What is the New York Community Media Alliance?

Approximately 25 percent of all American adults rely on ethnic media for their news – a total of about 51 million people. In New York City, this ethnic and community media sector  includes close to 350 weeklies and 26 foreign-language dailies, and reaches a readership of well over 3.5 million, 1.8 million of whom have little or no English-language skills, according to the Mayor's Office on Immigrant Affairs. Well over one-third of these publications are distributed nationally, extending the impact of their reporting beyond the confines of their neighborhood, city and state.
Founded in 2007, the New York Community Media Alliance (NYCMA) is a member-driven organization that promotes and advocates for the ethnic and community media sector in New York. Through a cluster of programs called the Grassroots Media Project (GMP), the NYCMA encourages informed public participation in communities not well-served by mainstream media, which include  low-income and working-class communities, communities of color, and immigrant communities where English is not the primary language. The GMP helps to strengthen the quality of editorial and business reporting, advocates on for access to information on behalf of immigrant and community journalists, and fosters coalition building within the ethnic and community media sector aimed at demanding transparency and accountability from local, state and federal governments. These programs help to pass on news and analyses from these often disenfranchised communities. They include:
1. The Ethnic and Community Press Fellowship—a 10 month program offering journalists training to strengthen their investigative reporting skills, networking opportunities with city and advocacy leaders for a more in-depth understanding of the issues, and assistance in expanding their pool of resources. `
2. “Voices That Must Be Heard”—a weekly online publication that culls articles from NYC’s ethnic and community press and translates them into English when appropriate, reaching 20,000 readers including mainstream journalists, advocacy groups, city and state agencies, and students.
3. The Independent Press Institute (IPI)—offers press briefings to ethnic and community journalists, and technical workshops to editors and marketing staff.
4. The Ad Service—a program designed to draw advertisers to the network of ethnic and community newspapers, which are not always as well-known or accessible, to help the publications meet their bottom line.
5. The “IPPIES Awards”—the only journalism awards in NYC to honor reporting in this media sector, both in English and in languages other than English.
6. Many Voices, One City—an ethnic and community press directory for NYC and the metropolitan area.
The NYCMA reaches people between the ages of 25 to 60. However, its main target audience includes groups of young adults, low-income people of color, and young academics perceived as future community leaders. The organization is working to contest a media environment that fails to acknowledge and perceive in a nuanced way the needs and concerns of the ethnically diverse communities and communities of color that continue to emerge and represent 60 percent of New York City’s residents. It holds itself accountable to the communities it serves by engaging in a constant process of self-evaluation;  members meet regularly to go over publications and make sure that their work continues to be aligned with their own original principles. The NYCMA is funded by some of the most prominent private foundations in the U.S. the Ford, Rockefeller, and Gates Foundations), and it actively uses Facebook.com and Twitter.com in order to raise awareness amongst people beyond the standard media outlets.

Why is the Alliance Important?

The communities the NYCMA serves are the most disenfranchised sectors of the U.S. population: low-income and working-class communities, communities of color, and immigrant communities in which English is not the primary language.  The social problems discussed on a daily basis throughout the HIA program have a particularly devastating impact on these populations. Some of these problems include: the ever-increasing income gap, lack of widespread comprehensive health care services, lack of sustainable community development practices, lack of comprehensive immigration legislation, a national educational system that some would describe as apartheid, poverty and joblessness, and poorly integrated neighborhoods and schools. When such communities do not have the resources necessary to live dignified lives, such as job opportunities, adequate and affordable health care and housing, proper educational and media access, and/or social networks, it becomes more difficult to organize, mobilize, and/or encourage civic engagement in these communities. How, then, does the NYCMA address the interrelated social problems plaguing these communities?

The ‘success’ of immigrant groups in terms of integration and their position in American society has been heavily influenced by government immigration and citizenship policies. The example of US immigration laws in the 1920s shows how, when compared to European immigrants who could legalize their status, settle and naturalize, Mexicans and other groups of color had more difficulty. Yale Professor of Latin American studies Alicia Camacho discussed how eugenics theories heavily influenced the way Mexicans were perceived (as having less intellectual capacity than ‘whites’ by virtue of their biological make-up), which impacted their ‘social desirability’ as an immigrant group. The nativist/eugenics discourse saw (and continues to see) these populations and new waves of immigrant populations as threats to a “distinctive Americanism.”

It is the hope of NYCMA that through improved media access, some of these unfortunate misconceptions of immigration will be avoided. The spread of community news to more mainstream parts of society will ideally contribute to a more profound understanding of the difficulties facing immigrant communities. It is also hoped that an increased quality of community media will help to cultivate a more engaged immigrant population, which will naturally result in better integration.  Finally, enabling immigrant communities to access the media in their native languages will improve their Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) test performance in their first language, which will allow them to better learn a second and/or third language. Language proficiency is essential to integration, community empowerment, and informed ethnic and immigrant communities that are better able to effect change in their workplace, children’s schools, and in society at large.

Civic Engagement

Studies on the political participation of immigrants in the US show that there are significant differences between immigrant groups depending on their background, economic situation, and size of ethnic group. With the recent presidential election as well as the upcoming US Census, the NYCMA has been involved in the movement to engage ethnic minorities in the electoral process. The success of community media is very clear in these contexts. In relation to the Census, NYCMA uses its connections and resources to inform and engage minorities and illegal immigrants about the process, the importance of being counted in order to obtain services, and the legal rights that they have even if they are undocumented (i.e. labor rights).

Informed Participation

Through the work of NYCMA,  the most disenfranchised populations are able to gain full access to information directly related to their needs. In addition to articles, radio, TV shows, and magazines that inform the communities, NYCMA also organizes press conferences about labor rights, immigrants’ rights, the Census, and electoral processes. Through these press conferences, communities have the opportunity to engage politicians, policymakers, activists, and journalists in critical dialogues about issues which directly impact their realities. They gain information about services available to them, such as those provided by the Northern Manhattan Coalition for Immigrant Rights. Moreover, these communities have access to analyses of current affairs which NYCMA members have conducted. For instance, in the last few decades, Latino undocumented migrants have experienced growing criminalization as a result of enhanced border controls and the rising numbers of deportations. Spreading awareness of immigrants’ rights and available services helps prevent and/or mitigate future discrimination and socio-political exclusion.

International Dialogue

Often, newly arrived immigrant groups rely on media from their native countries. The NYCMA allows immigrant communities to have access to this media in addition to community- based media operating in a more American context. In this way, immigrants can begin to see themselves as belonging to transnational communities with solidarities that extend between their new home and their native countries. In addition, the symbiotic relationship developed between publications from their native countries, and ethnic and community publications in the US, serves to identify the needs of ethnic and migrant communities here as they relate to the needs of those who could potentially emigrate to the US. This, in turn, can help to incite a much-needed dialogue about the importance of developing comprehensive foreign policy in Latin America and other parts of the world.

Thinking Globally: Proposals

In Denmark, we have a growing community of non-ethnic Danes. Until now, only one of those linguistic groups has acquired an independent media outlet: the Turkish newspaper Haber, which is published in collaboration with the Danish newspaper Politiken, serves the Turkish community. The vision put forth by NYCMA is therefore very relevant to the Danish context. The problem, however, is that there really are no ethnically-based community media outlets besides Haber. It will therefore be necessary to adjust the business model used in the US to the realities of the Danish media sector.
To implement some of NYCMA’s ideas, it will probably be necessary to collaborate with the mainstream media. Providing mainstream journalists with training about minority issues – either in an independent setting or through their official training – would seem to be the most credible way of implementing a more balanced media, which will take minority issues into greater consideration. Hopefully, that could lead to an alliance within the media sector of people committed to minority issues. If this resulted in a more serious coverage of minorities and the difficulties they face, it could help address some of the other problems in Danish society. Currently, most stories concerning minorities take a negative angle, fueling an already hostile environment for immigrants. If this bias were eliminated, it might facilitate integration and interethnic understanding in Denmark. Another useful approach would be to educate minority groups that might otherwise be excluded from official journalistic training programs, due to their lack of educational attainment and proficiency in the Danish language. If ethnic minority groups were better represented within the media, this would probably be reflected in better coverage of minority issues.

Migration has always been a part of Germany’s demographic shift towards a more heterogeneous society. This has led to the establishment of several ethnic and linguistic minorities within the country. However, according to field research conducted by Rainer Geißler (Massenmedien und Integration ethnischer Minderheiten in Deutschland), the mass media outlets in Germany fail to fully address the issues of minorities within the country. The Governmental Press Institute (Presse- und Informationsamts der Bundesregierung) found that the majority of the two million people of Turkish origin living in Germany make equal use of German and Turkish publications.
Other studies have shown that publically financed programs broadcasting in languages other than German were not sustainable, and vanished in the 1990s. In the meantime, independent media outlets have supplanted the government’s task of addressing minorities. Currently, there are over 50 independent newspapers published in languages other than German; for example, Hürriyet (Turkish), Akropolis (Greek) and Corriere d’Italia (Italian). Their overall quality is estimated to be comparable to the average local newspaper.
In comparison to the United States, there are fewer first-generation immigrants, and fewer people with no knowledge or insufficient knowledge of the native language (German). The ethnic composition of residential areas and their relative degree of empowerment in the political system also differs immensely from the US, and cannot be truly compared. The main problem in Germany seems to be what Prof. Dr. Karl-Heinz Meier-Braun.calls ‘ethnomarketing’. Immigrants are partly perceived as a threat, while average citizens regularly overestimate their numbers.
Adapting the idea of NYCMA’s “Voices That Must Be Heard” program for Germany would not only allow the broader public access to a more critical and diverse set of perspectives on important events, but contribute to a deeper understanding of the issues facing minorities in Germany as well as a more positive attitude regarding those minorities, neither of which is encouraged by mass media.

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I Can Think Clearly Now

Luda Kopeikina

You know how you feel when you have a ‘light bulb’ moment, when suddenly the solution to a problem becomes crystal clear. What if those were regular occurrences instead of elusive moments? Here is how to eliminate three bad habits (often mistaken as qualities) that can cloud your thinking and decision-making skills.

Many business leaders agonize over decisions. Big or small, we replay all the possible solutions to a problem over and over in our mind. We get so wrapped up in the problem that our brain often gets “stuck” and we can’t move forward. Sometimes the decision is easy, like which restaurant to take a client to, while other times the decision is much more difficult, such as whether to take a job transfer. Yet, when your mind is foggy and unfocused, even simple decisions can seem impossible.
Why are some of these seemingly “easy” decisions so hard to make? It’s not the decision itself, but rather the state your mind and body are in when you are faced with making one. You need to be relaxed, balanced, and focused to be able to easily make the right decisions every time. Additionally, we often engage in daily habits that make reaching clarity and good decisions near impossible.
When you’re in this proper mental state, all the facets of your mind and body come together in the right balance. You can …

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- Dave Barry


Thursday, March 8, 2018

FAQs about Choosing, Eating, and Juicing Oranges

How can you tell if an orange is ripe and sweet?

How long does citrus keep?

When is citrus season?

What are the best eating oranges?

What are the best juicing oranges?

What is the best way to juice an orange?

How do you pick an orange off a tree?

Thursday, February 22, 2018

Everything You Always Wanted to Know about Tangerines…But Were Afraid to Ask

Tangerines are technically mandarin oranges!

What is a tangerine?

This seemingly simple question does not have a simple answer! Scientifically speaking, “tangerine” is an inexact word. Generally, though, when we talk about tangerines, we’re talking about a fruit that is smaller than an orange, flatter at the top and bottom, and more reddish-orange in color.

Tangerines are usually sweeter than oranges, and their flavor is often considered richer, deeper, and stronger. They’re enjoyable to eat in part due to their thin, easy-peeling skin.

Botanically speaking, tangerines are a type of mandarin orange. Mandarin oranges originated in China (hence the name), while the fruit we now call tangerines first arrived in Europe in the 1800s. They were exported through the city of Tangiers in Morocco, which lent them their name. Tangerines were first grown in the United States near Palatka, Florida.

By the way, just to add to the tangerine confusion, growers and sellers may call various tangerine-orange or tangerine-orange-grapefruit hybrids “tangerines.”

What are some common tangerine varieties?

The Dancy tangerine used to be the main tangerine in the US, but it’s given way to the honey tangerine (technically a tangerine-orange hybrid), various types of Murcott, the Fallglo, and the Sunburst.

Here at Florida Fruit Shippers, we sell three varieties of tangerines: the honey tangerine, a super-sweet little ball of honey sweetness, the Fallglo, a big, richly flavorful fruit, and the Robinson, a juicy, heritage variety that reminds us of the Page, one of the best eating fruit out there.

With a richer flavor and deep orange, tangerine juice is some of the best citrus juice out there.

What makes tangerines special?

Tangerines sometimes get just a little overshadowed by their bigger and more familiar cousin the orange, but that’s definitely a mistake. Their flavor is often considered richer than oranges by those in the know. Not only are they a great snack due to their smaller size, they actually make some of the best citrus juice out there. The color of tangerine juice is absolutely incredible—a deep, intense orange that leaves the paler hue of regular OJ looking anemic by comparison. If you haven’t tried it, you need to.

When it comes to cooking, some examples of delicious tangerine recipes include Tangerine Beef, Rosemary-Tangerine Roasted Chicken, Spinach Salad with Honey-Tangerine Dressing, Tangerine Drizzle Cake, and Tangerine Pudding. Or why not try a tangy Tangerine Margarita?

What’s the difference between a tangerine and a clementine and a Cutie and a…?

Now this is another confusing topic. Tangerines, clementines, Cuties, and the other small citrus fruit you may have seen at your grocery store in bags or crates are all technically mandarin oranges. But did you know that Pixie, Cutie, Halo, and other similar new names are not actually fruit varieties? They are brand names. The small, seedless fruits you see marketed under these names may be clementines, Murcott mandarins, Tangos, or yet another kind of seedless mandarin, depending on the time of year.

Tangerines, clementines, Cuties, etc. are all technically mandarin oranges.

Frankly, while these little “brand name” citrus are cute, their quality can be unpredictable. Sometimes they may be great; other times they can be dry, bland, or have off flavors. Why? Well, some of the varieties they use just taste better than others. Depending on the time of year, the fruit may also have experienced long shipping and storage times (some are grown outside the United States).

The tangerines we sell here at Florida Fruit Shippers are bigger than these “mini” mandarins. And it’s true that they will have some seeds. However, we think they are juicier, more deeply flavorful, and, of course, reliably fresh and sweet. Give them a try.

Monday, February 5, 2018

10 New Ways to Enjoy Juicy-Sweet Ruby Red Grapefruit

In my family growing up, Christmas morning breakfast was a ritual. We always ate it off the “fancy” china, and we always had two things: a special homemade coffee cake, and fresh Florida grapefruit, halved, sectioned, and lightly sprinkled with sugar. Something about the juicy, tart-sweet fruit really set off the flavor of the rich cake.

The History of Grapefruit

Did you know that grapefruit is a hybrid of the orange and a fruit called the pommelo? It’s true. First seen in the Caribbean, the fruit was brought to Florida sometime in the early 1800s by an interesting character, Count Odet Philippe.

At first, grapefruit were either pale pink or white. Some varieties were extremely flavorful, but they all tended towards the more sour end of the spectrum. But in 1929, a new grapefruit mutation was discovered with red flesh and a much sweeter taste. This was the birth of the “Ruby Red” grapefruit, which soon became explosively popular due to its incredibly enjoyable and approachable flavor. Other delectably sweet and juicy “red” varieties have followed.

Grapefruit is certainly a delicious addition to the breakfast table. I love it because it’s absolutely never dry or bland, and always adds such a pop of juicy flavor to my day. But there’s a lot more to grapefruit than the halved fruit in a bowl that I enjoyed as a kid. Grapefruit and grapefruit juice can bring a refreshing and sparkling zing to cocktails, appetizers, main dishes, salads, and desserts (along, of course, with breakfast).

One important but very easy thing to learn about grapefruit is the various ways to section and cut it for eating and cooking. We found a great tutorial showing 3 basic ways: halving and sectioning (basically, the “old-fashioned way” you probably know from childhood); removing beautiful sections from the peel and membrane using a knife, also called supreming; and a slightly more time-consuming method of removing the fruit from the membrane by hand. If you’re going to use grapefruit in a recipe, method #2, supreming, is probably the easiest and fastest.

Here are 10 ways to enjoy grapefruit that you probably haven’t tried before. Take a second look at this sometimes-underused fruit and see how sophisticated, luscious, and yes, sexy it can be.

Grapefruit Cocktails: Sweet and Sour

Have you ever grilled a grapefruit? Me neither, but I’m definitely intrigued by this exotic cocktail featuring honey syrup, fresh sage, silver tequila, and wheels of Ruby Red grapefruit that have been lightly grilled. Not a drink you see every day.

Grilled Grapefruit and Sage Cocktail

Looking for something a little simpler? This grapefruit martini may remind you a little bit of a Cosmopolitan, but with a fresher, more sophisticated flair. As long as you have simple syrup on hand, it’s a cinch to make.

Ruby Red Grapefruit Martini

Grapefruit in Salads: Fresh and Luscious

This cool, delectable salad of fresh grapefruit, perfect avocado, Bibb lettuce, and tender shrimp looks like it really ought to be eaten poolside in Florida on a 70-degree day in February. If you can’t manage that, well…you could eat it indoors on a 40-degree day somewhere else and just imagine you’re down here.

Grapefruit Avocado Shrimp Salad

Grapefruit and seafood are often paired, and for a reason—they really complement each other. Here, mahi mahi gets glazed with grapefruit juice and seared, then served over fresh greens and yellow peppers and topped with supremed grapefruit and pistachios.

Grapefruit and Spinach Salad with Glazed Mahi Mahi

Grapefruit in Main Dishes: Juicy and Savory

Here’s a truly Floridian dish: fresh Florida pompano in a sauce made from butter, white wine, and the juice of fresh ruby red grapefruit, with chopped pistachios on top.

Florida Pompano with a Meyer Lemon Grapefruit Sauce

What? Grapefruit…risotto? Yes! Combined with fresh thyme, red onions, and parmesan, this is a completely different dish.

Red Grapefruit Risotto with Red Onions and Thyme

Grapefruit in Desserts: Sweet and Gorgeous

I had a grapefruit pie at a local restaurant last winter that’s haunted my dreams ever since. It was kind of like lemon meringue, but not so sweet, with a graham cracker crust, and there was some kind of caramel involved, too. This recipe isn’t quite the same, but it’s similar.

Chilled Grapefruit Caramel Meringue Pie

A pavlova is a showstopper dessert combining a crispy meringue shell, fresh fruit, and whipped cream. Here, we get meringue nests burnished with reduced grapefruit juice filled to the rim with whipped cream that’s mixed with juicy supremed red grapefruit….wow!

Grapefruit Pavlova with Grapefruit Mousse

Grapefruit for Breakfast: Tangy Good Morning

Okay, you’ve had donuts. You’ve had grapefruit. But we bet you haven’t had grapefruit donuts—right? The juicy grapefruit flavor is in the donut and the glaze here. How fun is that?

Grapefruit Donuts

Citrus and poppyseeds go together like…well, they just go together. These bright-flavored treats feature grapefruit in the scones themselves and in the pretty pink glaze.

Glazed Grapefruit Poppyseed Scones

If you’d like to see more grapefuit recipes and ideas, visit our Pinterest page. Enjoy these new ways to savor this healthful and delicious fruit.

Wednesday, January 31, 2018

Citrus and Your Health

Is there anything easier to grab, yet more naturally delicious than a sweet, ripe orange, a plump, juicy tangerine, or a refreshingly tart grapefruit? I know how much I look forward to enjoying this Floridian bounty every fall, winter and spring. There’s just nothing like it.

But while we know that eating fresh fruit is generally good for our health, have you ever found yourself wondering about the specific health benefits of fresh citrus? For instance, would it be fair to consider citrus a “superfood,” or is it just another good option?

If you’ve ever wanted to know more about what citrus can do for your health, read on to learn 9 great reasons why citrus is more than just a deliciously easy snack!

Citrus is chock full of nutrients

Of course, almost everyone knows that citrus fruits like oranges, grapefruits, tangerines, lemons, and limes are high in health-giving vitamin C. (Of the citrus most commonly eaten, oranges and tangerines are the highest in C, followed by grapefruit, then lemons and limes.) But it doesn’t stop there. Citrus is rich in potassium, folate, copper, phosphorus, magnesium, and B vitamins as well, all of which play key roles in supporting health, from preventing birth defects to making sure fluids are in good balance. Citrus also contains phytonutrients—plant compounds such as flavonoids, alkaloids, carotenoids, limonoids, and more. We’re only beginning to understand the many crucial roles that these plant compounds play in supporting our health.

Citrus is full of fiber

We all know that fiber is good for us, right? It helps us feel full longer, reduces cholesterol levels, and, well, it keeps us regular. Oranges, grapefruit, and other citrus fruit are a great source of both soluble and insoluble fiber, which both play important roles in the body. An average serving of citrus should provide about 1-3 grams of fiber, or somewhere around 10% of what you need in a day.

Citrus may shorten your cold

Can loading up on fresh orange juice (or hot citrus toddies!) actually prevent a cold? Research doesn’t seem to support the idea that the vitamin C in citrus can STOP colds from developing. However, getting adequate C may help shorten the length of your cold, perhaps by about a day. That’s nothing to sneeze at. (See what we did there?)

Citrus supports heart health

Citrus fruit like oranges are rich in hesperidins, which are thought to increase blood flow and potentially lower blood pressure, reducing the risk of heart attack and stroke.

Citrus may fight cancer

Numerous nutrients and compounds in citrus have been shown to have cancer-fighting potential in the lab and in studies. In fact, research suggests that people who eat more citrus seem to have lower rates of certain cancers, including cancers of the colon, esophagus, and stomach. This effect is even stronger in people who also regularly drink green tea!

Citrus doesn’t spike your blood sugar

Especially considering their sweet taste, oranges have a low glycemic index, meaning they don’t cause your blood sugar to shoot up quickly after you eat them but instead cause a slower, more even rise. Foods with a low glycemic index are better for us because they may keep us full longer and cause the body to store less fat.

Citrus is great for your diet

Despite their sweet taste, oranges, tangerines, tangelos, grapefruit, and other citrus are low on calories while being full of flavor and zing, along with the fiber that fills us up. The average large orange is only about 70-80 calories! (Compare to a banana at 105). What’s more, citrus juice and zest are awesome at adding flavor to food without adding salt, refined sugar, or other unwanted stuff. Some even believe that grapefruit, in particular, is a metabolism booster.

Citrus helps you absorb iron

Foods high in vitamin C, like oranges and other citrus fruit, can dramatically increase the body’s absorption of iron from food when the two types of food are eaten together. For instance, if you cook your high-iron shrimp with a delicious orange sauce, you’ll absorb that iron much better!

Citrus may help us look younger

The Vitamin A, Vitamin C, and antioxidants found in citrus fruit like oranges, tangerines, and grapefruit can benefit your skin and hair, contributing to a younger appearance. Sounds good to me!

Overall, we think you’ll agree that citrus is more than just delicious—it can have significant positive effects on your body. Enjoy these tasty fruits and the long-term benefits they can bring. To your health!

Tuesday, January 9, 2018

Citrus in Art: A Long and Beautiful History

It’s possible we’re a little biased, but around here, we consider citrus fruit and citrus trees to be breathtakingly beautiful. The glossy green leaves, the delicate, ethereally fragrant flowers…and then, of course, the fruit, in all its glorious shades of rose, golden, yellow, orange, pink, bright or deep green, and sometimes even scarlet. When you cut them open, more beauty ensues: the translucent sections shine gloriously in the light, once again displaying a rainbow of hues.

Is it any wonder, then, that citrus fruits have been a favorite subject of artists for hundreds of years? Quick history lesson: citrus fruit originated and was first cultivated in Asia. Several thousand years later, it spread slowly to the Mediterranean. The first citrus to “travel” was the citron, which most of us wouldn’t really recognize as tasty or familiar—it was mostly peel, with a dry, inedible interior, but did have a pleasant citrusy scent. Eventually lemons also reached the Mediterranean, with limes, sour oranges, and the pomelo (the ancestor of the grapefruit) then making their way slowly around the area and into Europe. Sweet oranges came last, in the 1500s. Citrus was also brought to Florida by the Spaniards around this time.

From the beginning, cultivated citrus was treasured, valued, and expensive. The fruits acquired religious significance in various cultures and were associated with health and wealth. Of course, they were also used in cooking, especially the sour orange. And artists, appreciating their beauty and, surely, their association with wealth and high status, soon depicted them in their art, a practice that continues today. (Just visit, a marketplace for small independent artists, and type in “citrus art” to see what I mean—today’s search brought up 4,911 results.)

Let’s take a look at some examples of citrus in art across the ages. This article features a photo of a Buddha’s hand citron portrayed strikingly in white jade, from the 18th century (the Buddha’s hand is a very unusual “fingered” citrus, mostly peel, that is highly fragrant and popular in Asian countries). The article also depicts a very old silk painting from the Ming Dynasty, thought to have been painted sometime in the 14th-17th century, that clearly shows a citrus fruit (it looks like a tangerine to me, but the article mentions citron). These are just two examples of citrus’s presence in Asian art, dating back hundreds of years.

Botanical drawings of citrus are often quite beautiful, and may be considered their own category of art. A massive volume describing the known citrus varieties of the time, written by a Jesuit monk in 1646, is treasured for its beautiful engravings of these ancient and often (to our eyes) strange lemons, oranges, citrons, and so on, drawn by many of the great artists working at the time. It is a quite an amazing record—see some of the drawings here.
Banquet Still Life with Mouse by Abraham van Beyeren [wiki]
Flemish still life painting in the 1600s were incredibly lush, detailed, and vibrant, often featuring lavish spreads of fancy tableware and expensive foods, such as lobster. As a costly imported fruit, citrus fruits like lemons and oranges were very frequently featured. The opulent meals on display in these paintings were thought to symbolize both wealth and the fleeting nature of life and our inevitable journey towards death. Take a look at this one, Abraham van Beyeren’s Banquet Still Life, where a half-peeled orange or lemon lounges center stage as if still waiting to be eaten. A journey into this genre of work will reveal many such depictions.

In the 19th century, the impressionist school of painting also participated in the depiction of citrus fruits like oranges and lemons, though in this case it’s doubtful that much symbolism was intended. Instead, the aim was likely simply to portray the beauty of the fruits. Here is Cezanne’s well-known Apples and Oranges, from 1899. Matisse’s Still life with Oranges, from the same year, is rather vague and conceptual, with the painting being more about colors and forms.

Still Life with Parrot by Frida Kahlo [wiki]

Meanwhile, the cubist Pablo Picasso also took his turn at a “still life with oranges.” See what you think of this playful take on the “oranges on a table” tradition, from 1936. And in 1951, surrealist folk artist Frida Kahlo depicted a luscious but strangely sliced orange in her Still life with Parrot. Critics have suggested that the sliced orange may be a symbol for Kahlo herself, who endured many painful surgeries after a near-fatal bus accident.

As for artists inspired by citrus working today, we were intrigued to learn of one current artist who literally works with oranges themselves to create his unique art. Yoshihiro Okada draws a design on the peel of a whole tangerine (leaving no part unused) and removes it carefully to reveal an astonishing piece of citrus peel art—a bird, a fish, a horse, a monkey. It’s a bit like origami, but considerably more magical and difficult. Watch more videos of Okada’ unique artistry here.

With such a rich and varied history across the globe, it’s no wonder that gorgeous, fragrant, and delicious citrus has been inspiring artists for hundreds, even thousands of years. The next time you visit an art museum or gallery, keep your eyes “peeled” for art featuring our favorite fruit.

Friday, December 29, 2017

The Magic of Vintage Citrus Recipes

Delicious citrus has been a part of our lives and of families’ recipes for so long that thousands of beloved recipes have been created to make use of this delicious bounty. Most of us are likely familiar with many of the common favorites, such as lemon meringue pie, orange sherbet, orange cake, and lemon puddings. But although we may enjoy these familiar treats, there are so many other interesting recipes out there, some of which have nearly been lost to the sands of time. Fortunately, those who love and enjoy old recipes, as well as food enthusiasts and recipe archivists, are always at work finding and restoring these hidden gems. In this blog post, we’ll feature some lesser-known vintage citrus recipes highlighting the fresh flavors of oranges, grapefruit, and more that are worth rediscovering as part of Florida’s rich and varied citrus history.

Crepes Suzette

Crepes suzette are a very famous and antique recipe (dating from around the turn of the 20th century) consisting of crepes in a sauce of butter, sugar, tangerine juice or orange juice, citrus zest, and orange liqueur. In a rather dramatic gesture, the dish is briefly set aflame before serving. This dish was popular in the 1970s but doesn’t get seen much now. It certainly would be fun to try it again with fresh citrus. Maybe for New Year’s Eve?

Atlantic Beach Pie

Have you ever enjoyed chocolate-covered potato chips or saltines with chocolate and toffee on top? If so, you’ll probably understand the appeal of Atlantic Beach Pie, a vintage pie made with a lemon filling, a whipped cream or meringue top, and, unusually, a “cracker’ crust made not with graham crackers, but saltines. This treat was popular in North Carolina seafood restaurants in the 50s—hence the “beach”—but has recently made a comeback.

Sour Orange Pie

This is an old and truly Floridian recipe that was developed to use the juice of the sour orange. What’s a sour orange? Well, that can be a bit of an open question. I find that people use the term to apply to any somewhat “feral” orange (perhaps growing in the woods or found on an old property) of uncertain parentage that isn’t good for eating out of hand. However, the term may also be used for the Seville orange, a very authentic “cooking” orange typically used for marmalade and marinades. This recipe was designed so it can be made both with true sour oranges and with a combination of oranges and lemons. It’s something like a cross between key lime and lemon meringue pie.

Broiled Grapefruit

If you are of a certain age, your mom might have made you a broiled grapefruit once upon a time. This simple but actually very delicious recipe consists of placing a grapefruit half (with sections pre-loosened) under the broiler after topping it with brown sugar and perhaps a bit of cinnamon or butter. The topping gets browned and a bit crunchy, almost like the top of a crème brulee. In its vintage incarnation, this was often served with a maraschino cherry in the middle and was often considered an appetizer! Today, we’d probably eat it for breakfast, perhaps with yogurt or granola.

Ambrosia Salad

Ambrosia salad goes back, in one form or another, to the late 1800s. Early versions seem to mostly be about oranges, pineapple, and coconut, dressed with sugar; one 1877 cookbook calls for “one pine-apple peeled and sliced, pulverized sugar, six oranges, six lemons and two cocoa-nuts” in layers. In the 1950s through the 1970s, however, ambrosia started getting all kinds of things added to it, from grapes, fruit cocktail, and cherries to pecans, bananas, and marshmallows. It also began to be served with a creamy dressing, which could be made of anything from whipped cream or whipped topping to yogurt to sour cream to mayonnaise. Some people love this old-fashioned citrus dessert (or is it a side dish?) and some hate it. I suggest trying a stripped down version with fresh citrus and no dressing, but if you’d like to try a more classic backyard potluck vintage version, this seems like a classic version.

Ginger Ale Citrus Salad

This recipe is here as a representative of the literally hundreds of Jell-O salads that included oranges, grapefruit, tangerine, or other citrus. Seriously, there were tons of these in the 50s, and one has to admit, they were visually stunning. This one, from a fun blog that re-creates recipes of the 40s, 50s, and 60s, is actually quite delicious, or so they say. It includes grapefruit, oranges, lemons, grapes, pineapple, and candied ginger, suspended in gingery gelatin. While we may have fallen out of love with Jell-O salad, I admit, this one sounds pretty fun.

There are literally hundreds more vintage recipes featuring oranges, lemons, limes, grapefruit, tangerine, and other citrus fruits out there, since these fruits have been popular and widely available for a long time in America. While the Internet offers access to many, there’s nothing quite like diving into the pages of a real vintage cookbook to get the true feeling for an era. Citrus is so versatile and delicious that it’s been gracing our plates for a very long time. Check out a vintage recipe sometime soon and be reminded of why some things never go out of style.

Sunday, December 3, 2017

Clean Eating with Florida Citrus

It’s the time of year when we all tend to overindulge—maybe a little, maybe a lot. What with all the parties, food gifts, and cookie platters, holiday weight gain and unbalanced eating can feel a little inevitable.

I enjoy all the holiday favorites, but I also often enjoy the feeling of “taking a break” from all the richness. This is where cooking with and snacking on fresh Florida citrus can help. Whether you’re aiming for a little balance or trying to change your eating habits permanently, these delicious fruits can help you eat better effortlessly.

We may think of citrus as a sweet, guilt-free snack, and it certainly can serve that purpose well—a navel, tangerine, or Honeybell eaten out of hand (maybe with a little protein, like some cheese or almonds) makes for a great healthy afternoon nibble. But there are so many more possibilities for clean eating with citrus, especially when it comes to cooking.

The balanced, sweet-acid flavor of citrus juice provides so much flavor punch, especially in savory food. One cooking secret that experienced chefs know is how important acid flavors like orange and lemon juice are to “bringing out” the flavor of food. In fact, they serve much the same purpose as salt, without any of the potential health consequences. Using fresh citrus juice in your dishes can really dial up the flavor without adding anything negative as far as health. Here are some healthy recipes using citrus juice:

Citrus Grilled Shrimp and Zoodles: Grilled shrimp is marinated in fresh orange juice with lime and cilantro and served on a bed of zucchini “zoodles.”

Hawaiian Grilled Chicken Salad with Mango Vinaigrette : This beautiful salad with grilled chicken breast, mangoes, red peppers, and a fresh citrus juice vinaigrette looks delicious.

Orange Rosemary Glazed Salmon: Recipes featuring orange glazes are often high in added sugar, but not this one. You’ll enjoy the savory combination of orange and rosemary with salmon, a perennial family favorite and healthy choice.

Citrus zest is also another incredible flavor secret for flavorful and healthy food. Orange, tangerine, grapefruit, lemon, and lime zest are not only delicious and intensely flavorful, they're thought to be extremely good for us. Zest is very high in vitamin C and in antioxidants that may have cancer-fighting abilities. Scientists are still learning more, but some believe the most healthful properties of citrus are actually concentrated here.

Citrus Caesar Salad with Zesty Shrimp: This Caesar salad actually uses the zest from 3 citrus fruit—orange, lemon, and lime—to make a delightfully different dressing.

Orange Ginger Tofu: This healthful recipe uses both zest and juice and incorporates tofu and broccoli for a high-calcium, vegan meal that’s also delicious.

Cranberry-Orange Brussel Sprout Slaw: High in fiber, low in fat, zingy, and crunchy, this is a perfect winter salad for when you’re feeling bogged down by carby and rich meals.

And of course, using the actual citrus fruit itself in all kinds of dishes provides a delicious flavor boost while also providing health benefits. What you get from using the fruit sections that you don’t get from using juice or zest is a big helping of fiber, which citrus fruit are rich in. Fiber is key to our health because it helps our digestion, lowers our cholesterol, and keeps blood sugar stable. A medium orange has 2-3 grams of fiber and a grapefruit has about 2 grams of fiber (we don’t tend to eat the more fibrous parts of the grapefruit… though if you peel them and eat them like you do an orange, you do!)

Citrus and Pomegranate Fruit Salad: This stunning and extremely simple salad is packed with nutrients, high in fiber, and contains no added sugar.

Pink Detox Salad: We’ll “detox” any day of the week if we get to eat this incredible-looking salad, full of ruby-red grapefruit, strawberries, and watermelon on top of kale! Yum.

Orange Coconut Chia Pudding: Have you tried chia seeds? These nutritious little seeds are not only high in fiber but have an amazing ability to naturally thicken liquids to a pudding-like consistency when left to sit. Here, they turn light coconut milk and orange slices into a tasty, healthy breakfast pudding.

This holiday season, enjoy your sweets and treats, but take time to treat your body well and eat lightly and nutritiously, too. With citrus, it’s easy and delicious to do this, now and year-round.

For more healthy citrus recipes and lots more amazing citrus ideas, check out Florida Fruit Shippers on Pinterest!


tidal volume

packed-cell volume (PCV) hematocrit.

ti·dal vol·ume (VT),

the volume of air that is inspired or expired in a single breath during regular breathing.
Synonym(s): tidal air

tidal volume

The volume of air inhaled or exhaled in a single breath.

tidal volume (TV, Vt)

Etymology: AS, tid, time; L, volumen, paper roll
the amount of air inhaled and exhaled during normal ventilation. Inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, and tidal volume make up vital capacity. See also pulmonary function test.

tidal volume

Lung physiology The volume of air drawn into the lungs during inspiration from the end-expiratory position, which leaves the lungs passively during expiration in the course of quiet breathing. See Lung volumes. Cf Residual volume.

ti·dal vol·ume

(tī'dăl vol'yūm)
The volume of air inspired or expired in a single breath during regular breathing.
Synonym(s): tidal air.

tidal volume

The volume of air entering and leaving the lungs during a single respiratory effort, whether the rate is normal, high or low.

tidal volume

the amount of air taken in to the lungs by an animal breathing normally at rest, during each respiratory cycle (each breath). In humans this is about 0.5 dm3 (500 cm3).

in physiology and medicine, refers to pulmonary ventilation, the movement of air in and out of the lungs, whether during normal breathing, or by artificial means. total ventilation or minute volumeE (or I) is the volume breathed out (or in) in litres per minute: the tidal volume multiplied by the number of breaths per minute. May be measured, e.g. by collecting the expired gas over a known time (Douglas bag method), or by integrating inspired or expired airflow with respect to time (by pneumotachograph). The effective component, alveolar ventilationA, refers to that which reaches the regions of the lungs where gas exchange occurs, and is equal to the total ventilation minus dead space ventilationD. Normally, at rest, A : D = 2:1 or typically, E - D = A, 6 - 2 = 4 L.min-1. When ventilation increases in exercise, the dead space is unchanged, so D rises only in proportion to the rise in frequency of breaths, but E rises relatively more as tidal volume also increases. See also artificial ventilation, dead space, lung volumes and capacities.
Lung volumes.

lung volumes

measurements made as part of pulmonary function tests; the volumes that move in and out during the normal breathing cycle, and with deliberate additional effort, can be measured directly by spirometry with the subject breathing through a closed circuit in and out of a cylinder inverted over water, or into a vitalograph, or by pneumotachograph; the residual volume can be measured only indirectly by dilution methods (usually with helium) or by whole body plethysmography. See also ventilation. See figure and table overleaf .
Table 1: Lung volumes
VT (TV)Tidal volumeVolume of inspired/expired air moving in and out with each breath
Inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumesUsed when tidal volume increases above that at rest
VCVital capacityVolume that can be inspired/expired after full expiration/inspiration
FEV1Forced expiratory volume in 1sVolume exhaled in the first second, with maximal effort after full inspiration
FRCFunctional residual capacityVolume remaining in the lungs at end-expiration; decreases as tidal volume increases
RVResidual volumeRemains after a maximal expiratory effort; cannot be exhaled
TLCTotal lung capacityVital capacity + residual volume

ti·dal vol·ume

(tī'dăl vol'yūm)
Volume of air inspired or expired in a single breath during regular breathing.
Synonym(s): tidal air.

tidal volume,

n the amount of air inhaled and exhaled during normal ventilation.

tidal volume

References in periodicals archive ?
2] = fractional inspired concentration of oxygen; PEEP = positive end-expiratory pressure in centimeters of water pressure; Vt = tidal volume (in milliliters); b/min = breaths per minute.
Determinants of tidal volumes with adaptive support ventilation: a multicenter observational study.
Consequently, when currents were delivered through these electrodes, only unwanted latissimus and serratus muscle contractions occurred and no tidal volume resulted.
When the studies were divided into these two groups, breathing control significantly increased tidal volume following training programs (SMD 1.
4) In patients with primary lung pathology, aiming for these goals can lead to high airway pressures (barotrauma), large tidal volumes (volutrauma) and high inspired oxygen concentrations (oxygen toxicity).
Several studies in adults have described ventilator concepts that may reduce or prevent further lung injury, including low tidal volume ([V.
2] of 21 percent, heart rate (HR) < 120 beats a minute, spontaneous respiratory rate < 30 breaths a minute, exhaled tidal volume [greater than or equal to] 400 mL on synchronous intermittent mandatory ventilation one to two breaths and pressure support ventilation 5 cm [H.
The baseline percentage leak around the endotracheal tube was calculated for each patient using the first five minutes' averaged values of inspired and expired mechanical tidal volume according to the equation:
The tidal volume was adjusted to achieve a peak tracheal pressure of 7-10 mmHg (~20 mL).


Leptospirosis and the California Sea Lions
by Lauren Sorich

Sea Lions picture by John Wilsher
Photo from The Leptospirosis Information Center
Photo from The Leptospirosis Information Center
Photo from oregonstate.edu/.../2007/Jan07/lepto.html

Abstract: The purpose of this site is to educate people on the effects that leptospirosis has on the California sea lion and humans. Topics that will be discussed are structure of the pathogen that causes the disease, how the sea lions get the disease, how it is passed from sea lion to sea lion, how it is transmitted from sea lions to other animals, how it affects humans, and treatment in humans. The most common cause for all cases is coming in contact with Leptospira-contaminated water or soil.

Over the past ten years, thousands of marine animals have died unexpectedly and veterinary microbiologists are trying to find the cause for each outbreak. In 2004, leptospirosis was the cause of death for 30 California sea lions. These, along with other marine mammal deaths, raise awareness that entire populations of marine mammals may be destroyed. Until recently veterinary microbiology has been a neglected field of study partly because gathering samples from animals that live in the open ocean and performing bacterial analysis on them is difficult. Veterinary microbiologists hope that the increased study in this field will promote wildlife management and also provide models for studing human diseases (Tortora et al., 2007).
Leptospirosis is one of the most widespread bacterial diseases that can be transmitted from animals to humans and affects most mammalian species. It is well documented and characterized in terrestrial species, however, less is known regarding the distribution and impact of leptospirosis in marine mammals. Leptospirosis can develop into either a chronic infection with low mortality or into a potentially lethal infection (Faine et al., 1999).

This research was of interest to me because animals are affected by the disease around the area that I live in and I wanted to know more about it so that I can avoid contact with the disease. I also care for the animals with this pathogen and would hate to see species destroyed.

Structure- The spirochete Leptospira interrogans is what causes leptospirosis. Leptospira has a spiral shape that’s only about 0.1µm in diameter and is wound so tight that it is barely visible under a dark field microscope. It does not stain easily and is difficult to see under a normal light microscope. L. interrogens gets its name because the ends are hooked like a question mark. It is an obligate aerobe that can grow in a variety of artificial media supplemented with rabbit serum (Tortora et al., 2007).

How sea lions get it- One possible way sea lions contract this disease is exposure to Leptospira-contaminated urine while on shore or while swimming in fresh water estuaries (Zuerner et al., 2009). The male sea lions spend between 20-55% of their time resting on shore, which allows exposure to terrestrial mammals that may be infected with the pathogen (Weise et al., 2006). Leptospira can’t tolerate salt, which suggests that infection most likely occurs through close contact with infected animals on the shore (Zuerner et al., 2009).

How it’s spread to other sea lions- California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) breed in rookeries along the southern California coast during May and June (Zuerner et al., 2009). The female sea lions typically stay close to the rookeries to nurse their pups, but they may move as far north as Monterey Bay, however the males travel north and spend the winter anywhere from California to south Alaska (Melin, 2002). Even though they stay close to the coast, occasionally they leave to look for food, and males can cover 644 km on a single trip (Weise et al., 2006). Their ability to travel great distances gives the disease the opportunity to spread geographically (Zuerner et al., 2009).

How it’s spread to other animals- Terrestrial animals may get leptospirosis because sick or injured sea lions either die at sea or are stranded on beaches where other animals can come into contact with them. Leptospirosis has a latency period of about 10-14 days between contact and developing symptoms, leading researchers to believe that the animals are able to travel during this latency period spreading the disease. Since some of the population is continuously in a latency state of infection, the distribution of infected animals spreads as animals disperse across different geographical areas. Infected animals are often found near fresh water estuaries which potentially increases the chance of transmitting the disease to humans, domesticated animals, and terrestrial wildlife (Zuerner et al., 2009).

How it affects humans- Animals that are infected with L. interrrogans can shed the bacteria in their urine for extended periods of time (Tortora et al., 2007). Humans can become infected by coming in contact with water or soil that is contaminated with urine or by coming in contact with animal tissue that is infected (Faine, 1982). People who are most at risk are those whose work exposes them to animals or animal products. Typically, the pathogen infects a host by entering through minor abrasions in the skin or mucous membranes. If it is ingested, it enters the body through the mucosa of the upper digestive system. Cats and dogs are the most common sources in the US. Even when immunized, domestic dogs may continue to shed leptospira because they have a sizeable rate of infection. Once infected, headaches, muscular aches, chills, and fever occur after an incubation period of 1-2 weeks. Days later these symptoms disappear, however, a few days after that, a second episode of fever may occur. The kidneys and liver may become infected, this is known as Weil’s disease and kidney failure is the most common cause of death (Tortora et al., 2007). Weil’s syndrome is characterized by jaundice, hemorrhage and severe renal failure (Liu et al., 2007). About 50 cases are reported each year in the US, but because the symptoms are not distinctive many cases are probably never diagnosed (Tortora et al., 2007).

Diagnosis/treatment in humans-: Most cases of leptospirosis are diagnosed by a serological test that is complicated and usually done by central reference laboratories. However, a diagnosis can also be made by sampling blood, urine, or other fluids for the organism or its DNA, and Doxycycline is the recommended antibiotic for treatment (Tortora et al., 2007).

Literature Cited:
Faine, S., Adler, B., Bolin, C., Perolat, P. (1999). Leptospira and Leptospirosis second ed. MediSci, Melbourne, Australia.

Melin, S.R., (2002). The Foraging Ecology and Reproduction of the California
sea lion (Zalophus californianus californianus). University of Minnesota,

Liu, Yunying, Zheng, Wei, Li Liwei, Mao, Yafei, and Yan, Jie. (2007). Pathogensis of leptospirosis: interaction of Leptospira interrogans with in vitro cultured mammalian cells. Med Microbiol Immunol 196: 233-239.

Tortora, Gerard J., Funke, Berdell R., and Case, Christine L. (2007). Microbiology an introduction; ninth edition. San Francisco, CA Pearson Education Inc.

Weise, M.J., Costa, D.P., Kudela, R.M., (2006). Movement and diving behavior of male California sea lion (Zalophus califorianus) during anomalous oceanographic conditions of 2005 compared to those of 2004. Geophys. Res. Lett. 33, L22S10.

Zuerner, Richard L., Cameron, Caroline E., Raverty, Stephen, Robinson, John, Colegrove, Kathleen M., Norman, Stephanie A., Lambourn, Dyanna, Jeffries, Steven, Alt, David P., and Gulland, Frances. (2009). Geographical dissemination of Leptospirosa interrogans serovar Pomona during seasonal migration of California sea lions. Veterinary Microbiology 137 105–110.


Istituto di Matematica Applicata e Tecnologie Informatiche
Degond P., Juengel A., Pietra P. Numerical discretization of energy-transport models for semiconductors with non-parabolic band structure. Preprint ercim.cnr.ian//1999-1161, 1999.
The energy-transport models describe the flow of electrons through a semiconductor crystal, influenced by diffusive, electrical and thermal effects. They consist of the continuity equations for the mass and the energy, coupled to Poisson's equation for the electric potential. These models can be derived from the semiconductor Boltzmann equation. This paper consists of two parts. The first part concerns with the modelling of the energy-transport system. The diffusion coefficients and the energy relaxation term are computed in terms of the electron density and temperature, under the assumptions of non-degenerate statistics and non-parabolic band diagrams. The equations can be rewritten in a drift-diffusion formulation which is used for the numerical discretization. In the second part, the stationary energy-transport equations are discretized using the exponential fitting mixed finite element method in one space dimension. Numerical simulations of a ballistic diode are performed.
Subject Mixed finite-element method, exponential fitting, non-parabolic band structure, semiconductors.
65N30, 65C20, 78A35

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Walking Tacos

ground beef or shredded chicken -seasoned with taco seasoning
refried beans
shredded lettuce
black olives
sour cream
Doritos or Fritos

Cook your meat, add seasoning. Warm the beans. Chop the lettuce, tomato, black olives, and avocados.
To assemble: take a bag of chips and crush them up a bit then add to it whatever you like!


Newly-discovered tunnels in Puebla.

Urban Myth Confirmed True as Archaeologists Discover Hidden Tunnels in Mexico

(Read the article on one page)

Talk of a maze of underground tunnels beneath the Colonial city of Puebla in Mexico have long been disregarded as mere urban legend. However, city authorities have now confirmed that their existence is no myth. Believed to date back as early as 1531, when the city was founded, the subterranean tunnels are believed to reach up to 10 kilometers in length beneath the historic center of the city.

El Universal reports that the underground tunnels, which measure approximately 7 meters high and 3 meters wide, were discovered during public works being carried out in the city center. Four separate entrances were found filled with earth. After removing tons of earth and mud, investigations revealed a line of tunnels running from Fort Loreto to the Fort of Guadalupe in the upper part of town, and from Fort Loreto to the District of San Jose, located in the center of the city. A third line was discovered from the Fort of Guadalupe to Los Remedios Church, where the defence of Puebla took place against the invading French Army in 1862.  However, there are believed to be many more.

"In the urban narrative or urban legends there was word of the tunnels in Puebla, but nobody knew where they were, they had never been seen", the manager of Cultural Heritage and Historical Center of Puebla, Sergio Vergara Bermejo, told El Universal.

Initial analyses suggest the tunnels are between 300 and 500 years old. “They are from the foundation of the city,” Bermejo told El Universal. “Churches were communicating in secret alleys, there is a network of the main monasteries, from Santo Domingo, San Agustin, La Merced to San Javier.”

Mexico News Network reports that the tunnels would also have been used during the Battle of Puebla in 1862, when Mexican troops faced the French army.  The battle ended in a victory for the Mexican Army over the occupying French forces.

Founded in 1531, Puebla is one of the oldest cities in Mexico and is among the five most important Spanish colonial cities in the country.  Due to its rich history and its impressive architectural styles, Puebla was named a World Heritage Site in 1987.  Stories of underground tunnels have passed down through the generations, but were long considered an urban legend until their recent discovery.

“Puebla in the seventeenth century was flooded and half the city was covered in mud, the city we walk is the eighteenth and nineteenth century, the bottom are the treasures that we must preserve,” said Bermejo.

The mayor of Puebla, Tony Gali, has now earmarked 5 million pesos (approx. U.S. $295,000) for the restoration of the tunnels. The plan is to transform the newly-discovered subterranean world into a tourist attraction so visitors can learn more about the stories and legends of this historic city.

For now, the exact location of the tunnels is being kept secret.

Featured image: Newly-discovered tunnels in Puebla. (Screenshot from YouTube video / The Telegraph )

By April Holloway

Top New Stories

The underwater ruins of Fuxian Lake in China are an enigma. Their age is enough to set the forgotten city apart, but the strange carvings still gracing the submerged stones really confuses archaeologists.
In an underwater investigation in Fuxian Lake, Yunnan Province, China, started on June 13, 2006, archeologists discovered remains of a group of huge ancient buildings at the bottom of the lake. The investigation team found numerous regularly placed stones featuring mysterious carvings.

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Aviation and the Global Atmosphere

Other reports in this collection

6.1. How Do Aircraft Cause Climate Change?

Figure 6-1: Schematic of possible mechanisms whereby
aircraft emissions impact climate. Climate impact is
represented by changes in global mean surface
temperature (�Ts) and global mean sea level rise (�msl).

Aircraft perturb the atmosphere by changing background levels of trace gases and particles and by forming condensation trails (contrails). Aircraft emissions include greenhouse gases such as CO2 and H2O that trap terrestrial radiation and chemically active gases that alter natural greenhouse gases, such as O3 and CH4. Particles may directly interact with the Earth's radiation balance or influence the formation and radiative properties of clouds. Figure 6-1 portrays a causal chain whereby the direct emissions of aircraft accumulate in the atmosphere, change the chemistry and the microphysics, and alter radiatively active substances in the atmosphere, which change radiative forcing and hence the climate.

Chapters 2 and 3 link the direct emissions of aircraft today to changes in radiatively active substances, and Chapter 4 projects these atmospheric changes into the future for a range of aviation scenarios. This chapter presents calculations of radiative forcing from aircraft-related atmospheric changes and discusses implications concerning the role of aircraft in a changing climate. This section begins with the concept of "dangerous climate change," as defined within the mandate of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC), then presents the IS92 scenarios for future climate change associated with the Second Assessment Report (IPCC, 1996). Section 6.1 also summarizes aviation's potential role in climate change and its proportion of fossil fuel use. Section 6.2 discusses the concepts of radiative forcing (RF) and global warming potential (GWP). Section 6.3 provides calculations of radiative forcing from aircraft perturbation of greenhouse gases, and Section 6.4 presents calculations of RF from aircraft perturbations of aerosols and contrails. Section 6.5 examines how radiative forcing can be used as a predictor of climate change and presents some case studies of climate change patterns that might be induced by aviation. Finally, Section 6.6 presents the summed radiative forcing, and associated climate change, for a range of projected scenarios and technological options in future aviation.

Other reports in this collection


The Hum

Return of the Bristol Hum

From the BBC:

Some people in Bristol say they are plagued by a mysterious low-level hum that no-one can trace. […]

But it’s not the first time the hum has kept Bristol awake. In the 1970s hundreds of the city’s residents complained to the council that a strange noise was audible at night. Most of the experts drafted in put it down to factory noise, electricity pylons or tinnitus – while some of the more imaginative suggestions included the sound from flying saucers hovering over the city or secret military activity. Eventually, it stopped as abruptly as it began, but not before it had spawned reports of equally unidentified hums in other towns across Britain.

Then last year French scientists announced that they had solved the conundrum. It was, they said, the effect of continuous waves causing the ocean floor to vibrate. “We have made a big step in explaining this mysterious signal and where it is coming from and what is the mechanism,” said Fabrice Ardhuin of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. But his answer doesn’t immediately explain why the sound was only around for a number of years. Or why it might have returned.

Something in the air: The Hum seeps into music too.  Bass culture runs deep in Bristol …

Trailer: The Hum (1997)

“A documentary investigating the enigmatic humming sound that have reportedly been heard by residents in the south west of England, particularly those in Bristol and western Cornwall. The cause of the noise remains a mystery and The Hum explores some of the possibilities, from gas and water utilities to military operations and telecommunications. The documentary also raises the question of how the human senses might be affected by the growing range of technologies that now surround us. Includes interviews with members of the Low Frequency Noise Sufferers Association.”

Faction Films (UK)


‘The Outs’ by E.S. Wesley

Image result for the outs wesley
*This review will contain spoilers!*

First things first, I need to say a huge thank you to Curiosity Quills Press for sending me this title in exchange for an honest review.

‘He couldn’t control what he did during the Outs any more than he could stop the Outs from happening at all.’

‘A buzzing sound swarmed Caleb’s head, almost knocking him over. Lights blinked to life around him as the shroud lifted from his eyes.’

This opening sentence is as disorienting to the reader as it is to Caleb. The first few chapters are just giant question marks, but if you persevere through them the answers quickly start becoming clear.

A few months ago, the Outs began. During the Outs every electrical device fails to work – no cars, no phones, no lights – and brains can’t use the electrical impulses to store memories. Everything that happens in the Outs stays in the Outs: as soon as they end, everything is forgotten.
Caleb wakes up after the Outs in a little girl’s room. She lives a couple of doors away from him, but he can’t understand why he’d be there, or why he’d be murdering a fellow Deadheader in her bedroom.

‘Deadheaders. Dmitri says they shoot people during the Outs just for thrills. I know everyone just comes back to life when the Outs are over and all, but that’s just wrong.’

Yep, Caleb is part of a gang who go around killing themselves and other people just to experience the thrill of revival that comes when the Outs finish. If you die in the Outs, you come back. If you die outside of the Outs, that’s just death.
Caleb grabs Amanda and runs. Deeds, the leader of the Deadheaders, wants her for something, but he’s determined to protect her.
Kitzi is Caleb’s best friend. She suffers from aphasia following a car accident in which she was hit by a drunk driver, and it means she finds it hard to understand speech and to speak herself. In the Outs, however, she’s back to the old Kitzi, able to have conversations freely. She’s also the only one that can remember what happens in the Outs, but she can’t work out if that’s just because of her aphasia or if something bigger is at play.
Caleb quickly discovers that Amanda has powers. She wants him to stay, and no matter how many times he tries to leave her he finds himself back in the driving seat of their getaway vehicle. He considers blowing up the SUV to distract the police and cover their tracks, and moments later it goes up in flames; Amanda wants it, so it happens.

‘Amanda was doing this. She wanted the SUV to explore, and it did. She wanted Caleb to stay with her, and he stayed. She’d wanted rain and the sky opened up. She was writing this story.’

Leeza, Kitzi’s mother, is involved in the team investigating the Outs. She has the only car that works when the electricity goes off, powered by a different kind of energy to allow it to keep running. Kitzi feels as though her mother has abandoned her since her aphasia began, and struggles to accept her mother’s involvement in the phenomenon.
But before long, Kitzi will learn that she’s a lot more connected to the Outs than she could possibly imagine. Caleb and Kitzi work together to fight Deeds and save Amanda, but as the Outs become more volatile it starts to look like no one will survive…

The concept of ‘The Outs’ is a fascinating one.
Can you imagine every person in the world losing huge stretches of time, no one knowing what had happened beyond the notes that they’d manage to scribble to remind themselves before the Outs ended? Mass forgetting on that scale is inconceivable. The fact that technology ceased to work meant that there was no chance of anyone vlogging the incident, no live tweeting or photos taken on phones for posterity.
The Deadheaders remind me of the people in ‘The Purge’. Being able to do anything without suffering the consequences is a recipe for disaster. There’s no way to prove anything that happened during the Outs because no one can remember, so there’s no way justice can be served. It’s very philosophical. There’s no punishment for acts committed in the Outs, which makes everyone act without restraint. If we knew we could get away with it, how far would we go?
Meanwhile, Amanda reminds me of Eleven from ‘Stranger Things’. If you’re a fan of that show – and face it, who isn’t?! – you’ll love this story. The power that she can wield with her mind is astounding, and really cements the stereotype of the creepy child. It all stems from a father’s love for his daughter: Amanda dies and Teague is desperate to bring her back, but in doing so he gives her the ability to rewrite the world as she sees fit. It’s a warning against people who have the desire to play God, and shows you that sometimes the best thing you can do is just let your loved ones go. Power being held by a child is the cause of most of the weirdness of the Outs. Nightmare creatures swarm across the landscape, packs of lions appear from nowhere to defeat them, and Caleb ends up wearing a suit of armour convinced that he’s about to fight the Jabberwocky. Yep, just a little fantastical! It wouldn’t have worked the same if Amanda had been older, so making her an innocent little girl who has no idea what she’s capable of is another fascinating choice.
I love the way the Deadheaders had multiple personalities, their Outs self and their regular self. Caleb struggles against Crimes, the other him that was created while he was rendezvousing with the Deadheaders, while we discover that Amanda’s father Teague is Deeds, the man determined to use her powers for ill. This fight against compulsion is something that we all experience in some way, shape or form – the inner voice that tells us to do a terrible thing that we have no intention of actually doing – and to see the struggle becoming physical is terrifying. Crimes can push himself to the forefront of Caleb’s consciousness and take control of his body, leaving Caleb stuck in the background fighting back. It’s a sadistic version ‘The Host’: the Deadheaders take over their hosts to wreak more death and destruction rather than to be able to survive.
However, it makes things convoluted. Teague is Deeds is Nicky, and the more information we receive the more muddling it is to look back over the events that have already occurred. A huge part of this story regards playing with the way that time works, and I found it hard to keep my head straight, particularly when Kitzi ended up in Amanda’s dreams, an alternate universe held together with golden threads.
Talking of Kitzi, she was definitely my favourite character. I hadn’t heard of aphasia before, but I empathised with her struggle and was cheering for her when she managed to be a badass outside of the Outs while her condition was still plaguing her. E.S. Wesley wrote her perception of dialogue very well, and the frustration that the reader experiences when unable to understand what’s happening mirrors Kitzi’s frustration. I’m glad that her aphasia wasn’t ‘fixed’ at the end of the novel, because that would have been unfair for people with aphasia who deserve to be represented. I also adored all of her comic book references – they lightened the tone in scenes that would have otherwise been filled only with despair.
I also thought the relationship between her and Caleb was a brilliant inclusion. Too often you read stories where people who have disabilities aren’t thought of as lovable, but Caleb realises he loves Kitzi whether she can speak or not. She’s always the same person, whether she’s talking in the Outs or struggling to communicate but staying by his side outside of them.

I was a little disappointed by the end of the novel, because things are left so wide open, but I have hopes that means a sequel might be on the way. Ordinarily a story like this would have gone right over my head, and while I admit that I didn’t understand what was going on for huge chunks, E.S. Wesley is great at helping you join the dots together and see the bigger picture.
If the characters hadn’t been so strong, I might have given up on this one, but I couldn’t resist seeing what happened to Caleb and Kitzi. Both of them are equally strong, and show that even when you’re fighting yourself you can triumph and be a superhero.


Nov 19, 2008

Americans United for Separation of Church and State today urged the Texas State Board of Education to stick to sound science and reject creationist concepts when revising its science standards.

The state school board is currently examining the science curriculum, which is reviewed and updated every 10 years. The Seattle-based Discovery Institute and other Religious Right forces are seeking to include loopholes that undermine instruction about evolution and open the door to creationist ideas.

Scientists, teachers, mainstream religious leaders and civil liberties activists want to improve the Texas standards to ensure that the public school classroom does not become a vehicle for religious indoctrination.

“Public schools should educate, not indoctrinate,” said the Rev. Barry W. Lynn, Americans United executive director. “The Religious Right is exploiting Texas public schools to push a narrow viewpoint and in the process is doing a great disservice to its students, not to mention undermining the mandates of our Constitution.”

The battle in Texas is focused on Religious Right-backed language currently in the standards that requires schools to teach the “strengths and weaknesses” of evolution. That wording, experts say, is an invitation to introduce creationist concepts based on fundamentalist religion, not science.

“Let’s just hope members of the Texas school board recognize the ‘strengths and weaknesses’ language for what it is,” Lynn concluded. “If they don’t, they could be inviting public school districts to face some costly litigation.”

In its letter to the board, Americans United makes it clear that litigation may result if religious beliefs are introduced into public school science classrooms.

The board’s decision, which is expected to be made in March, could influence science instruction across the country. Texas is the second largest purchaser of textbooks, after California. To meet Texas standards, textbook producers may include creationist concepts in books that would circulate nationally.

A hearing is scheduled for today in Austin for individuals and groups to testify on the curriculum.

Religious Right groups have already succeeded in pushing through their agenda in Louisiana, which now allows science teachers to use “supplemental materials” to teach the “strengths and weaknesses” of evolution. AU is closely monitoring whether religious beliefs are being introduced unconstitutionally as science by teachers in Louisiana.

The federal courts have repeatedly struck down other tactics used by the Religious Right to push religion in public science classes. In 1987, the U.S. Supreme Court in Edwards v. Aguillard invalidated a Louisiana statute requiring science educators to “balance” teaching evolution concepts with “creation science” concepts.

In 2005, a federal district court said in Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District that Pennsylvania public schools cannot teach “intelligent design,” a creationist concept that claims the universe and living things were created by an “intelligent cause.” The court ruled “intelligent design” unconstitutional for use in public schools because it is unscientific and religious.


Radioactive material is any material containing unstable atoms that emit ionizing radiation as it decays.

This section applies to all persons using open-form source material.  Open-form radioactive material is normally used as a tracer in experiments and has the potential for spillage and release if not properly handled.

Surveys  Obtaining RAM Security and Storage
Disposal Shipping Spills and Contaminations
Iodinations New Authorizations SOPs and Forms
Labeling, Posting and Markings Equipment Redistribution Training
Modify an Authorization New Workers

Publications and Forms


How to Calculate the Amortization of Intangible Assets

Intangible assets are non-physical assets on a company's balance sheet. These could include patents, intellectual property, trademarks, and goodwill. Intangible assets could even be as simple as a customer list or franchise agreement.

Some of these intangible assets have a finite useful life. While physical assets can wear down over time and lose value just from use, their intangible counterparts wear down through contract expirations, obsolescence, and other non-physical factors. If an intangible asset has a finite useful life, the company is required to amortize it, a process very similar to how physical assets are depreciated over time.

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What does amortization actually mean? The process of amortization reduces the value of the intangible asset on the balance sheet over time and reports an expense on the income statement each period to reflect the change on the balance sheet during the given period.

Like depreciation, there are multiple methods a company can use to calculate an intangible asset's amortization, but the simplest is the straight-line method.

With the straight-line method, the company starts with the asset's recorded value, its residual value, and its useful life. The recorded value is the initial value assigned to the asset on the books, generally meaning its price or cost to create. Its residual value is the expected value of the asset at the end of its useful life. For most intangible assets, the residual value is zero as many intangible assets are considered worthless once they've been fully utilized. The useful life of the asset is the period of time over which the company expects the intangible asset to provide economic value to the business.

The mechanics of the amortization calculation are otherwise the same as calculating depreciation with the straight-line method. The company should subtract the residual value from the recorded cost, and then divide that difference by the useful life of the asset. Each year, that value will be netted from the recorded cost on the balance sheet in an account called "accumulated amortization," reducing the value of the asset each year. The income statement will show the reduction each year as an "amortization expense."

An example calculation of the amortization of an intangible asset Let's say that a company has developed a software solution to be used internally to better manage its inventory. The company does not intend to ever sell this software; it's only to be used by company staff. This software is considered an intangible asset, and it must be amortized over its useful life.

First, the company will record the cost to create the software on its balance sheet as an intangible asset. The software cost the company $10,000, in this case. Next, the company estimates that the software will have a useful life of just three years given the fast paced nature of software innovation. At the end of three years, the company reckons that their internal software will have no remaining value, so its residual value is therefore zero. The company will use the straight-line method to report the amortization of the software.

Subtracting the residual value -- zero -- from the $10,000 recorded cost and then dividing by the software's three-year useful life, the company's accountants determine the annual amortization for the software to be $3,333. Each year, the net asset value for the software will reduce by that amount and the company will report $3,333 in amortization expense.

Here's a breakdown of how the balance sheet and income statement will reflect this amortization over the three-year period.

When intangible assets should not be amortized Most physical capital assets will depreciate over time. Land is one of the rare examples where a physical asset should never be depreciated. For intangible assets though, it's much more common to have an asset than should not be amortized.

This derives from the fact that more intangible assets have indefinite useful lives than physical assets. If an intangible asset will continue to provide economic value without deterioration over time, then it should not be amortized. Instead, its value should be periodically reviewed and adjusted with an impairment.

Goodwill, for example, is an intangible asset that should never be amortized. If goodwill is to be changed, that should occur through the process of impairment, where the value of the asset is changed based on specific, changing conditions rather than based on a calculated schedule as would be the case with amortization. Goodwill is the portion of a business' value not attributable to other assets. Goodwill is a common result of acquisitions where the purchase price is greater than the fair market value of the assets and liabilities.

The article How to Calculate the Amortization of Intangible Assets originally appeared on


Sunday, June 26, 2011

Small Spaces with Style

Having lived in the city for so long and choosing location over space, I have always designed my apartments with furniture and accesories with dual functions that don't break the bank. When purchasing items for my home, my first priority if selecting pieces that serve as storage, decoration and functionality.The key is to max out the square footage you have and layer your home accessories exactly like you layer on jewelry.

This storage shelf doubles as a room divider and is a great way to display pictures, books, momentos and magazines.

Installing a transparent screen, divides this larger space into 2 smaller spaces without blocking any views. Plus, the lime green brings color into the space witout being permanent.

When decorating small spaces, organization is key. Install drawers and shelves where things can be tucked away and personal items hidden.

Mirrors, Mirrors, Mirrors. Mirrrors always give the illusion that a space is bigger than it is. The key is the place the mirror in s direction to reflect the outdoors or natural light.

Tulip Tables are a great way of maximizing space in a small eating area.

Rolling racks arn't just for hanging dirty laundry. This gorgeous wooden rack  provides a solution to display your clothes and provides storage on the bottom to organize purses or shoes.


Huapango Mexican Music
The huapango is a musical genre that is typical of the Mexican Huasteca region, and that combines prehispanic dances with Flamenco and Fandangos.

Music from the Huasteca Region of Mexico

The sound of three violins fills the air with a feisty melody that is produced by the notes of the huapango. Meanwhile, three male voices sing stories related with the Mexican culture.

Nearby, a cheerful crowd watches as young dancers joyfully stomp their feet on a wooden platform following the traditional steps of this musical genre. Then, as the rhythm shifts to a more melodic tune, they make the “resting step” silently crossing one foot in front of the other, while gently swaying their bodies from side to side.

Where is Huapango Music From?

This loud and lively rhythm is not exclusive of one of the Mexican states. On the contrary, the multiple territories that conform the region known as the Huasteca, including Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosí, Hidalgo, Querétaro, Veracruz and Puebla, share the same musical tradition of Spanish and prehispanic influence.

Combining the war dances that already existed in that region with Spanish musical traditions and instruments, the natives adopted and then created a combination between Flamenco and Fandangos to give birth to the huapango, a word that comes from the Nahuatl term Cuanhitlipango that means: “dancing on a wooden platform”.

The music and dances that produce this genre are frequently played and danced in parties but they are also performed in festivals, in which case dancers wear typical costumes. On one hand, women wear beautiful strapless blouses called mañanitas. Their skirts reach knee height and their fullness makes their legs show when they are tapping their feet on the platform. On the other hand, men wear elegant trousers with a white shirt and a black or white hat as well as colorful scarfs that they not only use as an accessory but as a dancing tool.

If you are planning a trip to Mexico, give yourself the chance to discover this genre that is one of the many examples of the Mexican musical tradition –just like the Mariachi. Remember that there are so many varieties of Mexican music that you will be surprised by their singularities and exclusive instruments such as the marimba and the requinto –a type of guitar. And because we know that “a journey is more than traveling around the world”, we invite you to discover all the other musical destinations around the world.

Did you know that…

  • One of the most famous huapangos is “El Querreque”. It’s named after the sound emitted by woodpeckers when their beaks tap on the trees: “crr”.

  • There are also some huapangos that have been composed in the northern states of the country and they include instruments like the double bass.

Because reading is where the journey begins...


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Aerokon INSPECTOR-301 Multipurpose UAV
Aerokon INSPECTOR-301 Multipurpose UAV

Aerokon INSPECTOR-301 Multipurpose UAV

UAVs "Inspector-301" developed in Zhukovsky CJSC "Aerokon" chief designer Alexander Kornushenko. Purpose apparatus is the implementation of the clock monitoring of the Earth's surface in a wide range of weather conditions. UAVs can be used for the benefit of various departments to collect and transmit information about the monitored object in real time. The distinctive features of the complex include a longer duration and range, meteonezavisimost, buoyancy and maintainability UAVs.

"Inspector 301" - the heaviest of drone, part of a series of three mikroBLA that have been developed now "Aerokon." The device weighs six kilograms. Running is made of rubber-mechanical catapult. UAVs can conduct a flight duration of up to 2 hours and staffed with a payload of up to 1 kg.

The complex consists of two UAVs "Inspector-301", a ground control station, means of transportation and management. On the deployment of complex leaves 10 minutes. The flight time, depending on the mode selected to range from 45 120 min. Height practical ceiling - 4000 m. Airspeed - 55-150 km / h, operating altitude - 50-500 m.

Payload is presented in the form of a fixed low-level camera forward-looking, stable in pitch and roll, cameras with different focal lengths and a digital camera with a resolution of 10 megapixels. Additionally, the machine can be equipped with infrared cameras and sensors the presence of gas.

Takeoff UAV performed mechanical catapult, landing on an aircraft can type "on its belly" or by parachute in semiautomatic or automatic mode. For takeoff and landing pad sizes required 75h75 m (along the perimeter allowed the location shelterbelts consisting of medium-trees).

The complex unmanned aerial surveillance "Inspector 301" in 2009 year expressed interest interregional grid companies. Besides them, the purchase represented complexes interested Emergencies Ministry and many other organizations and agencies.

Aerokon INSPECTOR-301 multipurpose UAV. Characteristics:

Modification Inspector-301
Wingspan, m 1.50
Length m
Height, m
Weight, kg
maximum take-off 6.50
engine's type 1 ED
Power, hp 1 x
Cruising speed, km / h 55-150
Practical range, km 200
Radius of action, km
The flight duration, min 45-120
Operating altitude, m 50-500
Practical ceiling, m 4000

Other UAVs

Tell me please the cost of the aircraft?
And please, can you only buy a fuselage separately?


Death has inspired some of the world's most imposing and monumental architecture. Two of the seven wonders of the ancient world were tombs: the great pyramids of Egypt and the mausoleum of Halicarnassus. The latter was the tomb of Mausolus (hence the word mausoleum ), the king of Caria (Asia Minor); it was constructed in the fourth century B.C.E. but no longer survives. The Egyptian pyramids have endured and are perhaps the most famous tombs of all time. Their sheer scale captures the power, wealth, and energy at the disposal of those who created them.

The word tomb derives from ancient Greek and was first employed by Homer to describe a tumulus or mound raised over a body. By transference, tomb has come to mean anything that is the last resting place of a corpse or cremated human remains. For this reason, the word tomb is often used interchangeably with funerary memorial, funerary monument, mausoleum, and even with cenotaph (an empty tomb), gravestone (a tomb marker), and grave. All can be said to perform some functions of a tomb.

A tomb is a structure built aboveground to house the remains of the dead. Many such structures are freestanding, but some exist within other buildings, most notably churches. Tombs often incorporate architectural features and sculpture into the design; many include identifying inscriptions and images; and some use extravagant decor and furnishings on the interior as well as the exterior.

Tombs come in a myriad of shapes, forms, and sizes: there are pyramids, obelisks, mounds, rotunda, rock-cut tombs, house tombs, and temple tombs, to name a few; these may house the remains of a single person or many. Some types of tombs are characteristic of specific peoples and places, but funerary architecture has an eclectic nature that often borrows forms from past societies to lend prestige to the present. Pyramid tombs may be associated with Egypt, but pyramids were also adopted in ancient Rome (e.g., that of Caius Cestius), in eighteenth-century England (e.g., that of the Earl of Buckinghamshire at Bickling, Norfolk), and in nineteenth-century America (e.g., the monument to Confederate soldiers in Richmond, Virginia). Most building types can be and have been adapted to house human remains and thus perform the function of a tomb.

The earliest impact of man upon the natural landscape was through funerary structures. The barrows and tumuli of the Neolithic period in Europe (c. 4000–3000 B.C.E. ) or of the Mycenean period in Greece (c. 1600–1200 B.C.E. ), for example, were large tombs that basically consisted of a stone chamber covered by a massive mound of earth. We can judge that these were highly visible statements expressing the ability of the constructors to deploy manpower and resources, even when little else is known of the prehistoric societies involved.

Tombs are a striking way of asserting desired power and stability. Monumental tombs are not a part of all cultures, religions, or political systems, but where they occur, they are often associated with times of transition in power, a transition frequently triggered by the death of a ruler. This is well illustrated by the pyramids of the Egyptian pharaohs or the mausoleums of the Roman emperors or the medieval papal tombs. The first Roman emperor, Augustus (ruled 31 B.C.E. –14 C.E. ), asserted his claims to rule in Rome by building a large circular mausoleum, a dynastic tomb designed to hold the remains of Augustus and his successors. The message was clear: Augustus and his family were in charge and they intended to remain so. In the twentieth century similar principles underlay the construction and maintenance of the tomb of Lenin. Reverence for the dead, and tombs that house them, can be a unifying factor and thus those holding power can draw authority and legitimacy by association with the tomb. From the top of the tomb that housed Lenin's embalmed remains, Soviet dignitaries watched the May Day parades; Lenin was literally under their feet and symbolically holding up the regime.

Tombs may function as symbols of power, but one should not isolate them completely from a more personal world of emotion and sentiment.

Although in Egypt, the Fatimid Tombs in this ancient Muslim cemetery are uncharacteristic of triangular pyramids usually found in that country. CORBIS
For past societies it can be difficult to reconstruct emotions. The Taj Mahal ("abode of the chosen one") in Agra, India, was built during the 1600s by Shah Jahan for his wife, Mumtaz Mahal, and could be interpreted as a beautiful token of love inspired by grief. This may have been so, but its wider political and physical impact cannot be ignored. The Taj Mahal was part of a massive building project that asserted Mogul rule onto the landscape of northern India. This tomb and its beautiful gardens may also represent heaven on earth, uniting this life with the afterlife. Indeed, spiritual and religious beliefs may strongly influence tomb design. On the one hand religion can seek to control and simplify, designating permanent monumental structures as inappropriate. On the other hand religion can inspire great funerary architecture and play a fundamental role in the design, form, and location of tombs. The secure construction and interior provisions of the Egyptian pyramids were dictated by beliefs about the afterlife; the filling of European churches with tombs had its origins in a desire to gain proximity to God. Religion, power, and sentiment could all play their part in tomb construction as epitomized by the Taj Mahal.

In the case of more modest tombs, it is sometimes possible to view them less as public symbols of power and claimed religious piety and more as personal statements of affection and familial duty. The tomb is a product of the human urge to remember; it is a focus for memory and a symbol of consolation to the bereaved. In nineteenth-century America and Europe, following cemetery reforms and the abandonment of overcrowded churchyards, there was a boom in tomb and gravestone construction because more people had the opportunity and ability to mark the graves of their loved ones. It was a fashion that did not last, since the same cemeteries came to be characterized by greater simplicity in the twentieth century.

Such changes in the significance and use of tombs reflect changes in society. But wherever and whenever they are constructed and on whatever scale, the public nature of a tomb must not be disregarded. A tomb may be commissioned from love and affection, but simultaneously its design, decor, and size are careful choices that convey important messages (even if indirectly) about the personal beliefs, wealth, status, and identity of the deceased and the survivors.

See also: Burial Grounds ; Cemeteries and Cemetery Reform ; Cemeteries, Military ; Cemeteries, War ; Charnel Houses ; Gravestones and Other Markers ; Memorialization, Spontaneous ; Memorials, Virtual ; Pyramids ; Qin Shih Huang's Tomb ; Vietnam Veterans Memorial

Colvin, Howard. Architecture and the After-Life. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991.

Curl, James. A Celebration of Death: An Introduction to Some of the Buildings, Monuments, and Settings of Funerary Architecture in the Western European Tradition. London: B.T. Batsford, 1993.

Davies, Penelope. Death and the Emperor. Roman Imperial Funerary Monuments from Augustus to Marcus Aurelius. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.

Jupp, Peter, and Clare Gittings, eds. Death in England: An Illustrated History. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999.

Parker Pearson, Mike. The Archaeology of Death and Burial. Stroud, England: Sutton, 1999.

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