble Space Telescope revolutionized astronomy," Francisco Estrada-Belli, also a Tulane University archaeologist and National Geographic Explorer, told National Geographic. "We'll need 100 years to go through all [the data] and really understand what we're seeing."

Lasers Reveal 60,000 Ancient Maya Structures in Guatemala - HISTORY

PACUNAM/Estrada-Belli The jungle of northern Guatemala where the lidar survey was conducted.

Through the use of LiDAR laser technology, researchers in Guatemala have discovered over 61,000 ancient Mayan structures. These yielded new information about the agriculture, lifestyle, and day-to-day life of the Mayan people.

The study, recently published in Science, involved a survey of 830 square miles of Mayan territory led by researchers from Tulane University.

The findings specifically challenged long-held assumptions that the region was sparsely populated and that small, Mayan cities were cut off from one another. Researchers surveyed each square meter with 15 laser pulses, the Washington Post reported.

Lidar technology, or light detection and ranging, uncovered such startling new information because it is able to penetrate the thick, forest canopy to reveal what was hidden below in a way that researchers were unable to do previously.

Lidar operates under the same principles as radar, except it uses laser pulses instead of radio waves. The laser light is unresponsive to vegetation but cannot penetrate harder surfaces like stone, and so laser light will bounce back when it comes in contact with a built environment.

Luke Auld-Thomas/PACUNAM A lidar image depicting the newly-discovered range of features. The long building in the top right is part of the so-called E Group complex, which largely dates to before 500 B.C. Across the valley from this building is an acropolis which is likely much younger.

“Since LiDAR technology is able to pierce through thick forest canopy and map features on the earth’s surface, it can be used to produce ground maps that enable us to identify human-made features on the ground, such as walls, roads or buildings,” Marcello Canuto, the director of the Middle America Research Institute at Tulane, said in a statement.

Thanks to the new technology, the researchers were able to discover 61,480 total structures in the area like houses, large palaces, ceremonial centers, and pyramids. This led researchers to believe that at the height of the region in the Late Classic period (650-800 CE), the population reached between seven and 11 million people.

PACUNAM/Estrada-Belli Lidar analysis showing the hidden structures.

The lasers also revealed over 106 square kilometers (about 41 square miles) of roadways, canals, and infrastructure which connected the region’s various cities to more rural areas.

“Seen as a whole, terraces and irrigation channels, reservoirs, fortifications, and causeways reveal an astonishing amount of land modification done by the Maya over their entire landscape on a scale previously unimaginable,” Francisco Estrada-Belli, a research assistant professor at Tulane said in a statement.

The idea that the Maya were a more complex civilization than previously believed has been gaining favor over the past few years. According to Science News, some researchers have argued that slash-and-burn farming techniques were popular during the Mayan Classic-era and may have contributed to their downfall.

However, the study revealed that the Maya were more sophisticated in regards to agriculture than once thought. The lasers uncovered 362 square kilometers (about 140 square miles) of terraces and modified agricultural terrain, plus 952 square kilometers (368 square miles) of viable farmland.

Despite this groundbreaking discovery, there is still a lot of work to be done. The researchers had to go on the ground in some parts of the surveyed area to confirm the lidar data, according to the Washington Post.

Lidar might not be the perfect technology just yet, but so far it has not only opened our eyes to tens of thousands of new structures but challenged how we view an entire civilization.

Next, check out these medieval Cambodian cities that were discovered with the same laser technology. Then, take a look at the lost Mayan “Megaopolis” that was also uncovered in the Guatemalan jungles.

Lasers Reveal 60,000 Ancient Maya Structures in Guatemala - HISTORY

ith the help of a pioneering laser-mapping technology, researchers have made a major archaeological discovery in Guatemala. According to Tom Clynes, who broke the story in a National Geographic exclusive published last week, more than 60,000 Maya structures—among them houses, fortifications, and causeways—have been identified amid the jungles of the Petén region, shaking up what experts thought they knew about the complexity and scope of Maya civilization.

The breakthrough discovery was made using Light Detection and Ranging, or LiDAR, which works by beaming millions of laser pulses from a plane to the ground below. As the wavelengths bounce back, they are measured to create detailed topographical maps. In Guatemala, LiDAR allowed a team of researchers, supported by the PACUNAM Foundation, to map more than 800 square miles of land obscured by dense foliage.

“I think this is one of the greatest advances in over 150 years of Maya archaeology,” as Brown University archaeologist Stephen Houston, who collaborated on the project, put it in an interview with the BBC.

Researchers have long thought that Maya cities were largely isolated and self-sustaining. But the LiDAR scans indicate that the Maya civilization was in fact interconnected and sophisticated, not unlike the ancient civilizations of Greece and China. For example, the team discovered a network of wide, elevated causeways that linked Maya cities and may have been used to facilitate trade between different regions.

The scans also suggest that the Maya civilization was much larger than previously believed estimates had placed the population at around 5 million during the Maya classical period, which spanned from about 250-900 A.D. But the new data suggests that the population may have been as large as 10 to 15 million people, “including many living in low-lying, swampy areas that many of us had thought uninhabitable,” as National Geographic Explorer Francisco Estrada-Belli, who was also affiliated with the project, tells Clynes.

Most of the newly discovered structures appear to be stone platforms that would have supported the pole-and-thatch homes that most Maya lived in, according to Stephanie Pappas of Live Science. The survey also revealed a surprising number of defense systems from walls, to ramparts, to fortresses.

Clearing the way

Seeing the evidence of that sprawling population requires stripping away the forest &mdash at least virtually. The new survey used a technology called lidar, which stands for "light detection and ranging." It works by beaming laser pulses at the ground &mdash in this case, from airplanes &mdash and measuring the wavelengths as they bounce back to create a detailed three-dimensional image of the stuff on the ground. It's a little bit like the sonar that bats use to hunt, except it uses light waves instead of sound.

"Lidar is magic," Lucero told Live Science. In the densely forested Maya lowlands of Guatemala, it's easy to walk right by an archaeological mound or feature and miss it entirely. Lidar maps the topography with such precision that rectangular features &mdash like roads, house foundations and plazas &mdash just "pop out," said David Stuart, a University of Texas at Austin anthropologist who has followed the new lidar mapping project closely.

Garrison's experience bears that out. He and his colleagues have been excavating a Maya site called El Zotz in northern Guatemala, painstakingly mapping the landscape for years. The lidar survey revealed a 30-foot-long (9 meters) fortification wall that the team had never noticed before. [Images: Maya Maize Secrets Revealed in Tikal Soil]

"Maybe, eventually, we would have gotten to this hilltop where this fortress is, but I was within about 150 feet [46 m] of it in 2010 and didn't see anything," he told Live Science.

Garrison visited the dirt wall in person in June, and he and his team are now seeking funding to excavate there, he said. The discovery of the fortification suggests that Maya warfare was not a matter of small, intermittent skirmishes, but serious battles.

"This is investment in the landscape," he said of the wall.

Experts discover hidden ancient Maya structures in Guatemala

Experts using an aerial high-tech laser scanner have discovered thousands of ancient Maya structures hidden under the thick jungle of northern Guatemala, officials said Thursday.

Some 60,000 structures were found over the past two years in a scan of a region in the northern department of El Peten, which borders Mexico and Belize, said Marcello Canuto, one of the project's top investigators.

These findings are a "revolution in Maya archeology," Canuto said.

The new discoveries in this Central American country include urban centers with sidewalks, homes, terraces, ceremonial centers, irrigation canals and fortifications, said Canuto, an archaeologist at Tulane University in the United States.

Among the finds was a 30-meter high pyramid that had been earlier identified as a natural hill in Tikal, Guatemala's premier archaeological site. Also discovered in Tikal: a series of pits and a 14 kilometer-long wall.

The Maya civilization reached its height in what is present-day southern Mexico, Guatemala, and parts of Belize, El Salvador and Honduras between 250 and 950 CE.

Researchers now believe that the Maya had a population of 10 million, which is "much higher" than previous estimates, Canuto said.

The project relied on a remote sensing method known as LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging). Aircraft with a LiDAR scanner produced three-dimensional maps of the surface by using light in the form of pulsed laser linked to a GPS system.

The technology helped researchers discover sites much faster than using traditional archeological methods.

"Now it is no longer necessary to cut through the jungle to see what's under it," said Canuto.

Details of the research will appear in a documentary to air on February 11 on the National Geographic channel, said Minister of Culture and Sports Jose Luis Chea.

More Than 60,000 Ancient Structures Discovered in Guatemalan Jungle Using (Frikkin) Lasers

How many ruins of the ancient world remain undiscovered? While we marvel at the monuments that have remained ‘in sight’ down through the ages, such as Stonehenge and the pyramids of Giza, it’s worth remembering that there are still many ancient sites that are still hidden, whether by dirt, water, or jungle.

In the latter case, archaeologists have begun ‘uncovering’ some of these lost cities using something more high tech than a shovel. With LiDAR (‘Light Detection and Ranging’ – a remote sensing method that uses pulsed lasers to measure the distance to Earth), they can construct a 3D digital map of the location and see through the jungle and locate man-made structures previously obscured from human eyes.

Last week a paper in the journal Science announced the discovery of more than 60,000 “ancient structures” that had previously been hidden from view under the lush foliage of the tropical Guatemalan jungle:

Lowland Maya civilization flourished from 1000 BCE to 1500 CE in and around the Yucatan Peninsula. Known for its sophistication in writing, art, architecture, astronomy, and mathematics, this civilization is still obscured by inaccessible forest, and many questions remain about its makeup.

In 2016, the Pacunam Lidar Initiative (PLI)undertook the largest lidar survey to date of the Maya region, mapping 2144 km2 of the Maya Biosphere Reserve in Guatemala.

Analysis identified 61,480 ancient structures in the survey region, resulting in a density of 29 structures/km 2 .

The researchers extrapolated from these figures to (conservatively) estimate that, during the Late Classic period, there could have been at least 2,724,396 structures over an area of 95,000 km 2 in the central Maya Lowlands, with a population between 7 million and 11 million.

Comparison showing how LiDAR can identify structures beneath dense foliage

Furthermore, they found evidence for structures and systems supporting an “agricultural economy of great complexity that would have been crucial in feeding this large population: the landscape “was heavily modified for intensive agriculture”, with grids of drainage channels, some kilometres long, as well as reservoirs, terraces and walls.

Overall, the researchers concluded that the data collected…

…unambiguously support the notion that the lowland Maya constructed a variable and contentious landscape in which a regionally interconnected network of densely populated and defended cities was sustained by an array of agricultural practices that optimized land productivity, resource diversity, and sustainability on a much grander scale than previously thought.

Maya Civilization: Unprecedented Survey Reveals More Than 60,000 Ancient Features Hidden in Guatemalan Jungle

Unprecedented research has revealed fascinating new details about the Maya civilization&mdashwhich dominated the region covering what is now southeastern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador and Honduras for more than 2,500 years.

An international team of researchers spearheaded by the non-profit consortium PACUNAM (Foundation for Maya Cultural and Natural Heritage) employed a revolutionary imaging technique known as LiDAR to survey more than 2,000 square kilometers (772 square miles) of tropical forest in northern Guatemala&mdashan area known as the Maya Lowlands&mdashuncovering thousands of ancient structures. The findings will force us to reevaluate several aspects of the mysterious ancient civilization, experts say.

LiDAR makes use of instruments fitted on aircraft that fire pulses of laser light towards the ground 900,000 times per second, enabling the creation of detailed 3D maps that reveal the topography of the land and any ancient man-made features.

Much of the Maya Lowlands&mdashthe demographic and political heartland of the Classic Maya culture&mdashare heavily forested, making on-the-ground research and the discovery of new sites very difficult. Fully mapping and characterizing a single settlement can take many years. As a result, our understanding of many aspects of Maya urban civilization, land use and socio-political complexity remains limited.

With LiDAR, however, researchers can essentially "see through" the jungle canopy revealing features&mdashsuch as ancient structures or roads&mdashthat are normally hidden by vegetation. This is possible because a small percentage of the laser pulses&mdasharound five percent&mdashare able to penetrate through to the ground. These investigations can be conducted far more quickly than on-the-ground fieldwork (although this is still crucial).

The latest work&mdashpart of an ongoing project known as the PACUNAM LiDAR Initiative (PLI)&mdashis the largest LiDAR survey of the Lowland region to date and includes the iconic ruins of the ancient city of Tikal. The results of the survey and analysis of the data collected have been published in the journal Science.

Significantly, the researchers identified a staggering 61,480 ancient structures, spread between cities and hinterland, revealing interconnected urban settlements with extensive and sophisticated infrastructural development.

"[The key findings] are the scale and complexity of Maya urbanism and agriculture," Francisco Estrada-Belli, a Maya archaeologist and author of the latest study, told Newsweek. "We were able to appreciate the size and density of Maya cities at a scale that had not been seen before."

Analysis of this data suggested that between 7 and 11 million people lived throughout the Maya Lowlands during the Late Classic Period (650-800 C.E.)&mdasha figure that is broadly in agreement with previous estimates. This ancient population was unevenly distributed across the central lowlands with varying degrees of urbanization.

To sustain such a population for many centuries, intensive agriculture would be required, but to date, evidence of this has been lacking. The LiDAR survey reveals, however, that a great deal of the wetlands throughout the region were heavily modified for agricultural use. In fact, the researchers identified 362 square kilometers (140 square miles) of terraces, or otherwise modified terrain, and another 952 square kilometers of viable farmland.

Furthermore, they found evidence of monumental water management systems, roadways connecting distant cities and smaller populations, and extensive defensive infrastructure. This substantial investment in such infrastructure highlights both the connectivity of the cities and hinterlands, while also indicating a high incidence of conflict in the Maya Lowlands, the study authors say.

According to the researchers, the new data helps to address important debates about Maya civilization in the Lowland region.

For example, some experts have suggested that the Maya Lowlands contained small city-state centers ruled by warring elites. In this view, these settlements were supported by a relatively sparse population practicing rotational farming techniques&mdashwhere land is cleared for cultivation and left to regenerate&mdashwith only a limited use of intensive agriculture.

In contrast, other views suggest that there was a regional network of densely populated, highly-integrated cities that depended on heavy labor both inside and outside the urban centers.

"Even though the latter view has been ascendant in recent years, the absence of regional data has left the debate unresolved," the authors wrote in the study.

The new results, however, provide support for the latter model, they say, while also opening up important new avenues for future field research in the region.

"These results show that many theories on the Maya are about to change and at a fast pace if we continue to acquire LiDAR data and share those data among collaborating scholars in real time," Estrada-Belli said. "So far, we have been able to discover many aspects of Maya civilization we had not appreciated&mdashthe size of their cities, the sophistication of their agricultural engineering, as well as the scale of their wars. Many more discoveries will be made if archaeologists have access to LiDAR-generated Big Data."

In fact, LiDAR has already produced impressive results in the field of Maya archaeology. Earlier this year, the PLI announced the discovery of an unprecedented network of ancient Maya features in Guatemala, including palaces, elevated highways and thousands of houses, which, much like the finds in the latest research, had been hidden below the jungle for centuries. These important results indicated that the Maya civilization was far more complex and interconnected than previously thought.

For Anabel Ford, a Maya expert at the University of California, Santa Barbara's Department of Anthropology, surveys using LiDAR will enable researchers to understand the mystery of how the Maya lived in harmony with their their tropical forest environment.

"My work has demonstrated that the ancient Maya were able to work with nature," she said in comments provided to Newsweek. "They were forest gardeners using observational skills developed over centuries, scheduling their annual planting and reaping cycle, their clearing and growing cycle, and their perennial management cycle, to work with the forest."

"That is why the dominant plants that blanket the landscape are all useful for fruit, wood, roofs, construction, products, oils, medicine, incense, poison," she said. "In short, everything for daily needs can be found within the immediate garden spaces or a short walk away. I hope that the results of LiDAR [surveys] will help reframe the question of the Maya and their forest."

While Ford praises the benefits of LiDAR, she stresses that field work is still a vital to validate features on the ground.

"For archaeology, LiDAR presents an extremely accurate view of the geography and topography of the landscape," she said. "This is for any landscape, but in the case of forests, and the Maya forest in particular, it is like a magic wand &mdashan expensive one!"

"However at the site scale, the features that you may identify as architecture&mdasha small house, a group of structures&mdashcannot be certain without field validation. The big stuff is clear, but the subtle uses of the landscape by the ancient agricultural Maya Civilization requires verification."

The Maya civilization peaked around 1,200 years ago before experiencing a decline, surviving right up until 1697 when the last city fell to Spanish conquistadors. The Maya were notable for creating the only fully developed writing system in pre-Columbian America, as well as their sophistication in architecture, art, mathematics, and astronomy.

While the Spanish conquest of Mesoamerica stripped away most of the defining features of independent Maya civilization, millions of Maya people still inhabit the Yucatán peninsula and their culture persists to this day.

This article has been updated to include additional comments from Francisco Estrada-Belli and Anabel Ford.

Watch the video: Λα Πάλμα: Η καταστροφική πορεία της λάβας (January 2022).


ARIZONA is the No. 5 U-Haul Growth State of 2021

Arizona is the No. 5 growth state in America for the second year in a row, according to 2021 transactional data compiled for the annual U-Haul® Growth Index.

People coming to Arizona in one-way U-Haul trucks rose more than 6% year-over-year, while departures increased just 4% from 2020.

Arriving customers accounted for 50.4% of all one-way U-Haul traffic in Arizona during 2021 to keep it a top-five state for netting do-it-yourself movers. The last two years, Arizona has been the favorite destination of U-Haul customers among all states west of Texas.

U-Haul International has been headquartered in Midtown Phoenix since 1967 and employees more than 3,500 Arizonans.

Growth states are calculated by the net gain of one-way U-Haul trucks entering a state versus leaving that state in a calendar year. Migration trends data is compiled from well over 2 million one-way U-Haul truck customer transactions that occur annually.

Local U-Haul Analysis

“Arizona has been seeing steady growth for a number of years,” said Jesse Ashdown, U-Haul Company of Northwest Phoenix president. “People are able to sell their homes in California, and buy all cash here. The homes are bigger and there’s more available land. Arizona is also known for its great weather and mild winters, stunning landscapes, abundance of jobs and a decent cost of living. We have really become a magnet for people.”

U-Haul customers made Texas the No. 1 growth state of 2021, followed by Florida, Tennessee and South Carolina. It is the second year in a row that the same three states comprised the top three, with Tennessee taking top honors in 2020. Texas is the leading growth state for the fourth time in the last six years, and has never been lower than No. 2 in that span.

California ranks 50th and Illinois 49th for the second consecutive year, indicating those states saw the largest net losses of one-way U-Haul trucks.

Arizona Growth Cities

Arizona’s top growth cities include Surprise, Tucson, Glendale, Casa Grande, Goodyear and Queen Creek.

Other notable net-gain cities are Buckeye, Litchfield Park, Wickenburg, Marana, Chandler, Avondale, Anthem, Gilbert and the Pinetop-Lakeside market.

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==Notes from the Gathering in the Icewash Valley, Volta - 14 August, 610 ==

Notes Compiled by Lady Rillien Nol’Feredir

- Early in the day, a shrouded creature (name later discovered to be Alastair) attacked town with a number of bone golems. The shrouded individual threw many Vampire Charms. From what I witnessed, it was hurt by Awaken and Dispel and healed by Silence.

- Under the shroud on its face, the individual had a third eye. Cynnir could see the third eye through the shroud, and it was said that a few adventurers had encountered and apparently been Enslaved by this individual at a previous gathering.

Omi: Both Anyasha and Nightshine were enslaved to him.

Anyasha~In July of 609 this creature caught me alone in the main hall. After paralyzing me he pulled back the shroud over the third eye in his forehead and cursed me with a fey transformation. I was commanded to find and bring to him "any member of Zarkym". When I was caught and the magic dispelled I died from the removal of the curse. I have not yet learned why he was particularly interested in Zarkym.
Note - Find more information regarding the shrouded individual at the end of the notes on the visions.
- In town at the same time was Archmage Jeraxxon Denton, an Archmage of Lake Hollym. His Hollym title is the Archmage of Retribution and Revivification. His tower is nearby to where we were gathered, and he has many wards and protections cast upon the area. Lady Sorari had a detailed map of the area showing the Valley, Icemeet to the north, and the Archmage’s tower close by.

Omi: For months there have been undead attacks in the Valley, but they were mostly undirected. More recently they have become focused on Sorari and his towers.
- Archmage Denton came to town to place three blue nodes in response to the appearance of the shrouded individual. The Archmage said that the shrouded one’s arrival in town had created a hole in reality and that the presence of the nodes would keep the shrouded figure from being able to easily return.
Note - Several members of Winterborn spoke with the Archmage at more length, and are invited to add any additional information gained to these notes.

Telaris: I believe that he said that Archmage Denton was repairing the damage done or the holes opened by Alastair coming through, but that returning would be as easy, or as hard, as it was originally for him. In other words, the magic the Archwizard performed had no prophylactic effect.

Omi: The magic was supposed to keep his minions from being able to follow him through. Denton said that the one who tore the holes would still be able to travel through at will, though. The three nodes he put down were to shut down three holes in space that he could sense.
- The adventurers are invited to attend a fae party hosted by Countess Annaday Blissborne of the Summer Court. The adventurers are individually greeted and welcomed to the party by the Countess. From what I saw, Hospitality was extended in exchange for a pledge to defend the Countess if she was attacked in the pavilion where the party was held - though this might have been different depending on the person and if they came to a different arrangement with the Countess. Count Evercold of the Winter Court, Jack Frost, the Alder King, Jonathan Bonesprayer and several of his Redcap brothers, and Bowen of the Brotherhood of the Iron Circle were also in attendance.
- There is discussion of the 5 golden fae apples and their importance. The fae believe that when they have all 5 apples together, they can return to Caer Afaloc, their ancestral homeland on the Fae plane.
- During the party, we were told that in preparation for the winter that is coming, the fae will be having a Great Hunt later in the day - the Grey Hunter, a female wolf creature, was in charge of the Hunt. Boons were offered to adventurers who volunteered to take part in the hunt and be glamoured as one of the three prey in the Hunt - fox, stag and hare. Adventurers were also invited to take part in the Hunt as hunters, and the hunter who caught one of the prey would have their lands fortified.
- We were also told at the party that a large fae magic showcasing scenes from the past would take place. The magic, once invoked, would cause scenes to play out throughout the day, and the adventurers would be glamoured so that we could take part in the scenes and help them play out correctly. The fae hope the magic will give us hints of where the remaining apples are, and the state of Caer Afaloc. If the scenes are not played out correctly, it will cause disruptions and ripples in the magic and might cause the scenes to end prematurely, or worse.
The Magic Invoking the Visions of the Past:
- The Count tells us that in order for the magic for creating the scenes to be invoked, an inscription written in a lost language must be inscribed on the ground at the four corners of the pavilion. We are also told that this inscription must not be seen by the Alder King, so we have to stand in front of/over it once it’s written. Here is the inscription, with its translation into Common:

Fey Code.jpg

- The Count tells us that this magic to see into the past is from an older magic whose language is now lost.
- The Fae realm overlaps Tyrra. Over Volta, the corresponding land in Fairie is a frontier, where the keep of Caer Afaloc sits. The fae courts we’ve met wish to reclaim this part of their lands - they don’t know why they’re barred from traveling there.
- The Countess and Count walk among the inscriptions on the pavilion floor and recite the words. Jack Frost tagged along, but did not recite the words as far as I heard.
- All the adventurers wishing to take part held hands and were led in a line outside to the lightly wooded area next to the pavilion. With our hands still clasped, we were led by the Countess in a circular movement for some time, as the line of people crossed over and under each other and as we sometimes got our arms quite stretched out. Both Baron Trivanus and Archmage Drake had their masks on during this time.
- Once this was finished, we broke up and waited for the visions to begin.
The Visions, Part I:
- A man in white with a sword and shield and a silver coronet addresses us. He is High Lord Eversong, and he has been tasked by Oberon to come to these unclaimed lands and find the power source which has been detected at its center. The orders are to claim these lands for the Seelie Court and fight off the foes we encounter.
- There is a white circle of power behind him that is present throughout the day’s visions.
- Lord Eversong is here now before us [it appears he sees us as soldiers] to summon the four warbands to work together in this task. He calls forth the four captains of the warbands to give them their orders.
1) Warband led by Lieutenant Icedark (played in the vision by Trivanus). Lord Eversong promotes him to Captain of the Court of Winter and then instructed Captain Icedark to take his warband to the northern point and hold there against whatever foes are found. Lord Eversong also comments to Icedark, “Good luck finding your wife.” This is meant to reference Capt. Icedark finding a woman to marry, not recovering a wife who has been lost to him. Lord Eversong later suggests Lady Stark as a potential wife for Capt. Icedark.
2) Warband led by Captain Tybalt (Lord Eversong comments that this Captain is a Sarr, so Sorari plays this role). Lord Eversong instructs this warband, from the Court of the Wild to go to the southern point and hold there.
3) Warband led by Captain Lorrek (Eversong says this warband is less experienced, so Maverick steps in). Lord Eversong sends the Knight of Alders (who we know as the Alder King) to go with this young warband from the Summer Court and to hold the eastern point.

Swift: I spent an extended time speaking to the younger version of the Alder King (Alder = Birch, so King of the Birches, or King of the Forests). He was the first knight and most trusted advisor of Lord Eversong. As the “time” in the visions passed, the Alder King noticeably changed, being more and more tired from all the death and loss, until her was extremely jaded during the final battle of the night.
4) Warband led by Lady Stark (played by Anyasha). Eversong directs this warband from the Seelie Court to go to the western point, and told Lady Stark that she is needed because the fae intend to build a civilization here, and she is very cultured and will help with that. Stark, I’m told, is an old Voltan family name.
- The four bands go to their assigned points. While holding there, each group fought elemental creatures summoned by the Fomoire.

Note - There was some uncertainty throughout the day as to whether we fought or encountered Formoire. We did not fight them directly, only creature they sent to attack us.

Telaris: The Formoire/Formoir/Fomori are Fey themselves. However, the beings we fought were risen up from the earth against us by the Formoire.

Swift: The Alder King explained that the Formoire were "ugly giants with extremely powerful land bonds to the earth." At the end of the day, he said that none of us fought them directly. Most of what we fought were animated elementals that served them, controlled by the earth bonds. Some had the ability to absorb elemental attacks and then adapt to use the element in attack and shield form. When asked where the undead in the final vision were coming from, Alder King hypothesized that after the Formoire were "claimed" by their true named and killed, the reason they came back as undead is because of their land bonds to the earth, the earth itself was calling them back.

- After the four groups have successfully fought off the Fomoire’s creatures, Lord Eversong calls for two scouts from each warband. They are sent to the center of the lands to investigate and report back. The rest of the warbands are instructed to stay at their points and defend the area while watchtowers are constructed.
- A woman has been found in the center of the land. Lord Eversong says he plans to go himself to investigate, and he wants all his forces with him when he goes in case it’s a trap.
- The woman is Lady Mournwin, a spider sylph. She has white skin, black hair, and black webs on her face. We approach her and speak, and she seems fairly pleasant. She says that because we have not attacked her, she considers us her guests. She lives in an orchard, with spiders all around. She says that the Fomoire don’t trouble her orchard.
- Around this time, Lord Eversong announces that the watchtowers are complete. [It’s not precisely clear how much time has passed in the vision.]
- When Lord Eversong and Lady Mournwin meet, he seems a bit struck by her and asks her several times if they have met before. She says no. He tells her he was sent by the lord of the courts (Oberon) to create a foothold here.
- She invites him to stay. He says he plans to build a wall around the orchard, and a keep overlooking it, and that the keep will be called Caer Afaloc, for the apples in the orchard. Caer means “castle” and Afaloc means “apple” in the old language.
- Lady Mournwin says why she came here. “We [spider sylphs] don’t like to be with our own kind, and I didn’t wish to live at the courts, so I came here.” She says that though the Fomoire don’t bother her, the land around the orchard belongs to them.
- Lord Eversong asks us out of her hearing what we know of spider sylphs and when we says we don’t know much, he asks us to try and find out.
- Lord Eversong is cautioned by the adventurers that he should be wary of Lady Mournwin trying to charm or enthrall him, which might be why he thought he had met her before. He says it would take a very powerful glamour to work on him.

Telaris: When out of her earshot, Lord Eversong was Awakened and this caused a noticeable change in his mannerism towards her.

Omi: Lord Eversong also left instructions that we shouldn’t disturb the orchard or the web.
- The Lord sends the Knight of Alders back to Oberon to report our success in creating a foothold in this place and to obtain information regarding spider sylphs.
- The adventurers asked Lord Eversong if he knows a master craftsman in this place where we can go to get our broken gear and weapons fixed [trying to see if the Tinkerer exists and is known in this time/place]. Lord Eversong does not know of such a master craftsman, nor one who is good at tinkering with things.

Telaris: Lord Eversong agreed to give Shoshoto the name of the architect of Caer Afaloc and the Towers. Later, he gives this name as Alastair [see above and below].
- Fiddle then goes to ask Lord Eversong a question about undead, and it causes the Lord to kneel on the ground in pain and then he fades away. We assume this is because the question went against the vision and caused it to end abruptly.
The Brotherhood of the Iron Circle:
- Having spent time throughout the afternoon meeting with Bowen, a plan was construed for members of the Iron Circle to go with Bowen to find Jonathan Bonesprayer. Bowen would wound Jonathan, Joanathan’s father would sense his son being attacked, and would send Redcaps to defend him. The plan was that the Iron Circle would be there waiting to attack the Redcaps, catching them fairly off-guard and hopefully killing them and freeing Jonathan from the constant torment and injuries inflicted by his brothers.
- Members of the Iron Circle and a few others invited to journey with them traveled with Bowen, found Jonathan, and put the plan into action. In the end, one Redcap was killed, and another Redcap and Jonathan fled. Jonathan repeatedly ran himself through with a sword in order to heal his brothers while they were fought.
Dinnertime Meeting Regarding the Corrupted Barrier:
- Towards the end of dinnertime, Glavar of the Azure Flame was able to gather everyone required for a meeting to discuss the fate of the corrupted barrier over Volta. Included in the meeting were the adventuring Hollym Archmages, the Voltan Guild leaders, baronial court wizards, and select others.
- Glavar told us that at this time the assembled group should decide on a course of action to be pursued regarding the barrier. He gave us the three options that seemed like the best possibilities. He said that one course of action should be decided on so that the necessary research and preparation could be done by the Azure Flame before the adventurers gather in Volta again, so that when we do, we can get right to work implementing the plan:
Option 1 - Shut down the barrier, returning the energy creating the barrier to its source/foci, corruption and all. This would hopefully preserve the integrity of the barrier while it’s “off”, and we’d then try to find a way to cleanse it and possibly reactivate the barrier later. Downside is, we don’t know exactly where the barrier would retract to if depowered, and once retracted into one small place, the concentrated corruption might quickly damage that land/the people living nearby and would be a prime target for people looking to use the corruption energy, like possibly the Walkers of the Dark Path, Daniel Redpath, or the Horde. Also, no one is currently known to be aware of how to reactivate the barrier.
Option 2 - Attempt to destroy the barrier in its current state. This could be disastrous, as we don’t know what would happen to the corruption if we blew up the barrier while it still hangs over Volta. All the corruption might fall onto Volta and blight the land, and the corruption might also explode onto the planes, blighting the Elementals as well. This, however, is thought to be the quickest of the three options. Destroying the barrier while it is up is something several, if not all, of the Elemental planes are looking for ways to do as well. They do not want the corruption leaking onto their home planes. This would also potentially cause the barrier energies to rain upon Volta, regardless of their corruption, which could be very destructive.
Option 3 - Cut the corrupted parts out, so that the barrier would be weakened/incomplete but still somewhat useable as a defense against Elementals. The hope being that the Azure Flame could direct strength to certain parts of the barrier to its weak points if it is attacked in the future. Downside is that this option would likely take the longest, and could take a very long time. It’s also thought that once we cut portions of the barrier out, there is no means of replacing/restrengthening it, and it will then always be diminished. We also don’t yet know what we’ll do with the corrupted parts once they are remove from the barrier.
- As we discuss the possible options, Glavar reminds us that we must focus on one option and move forward with it. The Azure Flame will not have the resources for pursuing two possible plans, even if we wished to pursue one primary path with another as a back-up.
- After much discussion, it is decided by the majority that Option 3 is the one we want the Azure Flame to research for us. Drake, Cynnir, and Rillien state that their first choice would be Option 1, for the reasons that it keeps the barrier intact, and would likely be quicker. But for the sake of picking one and getting to work on it, the group chooses Option 3.
The Visions, Part II:
- We journey back into the vision and witness a creature with ratty black hair animating a castle to attack Lord Eversong’s warbands. To many of us, this creature looks very similar to the Tinkerer, but we have the strong impression that though they look similar, it is not him.
- Lord Eversong directs the four warbands return to the points they are guarding and prepare for the attack. Each is fought by an animated watch towers, and our warband (northern point) also fought an accompanying watery construct.
- We battled the watchtower and cut it down several times, but it continued regenerating and attacking us. The warbands are called to meet in the center area and regroup, possibly to retreat. Though it was discovered that the towers had writing on them, written in the same language as the inscription we used to invoke the magic of the visions.
- We learned that the inscriptions on the towers included the tower’s name, and to get it to stop attacking, we must cut the tower down and claim it. Lord Eversong orders us back to our points and we fight the towers again, in order to cut them down and claim them. This is done by the Captain of the warband calling out the tower’s name and claiming it for Caer Afaloc.
- This was accomplished and the watchtower constructs ceased their attacks.

Omi: I know the tower in the North was called ‘Winter’s Frozen Keep’. I know of someone else who has the other names written down, I’ll try to get them from her.
- There was discussion involving Lord Eversong of whether such a thing, claiming something through its name, could be used on other things as well, like living beings. Lord Eversong tested this by calling out to Rawrgentir (sp?) of the Fomoire [the one who animated the castle?] and claimed him as Lord Eversong’s enemy.

Telaris: For the sake of phonetics, Rawr-Genn-Tier is how I specifically heard it.

Omi: My notes say ‘Rargentir of the Femori’ for another attempt at spelling.
- We discovered that the Tinkerer is a Fomoire.

Telaris: I think this was from a previous discussion with the Tinkerer in Unity.
The Visions, Part III:
- We return into the vision and find that the area around Caer Afaloc is still being attacked. [It would appear that some time has passed.] Lord Eversong and Lady Mournwin are in the white circle of power, and the Lady is holding two swaddled infants in her arms. (The children were born during the preceding battle.) Lord Eversong’s forces, the adventurers, have withdrawn from the watchtower points and are gathered around the circle.
- Lord Eversong has three of the five golden apples on the ground at his feet, and is looking confused as to why the other two are missing. He speaks to Baroness Cynthia, seeing her glamoured as a close friend of Lady Mournwin’s named Lady Elestra. Lord Eversong senses that Cynthia is holding one of the apples and asks “Lady Elestra” for it. She gives it to him.

Omi: The spelling I have for that is Illustra, but I might be wrong on that. We (Lady Stark’s group) were given specific instructions to make sure she survived when we were fighting undead.
- One apple is still missing, and while the adventurers fight Fomoire with their backs to the circle, Baron Martimus recalls seeing an apple sitting alone in the woods earlier in the day and runs off alone in the dark to retrieve it. He comes back with it, and all five apples are together.
- Sensing that Caer Afaloc is lost and that we must either stay and die or flee, Lord Eversong bestows the five apples on individuals gathered around him.

1) The Lord gives an apple to the Knight of Alders and tells him to take it east to the Nimmandahn Wood (sp?). The Lord also instructs him to keep the people safe.
2) The Lord calls to Captain Tybalt (Sorari) and asks her to name someone to carry the second apple. She designates Q, and Q is tasked to take the Kath Palluge (sp?) [are these fae cats?] and travel to Loch Morian (sp?) to keep the apple safe there.

Omi: I spelled it Kath Palu, and these *are* the fae cats. I believe Anym has encountered them before.
3) Captain Icedark (Trivanus) is instructed to take the third apple north to the Njornfield Iceflow (sp?). The Njornfield Iceflow was described earlier in the day by Count Everdark as a place of forgetfulness.
4) The Lord tells Captain Lorrek (Maverick) “the man I spoke of, find him”. This man, I’m told by Swift, is named Allistair, and is apparently the shrouded man we fought in town that morning. Lorrek is told to give the apple to him and to tell him to cross Loch Morian and go beyond to keep it safe.

Swift: During the final battle, Capt. Lorrek (Maverick) was instructed to “find and guard the architect after the battle.” He was told the architect’s name was Alastair and he has three eyes. He builts the watchtowers and someone told me they thought he designed the castle also. Earlier, someone (does anyone remember who?) was told that the key to understanding who Three Eyes was would be found in understanding the forces he fought with, i.e. the bone golems. After the battle, Lord Eversong sent Capt. Lorrek to bring the apple to Alastair. Clearly as a skilled builder he only had bones left to work with…

Omi: It was Sorari who told us the key to understanding Alastair.

Note - Alastair seems to be angry about something, but we’re not sure exactly what. When spoken to in the morning when he attacked the town, he said, “I was not invited.” And we think that means not invited to the fae party which took place. When asked who he is angry at, he said, “It doesn’t matter, you’re all the same.”
5) Lady Stark (Anyasha) is given an apple and told to go west to keep it safe there in what is apparently a desert. Lord Eversong warns her that her fine clothes won’t fit in well in that land, so she’ll have to get some plainer clothes. He tells her to wait with the apple in the desert “until wise ones come to you”.
- Lady Mournwin then turns to Lady Elestra (Cynthia) and holds her twin infant sons across the circle of power and puts them in Lady Elestra’s arms. The twin boys are named Everlight and Evercold. Lady Mournwin, remaining inside the circle, tells her friend to keep her boys safe.
- Lord Eversong, from inside the circle, then addresses his assembled forces (the adventurers) and tells us we should escape this land, we should make it out and continue to live. However, Lady Mournwin cannot leave this place. The orchard is her home.
- Lord Eversong and Lady Mournwin have a touching moment where she tries to Charm him, and he chuckles and tells her that her powers hasn’t worked on him in quite some time. [I believe the implication being that he has stayed with her because he loves her, not because she has kept him Charmed.]
- Lord Eversong then casts an Arcane Divest on her while she is inside the circle, making it impossible for her to leave under her own power. He then steps out of the circle to face the Fomoire forces which are continuing to attack.
- From inside the circle, Lady Mournwin cries out to him to return, that he had promised to give her a daughter, who the Lady could teach to weave webs. Lord Eversong continues to fight, now seeing us as Fomoire as well. [I did not see, but assume Lord Eversong was eventually cut down and/or faded from the vision.]

Telaris: Lord Eversong was eventually engaged and defeated by various people.
- Drake and Shoshoto leave town for a time to assist Archmage Denton with some business.

Telaris: They left during the preceding events with the fey vision.

- When they return to town, Shoshoto spreads the word that they’ve learned that Lady Septimus and her Champion and two powerful members of the Walkers of the Dark Path are on their way to town, and that both pairs will likely be arriving within a quarter of an hour.

Telaris: I do not believe Captain Sterling is her Champion in a normal honorific sense, though I suppose he might be, but rather was acting as bodyguard/protector.

- It appears that both pairs are after something, likely the same thing, but it’s not clear to me precisely what.
- Lady Septimus and her bodyguard arrive in town and a small group of us go off to speak with her away from town. Her knight’s name is Captain Sterling, Stallari to Xakenna Gorm.
- Lady Septimus tells us that she has not given up on Daniel Redpath yet. Though she says she’ll be disappointed if this little wizardling (Archmage Denton) can get “X” thing off of Daniel.

Telaris: She talks about how she might be disappointed with Daniel because the Archwizard has already gotten the thing in question, which is, I *believe* some sort of a copy of a hordestone.
- Lady Septimus is clearly waiting for something - for someone to arrive, for something to happen. After some small talk, she announces that she is bored standing here in the dark, and suggests we should go back to town and see how “the annoying ones” are. I believe this is a reference to the pair of Walkers of the Dark Path who arrived in town as we were leaving to speak with her, and who were attacking the adventurers.

Telaris: She was waiting for the Dark Path members, expecting them to accost her as both groups were after the Archwizard Tower and various magical artifacts. She mentioned, at one point, being interested in two scrolls in the tower, but not their nature.
- Septimus says she is here to find new toys.
- Shoshoto makes a bit of small talk with Captain Sterling, asking what his Stallari duties for Gorm entail and if he’s fought against Voltan forces before. The Captain says he fought them once when Gorm took the field to test the Voltan forces (generations ago).

Telaris: I actually got the impression he was talking about an encounter with Gorm that happened within the last few years with adventurers from Volta, but I cannot be certain.

- Sterling says that since coming down from the north, he has mostly be held in reserve by Gorm, as well as being sent to do tasks he cannot speak of to us.
- We see a dark cloaked figure approach. It is one of the Walkers of the Dark Path. He is also here after a new toy as well. When we ask him what exactly he is after, he says there are several things.
- The Walker comments someone’s been experimenting and that the outcome would hurt Captain Sterling

Telaris: I believe this to be the glowing Ralsharr.

- There is a bit of tension as the Walker and Lady Septimus discuss attacking each other. The Walker says, “The question is, ‘How many spirits do I have right now?’” Which appears to be a reference to the times we’ve seen the Walkers of the Dark Path power their magic by killing people they have captured.

Swift: The Walker implied that the presence of the tower weakened Lady Septimus and shifted a potential fight between them in his favor. She mentioned being able to see his link to the three items, and that she normally would be able to follow the path back to them. He stated it would take her “longer than a minute” to do so, which was enough for him.

Telaris: We have learned that the Walkers of the Dark Path can bind themselves to items at a distance that allow them to gain power from them and/or use them as spirit bottles similar to the use of spirit cradles and bottles by some undead.
- As we stand and talk, we can see a glowing green light moving in the woods back towards town. This appears to interest Lady Septimus, and so we walk back towards town to see it. Not know precisely what it is, the creature appeared to me to be a ralasharr glowing with green light that could do very large attacks of healing with its claws and did great wounds to Captain Sterling when the two fought. The creature appeared to not only attack undead though, for it attacked several adventurers who got near it, even if they hadn’t draw their swords.

Telaris: I believe it was a Ralsharr who had wandered into a restricted area and been caught in an experimental Elemental Life strike.

Omi: One of the Walkers of the Dark Path (Remal Windwolf, I think it was) put himself in a golem at some point during the fight (or might have been in one the whole time). I was there when he was eventually cut down. The golem faded from him when he was cut down and left a lifeable body. We brought the body with us to make sure he dissipated, and he remained dead much longer than he should have been (I think roughly twice as long as it normally takes for a body to dissipate). We Identified him. He’s got one spirit (probably his) in part of his body, and many (I don’t remember how many) in the rest of it. He’s spirit-linked to three items outside his body, and had stored a cantrip tome and spell book inside his chest somehow. (The spell book had a couple of banes and some other effect I couldn’t identify in it.)

Omi: Also, at some point, Q asked me if I’d ever heard of someone named ‘Reynard/Reynald’. He said that he was a merchant from Niman, and was acting very sketchy (even by the standards of a merchant from Niman), and hiring a lot of the Voltan Free Companies, and he was trying to find out something about him. I didn’t think of it at the time, but later that night when we were fighting the Dark Path I remembered that one of them that we’d encountered before was named Remal. I told Q about that, and he thinks they’re one and the same. So the Dark Path has hired a bunch of Voltan Free Companies.


How do you cook Costco tri tip strips?

How do you cook Costco pre seasoned tri tip?

Pre-Marinated Costco Tri-tip

  1. Preheat grill to a temp of around 400F.
  2. Then set left burner on medium, center and right burners on low.
  3. Place tri-tip BETWEEN the center and right burner for 15 minutes (keep temp around 400F the whole time)
  4. Flip it over after 15 minutes.

How long does it take to cook a Costco tri tip?

How do you broil tri tip strips in the oven?

Preheat the broiler. Place the steaks on the unheated rack of a broiler pan ($15, Bed Bath & Beyond). Broil 3 to 4 inches from the heat to your desired doneness, using the guidelines below as a guide for how long to cook tri-tip steaks in the oven. Use an instant-read thermometer to test for doneness.

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Should I cover my tri-tip in the oven?

For a medium-rare tri tip roast, remove it when the temperature reaches 135°F and 145°F for medium (about 10 minutes longer). Let it rest first for 5-10 minutes and cover with aluminum foil to keep warm.

At what temperature do you cook a tri-tip?

What is Costco tri tip seasoned with?

A tri tip is seasoned with seasoned salt and pepper then cooked Sous Vide at 131F for three hours. The steak is then seared in brisket fat and sliced against the grain.

Does Costco sell seasoned tri tip?

Costco sells the Steakhouse Tri-Tip for $5.99 a pound. The tri-tip comes seasoned and in a marinade of Cabernet sauce. … The Steakhouse Tri-Tip is an easy way to entertain.

Should you tenderize a tri tip roast?

Just like flank steak, tri tip is very flavorful. To make sure the meat comes out tender and juicy, you can marinate it for a few hours. My favorite way to tenderize the meat is marinating it. Not only is it super easy and mess-free but the meat turns out perfectly juicy and tasty!

Should you cook tri-tip in foil?

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How do you make tri-tip tender?

How many people will 4 lbs of tri-tip feed?

A tri-tip roast varies in size from 1 1/2 to 3 1/2 pounds, so it can feed from four to eight people. At around $5 a pound for conventionally raised beef, a bit more for organic, it’s a steak-lover’s bargain.

How long does it take to cook tri-tip at 350?

When cooking tri-tip in an oven at 350°F, you need to consider the size. As such, tri-tip should cook for about 30 minutes per pound. This parameter means typical 2-pound tri-tip would cook for about an hour, while a 2.5 pounder will need about 90 minutes total.

Do you cook tri-tip fat side up or down?

How long does it take to cook a tri-tip at 250 degrees?

A tri-tip roast requires approximately 30 minutes per pound to cook, when baked at 325 degrees. However, using an oven heated to a lower temperature, such as 250 degrees, may require up to an additional 10 minutes per pound.


Investing in blockchain technology stocks

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