Category Archives: othering

Stigma Kills: A Concrete Example

Often when bloggers or activists push back against ableist language and stereotypes in the media, especially pop culture, someone will respond with an argument that there are more important disability issues to address and that the topic at hand is mostly irrelevant to disability rights as a whole. This has happened with each of the posts in the Ableist Word Profile series, it’s happened with discussion about ableist tropes in pop culture, it’s happened when critiquing the vast overrepresentation of criminal behavior in news coverage of people with mental illness.

I believe these things matter very much. Perhaps not individually – if I slip and use the word “lame” pejoratively, it does not automatically cause a person with a disability to die instantly. But each individual instance adds up to become a trend, to become a larger understanding and expectation of how things are. And if those understandings and expectations aren’t accurate, it can have dramatically horrific results.

This is because a lot of our ongoing decisionmaking is done automatically, unconsciously. This is because we are constantly presented with such a vast amount of information that if we stopped to consciously evaluate everything, we’d never be able to do anything at all. When I see an object with keys labeled with letters and laid out in the QWERTY design, I recognize it as a keyboard an assume I use it to manually input written data into a computer or typewriter or phone or other device. This saves me the trouble of figuring out each and every time what this object is, what it is for, how I am supposed to interact with it, and what end result I can expect. I do this instantly, even though it is immensely complicated – it has been extraordinarily difficult to program a computer to identify, say, a keyboard from a photo or video, regardless of lighting, angle, and lots of other variables that the brain can process almost instantly.

There are similar examples for evaluating other sensory input. When I touch something, I know instantly and without consciously considering it whether the object is solid or liquid, dry or wet. I have no idea how I make that evaluation and instructing someone else on making that judgment would be immensely difficult for me – but when my foot touches a wet patch of carpet en route to the bathroom in the middle of the night, I pull my foot back lightning fast to avoid what is surely cat puke. If I feel myself losing balance, I put out a hand to catch myself without consciously deciding to, because my classification of my sensations as “losing balance” was done entirely unconsciously.

How does stigma fit into this? Well, a stereotype is an unconscious cognitive shortcut – instead of examining an individual person or situation, we apply a stereotype to make assumptions. While a stereotype is usually seen as a negative thing, they serve an important purpose by allowing us to make educated guesses. For example, when I go into a fast food restaurant, I know to go to the counter and give my order to someone behind the counter, usually wearing a uniform. While this has held true at the places I’ve visited in the past, if I go to an new fast food restaurant that I haven’t visited before, I will assume that I use the same procedure. That’s a useful assumption that saves me the time and energy of approaching each situation as brand new and unrelated.

There are times when stereotypes can be harmful and damaging, as we well know. The stigma against PWDs is an assumption applied to all PWDs simply because they are PWDs, assuming they have a set of presumed characteristics, motivations, and beliefs. It is a stereotype composed of all the understandings and expectations of PWDs conveyed by all the little things – the word choices of the people you talk to, that one character in that on tv show, that story you saw on the news last night. And although the specifics fade away, most people are left with vague, unconscious associations. Again, some of these associations are essentially value-neutral, as how I generally associate red with “stop” and green with “go” from traffic lights and signs. But people can also have unconscious associations around more complex and problematic issues, like race, gender, and disability status.

Social psychologists from Harvard developed a computer-based test to measure the existence of implicit associations and stereotypes – the Implicit Association Test (IAT). The IAT asks users to rapidly categorize words to the left or right of the screen. From the IAT FAQ:

The IAT asks you to pair two concepts (e.g., young and good, or elderly and good). The more closely associated the two concepts are, the easier it is to respond to them as a single unit. So, if young and good are strongly associated, it should be easier to respond faster when you are asked to give the same response (i.e. the ‘E’ or ‘I’ key [to indicate left or right]) to these two. If elderly and good are not so strongly associated, it should be harder to respond fast when they are paired. This gives a measure of how strongly associated the two types of concepts are. The more associated, the more rapidly you should be able to respond. The IAT is one method for measuring implicit or automatic attitudes and is featured on this website. There are other methods, using different procedures, that have been investigated in laboratory studies.

I’ve taken a number of IATs before (because I’m dorky about cognitive science and this kind of stuff) and believe that they have correctly identified in me some negative unconscious associations. For example, I unconsciously associated women with home and family and men with business. Consciously, I strongly disagree with that association! So when I do consciously consider my assumptions about those associations, I override and reject my unconscious associations.

When researching this post, I took the IAT that measures unconscious associations around disability. (I can’t link directly to that test, but it can be found in the IAT demonstrations available here.) Taking the test, I found that I have a slight automatic preference for abled people over PWDs. This doesn’t mean that when I act, speak, or even think about these issues I exhibit that preference. It doesn’t mean that I “really” prefer TABs to PWDs. It means that I have been sufficiently inundated by messages that associate TABs with “good” and PWDs with “bad” that I have a slight unconscious tendency to apply that association, a tendency almost instantaneously overruled by my conscious thought. So it is an association that exists only for the tiniest of moments until it is extinguished by cognition.

How can those tiny moments, almost too small to measure, even matter? Well, as Chally recently posted about, a Los Angeles police officer shot and killed an unarmed man with an unspecific cognitive disability autism 1. The officer fired as the man reached towards his waistband after failing to respond to verbal commands from the police. From the LA Times article linked in the post:

[LAPD Officers] Corrales and Diego believed “he [the PWD] was arming himself” and fired, Assistant Chief Earl Paysinger said at an afternoon news conference.

In a fraction of a second.

Just long enough for the unconscious association to spark but not long enough for conscious thought to override it.

Just long enough for stigma to kill.

  1. ETA since his family disclosed that he had autism in numerous public interviews.

Integrating Primary and Mental Health Care

This indicates a significant split between the physical health care and mental health care systems, where people are expected to go to their PCP for physical health issues and to self-refer to a mental health care clinic or specialist for mental health treatment. This is problematic for a whole host of reasons – primary among them the simple fact that this system simply isn’t working – even though the prevalence of mental disorders in primary care is somewhat higher than the overall population, PCPs are ineffective at identifying those people and providing them with treatment. Expecting people to identify themselves as experiencing a mental disorder, overcoming societal stigma to seek diagnosis and treatment, and assuming they have the ability to access mental health services through a fragmented and poorly financed system erects barriers to treatment that are likely insurmountable to someone experiencing an untreated mental health problem. Unsurprisingly, these barriers are likely more pronounced for already vulnerable populations such as the elderly and low-income minorities.

There are a lot of benefits to better integration of mental health care into the PCP’s role. The PCP is usually the patient’s first contact with the health care system and an individual is much more likely to know how to access care from a PCP than from an unintegrated mental health system. Patients are often more willing to attend appointments with and follow up with their PCPs because of the removal of stigma from receiving treatment. Other patients may not have meaningful access to a separate or nonintegrated mental health system, either due to financial barriers, long waiting lists, or other barriers.

The most significant problem, in my view, is the expectation that an individual should be able to determine they are experiencing a mental health problem. Given that the majority of PCPs, who have medical degrees and extensive training, fail to identify and diagnose mental health issues, expecting untrained laypeople to do so – while they are experiencing the mental health problem – is beyond absurd. It is even more absurd given that many mental health issues have a physical component. Depression results in fatigue and appetite changes, as does mania. The physical experience of a panic attack is often interpreted as a heart attack. Auditory or visual hallucinations could easily be interpreted as problems with the sensory organs themselves. This is sometimes heightened by an individual’s cultural context, as many Asian cultures describe the experience of depression almost exclusively in physical terms. Expecting an affected individual to untangle the complicated interplay of physical and mental effects and diagnose themselves with a mental health problem prior to seeking treatment is bound to fail.

Another argument in favor of integration is the huge overlap between physical and mental health problems. Estimates of this comorbidity vary wildly, but range somewhere from 20% to 80% of primary care patients (useful data, no?). Having a patient access two separate mental health care systems for their treatment ensures fragmented treatments that may contradict each other and are certainly not coordinated for maximum effect. Better integration would ensure treatments for physical and mental health issues complemented each other and treated the patient as a whole person.

This seems like an uncontroversial and common sense suggestion. It was embraced by the United States Surgeon General in 2001 and by the World Health Organization in 2008, but has seen little progress or momentum since then. Some local treatment systems are taking steps towards integration, such as these trainings done by the British Columbia health system, but there have been few steps towards addressing this issue in the larger health system.

We Need to Consider More than Universities

  1. Sphere, pshyeah.

A Conversation in the Lunch Room

  • “Is depression even a real disease?”

We’ve got a long way to go, y’all.

This is Why We’re Always on about Language

How insane is that?

Here’s my reply.

It is not insane.

  1. Unfortunately, none of this is even exaggerated.

How to Frame the Accommodations Debate

The concept of accommodations for employees with disabilities is one that exists all over the world. The basic principle of these laws is that an employee with a disability is entitled to changes to accommodate specific needs created by their disability in order to work. These can be changes in policies (changing a policy prohibiting eating at employee desks to allow an employee with diabetes to manage his blood sugar) or procedures (issuing company announcements both orally at staff meetings and by written memo to accommodate an employee with auditory processing difficulties), or even maintaining a scent-free or florescent light-free workplace, providing ergonomic modifications to workspaces, and beyond.

There are a lot of negative attitudes and assumptions surrounding workplace accommodations. It is often assumed that the employee with a disability (EWD for short) and their employer are in an adversarial position – the employee is asking for something they want but that the employer does not want to give. Providing the accommodation is seen almost universally as a loss for the employer, because providing it will cost them, either by purchasing new equipment or in administrative costs and hassle for changing existing policies and procedures. In the United States, it is often made very clear to employees that accommodations are provided solely because the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) requires employers to cooperate, not because the employer wants to assist with accommodations or believes it will improve the overall workplace in any meaningful way.

The cost of the accommodation, whether direct or indirect, is often seen as offsetting the worth or value of the EWD and limiting the benefit the employer can derive from an individual employee. More broadly, this is seen as discouraging employers from hiring EWDs in order to prevent the need for these accommodations. This means that accommodations are often seen as “special treatment,” for EWDs, requiring a whole set of special procedures by which EWDs can request accommodations and have them evaluated and special staff to learn the ADA and evaluate accommodations and …

Another feature of accommodations for EWDs is that although they are supposed to be individualized and tailored to the specific needs and responsibilities of an individual employee, employers often think of providing specific, pre-determined accommodations based on the type of disability the EWD has. For example, employers often consider themselves to have fulfilled their accommodation duties for people with physical disabilities if the workplace is wheelchair accessible and the parking lot has a handicapped parking space. Any additional requests from accommodation are likely met with bewilderment by the employer – “we already took care of all of the accommodation issues!”

It was with all of that in my mind that I read this recent article from ABCNews, with the headline “Employees Healthier When Boss Is Flexible.” The article discussed the benefits of flexible work schedules for employees without disabilities:

“Flexible working initiatives which equip the worker with more choice or control, such as self-scheduling of work hours or gradual or phased retirement, are likely to have positive effects on health and well being,” Clare Bambra of Durham University in the U.K., told MedPage Today. “Control at work is good for health,” Bambra said. Overall, the researchers found that situations that gave the employee more control over scheduling have positive effects on health and well being, particularly with regard to blood pressure, sleep, and mental health. A third study found significant decreases in systolic blood pressure and heart rate for workers with flexible scheduling, Bambra said. Conversely, Bambra and colleagues found that mandatory overtime and fixed-term contracts had absolutely no positive effects on health outcomes.

Although the article did not analogize these flexible work schedules under employee control to the principle of accommodations and disability was not explicitly mentioned in the article, I couldn’t help but connect the two. The idea of allowing an employee to control their own work schedule based on her own needs is exactly the principle behind accommodations – tailoring the work requirements and environment to the individual and specific needs of the employee, rather than requiring everyone to comply with universal policies set by the employer. It’s also implied that these flexible policies benefit the employer by creating healthier and happier employees who are, in turn, more productive at work.

This made me wonder if it would be helpful to adopt this framing for accommodations arguments, as in “see, assisting employees to accommodate their individualized needs results in better outcomes for both employees and employers!” Framing the argument that way addresses a lot of the negative issues around accommodations discussed above: the employee and the employer are working together rather than against each other; providing this flexibility is seen as a benefit to, not a loss for, the employer; this maximizes the work, worth and value of the employee rather than offsetting it; accommodations are good business practice rather than special treatment imposed by law; the individualized nature of accommodations is emphasized and changes must be dictated by the employee’s view of their own needs.

There is a potential drawback to this framing, however – it does not explicitly mention or focus on PWDs. I see this as potentially harmful given that the need for accommodations for PWDs is created by the historic and continuing othering of and discrimination against PWDs. (See amanda and wiki on the social model of disability for more about this.) Advancing the principle of accommodations for employees without explicitly focusing on PWDs removes a lot of the disability-based stigma from the discussion, but also removes the historical context that has created a need for accommodations. Similarly, framing the issue as a smart business practice than a civil rights issue removes the discussion of “special” rights or treatment, but removes focus from the fact that PWDs deserve these rights to counteract oppression based on their disability status.

This framing technique also dilutes the concept of what an accommodation is and extends it to all employees, whether or not they have disabilities. This could be dangerous, as it would allow employers to think about accommodations in terms of overall economic benefit – this might encourage them to deny specific accommodation requests that would be considered too costly for the company, or insufficiently beneficial to the overall bottom line. While that may be unwise for employers, given studies like this, it would not be illegal and would not be a civil rights issue for employees without disabilities. For EWDs, however, denying accommodations is a civil rights issue, because accommodations are required to allow EWDs equal access to employment benefits in light of the barriers that exist because of historic and continuing oppression and discrimination against PWDs on the basis of their disabilities. Expanding the focus of accommodations to all employees de-emphasizes the rights-based aspect of accommodations for PWDs to the point of invisibility.

I’m not sure whether the benefits or costs of this framing of the accommodations argument are stronger. What do you think? Have I ommitted any advantages of using this framing? Any disadvantages? Which framing – current rights-based arguments or these non-PWD centered business arguments – do you think is best?

I’m not here for your inspiration

But let me begin at the beginning.

Description follows

Description written by Haddayr:

She didn’t let her disability stop her!
Forced to use [mobility device]
Courageous battle
Confined to a wheelchair
Then tragedy struck/her dreams were shattered/the unimaginable happened
Can only communicate through [communication device]
Cheerful/ Never let it get her down/ Positive attitude
Free Space:
Through the miraculous assistance of [something completely non-miraculous]
She refused to give up/give in/succumb
Defying overwhelming odds
She ‘suffers from’ [impairment]
[insert some pseudoscience]
He has overcome his disability!

So, let’s go back to my story.

Description follows

Description: As above, but with the following squares circled:
Forced to use [mobility device]
Then tragedy struck/her dreams were shattered/the unimaginable happened
Cheerful/ Never let it get her down/ Positive attitude
She refused to give up/give in/succumb
He has overcome his disability!

Proud for so many reasons

Thank you, Alex and Frédéric.

Brian Smith, Toronto

Come filk with us – “Special Treatment” for PWD

You can read a little about him here at Debbie Kruger’s:

Check out the song:

I can’t enter my child’s classroom
Although the door’s right there
I’m stuck outside my child’s classroom
Blocked by a single stair

I get special treatment
Special treatment
Very special treatment

I’d like to work an eight hour day
In an office on main street
But they won’t offer me the same pay
Or add a ramp my chair needs

Say it’s “special treatment”
Special treatment
Very special treatment

Mother and father loved each other well
But together they could not stay
They were split up against their will
Until their dying day

They got special treatment
Special treatment
Very special treatment

Mama gave birth to a healthy child
A child she called her own
Strangers came and took away that child
To a stranger’s home

She got special treatment
Special treatment
Very special treatment

I’m not allowed to cry out loud
I’m not allowed to scream
I’m not allowed to show my rage
I’m not allowed to dream

After all, I get special treatment
Special treatment
Very special treatment

“What’s the matter with you?”

“cant handle it? then just fucking die!”

“fuck u die slow nigga!”

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Apr 24, 2014

    The art of fine bread-making

    ZACHARY Golper gets a strange look in his eyes when he talks about his miche.

    Mr Golper, who oversees the ovens at Bien Cuit, a bakery in Brooklyn, is part of a starter culture of obsessive, boundary-pushing bread-makers in New York City and around the country.

    Connoisseurs consider his miche, a French-style country loaf, something of a crown jewel. But it certainly doesn't shine like one; bulbous and heat-bludgeoned, it looks more like something that might have been used as a shield in a Stone Age skirmish.

    But it makes sense - Mr Golper, like many comrades in the revolutionary salt-flour-water brigade, is engaged in an ancient and ceaseless battle: against the whims of working with fermenting dough whose personality can shift on a daily or even hourly basis; against the high costs of making bread in what he considers the purest manner; against decades of commercialisation that have trained the American eye and palate to expect bread that is soft, gummy, pale and tasteless.

    "Most people are trying to make bread as quickly as possible," he said. "I don't think there's any reason to make bread fast. I don't think it's healthy."

    Instead, the 36-year-old wages a loving blitz on the miche dough, fermenting it for as long as an epic 68 hours and hardening the crust with a bake that goes on for almost double the time (at a slightly lower temperature) than you would find in the average shop. The dough itself contains six types of flour.

    The process brings out "nuances that otherwise would not be obtainable if you don't take the time", he said.

    Small independent bakers in New York, California, Oregon, Virginia and North Carolina are going to great lengths to approach an ideal of bread that is simultaneously cutting-edge and primordial. They are hunting down heirloom grains, early forms of wheat like emmer and einkorn, and milling their own flour.

    Some are travelling to Washington state to meet Stephen Jones, a rogue wheat breeder who runs the Bread Lab, a Wonka-esque wonderland for crusty, airy-crumbed experimentation.

    They are using unusually wet dough and stretching out fermentation times. They are trying to conjure up the baker's version of terroir, creating sourdough starter in the classic manner: simply by letting it sit, welcoming the bacteria in the air so the bread presumably tastes like the place where it was made.

    Meanwhile, white bread is still venerated at bakeries in Asia, where it has been elevated to "artisan" status with a lofty, feathery crumb, a milk-sweet crust and a naturally long shelf life.

    Called shokupan, milk bread, pai bao and by other names, this bread is a miracle of engineering: moist but not gummy, rich but light, balanced between sweet and salty.

    At baking chains like Paris Baguette, based in Seoul, this is achieved with industrial proofers and artificial flavours. The key to making it at home is tangzhong, a warm, pudding-like starter quickly made by cooking a small amount of flour with water or milk.

    Janice Wong, a pastry chef in Singapore, said tangzhong is a traditional Chinese way of making dough for steamed buns. (The characters mean, roughly, "soup method".)

    "Asian doughs tend to have small, fine air bubbles," she said.

    The method was applied to white bread by Japanese bakers in the 20th century and became a staple in Asian bakeries.

    "About half of Japanese people eat toast for breakfast," said Kimie Kobayashi, the manager of Takahachi Bakery in Lower Manhattan, where shokupan is made daily. "The customers here seem surprised to hear that."

    Eminent food scientist Harold McGee said tangzhong is different from other starters - like autolyse, levain, biga and the unappetisingly named poolish - because it hydrates and gels the starches in the flour, giving the bread its characteristic fluff and spring.


E-mail; Tel. (+1) 510 642 2217; Fax (+1) 510 642 4995.

Magnetotactic bacteria contain nanometre-sized, membrane-bound organelles, called magnetosomes, which are tasked with the biomineralization of small crystals of the iron oxide magnetite allowing the organism to use geomagnetic field lines for navigation. A key player in this process is the HtrA/DegP family protease MamE. In its absence, Magnetospirillum magneticum str AMB-1 is able to form magnetosome membranes but not magnetite crystals, a defect previously linked to the mislocalization of magnetosome proteins. In this work we use a directed genetic approach to find that MamE, and another predicted magnetosome-associated protease, MamO, likely function as proteases in vivo. However, as opposed to the complete loss of mamE where no biomineralization is observed, the protease-deficient variant of this protein still supports the initiation and formation of small, 20 nm-sized crystals of magnetite, too small to hold a permanent magnetic dipole moment. This analysis also reveals that MamE is a bifunctional protein with a protease-independent role in magnetosome protein localization and a protease-dependent role in maturation of small magnetite crystals. Together, these results imply the existence of a previously unrecognized ‘checkpoint’ in biomineralization where MamE moderates the completion of magnetite formation and thus committal to magneto-aerotaxis as the organism's dominant mode of navigating the environment.


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About Author: Material provided by: Averina lab


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The Digestive System

The Digestive System

The foods we eatapples, pepperoni pizzas, leafy green saladstaste good to us, but cannot be used by the body as they are. The nutrition the cells of the body need to keeping growing and working must be in a simple form: amino acids, simple sugars, and fatty acids. It is the job of the digestive system to take the complex organic molecules of the foods we ingestproteins, carbohydrates, and fatsand break them down into their simple building blocks. This process is called digestion. Once digestion has occurred, the simple molecules (nutrients) are absorbed from the digestion system by the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems and transported to cells throughout the body.

The digestive system may be broken into two parts: a long, winding, muscular tube accompanied by accessory digestive organs and glands. That open-ended tube, known as the alimentary canal or digestive tract, is composed of various organs. These organs are, in order, the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. The rectum and anus form the end of the large intestine. The accessory digestive organs and glands that help in the digestive process include the tongue, teeth, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gall bladder.

The walls of the alimentary canal from the esophagus through the large intestine are made up of four tissue layers. The innermost layer is the mucosa, coated with mucus. This protects the alimentary canal from chemicals and enzymes (proteins that speed up the rate of chemical reactions) that break down food and from germs and parasites that might be in that food. Around the mucosa is the submucosa, which contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymph vessels. Wrapped around the submucosa are two layers of muscles that help move food along the canal. The outermost layer, the serosa, is moist, fibrous tissue that protects the alimentary canal and helps it move against the surrounding organs in the body.

The mouth

Food enters the body through the mouth, or oral cavity. The lips form and protect the opening of the mouth, the cheeks form its sides, the tongue forms its floor, and the hard and soft palates form its roof. The hard palate is at the front; the soft palate is in the rear. Attached to the soft palate is a fleshy, fingerlike projection called the uvula (from the Latin word meaning "little grape"). Two U-shaped rows of teeth line the mouthone above and one below. Three pair of salivary glands open at various points into the mouth.

The Digestive System: Words to Know

Alimentary canal (al-i-MEN-tah-ree ka-NAL):
Also known as the digestive tract, the series of muscular structures through which food passes while being converted to nutrients and waste products; includes the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, large intestine, and small intestine.
Amylase (am-i-LACE):
Any of various digestive enzymes that convert starches to sugars.
Appendix (ah-PEN-dix):
Small, apparently useless organ extending from the cecum.
Greenish yellow liquid produced by the liver that neutralizes acids and emulsifies fats in the duodenum.
Bolus (BO-lus):
Rounded mass of food prepared by the mouth for swallowing.
Cecum (SEE-kum):
Blind pouch at the beginning of the large intestine.
Chyle (KILE):
Thick, whitish liquid consisting of lymph and tiny fat globules absorbed from the small intestine during digestion.
Chyme (KIME):
Soupylike mixture of partially digested food and stomach secretions.
Colon (KOH-lun):
Largest region of the large intestine, divided into four sections: ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid (colon is sometimes used to describe the entire large intestine).
Colostomy (kuh-LAS-tuh-mee):
Surgical procedure where a portion of the large intestine is brought through the abdominal wall and attached to a bag to collect feces.
Defecation (def-e-KAY-shun):
Elimination of feces from the large intestine through the anus.
Dentin (DEN-tin):
Bonelike material underneath the enamel of teeth, forming the main part.
Duodenum (doo-o-DEE-num or doo-AH-de-num):
First section of the small intestine.
Emulsify (e-MULL-si-fie):
To break down large fat globules into smaller droplets that stay suspended in water.
Enamel (e-NAM-el):
Whitish, hard, glossy outer layer of teeth.
Enzymes (EN-zimes):
Proteins that speed up the rate of chemical reactions.
Epiglottis (ep-i-GLAH-tis):
Flaplike piece of tissue at the top of the larynx that covers its opening when swallowing is occurring.
Esophagus (e-SOF-ah-gus):
Muscular tube connecting the pharynx and stomach.
Feces (FEE-seez):
Solid body wastes formed in the large intestine.
Flatus (FLAY-tus):
Gas generated by bacteria in the large intestine.
Gastric juice (GAS-trick JOOSE):
Secretion of the gastric glands of the stomach, containing hydrochloric acid, pepsin, and mucus.
Ileocecal valve (ill-ee-oh-SEE-kal VALV):
Sphincter or ring of muscule that controls the flow of chyme from the ileum to the large intestine.
Ileum (ILL-ee-um):
Final section of the small intestine.
Jejunum (je-JOO-num):
Middle section of the small intestine.
Lacteals (LAK-tee-als):
Specialized lymph capillaries in the villi of the small intestine.
Larynx (LAR-ingks):
Organ between the pharynx and trachea that contains the vocal cords.
Lipase (LIE-pace):
Digestive enzyme that converts lipids (fats) into fatty acids.
Lower esophageal sphincter (LOW-er i-sof-ah-GEE-alSFINGK-ter):
Strong ring of muscle at the base of the esophagus that contracts to prevent stomach contents from moving back into the esophagus.
Palate (PAL-uht):
Roof of the mouth, divided into hard and soft portions, that separates the mouth from the nasal cavities.
Papillae (pah-PILL-ee):
Small projections on the upper surface of the tongue that contain taste buds.
Peristalsis (per-i-STALL-sis):
Series of wavelike muscular contractions that move material in one direction through a hollow organ.
Pharynx (FAR-inks):
Short, muscular tube extending from the mouth and nasal cavities to the trachea and esophagus.
Plaque (PLACK):
Sticky, whitish film on teeth formed by a protein in saliva and sugary substances in the mouth.
Pyloric sphincter (pie-LOR-ick SFINGK-ter):
Strong ring of muscle at the junction of the stomach and the small intestine that regulates the flow of material between them.
Rugae (ROO-jee):
Folds of the inner mucous membrane of organs, such as the stomach, that allow those organs to expand.
Trypsin (TRIP-sin):
Digestive enzyme that converts proteins into amino acids; inactive form is trypsinogen.
Uvula (U-vue-lah):
Fleshy projection hanging from the soft palate that raises to close off the nasal passages during swallowing.
Vestigial organ (ves-TIJ-ee-al OR-gan):
Organ that is reduced in size and function when compared with that of evolutionary ancestors.
Villi (VILL-eye):
Tiny, fingerlike projections on the inner lining of the small intestine that increase the rate of nutrient absorption by greatly increasing the intestine's surface area.

THE TONGUE. The muscular tongue is attached to the base of the mouth by a fold of mucous membrane. On the upper surface of the tongue are small projections called papillae, many of which contain taste buds (for a discussion of taste, see chapter 12). Most of the tongue lies within the mouth, but its base extends into the pharynx. Located at the base of the tongue are the lingual tonsils, small masses of lymphatic tissue that serve to prevent infection.

TEETH. Humans have two sets of teeth: deciduous and permanent. The deciduous teeth (also known as baby or milk teeth) start to erupt through the gums in the mouth when a child is about six months old. By the age of two, the full set of twenty teeth has developed. Between the ages of six and twelve, the roots of these teeth are reabsorbed into the body and the teeth begin to fall out. They are quickly replaced by the thirty-two permanent adult teeth. (The third molars, the wisdom teeth, may not erupt because of inadequate space in the jaw. In such cases, they become impacted or embedded in the jawbone and must be removed surgically.)

Teeth are classified according to shape and function. Incisors, the chisel-shaped front teeth, are used for cutting. Cuspids or canines, the pointed teeth next to the incisors, are used for tearing or piercing. Bicuspids (or premolars) and molars, the back teeth with flattened tops and rounded, raised tips, are used for grinding.

Each tooth consists of two major portions: the crown and the root. The crown is the exposed part of the tooth above the gum line; the root is enclosed in a socket in the jaw. The outermost layer of the crown is the whitish enamel. Made mainly of calcium, enamel is the hardest substance in the body.

Underneath the enamel is a yellowish, bonelike material called dentin. It forms the bulk of the tooth. Within the dentin is the pulp cavity, which receives blood vessels and nerves through a narrow root canal at the base of the tooth.

THE SALIVARY GLANDS. Three pair of salivary glands produce saliva on a continuous basis to keep the mouth and throat moist. The largest pair, the parotid glands, are located just below and in front of the ears. The next largest pair, the submaxillary or submandibular glands, are located in the lower jaw. The smallest pair, the sublingual glands, are located under the tongue.

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (18491936) was a Russian physiologist (a person who studies the physical and chemical processes of living organisms) who conducted pioneering research into the digestive activities of mammals. His now-famous experiments with a dog ("Pavlov's dog") to show how the central nervous system affects digestion earned him the Nobel Prize for Medicine or Physiology in 1904.

Interested in the actions of digestion and gland secretion, Pavlov set up an ingenious experiment. In a laboratory, he severed a dog's throat (Pavlov was a skillful surgeon and the animal was unharmed). When the dog ate food, the food dropped out of the animal's throat before reaching its stomach. Through this simulated feeding, Pavlov discovered that the sight, smell, and swallowing of food was enough to cause the secretion of gastric juice. He demonstrated that the stimulation of the vagus nerve (one of the major nerves of the brain) influences the actions of the gastric glands.

In another famous study, Pavlov set out to determine whether he could turn unconditioned (naturally occurring) reflexes or responses of the central nervous system into conditioned (learned) reflexes. He had noticed that laboratory dogs would sometimes salivate merely at the approach of lab assistants who fed them. Pavlov then decided to ring a bell each time a dog was given food. After a while, he rang the bell without feeding the dog. He discovered that the dog salivated at the sound of the bell, even though food was not present. Through this experiment, Pavlov demonstrated that unconditioned reflexes (salivation and gastric activity) could become conditioned reflexes that were triggered by a stimulus (the bell) that previously had no connection with the event (eating).

Ducts or tiny tubes carry saliva from these glands into the mouth. Ducts from the parotid glands open into the upper portion of the mouth; ducts from the submaxillary and sublingual glands open into the mouth beneath the tongue.

The salivary glands are controlled by the autonomic nervous system, a division of the nervous system that functions involuntarily (meaning the processes it controls occur without conscious effort on the part of an individual). The glands produce between 1.1 and 1.6 quarts (1 and 1.5 liters) of saliva each day. Although the flow is continuous, the amount varies. Food (or anything else) in the mouth increases the amount produced. Even the sight or smell of food will increase the flow.

Saliva is mostly water (about 99 percent), with waste products, antibodies, and enzymes making up the small remaining portion. At mealtimes, saliva contains large quantities of digestive enzymes that help break down food. Saliva also controls the temperature of food (cooling it down or warming it up), cleans surfaces in the mouth, and kills certain bacteria present in the mouth.

The pharynx

The pharynx, or throat, is a short, muscular tube extending about 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) from the mouth and nasal cavities to the esophagus and trachea (windpipe). It serves two separate systems: the digestive system (by allowing the passage of solid food and liquids) and the respiratory system (by allowing the passage of air).

The esophagus

The esophagus, sometimes referred to as the gullet, is the muscular tube connecting the pharynx and stomach. It is approximately 10 inches (25 centimeters) in length and 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) in diameter. In the thorax (area of the body between the neck and the abdomen), the esophagus lies behind the trachea. At the base of the esophagus, where it connects with the stomach, is a strong ring of muscle called the lower esophageal sphincter. Normally, this circular muscle is contracted, preventing contents in the stomach from moving back into the esophagus.

The stomach

The stomach is located on the left side of the abdominal cavity just under the diaphragm (a membrane of muscle separating the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity). When empty, the stomach is shaped like the letter J and its inner walls are drawn up into long, soft folds called rugae. When the stomach expands, the rugae flatten out and disappear. This allows the average adult stomach to hold as much as 1.6 quarts (1.5 liters) of material.

The dome-shaped portion of the stomach to the left of the lower esophageal sphincter is the fundus. The large central portion of the stomach is the body. The part of the stomach connected to the small intestine (the curve of the J) is the pylorus. The pyloric sphincter is a muscular ring that regulates the flow of material from the stomach into the small intestine by variously opening and contracting. That material, a soupylike mixture of partially digested food and stomach secretions, is called chyme.

The stomach wall contains three layers of smooth muscle. These layers contract in a regular rhythmusually three contractions per minuteto mix and churn stomach contents. Mucous membrane lines the stomach. Mucus, the thick, gooey liquid produced by the cells of that membrane, helps protect the stomach from its own secretions. Those secretionsacids and enzymesenter the stomach through millions of shallow pits that open onto the surface of the inner stomach. Called gastric pits, these openings lead to gastric glands, which secrete about 1.6 quarts (1.5 liters) of gastric juice each day.

Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin. Pepsin is an enzyme that breaks down proteins; hydrochloric acid kills microorganisms and breaks down cell walls and connective tissue in food. The acid is strong enough to burn a hole in carpet, yet the mucus produced by the mucous membrane prevents it from dissolving the lining of the stomach. Even so, the cells of the mucous membrane wear out quickly: the entire stomach lining is replaced every three days. Mucus also aids in digestion by keeping food moist.

William Beaumont (17851853) was an American surgeon who served as an army surgeon during the War of 1812 (181215) and at various posts after the war. It was at one of these posts that he saw what perhaps no one before him had seen: the inner workings of the stomach.

In 1882, while serving at Fort Mackinac in northern Michigan, Beaumont was presented with a patient named Alexis St. Martin. The French Canadian trapper, only nineteen at the time, has been accidently shot in the stomach. The bullet had torn a deep chunk out of the left side of St. Martin's lower chest. At first, no one thought he would survive, but amazingly he did. However, his wound never completely healed, leaving a 1 inch-wide (2.5 centimeter-wide) opening. This opening allowed Beaumont to put his finger all the way into St. Martin's stomach.

Beaumont decided to take advantage of opening into St. Martin's side to study human digestion. He started by taking small chunks of food, tying them to a string, then inserting them directly into the young man's stomach. At irregular intervals, he pulled the food out to observe the varying actions of digestion. Later, using a hand-held lens, Beaumont peered into St. Martin's stomach. He observed how the human stomach behaved at various stages of digestion and under differing circumstances.

Beaumont conducted almost 240 experiments on St. Martin. In 1833, he published his findings in Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice and the Physiology of Digestion, a book that provided invaluable information on the digestive process.

The small intestine

The small intestine is the body's major digestive organ. Looped and coiled within the abdominal cavity, it extends about 20 feet (6 meters) from the stomach to the large intestine. At its junction with the stomach, it measures about 1.5 inches (4 centimeters) in diameter. By the time it meets the large intestine, its diameter has been reduced to 1 inch (2.5 centimeters). Although much longer than the large intestine, the small intestine is called "small" because its overall diameter is smaller.

The small intestine is divided into three regions or sections. The first section, the duodenum, is the initial 10 inches (25 centimeters) closest to the stomach. Chyme from the stomach and secretions from the pancreas and liver empty into this section. The middle section, the jejunum, measures about 8.2 feet (2.5 meters) in length. Digestion and the absorption of nutrients occurs mainly in the jejunum. The final section, the ileum, is also the longest, measuring about 11 feet (3.4 meters) in length. The ileum ends at the ileocecal valve, a sphincter that controls the flow of chyme from the ileum to the large intestine.

The inner lining of the small intestine is covered with tiny, fingerlike projections called villi (giving it an appearance much like the nap of a plush, soft towel). The villi greatly increase the intestinal surface area available for absorbing digested material. Within each villus (singular for villi) are blood capillaries and a lymph capillary called a lacteal. Digested food molecules are absorbed through the walls of the villus into both the capillaries and the lacteal. At the bases of the villi are openings of intestinal glands, which secrete a watery intestinal juice. This juice contains digestive enzymes that convert food materials into simple nutrients the body can readily use. On average, about 2 quarts (1.8 liters) of intestinal juice are secreted into the small intestine each day.

As with the lining of the stomach, a coating of mucus helps protect the lining of the small intestine. Yet again, the digestive enzymes prove too strong for the delicate cells of that lining. They wear out and are replaced about every two days.

The large intestine

Extending from the end of the small intestine to the anus, the large intestine measures about 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length and 3 inches (7.5 centimeters) in diameter. It almost completely frames the small intestine. The large intestine is divided into three major regions: the cecum, colon, and rectum.

Cecum comes from the Latin word caecum, meaning "blind." Shaped like a rounded pouch, the cecum lies immediately below the area where the ileum empties into the large intestine. Attached to the cecum is the slender, fingerlike appendix, which measures about 3.5 inches (9 centimeters) in the average adult. Composed of lymphatic tissue, the appendix seems to have no function in present-day humans. For that reason, scientists refer to it as a vestigial organ (an organ that is reduced in size and function when compared with that of evolutionary ancestors).

Sometimes used to describe the entire large intestine, the colon is actually the organ's main part. It is divided into four sections: ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid. The ascending colon travels from the cecum up the right side of the abdominal cavity until it reaches the liver. It then makes a turn, becoming the transverse colon, which travels horizontally across the abdominal cavity. Near the spleen on the left side, it turns down to form the descending colon. At about where it enters the pelvis, it becomes the S-shaped sigmoid colon.

After curving and recurving, the sigmoid colon empties into the rectum, a fairly straight, 6-inch (15-centimeter) tube ending at the anus, the opening to the outside. Two sphincters (rings of muscle) control the opening and closing of the anus.

Roughly 1.6 quarts (1.5 liters) of watery material enters the large intestine each day. No digestion takes place in the large intestine, only the reabsorption or recovery of water. Mucus produced by the cells in the lining of the large intestine help move the waste material along. As more and more water is removed from that material, it becomes compacted into soft masses called feces. Feces are composed of water, cellulose and other indigestible material, and dead and living bacteria. The remnants of worn red blood cells gives feces their brown color. Only about 3 to 7 ounces (85 to 200 grams) of solid fecal material remains after the large intestine has recovered most of the water. That material is then eliminated through the anus, a process called defecation.

The pancreas

The pancreas is a soft, pink, triangular-shaped gland that measures about 6 inches (15 centimeters) in length. It lies behind the stomach, extending from the curve of the duodenum to the spleen. While a part of the digestive system, the pancreas is also a part of the endocrine system, producing the hormones insulin and glucagon (for a further discussion of this process, see chapter 3).

Primarily a digestive organ, the pancreas produces pancreatic juice that helps break down all three types of complex food molecules in the small intestine. The enzymes contained in that juice include pancreatic amylase, pancreatic lipase, and trypsinogen. Amylase breaks down starches into simple sugars, such as maltose (malt sugar). Lipase breaks down fats into simpler fatty acids and glycerol (an alcohol). Trypsinogen is the inactive form of the enzyme trypsin, which breaks down proteins into amino acids. Trypsin is so powerful that if produced in the pancreas, it would digest the organ itself. To prevent this, the pancreas produces trypsinogen, which is then changed in the duodenum to its active form.

Pancreatic juice is collected from all parts of the pancreas through microscopic ducts. These ducts merge to form larger ducts, which eventually combine to form the main pancreatic duct. This duct, which runs the length of the pancreas, then transports pancreatic juice to the duodenum of the small intestine.

The liver

The largest glandular organ in the body, the liver weighs between 3 and 4 pounds (1.4 and 1.8 kilograms). It lies on the right side of the abdominal cavity just beneath the diaphragm. In this position, it overlies and almost completely covers the stomach. Deep reddish brown in color, the liver is divided into four unequal lobes: two large right and left lobes and two smaller lobes visible only from the back.

The liver is an extremely important organ. Scientists have discovered that it performs over 200 different functions in the body. Among its many functions are processing nutrients, making plasma proteins and blood-clotting chemicals, detoxifying (transforming into less harmful substances) alcohol and drugs, storing vitamins and iron, and producing cholesterol.

One of the liver's main digestive functions is the production of bile. A watery, greenish yellow liquid, bile consists mostly of water, bile salts, cholesterol, and assorted lipids or fats. Liver cells produce roughly 1 quart (1 liter) of bile each day. Bile leaves the liver through the common hepatic duct. This duct unites with the cystic duct from the gall bladder to form the common bile duct, which delivers bile to the duodenum.

In the small intestine, bile salts emulsify fats, breaking them down from large globules into smaller droplets that stay suspended in the watery fluid in the small intestine. Bile salts are not enzymes and, therefore, do not digest fats. By breaking down the fats in to smaller units, bile salts aid the fatdigesting enzymes present in the small intestine.

The gall bladder

The gall bladder is a small, pouchlike, green organ located on the undersurface of the right lobe of the liver. It measures 3 to 4 inches (7.6 to 10 centimeters) in length. The gall bladder's function is to store bile, of which it can hold about 1.2 to 1.7 ounces (35 to 50 milliliters).

The liver continuously produces bile. When digestion is not occurring, bile backs up the cystic duct and enters the gall bladder. While holding the bile, the gall bladder removes water from it, making it more concentrated. When fatty food enters the duodenum once again, the gall bladder is stimulated to contract and spurt out the stored bile.

The digestive system breaks down food into a useful form through mechanical and chemical means. Mechanical digestion is the physical breaking up food into small pieces, such as by chewing. The smaller pieces are then acted upon by digestive enzymes, which change complex chemical molecules into much simpler molecules the body can easily utilize. This process involving enzymes is called chemical digestion.

Digestive activities in the mouth

Food taken into the mouth is broken down by both mechanical and chemical means. Through the process of mastication or chewing, teeth physically break down the tough tissues of meats and fibers of plants into smaller particles. The tongue helps move the food around the mouth, allowing the different sets of teeth variously to cut, tear, or grind the food. The jaw muscles, perhaps some of the strongest muscles in the body, help the teeth break down food in seconds.

Stimulated by the presence of something in the mouth, salivary glands secrete an increased amount of saliva (the sensations of sight, taste, and smell also increase saliva flow). As saliva is mixed with the food, salivary amylase (an enzyme in saliva) begins the chemical digestion of carbohydrates or starches, changing them into the simple sugar maltose.

As the food is broken down into pieces by the teeth and mixed with saliva, the tongue rolls these pieces into a battered, moistened, soft mass or ball called a bolus. Only after food has been compacted into a bolus of proper texture and consistency can swallowing occur.

Swallowing is both a voluntary and involuntary action. Once food has been properly chewed and mixed with saliva to create a bolus, the tongue forces the bolus toward the back of the mouth and into the pharynx. This a voluntary action; the individual has total control over moving the bolus while it is in the mouth. When the bolus presses against the soft palate, the soft palate and the uvula rise to close off the nasal passages to prevent the bolus from entering them.

Once the bolus enters the pharynx, swallowing becomes an automatic reflex action and cannot be stopped. The larynx, the upper part of the trachea that contains the vocal cords, rises. As it does so, a flaplike piece of tissue at the top of the larynx, the epiglottis, folds down to cover its opening. This prevents the bolus from passing into the trachea.

Sometimes, when a person laughs or talks while eating or drinking, the uvula and the epiglottis may not cover their openings quickly enough. If the uvula does not rise in time, bits of food or liquid may squirt up into the nose. If the epiglottis does not fold down, bits of food or liquid may enter the trachea, causing the person to cough (a protective reflex) until the food or liquid is expelled from the trachea.

Once material reaches the esophagus, the circular muscles in the walls of the esophagus begin alternately to contract and relax in a wavelike manner, pushing the bolus farther and farther down. This series of wavelike muscular motions is known as peristalsis (or peristaltic contractions). Material is pushed down the esophagus regardless what position a person is in: standing up, sitting, lying down, or upside down. Gravity helps move the bolus along, but peristalsis occurs even in the zero gravity of space.

A typical moist bolus takes about 9 seconds to travel through the esophagus. Drier boluses take longer. Liquids often pass through this muscular tube in just seconds, faster than the accompanying peristaltic waves. When the bolus or liquid reaches the lower esophageal sphincter, it presses against the sphincter, causing it to open. The material then passes into the stomach.

Digestive activities in the stomach

Gastric juices begin to flood the stomach even before food arrives. The sight, smell, taste, or even thought of food triggers the central nervous system to send nerve impulses to the gastric glands, which respond by secreting gastric juice. Once food does arrive in the stomach and touches its lining, cells in the lining release gastrin, a hormone. Gastrin, in turn, stimulates the production of even greater amounts of gastric juice.

As food fills the stomach, its wall begin to stretch. This initiates mechanical digestion in the stomach. The muscles in the walls being to contract, compressing and pummeling the food, breaking it apart physically. At the same time, the food is being mixed with gastric juices, and chemical digestion begins. Pepsin, the protein-digesting enzyme in gastric juice, starts to break down complex proteins. Little digestion of carbohydrates or fats takes place in the stomach. Water, alcohol, and drugs such as aspirin, however, are absorbed through the walls of the stomach into the bloodstream.

Once the food has been well mixed and broken down into chyme, peristalsis begins in the lower portion of the stomach. Chyme is moved downward into the pylorus. With each contraction of the stomach walls, the pyloric sphincter opens just a little, allowing a bit of chyme to squirt into the duodenum of the small intestine. When the duodenum is filled and its wall stretched, a nerve impulse is sent to the stomach to slow down its activity. It takes about four hours for the stomach to empty completely after receiving a well-balanced meal. If that meal contains much fat, then the process could take six or more hours.

Digestive activity in the small intestine

When chyme from the stomach enters the small intestine, it contains proteins and carbohydrates that have been only partially digested. Fats have been hardly digested. Over a three-to six-hour period, as chyme moves through the twists and coils of the small intestine, chemical digestion increases. By the time chyme reaches the end of the small intestine, eighty percent of all digestion in the body has taken place.

The presence of chyme in the duodenum stimulates the secretion of intestinal juice. Cells in the lining of the duodenum are also stimulated to produce hormones that, in turn, stimulate the pancreas to produce pancreatic juice and the liver to produce bile (the gall bladder is also stimulated to release its store of concentrated bile). Both enter the duodenum and combine with intestinal juice to digest or break down proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.

Peristalsis occurs in the small intestine, mixing the chyme with the intestinal juices and moving it through the organ. Although water and nutrients are absorbed all along the length of the small intestine, most absorption occurs in the jejunum. In this section, digested carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and most of the vitamins, minerals, and iron are absorbed. These nutrients pass through the walls of the villi into the blood capillaries and lacteals (lymph capillaries). The blood capillaries eventually drain into veins that connect with the portal vein, which transports the nutrient-rich blood to the liver. The lacteals, carrying fat nutrients, eventually drain into larger lymph vessels that connect with the venous system.

By the time material enters the ileum, the last section of the small intestine, all that remains is some water, indigestible food matter (such as plant fibers), and bacteria. This material then enters the large intestine through the ileocecal valve, which closes to prevent material from flowing backward.

Digestive activities in the large intestine

The large intestine does not produce any digestive enzymes; therefore, no digestion takes place. It functions mainly to absorb water and a few minerals from the waste products of digestion. Peristalsis in the large intestine occurs very slowly: material takes between twelve and twenty-four hours to pass through.

Millions of bacteria living in the large intestine feed on the waste products. In doing so, they produce vitamin K and some B vitamins that are absorbed through the wall of the large intestine into the bloodstream and then transported to the liver. The bacteria also produce intestinal gasmethane and hydrogen sulfidethat gives feces their characteristic odor. The amount of that gas, properly known as flatus, may increase if certain foods rich in carbohydrates (such as beans) are eaten.

Anorexia nervosa (an-ah-REK-seeah ner-VO-sa): Eating disorder usually occurring in young women that is characterized by an abnormal fear of becoming obese, a persistent aversion to food, and severe weight loss.

Appendicitis (ah-pen-di-SIGH-tis): Inflammation of the appendix.

Biliary atresia (BILL-ee-a-ree ah-TREE-zee-ah): Condition in which ducts to transport bile from the liver to the duodenum fail to develop in a fetus.

Bulimia (boo-LEE-me-ah): Eating disorder characterized by eating binges followed by selfinduced vomiting or laxative abuse.

Cirrhosis (si-ROW-sis): Chronic disease of the liver in which normal liver cells are damaged and then replaced by scar tissue.

Crohn's disease (CRONES di-ZEEZ): Disorder that causes inflammation and ulceration of all the layers of the intestinal wall, particularly in the small intestine.

Diverticulosis (di-ver-ti-cue-LOW-sis): Condition in which the inner lining of the large intestine bulges out through its muscular wall; if the bulges become infected, the condition is called diverticulitis.

Gallstones (GAUL-stones): Solid crystal deposits that form in the gall bladder.

Hepatitis (hep-a-TIE-tis): Inflammation of the liver, caused mainly by a virus.

Lactose intolerance (LAK-tose in-TOL-er-ance): Inability of the body to digest significant amounts of lactose, the predominant sugar in milk.

Ulcer (digestive) (UL-sir): Any sore that develops in the lining of the lower esophagus, stomach, or duodenum.

Ulcerative colitis (UL-sir-a-tiv ko-LIE-tis): Disorder that causes inflammation and ulceration of the inner lining of the large intestine and rectum.

When powerful peristaltic contractions force the feces or compacted waste products from the sigmoid colon into the rectum, the wall of the rectum stretches. This triggers the defecation reflex. Signals from the spinal cord cause the walls of the sigmoid colon and rectum to contract and the anal sphincters to relax. Feces are then eliminated through the anus. The outer sphincter muscle can be controlled voluntarily, allowing an individual to delay defecation when necessary.

Biliary atresia

Diverticulosis and diverticulitis

Inflammatory bowel disease

Ulcers (digestive)

Before the 1980s, physicians believed ulcers were caused by several factorsincluding stress and a poor dietthat resulted in excess stomach acid. Medical research has since shown that a certain bacterium that can live undetected in the mucous membrane of the digestive tract is the culprit. This bacterium irritates and weakens the lining, making it more susceptible to

The body is wholly dependent on the digestive system to provide it with the nutrientsfluids, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and mineralsit needs to continue to function. If the digestive system fails to do this because it is not functioning properly, the entire body suffers.

A healthy lifestyle will keep the digestive system healthy. This includes following a proper diet, exercising regularly, maintaining a healthy weight, not smoking, drinking alcohol only in moderation, and reducing stress.

Tapeworms are parasites (organisms that live in or on other kinds of organisms) that live in the intestinal tracts of some animals. There are three major species of tapeworms that can infect humans. They are typically acquired from eating raw or undercooked beef, pork, or fish.

Tapeworm eggs are passed along in feces. When improperly treated human sewage is used to fertilize pastures or crops, pigs and cattle can become infected with the eggs. They can also become infected from drinking contaminated water. Freshwater fish become infected when human feces contaminates their water source.

The tapeworm eggs develop into larvae in the infected animals and fish. When humans eat the meat from those animals and fish without properly cooking it, they become infected. The tapeworm travels to the intestine, attaching itself to the inner lining by hooks on its head. If not treated, the tapeworm may stay in the intestine for years, absorbing nutrients through its outer covering. It may grow up to 30 feet (9 meters) in length.

Most individuals infected with a tapeworm have no symptoms. Some, however, may experience pain in the upper abdomen, diarrhea, unexplained weight loss, and weakness. A tapeworm's eggs or worn body parts that appear in an individual's feces are often the only sign of an infection.

Tapeworms are easily treated with medication. Practicing good hygiene and avoiding raw or undercooked meat or fish are important steps in preventing a tapeworm infection.

The "Food Guide" Pyramid developed by the U.S. Departments of Agriculture and Health and Human Services provides easy-to-follow guidelines for a proper diet. In general, foods that are low in fat (especially saturated fat), low in cholesterol, and high in fiber should be eaten. Fiber is especially important in maintaining the workings of the intestines. Fat should make up no more than 30 percent of a person's total daily calorie intake. Breads, cereals, pastas, fruits, and vegetables should form the bulk of a person's diet; meat, fish, nuts, and cheese and other dairy products should make up a lesser portion. Drinking fluids, especially water, helps move material through the digestive system.

Long-term ingestion of cigarette fumes, excessive alcohol, and spicy foods can cause serious damage to the digestive system. Toxins that are taken into the body by way of the mouth are absorbed by the digestive tract and transported to the liver, which can suffer permanent damage. Many medications can injure the lining of the esophagus, stomach, and intestines. Medicines in pill or capsule form should always be taken with plenty of water.

Teeth are an important, yet often overlooked, part of the digestive system. They begin the entire process of digestion. Oral hygiene is, therefore, a primary concern. The best way to prevent tooth decay is to brush the teeth at least twice a day, preferably after every meal and snack. The teeth should also be flossed daily to help prevent gum disease.

Minor irritations of the digestive system are common. Occasional diarrhea, constipation, or excessive gas is to be expected. Often, they are treated with nonprescription drugs. However, if these or any digestive problems persist, they should not be ignored and medical attention should be sought.

Avraham, Regina. The Digestive System. New York: Chelsea House, 1989.

Ballard, Carol. The Stomach and Digestive System. Austin, TX: Raintree/Steck-Vaughn, 1997.

Bryan, Jenny. Digestion. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Silver Burdett Press, 1993.

Epstein, Rachel. Eating Habits and Disorders. New York: Chelsea House, 1990.

Parker, Steve. Digestion. Brookfield, CT: Copper Beech Books, 1997.

Parramon, Merce. The Digestive System. New York: Chelsea House, 1994.

Silverstein, Alvin, Virginia B. Silverstein, and Robert A. Silverstein. The Digestive System. New York: Twenty-First Century Books, 1994.

WWW Sites

American Digestive Health Foundation
Homepage of a national organization that advances digestive health through the financial support of research and education in the cause, prevention, diagnosis, treatment, and cure of digestive diseases.

Digestive System
Site includes a large image of the human digestive system with each part/organ linked to a paragraph explanation of its structure and function.

The Digestive SystemHow It Works
Site from the Jefferson Health System, a collective of member hospitals and healthcare organizations in the greater Philadelphia region. Information on the digestive system includes a discussion of how it works and the numerous disorders that can afflict it.

MUSC Digestive Disease Center
Site of the Medical University of South Carolina focusing on digestive diseases. Includes an overview of the digestive organs, an extensive list of diseases and their symptoms, and links to other sites.

Virtual Anatomy Textbook: The Digestive System
Site provides extensive coverage of the parts of the digestive system, mixing images and text. System parts are grouped into three classes: early digestion, middle digestion, and late digestion.

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Sophia Hapgood (Character)
from Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis (1992) (VG)

Indiana Jones: [complimenting Sophia] In this light you look just like Vivien Leigh.
Sophia Hapgood: Frankly Indy, I don't give a damn.

Indiana Jones: Of all the shops in Algeria and we had to walk into this one.
Sophia Hapgood: We'll always have Iceland Indy...

Indiana Jones: [while exploring the Crete labyrinth] Some date, huh?
Sophia Hapgood: We're not dating Jones; this is not a date, if it was a date, I would've stood you up!

Indiana Jones: [Indy is making shadow puppets with a flashlight and makes a dog] Neat! Woof, woof!
Sophia Hapgood: ...Indy?
Indiana Jones: [makes an elephant] It's Jumbo! King of the Circus!
Sophia Hapgood: What do you think you're doing?
Indiana Jones: [makes a rabbit] ... and here's Nur-Ab-Sal!
Sophia Hapgood: Stop that this instant!
Indiana Jones: [turns off flashlight] ... sorry.

[last lines]
[looking at the volcano left after Atlantis' collapse]
Indiana Jones: You know, a lot of my discoveries seem like tall tales, even to me. At least there's some evidence now.
[the volcano promptly sinks under the surface]
Sophia Hapgood: Then again, maybe not.
[Indy suddenly kisses Sohia intently]
Sophia Hapgood: [surprised] What was that for?
Indiana Jones: To ease the pain.

Sophia Hapgood: Not so fast; first I'm going to read your fortune.
[Sophia moves closer to Indy]
Sophia Hapgood: Look into my eyes.
[Indy backs off nervously, Sophia moves in again]
Sophia Hapgood: *Deep* into my eyes.
[Indy backs off again, Sophia follows]
Sophia Hapgood: For Pete's sake, I'm not going to hurt you!

Indiana Jones: [in Iceland] Cold enough for ya?
Sophia Hapgood: Even colder than my feelings toward you, Dr. Jones.

Indiana Jones: [Indy finds Sophia trapped in a pit in the Knossos labyrinth, but cannot see her] How do I know you're really Sophia?
Sophia Hapgood: If I wasn't Sophia, how would I know about that cute little birthmark on your...
Indiana Jones: Fine, you're Sophia!


CAD/CAM developer Lectra has launched an updated version of its Diamino automatic marker-making solution, which it claims will help fashion and footwear firms make significant fabric savings and improve productivity.

The DiaminoFashion and DiaminoFootwear software can be used in either interactive (manual) or automatic modes.

Interactive marker-making requires some initial intervention from the user to prepare the markers on-screen for fabric pieces to be cut during production.

The automatic method is entirely managed by Diamino, and can contribute to increased productivity by letting the software process a list of markers in the background or overnight, without an operator.

The combination of these two methods, says Lectra, means high volumes of markers using simple pieces can be launched automatically, with consequent time savings and improved efficiency.

The marker maker is then free to concentrate on the quality of markers using more complex pieces so that fabric use can be maximised.

"The ability to combine these two modes of a considerable competitive advantage for our customers," said Daniel Harari, Lectra CEO.

In markets where margins are generally low and where fabric represents more than 50% of the cost of the finished article, the software's quoted material savings of 2-4% take on real meaning.
A small- or medium-sized fashion company producing $10m in garments per year, could save $100,000 per year in fabric costs, for example.


The Buddha in the Attic

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Curriculet Details
16 Questions
20 Annotations
3 Quizzes

This free digital curriculum for 9th grade students contains interactive videos exploring the Japanese internment during World War II and elements of Otsuka's novel, as well as annotations describing themes, imagery, and tone. Students will explore the themes of prejudice, change versus tradition, and disillusionment and dreams. The Common Core aligned questions, answers and quizzes in this free online unit will increase student engagement in the book while supporting reading comprehension.

The curriculet is being added to your library

Come, Japanese!

Did you know that this Curriculet has a built-in "Define" tool? To use this tool, click on any one word. Select "Define," and a list of definitions will appear. Practice using this tool by defining "kimonos" in the text.
As you read Julie Otsuka's The Little Buddha, we will explore the narrative point of view and the cultural perspectives throughout the work. Watch the video below, and keep an eye out for annotations and questions related to this topic.  (This annotation contains a video)
Which type of narration does the author, Otsuka, choose to tell this story?
Take a moment and think about what travels with these woman on the boat. What types of physical items represent their culture? What values are apparent because of the items they bring?
Why are some words in this story italicized?
This short entry is meant to convey a sense of
Many Japanese are Buddhists. They follow the teachings of Buddha (shown below), a religious man who lived sometime between the 6th and 4th century BCE. The women aboard this ship (except for the one Christian) are influenced by Buddhism, and we will look more closely at how it influences their perspectives, actions, and even themes in this story.  (This annotation contains an image)
Which of the following appears to have the MOST influence on these girls' values and point of view about the world?
The letdown that these girls experience is an example of irony. Watch the video below to learn more about this concept. What kind of irony is present in the final scene in the first chapter?  (This annotation contains a video)

First Night

What literary technique does Otsuka use to create a sense of tension and a mood of despair in this chapter, "The First Night"?

Japanese were not a welcome group in most of California in the early 20th century. In fact, many Japanese were even held at internment camps, like Manzanar (shown below). What does the phrase "You now belong to the invisible world" imply about Americans' attitudes towards the Japanese?  (This annotation contains an image)
What inference can be drawn based on the highlighted text?
The highlighted passage is an unique example of a flashback. Watch the following video to help you understand why. What effect does this flashback have on you as you read this story? (This annotation contains a video)
What cumulative effect does the use of first-person plural narration have on the tone of this story?
There are several themes in this story. Watch the following video to learn more about themes. What theme do you think the Japanese women's interaction with the wealthy white women most conveys?  (This annotation contains a video)
What theme is MOST conveyed through the sections of the text that highlight the interaction between the Japanese and wealthy women?
Take a moment and think about the consequences these women face for living a duplicitous life. What do you think motivates them to leave? What theme does this section about their life away from their husbands most connect to?
Part I Quiz

Which of the following BEST describes the combination of moods that the imagery in this chapter conveys as the narrators discuss their experiences having babies?
Otsuka uses imagery in this chapter to help you visualize what these women experienced. Watch the video below on imagery. What's one example of imagery that you find particularly poignant?  (This annotation contains a video)

The Children

Take a moment and think about the relationships that children have with their mothers and fathers in this community. What cultural values are apparent in the narrators' description of family life? Which of these values can you relate to?
Which theme do the narrators MOST strongly convey through their descriptions of their children's lives?
The word "forgot" is repeated throughout this section of the text. What effect does this repetition have on you as a reader? What theme does Otsuka convey through this section and the repeated use of the word "forgot"?
The imagery used in this highlighted text is meant to convey the narrators' sense of
Follow the link and read the poem "A Dream Deferred," by the poet Langston Hughes. In what ways does this poem relate to the experiences of these Japanese children in America mentioned in this chapter? Which example of segregation from "The Children" were you most affected by? (This annotation contains a link)

The following clip contains real footage from this tragic event in American history. Listen to the propaganda in this video and contrast it with the reality that you read in this chapter.  (This annotation contains a video)
How does the highlighted passage MOST relate to the title of this story?
How does the treatment of the Japanese in America compare to the treatment of African Americans? Jewish people during the Holocaust in Europe? Take a moment and reflect on what you remember of Nazi Germany and slavery in American history, and compare it to what you read in this story.
In the beginning chapters of this story, the Japanese women have high expectations for their American experience. They are quickly disillusioned. What event, though, MOST precipitates a change of heart?
In the midst of the chaos of this paranoid prejudice and segregation, Otsuka inserts imagery about nature. Take a look at the highlighted passage. Why do you think she uses these types of images ? What effect do you think she hopes to accomplish?
Part II Quiz

Last Day

What is the intended meaning of the imagery used in this highlighted line?
How does Otsuka challenge your assumptions about how people left for the interment camps? Think about the style of narration she uses, and how this contributes to a more robust, realistic understanding of this event.
The government's involvement in the Japanese internment camps left many Japanese wondering just how much freedom there really was in America. The relocation card (shown below) is a document from this time period. As we look back today, this internment seems foolish. What do you think drove the American government to such an extreme measure of prejudice?  (This annotation contains an image)

A Disappearance

How does the narration in "A Disappearance" MOST change from the narration in the previous chapters?
Otsuka's portrayal of what other Americans perceive during the displacement and internment is haunting. In what way does Otsuka create a mood of ghostly emptiness in this chapter? What details contribute to this mood?
The narrators, in general, have a ___ tone towards their Japanese neighbors.
Take a moment and think about how the Americans' response to the Japanese disappearance is slowly changing. They seem sad, but do they actually do anything about it? Do you think their response is a selfish or selfless one? Consider Edmund Burke's famous quote: "The only thing necessary for the triumph of evil is for good men to do nothing."
Part III Quiz


Income Tax to serve demand notices on 339 Swiss account holders

NEW DELHI,Shrimi Choudhary(DNA): The Income Tax sleuths are all set to process demand notices to 339 account holders in Swiss banks under the HSBC list.

“We are in the process of finalising assessment which will be over early this March. So far, the department has finalised assessment of almost 85-90 assessees involving more than 300 assessments,” said a senior I-T official close to the development.

What will the demand notices comprise?

“By the end of March 31, demand notice will be sent to all the respective account holders of HSBC Geneva. The demand notice will include corporate tax (33%), penalties (could be anywhere between 100% and 300%) and interest payments depending on the nature of the case. This will work out to around 150% of money stashed abroad,” said sources.

Is I-T dept contacting other countries as well?

According to sources, the I-T department is sending another round of consent letters to the governments in the UK, the US and Germany seeking information of some major assesees.

“In some cases, we have found huge amount of money being diverted to the US and the UK bank accounts from Geneva, that information need to be sought.”
The Special Investigation Team (SIT) clearly instructed the department that irrespective of this, notices should be served in all the actionable cases even if the respective countries would not respond in the given timeline, said sources.

What is the stash of black money worth today?

The government had said in December that of the list of 628 Indians who could be holding black money overseas as per the HSBC list, 201 are either non-traceable or non-residents, while 289 have no balance left in their accounts. There are 427 actionable cases that collectively hold a sum of Rs 4,479 crore in bank accounts overseas, according to the official release, calculated at the dollar-rupee exchange of Rs 45 per dollar.

Out of these, an amount of Rs 2,926 crore has been brought to tax towards the undisclosed balances in the accounts relating to these persons.

Have penalty proceedings been initiated so far?

Penalty proceedings under Section 271 (1)(c) of the Income Tax Act, 1961 (IT Act) have been initiated in 46 cases. Such penalties have been levied in three cases so far. With regard to the other assessees, proceedings are pending.

Finance minister Arun Jaitley had earlier said that proceedings in these cases would be completed by March 31. The SIT headed by retired Supreme Court judge M B Shah along with Justice (retd) Arijit Pasayat had also stated in their last report submitted to the apex court in December that these cases would be brought to their logical and legal conclusion by the said deadline.

I-T to start raising demand notices by March first week
Out of 628 HSBC account holders, balances are shown against 339 persons
201 are either non–residents or non–traceable
Department has finalised assessment of almost 85-90 assessees out of 300 assessments
Total amount involved is about Rs 4,479 crore


British Listed Buildings

History in Structure

The Lodges, Gates, Gate Piers and Walls to Birmingham University Campus, Pritchatt's Road, Birmingham

Description: The Lodges, Gates, Gate Piers and Walls to Birmingham University Campus, Pritchatt's Road

Grade: II
Date Listed: 3 August 2011
English Heritage Building ID: 1402289

OS Grid Reference: SP0488983869
OS Grid Coordinates: 404851, 283857
Latitude/Longitude: 52.4527, -1.9300

Locality: Birmingham
County: Birmingham
Country: England
Postcode: B15 2SB

Incorrect location/postcode? Submit a correction!

Listing Text

A pair of ceremonial drive gates, with pedestrian gates to either side, all made by the Birmingham Guild, with lodges set at either side and wing walls. The grouping was designed by H T Buckland and W Haywood and built in 1930.

Reason for Listing

The Lodges, gates, gate piers and walls which form the northern entrance to Birmingham University campus. Pritchatt's Road, are designated at Grade II for the following principal reasons:
* Architectural: the grouping has strong architectural presence which and well suited to its setting at the entrance to the campus, and provides a suitable introduction to the university buildings beyond.
* Intactness: the buildings are notable intact and retain their original layout and materials, with very little alteration to the design and the retention of many original fittings.

The grand and ambitious scheme for the buildings of Birmingham University on its campus site in Edgbaston took several decades to complete and underwent several changes of plan. Until the mid-C20 the lack of sufficient buildings meant that parts of the old Mason's College were still used by several academic departments, including Arts, Law, Education and Medicine.

In the 1920s, as an attempt to consolidate the university on one site, the Chancellor, Grant Robertson, led an appeal which led to the grant of a further forty-one acres of land from the Calthorpe family from their Edgbaston estate. Robertson had planned an extension to the buildings which would have been a mirror image of the original semi-circular grouping that Aston Webb and Ingress Bell had designed. However, the Calthorpe family felt that the topography lent itself to a grand processional route which would start at an entrance on Pritchatt's Road and then lead as a straight, tree-lined avenue to the Harding Library gates, through the Chamberlain tower and to the steps of the Great Hall.

The avenue was laid out as planned and continued to exist until the building of the five-storey Library building by Verner Rees in 1957-60, which is set on this central line. Trees from the avenue still exist, but the area adjacent to Pritchatt's Road is now a car park.

A pair of ceremonial drive gates, with pedestrian gates to either side, all made by the Birmingham Guild, with lodges set at either side and wing walls. The grouping was designed by H T Buckland and W Haywood and built in 1930. The buildings are of red brick laid in Flemish bond with ashlar dressings. The lodge roofs are hipped and covered with pantiles and the gates are of wrought and cast iron.

PLAN: walling fronts onto Pritchatts Road and is terminated by piers. At the centre, lengthy sections of quadrant walling form a crescent-shaped approach to the central gates which are divided by rectangular, ashlar piers. Further curved walls lead from the lateral piers to join with the single-storey lodges, which are set at either side of the driveway, to the south of the gates, and slightly curved on plan. Beyond them, more walls curve inwards towards the driveway.

EXTERIOR: the lodges are each of five bays with a central doorway, approached along a paved path which has panels of alternating stone arranged in a grid pattern. Each panelled door has eight raised and fielded panels and a central bronze knob and an ashlar surround with panels at either and a decorative cornice which has alternating raised and fluted panels with curved and pointed cresting. At either side of this are windows with two casement lights. The surrounds to the windows have canted headers and there is a band of similar bricks below the top of the wall. Metal pins at either side of the windows show that they formerly had shutters. There are two, symmetrically placed, ridge stacks to each cottage, which have a stone band and moulded cap and a raised panel to each side. Each lodge façade is gently curved away from the drive, but is flanked by walls which curve inwards. These connect to the gates on the north side and terminate in piers on the south side with ashlar panels and similar cornicing to that seen above the lodge doors. Similar piers terminate the walling on the Pritchatt’s Road front. The garden front of each lodge has three wide bays, with a recessed door to the centre, with stone surround and flanked by small windows in the upper wall. At either side, and projecting slightly, are flat-roofed bays with three-light casements. The tops of the walls have a soldier course of bricks on this front. Connected to these rear fronts are stretches of Flemish bond walling with ashlar coping, which form the enclosed garden for each house. The north and south end fronts each have a two-light casement. The central, drive gates and the lateral pedestrian gates, have shaped tops and are infilled with panels which have S-shaped bars and cast, shell-shaped bosses. They are painted a bronze colour, but there are signs of original gilding to the cresting. The ashlar gate piers have raised and fielded panels to each side and carved cornicing, as seen elsewhere on the group. The central piers carry the university arms, carved in relief to their northern face. The original bell-shaped lanterns have been replaced by projecting lamps in the later C20.

INTERIOR: each lodge retains its original plan in all essentials. These have a central, octagonal lobby from which gently curved corridors lead off in both directions. Door surrounds are moulded, and fitted cupboards with panelled doors survive in both houses. All original chimney breasts and the majority of the original fire surrounds survive. Both lodges appear to retain their original, small lean-to glass house at the north end.

Source: English Heritage

Listed building text is © Crown Copyright. Reproduced under licence.


Is inflation the remedy?

ANYONE over 40 will be having trouble keeping track of the latest screeching U-turn by expert opinion. Hardly had the National Trust decided that dusting is bad for houses, while cobwebs are environmentally sound, than diet books urging a regime of steak and red wine were topping the bestseller list.

And then there is inflation. Low inflation, it seems, is rotting our nest-eggs away. Again and again we read and hear of low rates of return caused, in part, by low interest rates, which can only reflect low rates of inflation.

Of course, there are other factors, chiefly the slump in share values since 2000 and, on the pension side, the impressive failure of the actuarial profession to notice that people are living longer.

But low inflation is very much in the frame, for all that the spokespeople for the personal finance industry prefer to talk of low interest rates. Given that interest rates change solely in relation to the need to control inflation, this is a distinction without a difference.

In this light, a spot of inflation is just what the doctor ordered to pep-up your unit trusts, pension scheme and endowments. At this point, the oldies will be scratching their heads, quite sure that, once upon a time, the opposite was said to be the case.

They are right. Margaret Thatcher spelled it out in September 1975: 'Inflation is the death of savings.'

It was hard to disagree. If inflation is destroying the value of money, then saving is a mug's game and borrowing is sensible, given that the debt will be repaid in sharply devalued pounds.

Inflation was roaring up at 24.2% as Thatcher was speaking. Today it is 3.1%. The mystery, then, is working out why low inflation has prompted such gnashing of teeth among the thrifty. The first step in solving the puzzle is distinguishing saving from investment, the former lacking the speculative element of the latter.

Yes, inflation is bad for savings - £100 parked with a building society in January 1975 would have had a real ( inflation-adjusted) value of just £92 by the end of December 1980. But thanks to the latest edition of Barclays' Equity Gilt Study, we can see that those six years would have been much kinder to £100 invested in shares, whose real value would have risen to £132.

Even during less ferocious inflation, savings accounts fare poorly compared with shares: £100 in a building society in 1985 would have seen a real gain of 20% by the end of 1990, while shares grew by 40%.

As mentioned above, shares are riskier than savings accounts, so those that do well ought to pay higher rewards, otherwise nobody would buy them. But these figures do not apply only to shares that do well - they apply to all shares, the duds as well as the winners.

And bonds, including gilts, are far less risky than shares, yet £100 invested in Government stock in January 1975 became £108 in real terms by the end of 1980.

So somehow, equity investors, and, to a lesser extent, bond investors, have had a helping hand from inflation.

Why? Surely rises in inflation and rises in share values or interest rates ought to cancel each other out?

On the same swings and roundabouts principle, today's lower investment yields ought to be balanced out by lower inflation. Monetary conditions simply should not matter to investors - yet clearly they do.

In part, this is a case of 'money illusion' - the fact that people feel richer with a ten% rise in income alongside ten% inflation than with a one% rise in income alongside one% inflation. Money illusion covers investments as well --100 invested at the 1972 stock-market peak would not be worth £100 again, in real terms, until 1983.

But this is far from the whole story. More important is the fact that inflation silently redistributes wealth.

Gains for shareholders in the high-inflation Seventies were paid for by those with savings accounts, anyone living on a fixed income, and to some extent by those in work - between 1975 and 1978, real incomes fell 13% while shares rose 18%.

This would have been self-feeding. As investors spotted that shareholders were taking a bigger real share of profits at the expense of employees, then the shares would have risen further.

Today, investors have lost this agreeable top-up, paid by people whose consent was never sought and who were probably unaware of their own generosity.

The answer is not a return to high inflation and its unfair transfers of wealth, but the emergence of a new Lord Beveridge to create safe, predictable and guaranteed vehicles for savings, investment and retirement, leaving a speculative fringe for freer spirits.

Don't hold your breath.


Tiffany Fulcher

Entrepreneur, speaker, and life purpose architect, Tiffany is devoted to encouraging others to unleash their inﬂuence and upgrade their lives. She is the CEO and founder of Tiffany Fulcher Enterprise and the Inﬂuencer’s Institute—a lifestyle business school created to educate, train, and inspire small business owners and entrepreneurs in strategic implementation, income generation, leveraging their inﬂuence, creat- ing more time in their day, making a bigger impact, and building a business without debt. [+]