Antarctica has lost 3 trillion tonnes of ice in 25 years. Time is running out for the frozen continent

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As the world prevaricates over climate action, Antarctica’s future is shrouded in uncertainty.
Hamish Pritchard/British Antarctic Survey

Steve Rintoul, CSIRO and Steven Chown, Monash University

Antarctica lost 3 trillion tonnes of ice between 1992 and 2017, according to a new analysis of satellite observations. In vulnerable West Antarctica, the annual rate of ice loss has tripled during that period, reaching 159 billion tonnes a year. Overall, enough ice has been lost from Antarctica over the past quarter-century to raise global seas by 8 millimetres.

What will Antarctica look like in the year 2070, and how will changes in Antarctica impact the rest of the globe? The answer to these questions depends on choices we make in the next decade, as outlined in our accompanying paper, also published today in Nature.

Read more:
Ocean waves and lack of sea ice can trigger Antarctic ice shelves to disintegrate

Our research contrasts two potential narratives for Antarctica over the coming half-century – a story that will play out within the lifetimes of today’s children and young adults.

While the two scenarios are necessarily speculative, two things are certain. The first is that once significant changes occur in Antarctica, we are committed to centuries of further, irreversible change on global scales. The second is that we don’t have much time – the narrative that eventually plays out will depend on choices made in the coming decade.

Change in Antarctica has global impacts

Despite being the most remote region on Earth, changes in Antarctica and the Southern Ocean will have global consequences for the planet and humanity.

For example, the rate of sea-level rise depends on the response of the Antarctic ice sheet to warming of the atmosphere and ocean, while the speed of climate change depends on how much heat and carbon dioxide is taken up by the Southern Ocean. What’s more, marine ecosystems all over the world are sustained by the nutrients exported from the Southern Ocean to lower latitudes.

From a political perspective, Antarctica and the Southern Ocean are among the largest shared spaces on Earth, regulated by a unique governance regime known as the Antarctic Treaty System. So far this regime has been successful at managing the environment and avoiding discord.

However, just as the physical and biological systems of Antarctica face challenges from rapid environmental change driven by human activities, so too does the management of the continent.

Antarctica in 2070

We considered two narratives of the next 50 years for Antarctica, each describing a plausible future based on the latest science.

In the first scenario, global greenhouse gas emissions remain unchecked, the climate continues to warm, and little policy action is taken to respond to environmental factors and human activities that affect the Antarctic.

Under this scenario, Antarctica and the Southern Ocean undergo widespread and rapid change, with global consequences. Warming of the ocean and atmosphere result in dramatic loss of major ice shelves. This causes increased loss of ice from the Antarctic ice sheet and acceleration of sea-level rise to rates not seen since the end of the last glacial period more than 10,000 years ago.

Warming, sea-ice retreat and ocean acidification significantly change marine ecosystems. And unrestricted growth in human use of Antarctica degrades the environment and results in the establishment of invasive species.

Under the high-emissions scenario, widespread changes occur by 2070 in Antarctica and the Southern Ocean, with global impacts.
Rintoul et al. 2018. Click image to enlarge.

In the second scenario, ambitious action is taken to limit greenhouse gas emissions and to establish policies that reduce human pressure on Antarctica’s environment.

Under this scenario, Antarctica in 2070 looks much like it does today. The ice shelves remain largely intact, reducing loss of ice from the Antarctic ice sheet and therefore limiting sea-level rise.

An increasingly collaborative and effective governance regime helps to alleviate human pressures on Antarctica and the Southern Ocean. Marine ecosystems remain largely intact as warming and acidification are held in check. On land, biological invasions remain rare. Antarctica’s unique invertebrates and microbes continue to flourish.

Antarctica and the Southern Ocean in 2070, under the low-emissions (left) and high-emissions (right) scenarios. Each of these systems will continue to change after 2070, with the magnitude of the change to which we are committed being generally much larger than the change realised by 2070.
Rintoul et al. 2018. Click image to enlarge.

The choice is ours

We can choose which of these trajectories we follow over the coming half-century. But the window of opportunity is closing fast.

Global warming is determined by global greenhouse emissions, which continue to grow. This will commit us to further unavoidable climate impacts, some of which will take decades or centuries to play out. Greenhouse gas emissions must peak and start falling within the coming decade if our second narrative is to stand a chance of coming true.

If our more optimistic scenario for Antarctica plays out, there is a good chance that the continent’s buttressing ice shelves will survive and that Antarctica’s contribution to sea-level rise will remain below 1 metre. A rise of 1m or more would displace millions of people and cause substantial economic hardship.

Under the more damaging of our potential scenarios, many Antarctic ice shelves will likely be lost and the Antarctic ice sheet will contribute as much as 3m of sea level rise by 2300, with an irreversible commitment of 5-15m in the coming millennia.

The ConversationWhile challenging, we can take action now to prevent Antarctica and the world from suffering out-of-control climate consequences. Success will demonstrate the power of peaceful international collaboration and show that, when it comes to the crunch, we can use scientific evidence to take decisions that are in our long-term best interest.

The choice is ours.

Steve Rintoul, Research Team Leader, Marine & Atmospheric Research, CSIRO and Steven Chown, Professor of Biological Sciences, Monash University

Luke Bennetts, University of Adelaide; Rob Massom, and Vernon Squire

Large waves after the loss of sea ice can trigger Antarctic ice shelf disintegration over a period of just days, according to our new research.

With other research also published today in Nature showing that the rate of annual ice loss from the vulnerable Antarctic Peninsula has quadrupled since 1992, our study of catastrophic ice shelf collapses during that time shows how the lack of a protective buffer of sea ice can leave ice shelves, already weakened by climate warming, wide open to attack by waves.

Read more:

Antarctica is covered by an ice sheet that is several kilometres thick in places. It covers an area of 14 million square kilometres – roughly twice the size of Australia. This ice sheet holds more than 90% of the world’s ice, which is enough to raise global mean sea level by 57 metres.

As snow falls and compacts on the ice sheet, the sheet thickens and flows out towards the coast, and then onto the ocean surface. The resulting “ice shelves” (and glacier tongues) buttress three-quarters of the Antarctic coastline. Ice shelves act as a crucial braking system for fast-flowing glaciers on the land, and thus moderate the ice sheet’s contribution to sea-level rise.

In the southern summer of 2002, scientists monitoring the Antarctic Peninsula (the northernmost part of mainland Antarctica) by satellite witnessed a dramatic ice shelf disintegration that was stunning in its abruptness and scale. In just 35 days, 3,250 square km of the Larsen B Ice Shelf (twice the size of Queensland’s Fraser Island) shattered, releasing an estimated 720 billion tonnes of icebergs into the Weddell Sea.

This wasn’t the first such recorded event. In January 1995, roughly 1,500 square km of the nearby Larsen A Ice Shelf suddenly disintegrated after several decades of warming and years of gradual retreat. To the southwest, the Wilkins Ice Shelf suffered a series of strikingly similar disintegration events in 1998, 2008 and 2009 — not only in summer but also in two of the Southern Hemisphere’s coldest months, May and July.

These sudden, large-scale fracturing events removed features that had been stable for centuries – up to 11,500 years in the case of Larsen B. While ice shelf disintegrations don’t directly raise sea level (because the ice shelves are already floating), the removal of shelf ice allows the glaciers behind them to accelerate their discharge of land-based ice into the ocean – and this does raise sea levels. Previous research has shown that the removal of Larsen B caused its tributary glaciers to flow eight times faster in the year following its disintegration.

Read more:
Cold and calculating: what the two different types of ice do to sea levels

The ocean around ice shelves is typically covered by a very different (but equally important) type of ice, called sea ice. This is formed from frozen seawater and is generally no more than a few metres thick. But it stretches far out into the ocean, doubling the area of the Antarctic ice cap when at its maximum extent in winter, and varying in extent throughout the year.

The response of Antarctic sea ice to climate change and variability is complex, and differs between regions. Around the Antarctic Peninsula, in the Bellingshausen and northwestern Weddell seas, it has clearly declined in extent and annual duration since satellite monitoring began in 1979, at a similar rate to the Arctic’s rapidly receding sea ice.

The Southern Ocean is also host to the largest waves on the planet, and these waves are becoming more extreme. Our new study focuses on “long-period” swell waves (with swells that last up to about 20 seconds). These are generated by distant storms and carry huge amounts of energy across the oceans, and can potentially flex the vulnerable outer margins of ice shelves.

The earliest whalers and polar pioneers knew that sea ice can damp these waves — Sir Ernest Shackleton reported it in his iconic book South!. Sea ice thus acts as a “buffer” that protects the Antarctic coastline, and its ice shelves, from destructive ocean swells.

Strikingly, all five of the sudden major ice shelf disintegrations listed above happened during periods when sea ice was abnormally low or even absent in these regions. This means that intense swell waves crashed directly onto the vulnerable ice shelf fronts.

The straw that broke the camel’s back

The Antarctic Peninsula has experienced particularly strong climate warming (roughly 0.5℃ per decade since the late 1940s), which has caused intense surface melting on its ice shelves and exacerbated their structural weaknesses such as fractures. These destabilising processes are the underlying drivers of ice shelf collapse. But they do not explain why the observed disintegrations were so abrupt.

Our new study suggests that the trigger mechanism was swell waves flexing and working weaknesses at the shelf fronts in the absence of sea ice, to the point where they calved away the shelf fronts in the form of long, thin “sliver-bergs”. The removal of these “keystone blocks” in turn led to the catastrophic breakup of the ice shelf interior, which was weakened by years of melt.

Our research thus underlines the complex and interdependent nature of the various types of Antarctic ice – particularly the important role of sea ice in forming a protective “buffer” for shelf ice. While much of the focus so far has been on the possibility of ice shelves melting from below as the sea beneath them warms, our research suggests an important role for sea ice and ocean swells too.

The edge of an ice shelf off the Antarctic Peninsula, with floating sea ice beyond (to the left in this image).
NASA/Maria Jose Vinas

In July 2017 an immense iceberg broke away from the Larsen C Ice Shelf, just south of Larsen B, prompting fears that it could disintegrate like its neighbours.

Our research suggests that four key factors will determine whether it does: extensive flooding and fracturing across the ice shelf; reduced sea ice coverage offshore; extensive fracturing of the ice shelf front; and calving of sliver-bergs.

Read more:
Don’t worry about the huge Antarctic iceberg – worry about the glaciers behind it

If temperatures continue to rise around the Antarctic, ice shelves will become weaker and sea ice less extensive, which would imply an increased likelihood of future disintegrations.

However, the picture is not that clear-cut, as not all remaining ice shelves are likely to respond in the same way to sea ice loss and swell wave impacts. Their response will also depend on their glaciological characteristics, physical setting, and the degree and nature of surface flooding. Some ice shelves may well be capable of surviving prolonged absences of sea ice.

The ConversationIrrespective of these differences, we need to include sea ice and ocean waves in our models of ice sheet behaviour. This will be a key step towards better forecasting the fate of Antarctica’s remaining ice shelves, and how much our seas will rise in response to projected climate change over coming decades. In parallel, our new findings underline the need to better understand and model the mechanisms responsible for recent sea ice trends around Antarctica, to enable prediction of likely future change in the exposure of ice shelves to ocean swells.

Luke Bennetts, Lecturer in applied mathematics, University of Adelaide; Rob Massom, Leader, Sea Ice Group, Antarctica & the Global System program, Australian Antarctic Division and Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems CRC, and Vernon Squire, Deputy Vice-Chancellor Academic, Professor of Applied Mathematics

File 20180607 137295 b7km0d.jpg?ixlib=rb 1.1
Livestock is a significant source of methane, a potent but short-lived greenhouse gas.
from, CC BY-SA

Dave Frame, Victoria University of Wellington; Adrian Henry Macey, Victoria University of Wellington, and Myles Allen, University of Oxford

Carbon dioxide is a long-lived greenhouse gas, whereas methane is comparatively short-lived. Long-lived “stock pollutants” remain in the atmosphere for centuries, increasing in concentration as long as their emissions continue and causing more and more warming. Short-lived “flow pollutants” disappear much more rapidly. As long as their emissions remain constant, their concentration and warming effect remain roughly constant as well.

Our research demonstrates a better way to reflect how different greenhouse gases affect global temperatures over time.

Cost of pollution

The difference between stock and flow pollutants is shown in the figure below. Flow pollutant emissions, for example of methane, do not persist. Emissions in period one, and the same emissions in period two, lead to a constant (or roughly constant) amount of the pollutant in the atmosphere (or river, lake, or sea).

With stock pollutants, such as carbon dioxide, concentrations of the pollutant accumulate as emissions continue.

Flow and stock pollutants over time. In the first period, one unit of each pollutant is emitted, leading to one unit of concentration. After each period, the flow pollutant decays, while the stock pollutant remains in the environment.
provided by author, CC BY

The economic theory of pollution suggests different approaches to greenhouse gases with long or short lifetimes in the atmosphere. The social cost (the cost society ought to pay) of flow pollution is constant over time, because the next unit of pollution is just replacing the last, recently decayed unit. This justifies a constant price on flow pollutants.

In the case of stock pollutants, the social cost increases with constant emissions as concentrations of the pollutant rise, and as damages rise, too. This justifies a rising price on stock pollutants.

Read more:
Cows exude lots of methane, but taxing beef won’t cut emissions

A brief history of greenhouse gas “equivalence”

In climate policy, we routinely encounter the idea of “CO₂-equivalence” between different sorts of gases, and many people treat it as accepted and unproblematic. Yet researchers have debated for decades about the adequacy of this approach. To summarise a long train of scientific papers and opinion pieces, there is no perfect or universal way to compare the effects of greenhouse gases with very different lifetimes.

This point was made in the first major climate report produced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) way back in 1990. Those early discussions were loaded with caveats: global warming potentials (GWP), which underpin the traditional practice of CO₂-equivalence, were introduced as “a simple approach … to illustrate the difficulties inherent in the concept”.

The problem with developing a concept is that people might use it. Worse, they might use it and ignore all the caveats that attended its development. This is, more or less, what happened with GWPs as used to create CO₂-equivalence.

The science caveats were there, and suggestions for alternatives or improvements have continued to appear in the literature. But policymakers needed something (or thought they did), and the international climate negotiations community grasped the first option that became available, although this has not been without challenges from some countries.

Better ways to compare stocks and flows

An explanation of the scientific issues, and how we address them, is contained in this article by Michelle Cain. The approach in our new paper shows that modifying the use of GWP to better account for the differences between short- and long-lived gases can better link emissions to warming.

Under current policies, stock and flow pollutants are treated as being equivalent and therefore interchangeable. This is a mistake, because if people make trade-offs between emissions reductions such that they allow stock pollutants to grow while reducing flow pollutants, they will ultimately leave a warmer world behind in the long term. Instead, we should develop policies that address methane and other flow pollutants in line with their effects.

Then the true impact of an emission on warming can be easily assessed. For countries with high methane emissions, for example from agriculture, this can make a huge difference to how their emissions are judged.

For a lot of countries, this issue is of secondary importance. But for some countries, particularly poor ones, it matters a lot. Countries with a relatively high share of methane in their emissions portfolios tend to be either middle-income countries with large agriculture sectors and high levels of renewables in their electricity mix (such as much of Latin America), or less developed countries where agricultural emissions dominate because their energy sector is small.

This is why we think the new research has some promise. We think we have a better way to conceive of multi-gas climate targets. This chimes with new possibilities in climate policy, because under the Paris Agreement countries are free to innovate in how they approach climate policy.

Improving the environmental integrity of climate policy

This could take several forms. For some countries, it may be that the new approach provides a better way of comparing different gases within a single-basket approach to greenhouse gases, as in an emissions trading scheme or taxation system. For others, it could be used to set separate but coherent emissions targets for long- and short-lived gases within a two-basket approach to climate policy. Either way, the new approach means countries can signal the centrality of carbon dioxide reductions in their policy mix, while limiting the warming effect of shorter-lived gases.

The new way of using global warming potentials demonstrably outperforms the traditional method in a range of emission scenarios, providing a much more accurate indication of how stock and flow pollutants affect global temperatures. This is especially so under climate mitigation scenarios.

Well designed policies would assist sectoral fairness within countries, too. Policies that reflect the different roles of stock and flow pollutants would give farmers and rice growers a more reasonable way to control their emissions and reduce their impact on the environment, while still acknowledging the primacy of carbon dioxide emissions in the climate change problem.

The ConversationAn ideal approach would be a policy that aimed for zero emissions of stock pollutants such as carbon dioxide and low but stable (or gently declining) emissions of flow pollutants such as methane. Achieving both goals would mean that a farm, or potentially a country, can do a better, clearer job of stopping its contribution to warming.

Dave Frame, Professor of Climate Change, Victoria University of Wellington; Adrian Henry Macey, Senior Associate, Institute for Governance and Policy Studies; Adjunct Professor, New Zealand Climate Change Research Institute. , Victoria University of Wellington, and Myles Allen, Professor of Geosystem Science, Leader of ECI Climate Research Programme, University of Oxford

Is Australia’s current drought caused by climate change? It’s complicated

Andrew King, University of Melbourne; Anna Ukkola, Australian National University, and Ben Henley, University of Melbourne

Much of southern Australia is experiencing severe drought after a very dry and warm autumn across the southern half of the continent. Australia is no stranger to drought, but this recent dry spell, and Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull’s visit to drought-stricken parts of the country, has prompted discussion of the role of climate change in this event.

Turnbull said that farmers need to “build resilience” as rainfall “appears to be getting more variable”. This prompted former Nationals leader John Anderson to warn against “politicising” the drought by invoking climate change. This in turn was followed by speculation from numberous commentators about the links between climate change and drought.

Read more:
Australia’s 2017 environment scorecard: like a broken record, high temperatures further stress our ecosystems

So are droughts getting worse, and can they be attributed to climate change? Drought is a complex beast and can be measured in a variety of ways. Some aspects of drought are linked with climate change; others are not.

Recent warm and dry conditions have resulted in drought over parts of southern Australia.
Bureau of Meteorology

How do we measure drought?

Droughts are also exacerbated by low humidity, higher wind speeds, warmer temperatures, and greater amounts of sunshine. All of these factors increase water loss from soils and plants. This means that other metrics are often used to describe drought which go beyond rainfall deficiencies alone. These include the Palmer Drought Severity Index and the Standardised Precipitation Evaporation Index , for example.

This means that there are hundreds of metrics which together can provide a more detailed representation of a drought. But this also means that droughts are less well understood and described than simpler phenomena such as temperature and rainfall.

Hydrological drought, often defined by a period of low streamflow, is a response to numerous upstream processes that are unique to each river system. Hydrologists and water planners therefore often focus on directly observing and modelling runoff from water catchments.

The point here is that droughts can be multidimensional, affecting agriculture and water supplies on a wide range of spatial and temporal scales. A seasonal-scale drought that reduces soil moisture on a farm, and a decade-long drought that depletes reservoirs and groundwater supplies, can both be devastating, but in very different ways.

So is climate change affecting Australian droughts?

As we have so many ways of looking at droughts, this is a more complex question than it might first sound. Climate change may affect these drought metrics and types of drought differently, so it is hard to make general statements about the links between human-induced climate change and drought.

We know that over southern Australia, and in particular the southwest, there has been a rapid decline in winter rainfall, and that this has been linked to climate change. In the southeast there has also been a decline but the trend is harder to distinguish from the year-to-year variability.

Winter rainfall in Southwestern Australia has been in decline since the 1960s.
Bureau of Meteorology

For recent short-term droughts in southern Australia, analyses have found an increased likelihood of rainfall deficits related to human-caused climate change. Also, it has been suggested that the character of droughts is changing as a result of the human-induced warming trend.

Read more:
Recent Australian droughts may be the worst in 800 years

There is some evidence to suggest that widespread and prolonged droughts, like the Millennium Drought, are worse than other droughts in recent centuries, and may have been exacerbated by climate change. But the role of climate change in extended drought periods is difficult to discern from background climate variability. This is particularly true in Australia, which has a much more variable climate than many other parts of the world.

What does the future hold?

Future projections of drought are also difficult to constrain, as they vary across Australia and depend on the measure of drought being used. Climate models project a continuing decline in rainfall over southern Australia over the next century. Dry conditions like those seen in southeast Australia in 2006, for example, are projected to become more frequent under even low global warming targets associated with the Paris Agreement. Rainfall projections for other parts of the continent are more uncertain.

Read more:
Why 2℃ of global warming is much worse for Australia than 1.5℃

Rainfall is projected to become more extreme, with more intense rain events and fewer light rain days. This would potentially influence what future droughts look like, and how and where water moves through the land.

River flows are also projected to decline in parts of the country, with consequences for water supply to cities, ecosystems and agriculture. In the southwest, declining rainfall has led to drastic reductions in river flows since the 1970s. This trend is expected to continue. Elsewhere, changes are more uncertain but studies have suggested that the southeast could also experience declining river flows in the coming decades.

Part of the challenge of projecting future change is related to how temperature and precipitation vary together. The relationship is a double-edged sword. Increased greenhouse gas emissions mean an increased probability that low-precipitation years are also warm, suggesting that under climate change droughts may be hotter in some parts of the world. But dry conditions also often result in warmer local temperatures, increasing water loss from soils and plants.

Read more:
El Niño is here and that means droughts, but they don’t work how you might think

Droughts are tricky

Compared with other extreme weather types, it is hard to make useful statements about how climate change is altering droughts and their impacts. Protracted droughts are also rarer than many short-term natural hazards such as heatwaves. We need much longer records to reliably understand how they are changing, but these are not always available.

Compared to heatwaves and cold spells it is harder to assess the role of climate change in droughts.
National Academy of Science

There is some evidence to suggest that climate change is exacerbating drought conditions in parts of Australia, especially in the southwest and southeast. Much more work is needed to understand the intricacies of the effects of climate change on different aspects and types of drought.

The ConversationWith the uncertainties of a rapidly changing climate we need to bolster our adaptation plans so we are ready for the next big dry.

Andrew King, ARC DECRA fellow, University of Melbourne; Anna Ukkola, Research Associate, Climate Change Research Centre, Australian National University, and Ben Henley, Research Fellow in Climate and Water Resources, University of Melbourne

A bird’s eye view of New Zealand’s changing glaciers

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Small aircraft carry scientists high above the Southern Alps to survey glacier changes.
Hamish McCormick/NIWA, CC BY-SA

Andrew Lorrey, National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research; Andrew Mackintosh, Victoria University of Wellington, and Brian Anderson, Victoria University of Wellington

Every March, glacier “watchers” take to the skies to photograph snow and ice clinging to high peaks along the length of New Zealand’s Southern Alps.

This flight needs to happen on cloud-free and windless days at the end of summer before new snow paints the glaciers white, obscuring their surface features.

Each year, at the end of summer, scientists monitor glaciers along New Zealand’s Southern Alps.

Summer of records

The summer of 2017-18 was New Zealand’s warmest on record and the Tasman Sea experienced a marine heat wave, with temperatures up to six degrees above normal for several weeks.

The loss of seasonal snow cover and older ice during this extreme summer brings the issue of human-induced climate change into tight focus. The annual flights have been taking place for four decades and the data on end-of-summer snowlines provide crucial evidence.

The disappearance of snow and ice for some of New Zealand’s glaciers is clear and irreversible, at least within our lifetimes. Many glaciers we survey now will simply vanish in the coming decades.

The Franz Josef glacier advanced during the 1980s and 1990s but is now retreating.
Andrew Lorrey/NIWA, CC BY-SA

Glaciers are a beautiful part of New Zealand’s landscape, and important to tourism, but they may not be as prominent in the future. This stored component of the freshwater resource makes contributions to rivers that are used for recreation and irrigation of farm land.

Meltwater flowing from glaciers around Aoraki/Mt Cook into the Mackenzie Basin feeds important national hydroelectricity power schemes. Seasonal meltwater from glaciers can partially mitigate the impacts of summer drought. This buffering capacity may become more crucial if the eastern side of New Zealand’s mountains become drier in a changing climate.

Pioneering glacier monitoring

When Trevor Chinn began studying New Zealand’s 3,000 or so glaciers in the 1960s, he realised monitoring all of them was impossible. He searched for cost-effective ways to learn as much as he could. This resulted in comprehensive glacier mapping and new snow and ice observations when similar work was dying out elsewhere. Mapping of all of the world’s glaciers – nearly 198,000 in total – was only completed in 2012, yet Trevor had already mapped New Zealand’s ice 30 years earlier.

Octogenarian Trevor Chinn still participates in the snowline flights every year to support younger scientists.
Dave Allen/NIWA, CC BY-SA

In addition, he wanted to understand how snow and ice changed from year to year. Trevor decided to do annual glacier photographic flights, looking for the end-of-summer snowlines – a feature about half way between the terminus and the top of a glacier where hard, blue, crevassed glacier ice usually gives way to the previous winter’s snow. The altitude of this transition is an indicator of the annual health of a glacier.

It was a visionary approach that provided a powerful and unique archive of climate variability and change in a remote South Pacific region, far removed from well-known European and North American glaciers. But what was hidden at the time was that New Zealand glaciers were about to undergo significant changes.

Trevor Chinn took part in this summer’s flight and said:

This year is the worst we’ve ever seen. There was so much melt over the summer that more than half the glaciers have lost all the snow they had gained last winter, plus some from the winter before, and there’s rocks sticking out everywhere. The melt-back is phenomenal.

New insights from old observations

The Southern Alps end-of-summer snowline photo archive, produced by the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, is a remarkable long-term record. Our colleagues Lauren Vargo and Huw Horgan are leading the effort to harness this resource with photogrammetry to deliver precise (metre-scale) three-dimensional models of glacier changes since 1978, building directly on Trevor Chinn’s work.

Glaciers respond to natural variability and human-induced changes, and we suspect the latter has become more dominant for our region. During the 1980s and 1990s, while glaciers were largely retreating in other parts of the world, many in New Zealand were advancing. Our recent research shows this anomaly was caused by several concentrated cooler-than-average periods, with Southern Alps air temperature linked to Tasman Sea temperatures directly upwind.

The situation changed after the early 2000s, and we postulated whether more frequent high snowlines and acceleration of ice loss would occur. Since 2010, multiple high snowline years have been observed. In 2011, the iconic Fox Glacier (Te Moeka o Tuawe) and Franz Josef Glacier (Kā Roimata o Hine Hukatere) started a dramatic retreat – losing all of the ground that they regained in the 1990s and more.

In a series of ice collapses, New Zealand’s Fox Glacier retreated by around 300 m between January 2014 and January 2015.

Looking ahead by examining the past

How New Zealand’s glaciers will respond to human-induced climate change is an important question, but the answer is complicated. A recent study suggests human-induced climate warming since about 1990 has been the largest factor driving global glacier decline. For New Zealand, which is significantly influenced by regional variability of the surrounding oceans and atmosphere, the picture is less clear.

To assess how human-induced climate influences and natural variability affect New Zealand glaciers requires the use of climate models, snowline observations and other datasets. Our research team, with support from international colleagues, are doing just that to see how Southern Alps ice will respond to a range of future scenarios.

The ConversationContinuing the snowline photograph work will allow us to better identify climate change tipping points and warning signs for our water resources – and therefore better prepare New Zealand for an uncertain future.

Andrew Lorrey, Principal Scientist & Programme Leader of Climate Observations and Processes, National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research; Andrew Mackintosh, Professor & Director of Antarctic Research Centre, expert on glaciers and ice sheets, Victoria University of Wellington, and Brian Anderson, Senior Research Fellow, Victoria University of Wellington

Why remote Antarctica is so important in a warming world

Chris Fogwill, Keele University; Chris Turney, UNSW, and Zoe Robinson, Keele University

Heroic exploration, 1913.

In 2014, NASA reported that several major Antarctic ice streams, which hold enough water to trigger the equivalent of a one-and-a-half metre sea level rise, are now irreversibly in retreat. With more than 150m people exposed to the threat of sea level rise and sea levels now rising at a faster rate globally than any time in the past 3,000 years, these are sobering statistics for island nations and coastal cities worldwide.

An immediate and acute threat

Recent storm surges following hurricanes have demonstrated that rising sea levels are a future threat for densely populated regions such as Florida and New York. Meanwhile the threat for low-lying islands in areas such as the Pacific is immediate and acute.

Much of the continent’s ice is slowly sliding towards the sea.
R Bindschadler / wiki

Multiple factors mean that the vulnerability to global sea level rise is geographically variable and unequal, while there are also regional differences in the extremity of sea level rise itself. At present, the consensus of the IPPC 2013 report suggests a rise of between 40 and 80cm over the next century, with Antarctica only contributing around 5cm of this. Recent projections, however, suggest that Antarctic contributions may be up to ten times higher.

Studies also suggest that in a world 1.5-2°C warmer than today we will be locked into millennia of irreversible sea level rise, due to the slow response time of the Antarctic ice sheets to atmospheric and ocean warming.

We may already be living in such a world. Recent evidence shows global temperatures are close to 1.5°C warmer than pre-industrial times and, after the COP23 meeting in Bonn in November, it is apparent that keeping temperature rise within 2°C is unlikely.

So we now need to reconsider future sea level projections given the potential global impact from Antarctica. Given that 93% of the heat from anthropogenic global warming has gone into the ocean, and these warming ocean waters are now meeting the floating margins of the Antarctic ice sheet, the potential for rapid ice sheet melt in a 2°C world is high.

In polar regions, surface temperatures are projected to rise twice as fast as the global average, due to a phenomenon known as polar amplification. However, there is still hope to avoid this sword of Damocles, as studies suggest that a major reduction in greenhouse gases over the next decade would mean that irreversible sea level rise could be avoided. It is therefore crucial to reduce CO₂ levels now for the benefit of future generations, or adapt to a world in which more of our shorelines are significantly redrawn.

This is both a scientific and societal issue. We have choices: technological innovations are providing new ways to reduce CO₂ emissions, and offer the reality of a low-carbon future. This may help minimise sea level rise from Antarctica and make mitigation a viable possibility.

The ConversationGiven what rising sea levels could mean for human societies across the world, we must maintain our longstanding view of Antarctica as the most remote and isolated continent.

Chris Fogwill, Professor of Glaciology and Palaeoclimatology, Keele University; Chris Turney, Professor of Earth Sciences and Climate Change, UNSW, and Zoe Robinson, Reader in Physical Geography and Sustainability/Director of Education for Sustainability, Keele University

New Zealand’s productivity commission charts course to low-emission future

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According to a recent report, New Zealand will need to increase renewable electricity generation, plant more trees and continue switching to electric transport more rapidly to achieve its zero carbon goal by 2050.
from, CC BY-SA

Robert McLachlan, Massey University

New Zealand has set itself a target of becoming carbon-neutral by 2050.

A recent report issued by the New Zealand Productivity Commission has found that this is an achievable goal, even under modest forecasts of technological progress and increases in carbon price.

Read more:
A fresh start for climate change mitigation in New Zealand

Rising emissions

New Zealand already had a goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions to 50% below 1990 levels by 2050. That target had been in place since 2002, but emissions continued to rise through the 2000s.

An emissions trading scheme, which began operating in 2008, failed to stop the increase. A flood of imported cars increased New Zealand’s vehicle fleet and its emissions by 20% in just the past four years. A “wall of timber”, expected after 2020 as existing plantations are harvested, would further greatly increase net emissions under current carbon accounting rules.

Agriculture is responsible for an unusually large proportion — just under 50% — of New Zealand’s emissions. These emissions were rising too, especially long-lived nitrous oxides released by effluent and synthetic fertilisers.

A key part of New Zealand’s plan to meet global obligations had always been international carbon trading. However, in the Ukraine hot air scandal, low-integrity carbon credits were imported at rock-bottom prices. International trading was therefore suspended in 2015.

Aiming for zero

The Paris climate agreement made New Zealand’s “50 by 50” target — which the country wasn’t on track to meet — look distinctly weak. It has now become clear that only zero net emissions can stabilise temperatures, at any level, in the long run.

Read more:
A new approach to emissions trading in a post-Paris climate

It was in this context that New Zealand’s previous government asked the Productivity Commission to examine the “opportunities and challenges of a transition to a lower net emissions economy”. A few months into their work, the government changed and the new climate change minister, the Greens’ James Shaw, reinforced the urgency of the inquiry by asking the commission to consider the possibility of a net zero target for 2050.

The resulting 500-page report, now available in draft form, is a huge and comprehensive piece of work. From the very beginning, the commission knew what they were up against, writing that:

…the shift from the old economy to a new, low-emissions, economy will be profound and widespread, transforming land use, the energy system, production methods and technology, regulatory frameworks and institutions, and business and political culture.

The impact of widespread consultation, evidence and research is clear throughout. Although it is only advice, the report is a valuable resource for all future work on emissions reduction. It joins a chorus of similar (but much less detailed) studies issued recently.

Cost of carbon

The report finds that the carbon price required to get to zero net emissions in 2050 is fairly modest. In one model, it rises from its present price of NZ$21/tonne to NZ$55 in 2030 and NZ$157 in 2050 — within the NZ$100-250 range of global estimates consistent with the goal of keeping global temperature rise below 2℃. In other words, New Zealand does not have an unusually difficult decarbonisation challenge.

Although the report covers all main aspects of society and economy, there are three big changes that stand out:

  • Transport must be electrified rapidly (in some models, nearly all light vehicles entering the fleet must be zero-emission by the early 2030s)

  • Huge numbers of trees – up to an extra 2.8 million hectares, tripling the current plantation estate – must be planted to absorb carbon dioxide. These trees have to go somewhere, probably on sheep and beef farms

  • A lot of new renewable electricity generation will be needed, nearly doubling the present capacity, which is already 85% renewable.

Emissions trading can work

The meat of the report is the policies and institutions required to support and drive the transition. Key among them is a revised emissions trading scheme. So far the scheme has failed to reduce domestic emissions because the price of carbon was too low. This was driven mainly by low international prices, sector exemptions (including agriculture), and policy uncertainty which left businesses and investors unclear about future rules and prices.

The commission’s key recommended fixes include the adoption of a falling cap on emissions (to drive up prices and guarantee emissions reductions); a rising price cap (to prevent shocks to the economy and political resistance from emitters); and a rising price floor (to provide confidence to investors in low-emission technologies). Indeed, California’s system includes all of these elements and is currently on track to reduce emissions to 40% below 1990 levels by 2030.

Besides the emissions trading scheme, the report argues that every sector needs its own strategy. For example, on transport, it recommends an emissions standard – something most other developed countries except Australia currently have. Without this, New Zealand risks becoming a dumping ground for high-emission vehicles that manufacturers cannot sell elsewhere. They also recommend a “feebate” scheme, in which vehicles entering the fleet either incur a fee (if they have above-average emissions) or receive a rebate.

Risks and opportunities

I see a few key risks. First, trade-exposed industries, such as agriculture and food and metal processing, need to get discounts on carbon prices to remain competitive. A future in which each global industry decarbonises in a coordinated way does not seem likely, but each industry in each country still needs an incentive to clean up. This aspect remains difficult to deal with. For example, the recommendation that agriculture should be fully phased into the ETS is far outside the political mainstream in New Zealand at the moment.

The falling cap on emissions is an absolutely vital component, but it remains a decision that could be subject to lobbying in the aftermath of some domestic or international crisis.

In none of the report’s scenarios do gross emissions fall by more than 43% by 2050. This is certainly achievable, and it is in line with what some countries are doing right now, but it means New Zealand is relying heavily on tree planting to get to net zero. This is not a long-term solution – eventually you run out of space to plant more trees.

Although the commission has cast its net wide, it does not encompass all views. Political scientist Bronwyn Hayward, perhaps influenced by Trumpism, sees a climate commission as just another panel of experts telling us what to do. Without a fundamental renewal of democracy, this risks a backlash. Naomi Klein goes even further and views neoliberalism as being in kahoots with the fossil fuel industry as the enemy, with the only hope being youth activism.

The ConversationShe might not be wrong. In New Zealand, the idea for a Zero Carbon Act did originate with a youth group, Generation Zero. Their campaign has led fairly directly to this detailed road map for a zero carbon future. The next step, a public consultation about the Zero Carbon Act itself, kicks off this month.

Robert McLachlan, Professor in Applied Mathematics, Massey University


Protected: Exploring Berries & Pine Cones

Emotions and the “Hard Parts” in the Early Childhood Classroom

Emotion is something that drives the early childhood classroom.  Unlike other grades, pre-kindergarten is a time when young children are just learning about the world about them, their own feelings/ beliefs, and values.  Emotions drive young children in everything that they do.  A young child is consumed in their own world.  During this time a child has little understanding of others around them. For this reason, teachers in the pre-k classroom must create a curriculum that is driven through the child’s interest.

A child’s emotion directly effects how children learn in the sense that depending on a child’s emotion at that moment in time can determine their interest level, and motivation for an activity.  Emotions can really impact how a young child reacts to a situation.  A young child can react completely differently in the same exact situation.

The role that emotion plays on a young child’s motivation is different from child to child.  According to Demetriou and Wilson, “From early on our emotional development is inextricably intertwined with our acquisition of knowledge” (Demetriou & Wilson, 2008. P. 938).  Meaning that what a child learns and retains is directly correlated to the emotions they were experiencing at that time.

There are so many emotions that individuals experience at any given time, (happy, sad, mad, angry, frustrated, irritated, sleepy, excited, etc…).  Each one of these emotions effect learning differently in the sense of how a child processes information and retains it.  If a child is happy or excited, they are more likely to participate in learning and create an understanding of the concept or idea.  However, if a child is mad or frustrated, their attention is limited causing them to be less likely to retain and understand new information.  Learning cannot be forced on anyone.  Rather learning is a process in which an individual must apply themselves and make an effort.

Emotion effects everything we do, despite what age we are.  It is through emotion that we go through the motions of life.  Our emotions are what guide us to the decisions we make.  Unfortunately, emotions can affect our learning and decision making unconsciously.  This is something that can be troublesome for some individuals.  There are times in life when you just can’t put aside your emotions, thus having an effect on all aspects of your life.  This issue is even more severe for a young child.  For a child they are just trying to understand the world they live in and themselves.  They are often unable to set aside their own emotions at any given time.  Through a child driven curriculum children are encouraged to participate in learning due to the high interest of the activity.  However, nothing can change a child’s feelings or emotions.

In my classroom emotions fill the classroom.  Many of my children wear their emotions on their sleeves (which is how I always was!).  Having a class of 16 it can be difficult to spend quality time with every single child daily.  However, as the teacher I make it my job to make sure I visit a few particular students daily.  These students are the ones whose emotions change daily.  Often my lessons are altered due to one of the student’s emotions or behaviors.  For my students that are having a difficult day (sad, mad, angry, frustrated…) I develop quite activities where they can have space while being in engaged in an activity of high interest.  Working with three and four year olds I have some ability to help the child to gain enjoyment and want to participate in new activities.  A huge part of my philosophy as an early childhood teacher is that you must always be willing to change or adjust learning activities and curriculum at any given time, due to the child’s interest and needs.

For me I personally am a learner that wants to know how such skills will apply to my field.  I can remember as an undergraduate in general courses feeling frustrated because I could not understand how such knowledge will apply to my field.  I would often say to my dad, I want to teach young kids, how algebra, or biology, or even history will help me with this.  This frustration followed me through my entire associates degree since most of my classes seemed to be on anything but the early childhood field.  Once I began my bachelor’s degree I began to feel like my classes held a higher meaning.  The majority of the classes needed applied to the early childhood field in one way or another.  I can speak from experience though that I spent a lot more time and effort on the classes that directly related to my field of study.  I found myself actually excited about the learning and wanting to apply it to the classroom.

I truly believe that learning is driven by emotion, desires, wants, and needs.  When learning is forced upon you, you are less likely to take it seriously or apply yourself to the same extend.  This is an issue with many students in grammar, middle, and high school.  Learning is forced upon the students, allowing the students to have little control of their own learning experiences.  Once learning gains a negative connotation for a student, it is very difficult to alter.  This is why it is so critical during pre-k to create the most inviting and exciting learning experience possible to help encourage young children to love learning, and exploring new concepts.  If a love for learning can be developed during the early years, it can have a direct impact on a students learning throughout graduate school.

The “hard parts” is a difficult part of the brain function during learning.  It can be one of the most dreaded parts of the learning process for many.  Creating an environment and curriculum that enriches the importance of understanding of individual “hard parts”.  It is known that the “hard parts” will most likely always be a bit more challenging.  However if the teacher prepares and is conscious of the areas in which individual students may need extra support, leaning such information for the learners will become smoother.

Perkins (2009) insists that it is essential to deconstruct them first to make sure they are correct before participating in deliberate practice. When reconstructing any issue areas, it’s important that attention is paid to details and students know the real world application of the hard parts (Perkins, 2009)

In order to develop the knowledge and skills needed to learn the “hard parts”, teachers of all age children and adults should promote active learning within their curriculum and typical activities within the classroom and homework assignments. If counselors are a resource available within the school or institution they can be responsible for guiding by example and allowing students to participate in learning opportunities rather than just having students listen to lecture and have no hands on experience (Active learning, 2012). Through this particular teaching method, students are able to discover their own unique problem areas on their own.  For a teacher to follow through in this learning style appropriately, teaching must occur in several different ways to help each type of learner blossom and learn.

Perkins mentions in his book about the fact that each individual student has multiple “hard parts” to be conscious of and work with. An issue for many students is that they may avoid the “hard parts” due to lack of interest, empowerment, understanding, frustration, or fear.  Teacher’s role within the classroom branches out further then just creating a curriculum and implementing it during the school day.  Rather the teacher can hold the enthusiasm and encouragement for students to become motivated learns, becoming interested on “working on the “hard parts” and enriching their understanding and learning experience.  As a teacher it is critical to provide the students with the whole picture of the learning concept.  Through first being introduced to the whole picture and developing an understanding for its importance, a student is able to gain meaning and drive to develop a deeper understanding of the smaller pieces (Perkins, 2009). When the whole picture is first introduced to the student, it becomes easier for the teacher to then tie the hard parts” to the interests of each individual student.

Being in the early childhood field and a pre-kindergarten teacher brings the importance of helping the children gain a further understanding of their learning and concurring the further learning of the “hard parts”.  In the classroom hands on experiences are enriched in every activity developed.  Open-ended experience creates an opportunity for children to explore their learning understanding and further develop the concepts of the “hard parts”.

In the pre-k classroom I am so incredibly lucky to have the opportunity to develop a personal relationship with each child, and further develop an understanding of their individual learning style.  Daily each child participates in a small group activity.  During this time children are given the opportunity to explore a learning concept with the support of the teacher.  This means that it is a perfect opportunity to help a child develop a further understanding of the “hard parts”.  Something that I hope to become stronger in is my small group time.  The High Scope approach is all new to me.  Prior to this school year I had never been introduced to this learning experience.   Today I still feel a little unsure of this learning activity of our day.  My goal is to enrich this experience through helping each student individually to further encourage and provide excitement of exploring and furthering the knowledge of concepts.

Demetriou, H., & Wilson, E. (2008). A return to the use of emotion and reflection. Psychologist21(11), 938-940.

 Perkins, D. N. (2009). Making learning whole, how seven principles of teaching can transform education. Jossey-Bass.

Thagard, P. (2005). Mind, introduction to cognitive science. (2nd ed.). The MIT Press.

Thoms, K.J. (2001). They’re not just big kids: Motivating adult learners. Retrieved from

Other Resources to Learn More About Emotions and the “Hard Parts” of Learning:

Affect- Emotions and Motivation

How Can Learning Affect a Child’s Emotions?

Changing Brains: Emotions and Learning

Role of Social and Emotional Learning in the Early Childhood Classroom

The Effects of Brain Development for the Young Child and Their Learning

The Effects of Brain Development for the Young Child and Their Learning

Brain development in early childhood is extremely critical.  All young children are individuals meaning that they are all in different stages of development.  Although there are typical skills and knowledge learned at particular ages, it does not apply to every child.  This means that a teacher in a classroom must scaffold a curriculum that meets the needs of all the children individually.  Social skills are so incredibly important and often most challenging for young children.  Cognitive skills come with time, however if social and emotional skills are not taught at a young age then the child may never develop these skills.  In the article “Hearts and Minds” it is mentioned that developing a positive relationship with a teacher or peer can lead to great things.  With a strong bond a young child feels safe to explore and try new things.  This means that the teacher must put in extra effort with each child to develop a unique bond.  The skill of understanding your own feelings as well as others take time and support.  Teachers have the responsibility of helping young children develop the language to express their feelings and emotions with others around them (Lehrer, 2007).

Feelings and emotions have the ability to overtake a young child and cause them to be unable to rationalize what is happening around them.  The idea of having to separate feelings in some situations is extremely difficult.

The early childhood field is one that can be difficult.  Young children barelyt know themselves, never mind a teacher trying to understand just who they are. As an early childcare teacher I am always researching and asking questions about ways to help young children learn about social/ emotional skills.  Personally in my classroom I implement the STEPS program (Systematic Training for Effective Parenting).  This particular program aids children in sharing their feelings with others, and taking ownership of conflict.  STEPS asks for children and adults to use the phrase, “when you…I feel…because…”  The other benefit of the STEPS program is that the teacher or adult can introduce children to new vocabulary for describing their feelings (angry, frustrated, annoyed…).

A young child is unsure of the world.  They only know what is given to them to experience.  In much of a way they are sheltered from much of the real world.  It is through their experiences that they will grow and create their own understanding of the world.  A child bases their logic on prior experiences.  If a young child wants to be the line leader and they know if they push their friend out of the way, then they can be the line leader.  To them it is perfectly logical.  They wanted to be in front, the friend was in the way, so get them out of the way and they can then be in front.  Children even age often don’t think before they do.  They are quick to make decision and are focused on themselves.

During my eduction for my undergraduate I took many psychology classes.  It was my favorite type of class.  I loved trying to understand the brain, especially of the young child.  During my classes there was many opportunities to learn about philosophers who spent the majority of their time researching the young child.  Piaget was one of these philosophers. Piaget believed that the metal process and mentality was very different of that of an adult.  My students throughout a traditional school year very from age three to age five.  With this said their cognitive skills are growing rapidly due to the fact that their brains are much like a “sponge” in the sense that they just absorb new knowledge and information.  During this age Piaget concluded that a young child is extremely caught up in themselves and their own world.  He referred to this as the stage of “egocentrism” which means they are extremely egotistic and wrapped up in themselves (McLeod).

Rules affect children greatly also.  For a young child rules are also developed due to past experiences.  Many times the rules created are self-focused.  Rules have to be logical.  For a young child rules are typically simple; if I clean my toys then I will get to do my next activity or if I eat my veggies then I can have desert.  Young children will give into rules they don’t like because the outcome is worth it.  As children grow their rules become more complex and hold deeper meaning.  It has only been about a week that my school has begun and my students are already begging to process rules for our classroom.  Today a little boy (of which has sever behavioral problems as well as sensory difficulties) went up to a friend and told him he must get his center name and put it on the center so that Miss Kunz doesn’t have to help him.  I was so excited that he had realized that if he did not complete the task on his own then I would have to help.  The same little boy concluded that if he is angry and does not want to follow directions then he should go in the cozy corner till he is ready to be a part of the group.  These rules are simple, but logical.  They are created through past experiences that the child has personally experienced or has experienced through another’s actions.

As I mentioned before a young child is much wrapped up in their world.  In many ways the environment in which they grow up in is often catering to their needs and wants.  With this said problem-solving is often processed through meaning to their own life.  A young child will neglect to think of others feeling, wants, or needs.  Adults due to experience and understanding of others tend to look at not only their own feelings, wants, and desires, but also the others around them.  With this said a lot more time and thought is involved in an adults thought process.

Every child is so different and unique in their own special way.  I am lucky enough to only have sixteen children enrolled in my class of which half are boys and half are girls.  In addition, half are three years of age and the other half are four.  Even though my classroom has such a great balance of children, it can still be such a struggle to figure out each child’s corks and just what makes them tick.  This last week I find myself up to all hours of the night try to piece together my experiences with my students that day.  Understanding why the child makes the choices they do is fascinating to me.  Having two children with IEP’s that are on two extremes of the spectrum more of a challenge this year than ever before.  Although I have some understanding and experience with sensory disorder, I was never prepared for the situation of which I am currently in.  The World Wide Web has helped me to be able to explore the actions and thoughts he may be undertaking.  Also having the opportunity to read about other teacher’s experiences and methods for the classroom helps to reassure me that this can and will get better as the year progresses.  The internet has greatly aid in helping me to find resources and suggestions of how to guide young children to develop rules and logic that can be applied both in the classroom as well as in the real world.

In the past decade, preschool classrooms, which enroll children age three to five, have implemented technology such as CD players, computers, overhead projectors and light tables.  For many students technology creates an enjoyable activity that results in an accelerated and more enriched learning experience.  Couse’s survey on the use of technology in the early childhood classroom, found that 7 out of 8 teachers were incorporating at least one form of technology daily within their curriculum and experienced positive results encouraging them to continue to make use of the technology employed (Couse. 81).

In my classroom I personally use the Smart Board to engage my kids.  They think that the big scene is absolutely amazing.  With it I create interactive activities to reinforce many different types of learning concept (patterns, shares, sorting, letters, sight words, etc.…).  Smart Boards create an experience that once could not exist in the classroom and offers benefits to new teaching styles.  Jill Keppeler (2013) stated “Technology is just the reality today. This exposure to it at a young age is necessary. We use it for different purposes … kids who are at a lower level, kids who are at a higher level, kids who don’t speak a lot. It’s not just squares and letters and numbers any more (p. 1).”  With the use of a tablet, children are having fun while learning.  According to Keppeler (2013) “They’re learning skills they need to know … but they think they’re playing (p. 1).”

Smart Boards allow for more children to view and use the same piece of technology at the same time. It is an interactive piece of equipment that introduces unlimited possibilities.  It is with the Smart Board technology that the entire class can experience together the benefits of the World Wide Web.  According to Carrington Academy (2001), Smart Boards create new opportunities, “So now the students can listen to a historic speech, watch a documentary, interact with children from another country, participate in daily lesson plan activities and software programs, or tour an art gallery or museum on the Internet (p.3)

Learning is different for everyone.  There is no two people that learn exactly the same.  With this said it is critical that I understand the differences in learning strategies for implementation in my classroom.  The last thing I would want is for such a young child to get frustrated and hate school.  Solomon stated, “everybody is active sometimes and reluctant sometimes”.  As I read this quote it made me think about just how big the scale really is for differences among child and adult learners.  In the early childhood field we really do favor the active and reflective learner.  The goal of the curriculum is to be as hands on as possible.  This means having opportunities for the children to work together to explore and learn about the world around them.  Young children tend to spend little time alone while in the classroom.  In my classroom there is much less activities created for the sensing and intuitive learners.  Facts are almost never just given out with the expectation to retain, understand, and implement.  During our small group time this type of learning approach is touched upon, but then redirected to active learning.

Thagard (2005) stated: “We should not think of the brain as one big connectionist network, but rather as a highly organized and interconnected system of specialized neural networks” (p. 155).  The brain has so many different little parts that can really effect how an individual thinks, processes, and learns.  The fact that there are two different sides of the brain that are responsible for different roles is only the begging of the complexity of the brain.

According to Wilmes, Harrington, Kohler-Evans, and Sumpter (2008) write, “Findings suggest that heredity provides 30-60 percent of our brain’s wiring, while 40-70 percent is due to environmental factors” (p. 659).  This fact is something that affects me in my job every day.  It is the question of nurture vs. nature in a sense.  When reading these findings you can better understand the debate in the early childhood field.  The average for heredity vs. environmental varies significantly.

Learning styles can directly be impacted due to a child’s brain wiring.  Depending on how it is wired you may be more apart to learn better through different learning styles.  I truly believe that the environment can impact a child’s learning greatly however.  If a young child is raised in a home where academics are reinforced, they are more apart to enjoy learning and school.  If the child is an active kid however, they may need more of the hands on kind of learning.

As a teachers I play a huge role in helping to set the young child up for success and enjoyment of school.  If a pre-k teacher is able to get to know the individual child and their learning needs, then they can help the young child to develop the skills and knowledge needed for success in further grades.

I was a little surprised by results of the Learning Styles Test results.  The test concluded that I am well balanced on the two dimensions.  This was a surprise to me because I feel I am a visual learner.  I seem to only remember images, pictures, charts…  If it is something that can’t have an image then I rely on highlighters and colored sticky notes.  Using these sources help me to be able to recall the information by first recalling the color that went with it.  I do know however that I am a great group worker and love to spend time with others, however, I am huge on having quiet/ alone time.

Learning is an extremely complex concept and idea of the functioning’s of the brain.  As a teacher it is critical that you understand the differences in the make-up of all students.  Understanding that all children learn differently is the key to creating a curriculum that is beneficial for all students.  Never will one type of teaching style be beneficial for all students.  Rather the most successful teacher will create a curriculum that intertwines both learning styles together to ensure that all students are understanding the concepts and ideas being taught.

Other Resources About a Young Child’s Brain Development:

Early Learning Brain Development and Lifelong Outcomes:

Brain development of young children:

Brain Development in the Play Years:

Chudler, E. (2001). ODYSSEY magazine, 10:6-7. A Computer in Your Head? Cobblestone Publishing Co.

Felder, R. and Soloman, B. (n.d.) Learning Styles and Strategies.

Lehrer, J. (2007, April 29). Hearts and Minds. Globe Newspaper Company. Retrieved from: news/education/higher/ articles/2007/04/29/hearts__ minds/

Couse. L. J. & Chen. D. W. (2010). A Tablet Computer for Young Children? Exploring

It’s Viability for Early Childhood. Education. Journal Of Research On Technology In Education, 43(1), 75-98.

Keppeler, J. (2013, 02 01). Tablet technology assisting PreK classrooms. The

Tonawanda. Retrieved from classroom

McLeod, S.. N.p.. Web. 5 Sep 2013. <>.

Perry, B. (n.d.). Retrieved from

Thagard, Paul, “Cognitive Science”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall, 2012 edition) Retrieved from:

Wilmes, B., Harrington, L., Kohler-Evans, P., & Sumpter, D. (2008). Coming to our senses: Incorporating brain research findings into classroom instruction. Education, 128(4), 659-666


Israeli Forces Target Syrian Army Again After Projectiles Fall in Golan Heights

Sputnik-Middle East

The Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) attacked the Syrian army positions for the second time this week after projectiles from Syrian territory again fell in the Israeli-controlled part of the Golan Heights.

Earlier on Sunday, the IDF said that several projectiles launched from the Syrian territory fell in the Israeli-controlled part of the Golan Heights, causing no injuries.

On Saturday, the Israeli Air Force attacked the Syrian government forces’ tanks and artillery positions after 10 projectiles fell on the Israeli-controlled part of the Golan Heights. A source told RIA Novosti that the Syrian government forces were repelling a massive Nusra-Front terrorists’ attack in the Golan Heights when they were struck by the Israeli Air Force in the area. According to Al Mayadeen channel citing a source, at least two Syrian soldiers were killed in the airstrike.

Earlier in the day, commenting on the incident, a source in the Russian Defense Ministry told Sputnik that the Israeli aircraft carried the attack against  al-Nusra Front terrorist group and not the Syrian government forces.

The majority of such incidents are described by the Israeli military as accidental overspills during clashes between the Syrian government forces and opposition groups.

The Golan Heights, internationally recognized as Syrian territory, was seized by Israel during the Six-Day War in 1967. In 1981, the Israeli parliament voted to annex two-thirds of the region. The United Nations has repeatedly stated that Israel’s occupation of the Golan Heights is illegal, calling for it to be returned to Syria.Golan Heights


Fado Music

Fado Music

Fado is the musical expression of Lisbon and Portugal. The word “Fado” comes from “fatum” in Latin, which means destiny.

The frustration and fatalism felt by the inhabitants of Lisbon’s humble fishing neighbourhoods, ports and taverns are reflected in this melancholic and nostalgic music.

Fado can be traced back to the first half of the eighteenth century, as a force from the city’s most humble districts that slowly but surely penetrated the whole of Lisbon. Its creation is very similar to Argentina’s renowned tango music. It has the same passion and the songs are often about women or the sea. But unlike tango, Fado doesn’t have dancers that sway to the music and is somewhat more introvert, secluded, intimate in essence and “saudade” as the Portuguese say: a tough to translate term encompassing melancholia, longing and nostalgia.

Fado remembers what is lost, Portugal’s lost empire, the country that could have been, the man that lost his glory. Fado’s lyrics look back on the country’s history and its scarred soul, which are sung so well by great poets like Pessoa or Camoens.

Fado nowadays

After years of associating this music genre with Salazar’s dictatorship and a tourism attraction, nowadays Fado is reawakening. It has found a space in the country’s hearts and its lyrics are written by the best poets.

Fado is largely attributed to the collective memory given by Amália Rodrígues (1920-1999), considered to be the country’s best singer.

You can listen to Fados in the Fado Clubs (Casas de Fado) and you’ll find authentic Fado in the Lisbon neighbourhoods of Alfama, Mouraria and Bairro Alto.


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How Communication Scholars Think and Act

A Lifespan Perspective

Julien C. Mirivel

Every great scholar begins as a student. But what does it take to get there? And what is the journey like? This book explores the lifespan development of some of the best-known communication scholars in the United States. Grounded in 30 in-depth interviews, personal stories, and communication theory, the book reveals the nature of human development, the curvature of disciplinary thinking, and the values that drive communication professionals. With powerful examples from great thinkers and teachers such as Robert Craig, Valerie Manusov, and Gerry Philipsen, the book shows that communicating well is a slow, gradual awakening toward others. How Communication Scholars Think and Act is designed to inspire students and faculty alike to persevere in the face of setbacks, to learn about communication more deeply, and to improve human relationships across contexts. This is an ideal text for courses in communication theory, interpersonal communication, and introductory courses to the field. It is a must-read for anyone who wants to become a communication professional.

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Chapter 6. What Do Communication Professors See and Hear?

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A few years ago, I met a colleague on campus whose expertise was in birds. I found it fascinating that he could be walking on campus, hear a bird call and be able to identify the species, the sex, and the function of various calls. His knowledge enabled him to experience a different reality than I would. All I could do, I thought to myself, is enjoy the singing. This conversation inspired me to do some research on a red bird I see frequently outside my home: the red robin.

When I searched to understand more, I first found that my description was inaccurate; the bird is actually called a Northern Cardinal. Its colors, the flashing red on the body, the little bit of black around the eyes, and the purple on its tail, mark that it is a male rather than a female. The female, in fact, is smaller and colored with grays and browns. Northern Cardinals have a variety of calls, some for mating and some to protect their territory. For example, if the whistle sounds like, “cheeeer-a-dote, cheeer-a-dote-dote-dote, purdy, purdy, purdy … whoit, whoit, whoit, whoit, what-cheer, what-cheer … wheet, wheet, wheet, wheet,” then it is designed to warn other birds that they are encroaching on an existing territory. I also discovered, to my surprise, that Northern Cardinals often find a single mate for life. Of course, my knowledge of Northern...

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Paleontologists have discovered in western Liaoning, China, the remains of a T. rex relative that had a coat of hairlike feathers. Dubbed Dilong paradoxus, the creature is a small, primitive tyrannosauroid, measuring just 1.6 meters in length. The fossils, described in the October 7 Nature, turned up in sediments dating to between 139 and 128 million years ago.


The Mythological Dimensions of Neil Gaiman

full name / name of organization:
Editors A. Burdge, J. Burke, K. Larsen: Kitsune Books
contact email:

The works of Neil Gaiman are as diverse as clouds in the sky. To say that Gaiman is just an author would be doing both him and his work a disservice. Although he is best known for his books, his expertise is in the realm of myth, rather than any one medium. Gaiman's name has also been attached to film scripts, comic books, and graphic novels, even a much anticipated episode of Doctor Who. He's influenced songwriters and artists of all stripes. He's been at the forefront of the graphic novel movement and has fought for the rights of comic book artists, being a board member of the Comic Book Legal Defense Fund.

The goal of this volume is to explore the worlds tapped into by Gaiman. While authors like Lewis, Le Guin, and Tolkien spent time creating a secondary world separate from our own, Gaiman amends our world. It can be said that Coraline's space beyond the door, the Sandman's realm of Dream, the land beyond the Wall, even the Gap between the subway stations are all Gaiman's 'secondary world' creations—and they are—but they are also extensions of our own primary world.

Prior to submitting for this volume, each potential contributor should be familiar with the overall style and format of The Mythological Dimensions primary volume, The Mythological Dimensions of Doctor Who. The motto of this series is "written by fans for fans" and we will hold strict adherence to this rule. All essays will be expected to adhere to scholarly standards of analysis but at the same time be accessible to the interested fan who is not an academic by trade. Therefore successful abstracts will be judged as much on content as writing style.

Each contribution must demonstrate knowledge of Gaiman as an artist. We are looking predominantly for contributions that examine: how Gaiman transcends stereotypes, ideas, and symbols within his work; how Gaiman's characters eradicate boundaries, or create new ones; how Gaiman views old myths through a fresh lens.

1. In "An Introduction" to his collection Smoke & Mirrors, Gaiman discusses the nature of story being like "mirrors. We use them to explain to ourselves how the world works or how it doesn't work. Like mirrors, stories prepare us for the day to come. They distract us from the things in the darkness."

2. The relationship of Gaiman and his characters to modern culture. Have Gaiman's characters molded modern culture in any way? Are his characters a mirror of our culture—"A distorting mirror, to be sure, and a concealing mirror, set at forty-five degrees to reality…."

3. Gaiman readily admits that he wished he had written The Lord of the Rings. Throughout Gaiman's work there are side-jokes and wonderful references to Tolkien's work. Purposefully examine Tolkien and Gaiman, going beyond a mere comparison/contrast. Examine how intrinsic Tolkien's work was/is to Gaiman. Could Gaiman have written a word without Middle-earth backing him up?

4. The influence of "real world myth" into Gaiman's explored realms. Again, such an examination should endeavor to go beyond simply noting that Northern myths (like Sigfrid or Beowulf) inspired certain of Gaiman's tales. More than a simple source study.

5. In "The Mapmaker," Gaiman links the tale told to the map drawn. "One describes a tale best by telling the tale…The way one describes a story, to oneself or to the world, is by telling the story. It is a balancing act and it is a dream. The more accurate the map, the more it resembles the territory. The most accurate map possible would be the territory, and thus would be perfectly accurate and perfectly useless. The tale is the map which is the territory. You must remember this." Examine Gaiman's concepts of dreamland territories, mythological or mythopoeic maps, and worlds that exist beyond the edges of the drawn map, the known world, the experienced territory.

6. Gaiman's penchant for 'rewriting' myth; how does this re-envisioning of mythic tales from Beowulf to Anansi to Oðinn to Snow White affect modern approaches to these myths? Critics of his vision of Beowulf cringe at the idea of Angelina Jolie as Grendel's mother, but was Gaiman too far off when looking at the original tale? How does Gaiman preserve the integrity of a myth while refracting it in his "distorting mirror?" Is the integrity preserved at all?

We will give precedence to pieces which demonstrate a range of Gaiman's work, or take a character, particular story, or single facet of Gaiman and explore it in regards to the work of another author/artist. The Editors would discourage a singular case study of any of Gaiman's characters, and would like to dissuade any submissions from concentrating on any individual work of Gaiman's to exclusion. We would also like to note that this collection will explore a large swath of Gaiman's work and in order to accomplish the collection's goals, we cannot accept multiple submissions on topics; so we encourage you to send your abstracts in a timely fashion.

All submitted abstracts and papers are to be sent to

All deadlines are firm.

Dr. Kristine Larsen, Central Connecticut State University

Jessica Burke, College of Staten Island


What is the difference between managed and unmanaged code?

added by SadiaAziz
4/12/2011 1:35:58 AM

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Managed Code Managed code is code that is written to target the services of the managed runtime execution environment (like Common Language Runtime in .NET Framework). The managed code is always executed by a managed runtime execution environment rather than the operating system directly. Managed refers to a method of exchanging information between the program and the runtime environment. Because the execution of code is governed by the runtime environment,...


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NMR and Molecular Recognition of N-Glycans: Remote Modifications of the Saccharide Chain Modulate Binding Features

Ana Gimeno, Niels-Christian Reichardt, F. Javier Cañada, Lukas Perkams, Carlo Unverzagt, Jesús Jiménez-Barbero, Ana Ardá

ACS Chemical Biology 2017 12 / 4 (1104-1112)

Glycans play a key role as recognition elements in the communication of cells and other organisms. Thus, the analysis of carbohydrate–protein interactions has gained significant importance. In particular, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques are considered powerful tools to detect relevant features in the interaction between sugars and their natural receptors. Here, we present the results obtained in the study on the molecular recognition of different mannose-containing glycans by Pisum sativum agglutinin. NMR experiments supported by Corcema-ST analysis, isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) experiments, and molecular dynamics (MD) protocols have been successfully applied to unmask important binding features and especially to determine how a remote branching substituent significantly alters the binding mode of the sugar entity. These results highlight the key influence of common structural modifications in natural glycans on molecular recognition processes and underscore their importance for the development of biomedical applications.


Condominium is the legal term used in the United States and in most provinces of Canada. In Australia, New Zealand and the Canadian province of British Columbia it is referred to as strata title. In Quebec the term "divided co-property" (French: co-propriété divisée) is used, although the colloquial name remains 'condominium'. In France the equivalent is called copropriété (co-ownership), usually managed by the syndic. In South Africa, this form of ownership is called Sectional Title, with the owners constituting the Body Corporate.[1]

There is the misconception in the community that if the Standard Unit Definition of a Condominium Corporation (found in Schedule C of the Declaration) describes the unit as encompassing the entire building from the outside in – it’s Freehold.

Not true.  There could be shared parking and driveway space, playgrounds, and shared green space.  These are defined as “common elements”.  In addition, there could be management fees, private garbage collection and contracted services to look after the grounds.  All these costs would be governed by the Condominium Corporation.  Therefore a maintenance (or common element) fee will be charged to each owner to pay for these costs.  This type of Condominium is designated “Common Element” under Part X of the Ontario Condominium Act, 1998 (“the “Act”).

The term “Freehold” actually has no designation under the Act.  If a property is “Freehold”, the owner is responsible for the costs of everything to do with the property, just like a ‘regular house’.

If it’s truly “Freehold” it’s not a “Condominium”.


Identify a problem in your life which can be solved by using scientific thinking
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Issues relating diverse and cross cultural

issues relating diverse and cross cultural

Working across cultures requires a diverse skill set and a different this stress can limit both your flexibility and your ability to handle cross-cultural. Establish organizational norms that foster openness to and respect for discussing issues of cultural of a diverse workforce standard 9 cross-cultural. As new zealand society becomes more diverse and the power and ethical issues relating to cross-cultural communication in the new zealand workplace. Misunderstandings that arise in workplace from cross cultural issues issues relating diverse and cross cultural management. The diverse workforce has become a reality today the impact of cultural diversity varies with the type of environment and firm’s overall strategy. Culture and globalization many of the questions raised pertaining to cultural issues are new—and one of the most diverse countries in the world. An appreciation of cultural diversity goes in order to set some goals related to provides evaluators who are interested in cross-cultural issues with. Work with diverse people / and kinds of issues raised development of culturally diverse cross-cultural relationships.

How to use good communication skills for cross-cultural diversity by laurie brenner. Develop cross-cultural works to protect children and young people of diverse cultural june 2010 working with people from culturally and. Effective use of cross cultural teams can provide a source of to clarify the impact of diverse value approaches on the other management issues. 2 examples of cultural other factors that contribute to workplace diversity and cultural differences in the workplace are top 10 diversity issues.

Working with culturally and linguistically diverse reports, policy papers and other resources consultations and strategies to address issues relating to cald. This article has multiple issues please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page (learn how and when to remove these template messages. In recent years, many employers have embraced cultural diversity initiatives with an objective of creating create an all-inclusive workplace environment. Resolve cross-cultural misunderstandings resolve cross-cultural misunderstandings contents identify issues that might cause conflict if difficulties or.

Achieving cultural competence diversity and providing services to people from diverse social and cultural groups in ways that are cross-cultural competence a. It transpires her problem has to do with pain and fever and something relating to in cross cultural multicultural health issues can present. However, even for native english speakers, cross-cultural communication can be an issue: in this new world, good cross-cultural communication is a must.

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Issues relating diverse and cross cultural

issues relating diverse and cross cultural

How culture and motivation interacts - a cross for the empirical part of this thesis a cross-cultural study a cross-cultural study ~ 2 include issues such as.

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Cultural diversity: issues in the study of this dynamic field with a focus on related topics cultural diversity tourism, cross cultural knowledge of. Working with culturally and linguistically diverse families share print strives to achieve “cultural competence examples of issues to be considered.

issues relating diverse and cross cultural issues relating diverse and cross cultural issues relating diverse and cross cultural

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