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 Skeletal muscles and Muscle groups

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كاتب الموضوعرسالة
مرام 92

عدد المساهمات : 212
نقاط التميز : 20
تاريخ التسجيل : 25/03/2010
العمر : 25

مُساهمةموضوع: Skeletal muscles and Muscle groups   الخميس أبريل 29, 2010 8:57 pm

skeletal muscles and muscle groups

Muscles at the front of the human body
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Muscles at the back of the human body
This image may not be reproduced in any form without permission

There are more than 600 skeletal muscles in the human body, which together account for about 40 percent of a person's weight. Skeletal muscles are also called voluntary muscles because, unlike the other two types of muscle in the body, smooth muscle and cardiac muscle, they are under conscious control.

The most important and unique feature about muscle tissue is that it is able to contract (shorten) when stimulated by nerve impulses. (See muscle operation and contraction by nerves.) In a strong contraction the length of a muscle is reduced to about 60 percent of its length when relaxed. At the same time, the muscle becomes much thicker.
Names of the skeletal muscles

Most skeletal muscles have Latin names that describe some feature of the muscle; the more familiar ones also have everyday names, such as the hamstring muscles at the back of the thigh, and the calf muscles which straighten the ankle. Often several criteria are combined into one name. The following are some terms relating to muscle features that are used in naming muscles.

* Size: vastus (huge); maximus (large); longus (long); minimus (small); brevis (short).

* Shape: deltoid (triangular); rhomboid (like a rhombus with equal and parallel sides); latissimus (wide); teres (round); trapezius (like a trapezoid, a four-sided figure with two sides parallel).

* Direction of fibers: rectus (straight); transverse (across); oblique (diagonally); orbicularis (circular).

* Location: pectoralis (chest); gluteus (buttock or rump); brachii (arm); supra- (above); infra- (below); sub- (under or beneath); lateralis (lateral).

* Number of origins: biceps (two heads); triceps (three heads); quadriceps (four heads).

* Origin and insertion: sternocleidomastoideus (origin on the sternum and clavicle, insertion on the mastoid process); brachioradialis (origin on the brachium or arm, insertion on the radius).

* Action: abductor (moves parts of the body away from parts nearby); adductor (moves parts of the body toward parts nearby); flexor (causes a joint to bend); extensor (causes a joint to straighten); levator (lifts a structure); m*********eter (used in chewing).
How muscles work

actions of the biceps and triceps muscles
The muscles that move the trunk and the limbs are arranged so that each muscle p*********es over one or more joints and is attached to the bones on each side. When a muscle receives a nerve impulse it immediately contracts, and its two ends are drawn closer together. Since the ends of the muscle are attached to bones on either side of a joint, these bones are drawn together with the muscle, and in this way the position of the joint is altered.

Most joints are moved by groups of muscles rather than by a single muscle working alone. Furthermore, each joint has muscles that move it in each direction. The elbow joint, for example, is flexed, or bent, by the biceps brachii muscle and extended, or straightened, by the triceps muscle. These two muscles have to act together, because when one is contracting, the other must relax. It it did not, the joint would not move but would merely be firmly fixed.

In our legs the muscles are often used to fix the joints. If you stand on one leg you can feel the muscles of the knee contracting to keep it straight.

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Attachments of muscles

Most skeletal muscles are attached at each end to one or more of the bones of the skeleton. The attachment nearer to the center of the body, or which moves least when the muscle contracts, is usually called the origin. The attachment that is farther away from the center of the body, or which moves more, is called the insertion.

Not all our muscles are to be found close to the parts of the body which they move. Some of the muscles that bend and straighten the fingers, for example, are not in the hand but in the forearm. The ends of these muscles are joined to their insertions in the fingers by long tendons. It is along these tendons that the muscles exert their power. If you straighten your fingers you can clearly see four of these tendons running down the back of your hand.

The nerve supply of the skeletal muscles

The nerve impulses from the brain which make the skeletal muscles work p********* down the spinal cord and then out along the appropriate spinal nerves to the muscles. Some of the muscles of the head and face, however, are supplied by cranial nerves which run direct from the brain.

Muscles of the trunk

Refer to the top two illustrations on this page for the muscles described in this and the next two sections.

The muscles of the trunk include those that move the spinal column, the muscles that form the thoracic and abdominal walls, and those that cover the pelvic outlet.

The erector spinae group of muscles on each side of the spinal column is a large muscle m********* that extends from the sacrum to the skull. These muscles are primarily responsible for extending the spinal column to maintain erect posture. The deep back muscles occupy the space between the spinous and transverse processes of adjacent vertebrae.

The muscles of the thoracic wall are involved primarily in the process of breathing. The intercostal muscles are located in spaces between the ribs. They contract during forced expiration. External intercostal muscles contract to elevate the ribs during the inspiration phase of breathing. The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle that forms a partition between the thorax and the abdomen. It has three openings in it for structures that have to p********* from the thorax to the abdomen.

The abdomen, unlike the thorax and pelvis, has no bony reinforcements or protection. The wall consists entirely of four muscle pairs, arranged in layers, and the fascia that envelops them. The abdominal wall muscles are identified in the illustration above.

The pelvic outlet is formed by two muscular sheets and their *********ociated fascia.

Muscles of the upper extremity

Muscles of the lower extremity

The muscles that move the thigh have their origins on some part of the pelvic girdle and their insertions on the femur. The largest muscle m********* belongs to the posterior group, the gluteal muscles, which, as a group, abduct the thigh. The iliopsoas, an anterior muscle, flexes the thigh. The muscles in the medial compartment adduct the thigh.

Muscles that move the leg are located in the thigh region. The quadriceps femoris muscle group straightens the leg at the knee. The hamstrings are antagonists to the quadriceps femoris muscle group, which are used to flex the leg at the knee. The muscles located in the leg which move the ankle and foot are divided into anterior, posterior, and lateral compartments. The tibialis anterior, which dorsiflexes the foot, is antagonistic to the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles, which plantar flex the foot.

Muscles of the head and neck

muscles of the head
A few of our skeletal muscles are unusual in that they are not attached to bone, but are simply placed within soft tissues. Several muscles of this type are found in the face.

Numerous muscles are *********ociated with the throat, the hyoid bone and the vertebral column. Two of the more obvious and superficial neck muscles are the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid.
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5 Ways to Setting Powerful Intentions

As the Eclipse passes over, it's important to keep in mind the possibilities from this historical and yet rare occurrence. Our destiny is ultimately shaped by our deepest intentions and desires. As creators and god like beings, we can literally transform our reality with our thoughts. However, creating that reality takes patience and discipline. To assist you in this process, we've borrowed Deepak Chopra's "5 Ways to Set Powerful Intentions", and with both a full moon and the eclipse, this is an opportune time to take advantage of both.

1. Meditate
Most of the time our mind is caught up in thoughts, emotions, and memories. Beyond this noisy internal dialogue is a state of pure awareness that is sometimes referred to as “the gap.” One of the most effective tools we have for entering the gap is meditation. Meditation takes you beyond the ego-mind into the silence and stillness of pure consciousness. This is the ideal state in which to plant your seeds of intention.

2. Release Your Intentions and Desires
Once you’re established in a state of restful awareness, release your intentions and desires. The best time to plant your intentions is during the period after meditation, while your awareness remains centered in the quiet field of all possibilities. After you set an intention, let it go—simply stop thinking about it. Continue this process for a few minutes after your meditation period each day.

3. Remain Centered in a State of Restful Awareness
Intention is much more powerful when it comes from a place of contentment than if it arises from a sense of lack or need. Stay centered and refuse to be influenced by other people’s doubts or criticisms. Your higher self knows that everything is all right and will be all right, even without knowing the timing or the details of what will happen.

4. Detach from the Outcome

5. Let the Universe Handle the Details
Your focused intentions set the infinite organizing power of the universe in motion. Trust that infinite organizing power to orchestrate the complete fulfillment of your desires. Don’t listen to the voice that says that you have to be in charge, that obsessive vigilance is the only way to get anything done. The outcome that you try so hard to force may not be as good for you as the one that comes naturally. You have released your intentions into the fertile ground of pure potentiality, and they will bloom when the season is right.


The left column shows examples of melanomas. The right column shows examples of normal moles. These examples are not comprehensive, so you should have a dermatologist take a look at any moles you're concerned about.
National Cancer Institute
Skin cancer is the most common form of cancer in the US. According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 20% of Americans will develop skin cancer at some point in their lives if current trends continue.

While not all skin cancers are deadly, melanoma, the most dangerous and third-most common kind, is extremely deadly if not found early. The American Cancer Society estimates that, in the US in 2016, about 76,380 new cases of melanoma will be diagnosed, and 10,130 people are expected to die from the disease.

Know your ABCDEs

  • A stands for asymmetry. If one half of a mole looks different from another, then that's a sign that the mole could be cancerous.
  • C is for color. Particularly dark or multicolored moles may be risky.
  • D stands for diameter. Moles larger than pencil erasers are noteworthy, though melanoma can be smaller, too.

If anything seems amiss or if you are unsure about whether a mole is risky or not, then you should see a board-certified dermatologist. A dermatologist will be able to spot reasons for concern much more easily than you, so do not attempt to diagnose yourself or assume that you're in the clear.

Still, there is some action you can take on your own. The American Academy of Dermatology recommends that you conduct a monthly self-examination, taking note of the moles you already have on your body and carefully examining any new ones that show up. A partner can help check spots that are harder for you to see.

This infographic from the AAD shows how to check your skin for potential melanoma:

American Academy of Dermatology

The two most common types of skin cancer, basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma, usually occur on parts of the skin that are frequently exposed to the sun — the head, neck, face, hands, arms, and legs — though they can develop elsewhere. They don't spread as quickly as melanoma, but can still spread to other parts of the body. Basal cell carcinoma grows wide and deep, which can be disfiguring if it's not removed at an early stage.

Many screenings focus on melanoma, since it can spread much more quickly. If removed early, the cure rate is almost 100%, but as the cancer spreads to nearby skin, lymph nodes, or internal organs, five-year survival rates drop rapidly. The American Academy of Dermatology says that if people are familiar with warning signs and regularly examine their skin, along with visiting their doctors, then the number of melanoma deaths could be much lower.


Breaking Hearts: The Two Sides of Unrequited Love (with S.R. Wotman)

Throughout history, unrequited love has inspired ballads, arias, poetry, drama, and literature. Almost always, however, the tale of the "star-crossed lovers" has been told from the point of view of the heartbroken pursuer. This illuminating new work explores unrequited love from both sides—that of the aspiring and eventually brokenhearted lover, and more unusually, that of the beloved, unwilling rejector. Based on systematically collected first-person accounts, Breaking Hearts shows how radically different and often contradictory the two experiences actually are.

Blending scientific research with vivid narrative, the book utilizes current psychological theories about relationships, interdependence, attachment, and communication to provide careful analysis of the sometimes amusing and often heartrending stories people tell about their love lives. The central focus is the subjective experience: What it feels like to love someone who does not love you in return, and what is it like to be pursued by someone whose attentions you wish to discourage. Demolishing pat theories about human fulfillment coming from loving or being loved, this valuable counterweight to traditional studies explores the other, darker side of love to show that it is the mutuality of affection that is crucial to happiness.

A particularly valuable feature of Breaking Hearts is its unprecedented treatment of the rejector's experience. Known only from the unreliable perspective of the would-be lover, the elusive "heartbreaker" has remained an enigma. Here, perhaps for the first time, rejectors tell what it is like to be loved in vain. They describe their inner turmoil, pervasive uncertainty about how to act, and distressed reluctance to inflict harm. They grapple with the paradox of believing themselves to be morally innocent yet feeling profoundly guilty, and describe powerful feelings of exasperation and helplessness when the admirer refuses to take no for an answer. Contrary to stereotypes, the rejectors describe their experiences more negatively than the heartbroken lovers. For the would-be lover, the encounter was a high-stakes gamble, with possible outcomes ranging from tortured pain and humiliation to ecstatic bliss and fulfillment. To the rejector, it was a no-win proposition that offered only vexation and trouble.

Throughout, chapters deal with the separate roller-coaster ordeals of two people—the ups and downs of self-esteem, struggles over guilt and justification, and the systematically discrepant versions of what actually occurred. Lessons people learn from being either willing or unwilling participants in unrequited love are discussed, as are the ways in which they change following such episodes.

Breaking Hearts presents careful research in an engaging style that will be accessible to all. Social scientists interested in marriage, family issues, emotion, self-esteem, guilt, and human coping will find the book illuminating. It will obviously be of interest to anyone who has experienced unrequited love, and is fascinating reading for those seeking new insights into the tragicomic mystery of romance.


SDG 13
« »

The annual average losses from earthquakes, tsunamis, tropical cyclones and flooding amount to hundreds of billions of dollars, requiring an investment of US$6 billion annually in disaster risk management alone. The goal aims to mobilize $100 billion annually by 2020 to address the needs of developing countries and help mitigate climate-related disasters.

Goals in action

UNDP in Senegal

A glimpse of climate change in Senegal

Throughout Africa and beyond, millions of poor people from rural areas have been moving to the suburbs of big cities, areas with little or no infrastructure. While government and UNDP are working together to improve infrastructure, climate change is threatening to undo all this good work. MORE >

UNDP in Mali

Supporting Mali's women to adapt to climate change

UNDP in Africa

El Nino happens every 3-7 years. How can Africa be better prepared?

El-Nino is a climatic natural phenomenon that occurs every five to seven years, and while we cannot control it, we can prevent the damage to lives and livelihoods by considering a seven-point agenda for longer-term resilience and securing sustainable development. MORE >

UNDP in The Gambia

Enhancing resilience in coastal communities vulnerable to climate change

To help coastal communities in Gambia, UNDP and the GEF partnered with Gambia’s National Environment Agency and communities on a coastal resilience project to develop alternative livelihoods. MORE >

UNDP in Africa

Global Climate Finance - Will Africa Benefit After Paris?

For the first time in the 25-year history of climate diplomacy, countries concluded a universal treaty under international law. While Africa is the lowest contributor of global emissions, it is the most vulnerable continent to climate change with majority of its population relying on the land for subsistence and economic activity. MORE >

UNDP Around the world

You are at UNDP South Africa
Go to UNDP Global


Efficient Reorgs on Cryptonets

Every PoW driven cryptonet has a state. The state of Bitcoin (and forks) is the particular set of Unspent Transaction Outputs (UTXOs) at the time - essentially the set of all Bitcoin able to be spent.

When a new block arrives, the usual process to update the state is simple:

Start with S[n,0] (state at block n)
Apply the first transaction from the new block (B[0]) to S

S[n,k] + B[k] -> S[n,k+1] for all k in B

S[n+1,0] = S[n,max(k)+1]

However, what happens when a new block arrives causing a reorganisation of the main chain?

.       3a← 4a    <-- 3a and 4a are not in the main chain currently
1 ← 2 ← 3 ← 4     <-- 3 and 4 are in the main chain

> 5a arrives, causing the reorg:

1 ← 2 ← 3a← 4a← 5a   <-- New main chain
        3 ← 4        <-- Old main chain, 3 and 4 no longer in the main chain

In this case block #2 was the lowest common ancestor (a pivot point)
of the two competing chains 3a->5a and 3->4.

The problem of reorgs

Let’s presume the distance from the lowest common ancestor (LCA) and the new head is n.

Bitcoin et al solve the issue by stepping backwards through time.

Since Bitcoin transactions spend outputs, and outputs may be spent only once, playing the blockchain backwards is trivial:

for each transaction:
	remove it's outputs from the list of UTXOs.
	add the outputs it spends to the list of UTXOs.

And bam! You can then play time forward from the LCA to calculate the new state. How nice.

What happens, though, when we move to a cryptonet that only operates on balances and doesn’t use the input/output system of Bitcoin?

Well, provided we’re recording every transaction it’s quite simple. A transaction moving X coins from A to B results in A-=X and B+=X. That is trivial to reverse. However, the caveat is that we must record every transaction. Once we start including complex mechanisms within the protocol that produce transactions that are not recorded but simply implied, we can no longer play time ‘backwards’ as S[m] depends on S[m-1] and without knowing S[m-1] to calculate the implied transactions, we can’t play time backwards. Of course, if we know S[m-1] we don’t need to do any of this anyway, so we’re sort of stuck. Examples of this sort of mechanism can be found in the way contracts create transactions in Ethereum and the market evaluation in Marketcoin.

Remembering S[m-1] is easy but what if the reorg is of length 2, or 3, or 10? We can’t just remember all the states.

So, we can see that we have a problem.

Efficiently remembering states

The intuitive solution (to me, at least) is to know some but not all states at strategic intervals between the genesis block and the current head. When a reorg of length n occurs, the network has already committed to evaluating n new states. I define ‘efficient’ here to mean evaluating no more than 2n new states (in the worst case). Unfortunately, this means we’ll need to remember about 2*log(2,h) states, where h is the height of the chain head. All the UTXOs in Bitcoin take up a few hundred meg of RAM, so for 500,000 blocks we’re looking at no more than 40 states, but that’s still ~10 GB of space (by Bitcoin’s standards) which isn’t ideal. It’s unlikely that we’ll see long reorganisations, but we’d still be storing half of the figures mentioned above, which, while better, isn’t perfect.

One solution may be to record the net implied change of state as the last transaction, but that solution might be more painful than the cure, and requires introducing extra complexity into the network architecture, which I’m against, so we won’t consider this option here.

In addition to the above constraint on ‘efficient’, we also require that for each block building on the main chain we should only have to calculate one new state (the updated current state). This implies that when we step through the blockchain, we only ever forget cached states, with the exception of the new state produced by the next block.

Current head is of height n.

A[n] = {cached states at height n}

Block n+1 arrives:

assert A[n] is a superset of {all a in A[n+1] s.t. a is not of height n+1}

Thus A[n+1] can be described as the set of some or all of the states in A[n] and the state at n+1, and therefore our collection of states does not requrie regeneration on each new block.

I propose a solution below that has a number of desired properties:

  • A reorg of length n requires computing no more than 2n states
  • Space efficient: k states saved where ld(h) <= k <= 2*ld(h)
  • Incremental: only one new state has to be calculated for each new block
Initial conditions:
- Reorg length: n
- Current height: h >= 3
- i = 0; i < h

2^k < h - i <= 2^(k+1) is always the case for some k
if h-i == 2: set k to 1. (it would otherwise be 0)

After finding k, and while h-i > 1:
1. Cache states at height i + 2^k and i + 2^(k-1).
2. i += 2^(k-1)

and in python: (testing all combinations up to 2^13)

import math

h = 3
states = set([1,2])

while h <= 2**13:
	newStates = set()
	# find largest k s.t. 2^k < h
	i = 0
	while h-i >= 2:
		k = math.log(h-i)//math.log(2)
		i += int(2**(k-1))
	ts1 = set(states) # temp set for testing superset requirement
	ts1.add(h) # add the current state (instead of removing it from newStates)
	assert ts1 >= newStates # ts1 is a superset of newStates
	l = list(newStates) # temp list just to print
	print(h, math.log(h)//math.log(2)+1, len(l), l)
	states = newStates
	h += 1

Because of the ~log(n) space requirement a very fast block time is not a major concern. A chain with a target time of 1 minute requires about 1.5x the storage capacity of an equivelant chain with a target time of 10 minutes in the first year, and this ratio rapidly approaches 1 in the following years.

That said, after the first year with a 1 minute block time, we’d be storing around 30 states. If we ignored all states more than 2000 blocks deep (a day and a bit) we’re still storing more than 15, which isn’t a particularly great optimisation. (When we have events like the Fork of March 2013 we would like clients to adjust quickly and efficiently).

I have some ideas about state-deltas to try and solve this issue (which is ungood, but not doubleplusungood) but that can wait for a future post.


To install click the Add extension button. That's it.

Kelly Slayton
Congratulations on this excellent venture… what a great idea!
Alexander Grigorievskiy

Audio engineer

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 An audio engineer at an audio console.
An audio engineer at an audio console.

An audio engineer (also sometimes recording engineer or a vocal engineer) helps to produce a recording or a performance, editing and adjusting sound tracks using equalization and audio effects, mixing, reproduction, and reinforcement of sound. Audio engineers work on the "...technical aspect of recording—the placing of microphones, pre-amp knobs, the setting of levels. The physical recording of any project is done by an engineer ... the nuts and bolts."[1] It's a creative hobby and profession where musical instruments and technology are used to produce sound for film, radio, television, music, and video games.[2] Audio engineers also set up, sound check and do live sound mixing using an mixing console and a sound reinforcement system for music concerts, theatre, sports games and corporate events.

Alternatively, audio engineer can refer to a scientist or professional engineer who holds an engineering degree and who designs, develops and builds audio or musical technology working under terms such as acoustical engineering, electronic/electrical engineering or (musical) signal processing.[3]

Research and development

Research and development audio engineers invent new technologies, equipment and techniques, to enhance the process and art of audio engineering.[4] They might design acoustical simulations of rooms, shape algorithms for audio signal processing, specify the requirements for public address systems, carry out research on audible sound for video game console manufacturers, and other advanced fields of audio engineering. They might also be referred to as acoustic engineers.[5][6]

Audio engineers working in research and development may come from backgrounds such as acoustics, computer science, broadcast engineering, physics, acoustical engineering, electrical engineering and electronics. Audio engineering courses at university or college fall into two rough categories: (i) training in the creative use of audio as a sound engineer, and (ii) training in science or engineering topics, which then allows students to apply these concepts while pursuing a career developing audio technologies. Audio training courses give you a good knowledge of technologies and their application to recording studio and sound reinforcement systems, but do not have sufficient mathematical and scientific content to allow you to get a job in research and development in the audio and acoustic industry.[7]

 Noted audio engineer Roger Nichols at a vintage Neve recording console.
Noted audio engineer Roger Nichols at a vintage Neve recording console.

Audio engineers in research and development usually possess a bachelor's degree, master's degree or higher qualification in acoustics, physics, computer science or another engineering discipline. They might work in acoustic consultancy, specializing in architectural acoustics.[8] Alternatively they might work in audio companies (e.g. headphone manufacturer), or other industries that need audio expertise (e.g., automobile manufacturer), or carry out research in a university. Some positions, such as faculty (academic staff) require a Doctor of Philosophy. In Germany a Toningenieur is an audio engineer who designs, builds and repairs audio systems.

Audio signal processing

Audio engineers develop audio signal processing algorithms to allow the electronic manipulation of audio signals. These can be processed at the heart of much audio production such as reverberation, Auto-Tune or perceptual coding (e.g. mp3 or Opus). Alternatively, the algorithms might carry out echo cancellation on Skype, or identify and categorize audio tracks through Music Information Retrieval (e.g., Shazam).[10]

Architectural acoustics

Architectural acoustics is the science and engineering of achieving a good sound within a room.[11] For audio engineers, architectural acoustics can be about achieving good speech intelligibility in a stadium or enhancing the quality of music in a theatre.[12] Architectural Acoustic design is usually done by acoustic consultants.[8]

 The Pyramid Stage
The Pyramid Stage

Electroacoustics is concerned with the design of headphones, microphones, loudspeakers, sound reproduction systems and recording technologies.[6] Examples of electroacoustic design include portable electronic devices (e.g. mobile phones, portable media players, and tablet computers), sound systems in architectural acoustics, surround sound in movie theater and vehicle audio.

Musical acoustics

Education and training

Audio engineers come from backgrounds or postsecondary training in fields such as audio, fine arts, broadcasting, music, or electrical engineering. Training in audio engineering and sound recording is offered by colleges and universities. Some audio engineers are autodidacts with no formal training, but who have attained professional skills in audio through extensive on-the-job experience.

Training and background

Audio engineers must have extensive knowledge of audio engineering principles and techniques. For instance, they must understand how audio signals travel, which equipment to use and when, how to mic different instruments and amplifiers, which microphones to use and how to position them to get the best quality recordings. In addition to technical knowledge, an audio engineer must have the ability to problem solve quickly. The best audio engineers also have a high degree of creativity that allow them to stand out amongst their peers. In the music realm, an audio engineer must also understand the types of sounds and tones that are expected in musical ensembles across different genres - rock and pop music for example. This knowledge of musical style is typically learned from years of experience listening to and mixing music in recording or live sound contexts. For education and training, there are audio engineering schools all over the world. In North America, the most notable being Full Sail University in Winter Park, Florida, United States, and OIART (The Ontario Institute of Audio Recording Technology) in London, Canada.

 At the front of house position, mixing sound for a band
At the front of house position, mixing sound for a band

Role of women

According to Women's Audio Mission (WAM), a nonprofit organization based in San Francisco dedicated to the advancement of women in music production and the recording arts, less than 5% of the people creating sound and media are women.[16] "Only three women have ever been nominated for best producer at the Brits or the Grammys" and none won either award.[17] "Women who want to enter the [producing] field face a boys' club, or a guild mentality".[17] The UK "Music Producers' Guild says less than 4% of its members are women" and at the Liverpool Institute of Performing Arts, "...only 6% of the students enrolled on its sound technology course are female."[17]

Women's Audio Mission was started in 2003 to address the lack of women in professional audio by training over 6,000 women and girls in the recording arts and is the only professional recording studio built and run by women.[18] Notable recording projects include the Grammy Award-winning Kronos Quartet, Angelique Kidjo (2014 Grammy winner), author Salman Rushdie, the Academy Award-nominated soundtrack to “Dirty Wars”,[19] Van-Ahn Vo (NPR’s top 50 albums of 2013), Grammy-nominated St. Lawrence Quartet, and world music artists Tanya Tagaq and Wu Man.[citation needed]

One of the first women to produce, engineer, arrange and promote music on her own rock and roll music label was Cordell Jackson (1923-2004). Trina Shoemaker is a mixer, record producer and sound engineer who became the first woman to win the Grammy Award for Best Engineered Album in 1998 for her work on The Globe Sessions.[20]

Gail Davies was the '...first female producer in country music, delivering a string of Top 10 hits in the '70s and '80s including "Someone Is Looking for Someone Like You," "Blue Heartache" and "I'll Be There (If You Ever Want Me)." [21] When she moved to Nashville in 1976, men "...didn't want to work for a woman" and she was told women in the city were "...still barefoot, pregnant and [singing] in the vocal booth." [21]

Wendy Waldman, who became a producer after Davies, saw that Davies had a difficult time. When Jonell Polansky arrived in Nashville in 1994, with a degree in electrical engineering and recording experience in the Bay Area, she was told "...[y]ou're a woman, and we already had one"–a reference to Waldman.[21] KK Proffitt, who is a studio "owner and chief engineer" states that men in Nashville do not want to have women in the recording booth. At a meeting of the Audio Engineering Society, Proffitt was told to "shut up" by a male producer when she raised the issue of updating studio recording technologies.[21] Proffitt said she finds "...finds sexism rampant in the industry".[21]

Other notable women include:

  • Recording engineer – engineer who records sound.
  • Mixing engineer – a person who creates mixes of multi-track recordings. It is common to record a commercial record at one studio and have it mixed by different engineers in other studios.
  • Mastering engineer – the person who masters the final mixed stereo tracks (or sometimes a series of audio stems, which consists in a mix of the main sections) that the mix engineer produces. The mastering engineer makes any final adjustments to the overall sound of the record in the final step before commercial duplication. Mastering engineers use principles of equalization, compression and limiting to fine-tune the sound timbre and dynamics and to achieve a louder recording.
  • Audio/sound designer – broadly an artist who produces sound tracks or sound effects content for media.
  • Live sound engineer
    • Front of House (FOH) engineer, or A1.[22] – a person dealing with live sound reinforcement. This usually includes planning and installation of loudspeakers, cabling and equipment and mixing sound during the show. This may or may not include running the foldback sound. A live/sound reinforcement engineer hears source material and tries to correlate that sonic experience with system performance.[23]
    • Foldback or Monitor engineer – a person running foldback sound during a live event. The term "foldback" comes from the old practice of "folding back" audio signals from the front of house (FOH) mixing console to the stage so musicians can hear themselves while performing. Monitor engineers usually have a separate audio system from the FOH engineer and manipulate audio signals independently from what the audience hears so they can satisfy the requirements of each performer on stage. In-ear systems, digital and analog mixing consoles, and a variety of speaker enclosures are typically used by monitor engineers. In addition most monitor engineers must be familiar with wireless or RF (radio-frequency) equipment and must communicate personally with the artist(s) during each performance.
    • Systems engineer – responsible for the design setup of modern PA systems, which are often very complex. A systems engineer is usually also referred to as a "crew chief" on tour and is responsible for the performance and day-to-day job requirements of the audio crew as a whole along with the FOH audio system. This is a sound-only position concerned with implementation, not to be confused with the interdisciplinary field of system engineering, which typically requires a college degree.
  • Re-recording mixer – a person in post-production who mixes audio tracks for feature films or television programs.

 Correcting a room's frequency response.
Correcting a room's frequency response.

An audio engineer is proficient with different types of recording media, such as analog tape, digital multi-track recorders and workstations, and computer knowledge. With the advent of the digital age, it is increasingly important for the audio engineer to understand software and hardware integration, from synchronization to analog to digital transfers. In their daily work, audio engineers use many tools, including:

Recording engineers of note

Mastering engineers of note

Live sound engineers of note

See also

  2. ^ Dawn Rosenberg McKay. "Audio Engineer". Careers.
  3. ^ wiseGeek. "What Is Audio Engineering?". Retrieved 17 May 2013.
  14. ^ Speech Communication Technical Committee. "Speech Communication". Acoustical Society of America. Archived from the original on 4 June 2013. Retrieved 22 May 2013.
  16. ^ Ncube, Rosina (September 2013). "Sounding Off: Why So Few Women In Audio?". Sound on Sound.
  17. ^ a b c "Why are female record producers so rare?". BBC News.
  18. ^ "Women's Audio Mission." Pro Sound News, Oct. 2009, p. 72. Fine Arts and Music Collection, Accessed 2 Mar. 2017.
  19. ^ "Womens Audio Mission - GuideStar Profile". Retrieved 2017-03-02.
  20. ^ Dunbar, Julie C. (2010). Women, Music, Culture: An Introduction. Taylor & Francis. p. 304. ISBN 0415875625.
  21. ^ a b c d e f "Women account for less than 5 percent of producers and engineers — but maybe not for long - Cover Story - Nashville Scene". Nashville Scene.
  24. ^ "Justin Niebank Discography". AllMusic. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
  25. ^ "Andrew Scheps". McDonough Management. Retrieved 27 October 2015.
  26. ^ "Jonathan Wilson: Fanfare Reviving The West Coast Sound". Sound On Sound. Retrieved 27 October 2015.

External links

This page was last edited on 21 June 2018, at 12:55


Brown Butter Granola with Pomegranate Molasses, Sumac, and Coconut

When it comes to granola I usually try to keep it healthy and use olive oil.

I would say this is 90% of the times I have made it.

Brown Butter Granola with Pomegranate Molasses, Sumac, and Coconut. A declious and indulgent granola that is sure to impress! |

I’ve made it countless times and never have I used brown butter as the source of oil.

I have to say that this Brown Butter Granola is probably one of the best batches I’ve ever made.

It also has fruit flavor with out having fruit! (no dried fruit that is)

Which I really don’t like to add to my mixes anyway. So easy win there!

The pomegranate molasses is what adds a bit of fruit flavor.

It’s got a slightly tart and sweet characteristic, just barely noticeable in each bite.

This along with the sumac take a regular brown butter granola to the next level. I’m talking about elevator up. Not the stairs. Elevator.

Sumac adds a distinct savory aspect to the flavor profile and takes you up all the way up into granola heaven.

Oh yeah. There’s also nuts too!

Pistachios, walnuts and brown sugar play a lot more of a behind the scenes role than in other granolas I have made.

Probably because the brown butter, sumac and pomegranate are the predominant flavors.

And, I know I can’t stop talking about brown butter. But it really does make everything better.

It’s like butter in 3D, and your tongue is wearing the glasses.

The flavors and complexity in this granola mix are like a rainbow of flavors.

You are really getting a full spectrum and it makes you want to just keep eating it.

It goes really well with Greek yogurt or straight with a cup of milk or on vanilla ice cream.

In conclusion, if I were to enter a granola recipe contest this would be it.

Hope you get a chance to try it!!

Watch me put the granola together below. Hope you give this a try and if you do, let me know how it goes!

If you liked what you saw, please join my email list! I send out site updates, weekly finds, and travel tips!

The Brown Butter Granola was adapted from food52. (I left out pepitas since I don’t particularly like them. Same with the dried fruit. As I mentioned in my previous granola post,  I don’t like to use honey either since it gets really sticky. I also try to watch my salt intake, so I cut that a bit. Lastly, I cut back on coconut flakes since I don’t like too much coconut. In the end, all the modifications resulted in a magic mix!)

Print Recipe
Brown Butter Granola with Pomegranate Molasses, Coconut and Nuts BigOven - Save recipe or add to grocery list Yum
Course breakfast
Cuisine New American
Prep Time 15 minutes
Cook Time 40 minutes
Course breakfast
Cuisine New American
Prep Time 15 minutes
Cook Time 40 minutes
  1. Preheat oven to 300° F.
  2. In a large bowl, mix together the oats, pistachios, walnuts, coconut, salt, sumac and brown sugar. Lastly add pomegranate molasses.
  3. In a small skillet melt the butter and brown 4 to 5 minutes. Stir regularly and watch for brown fragments to form. Once visitble butter is ready. Remove from heat.
  4. Using a stand mixer with a whisk on medium low speed, pour in butter and mix with granola
  5. Spread the granola over parchment on a cookie sheet and bake until golden. Approximately 40 minutes.
Recipe Notes

Mix at least once or twice to ensure even baking.

Yo! I'm Pat, a self-taught cook, who travels for music, food, and adventure. Here I share my knowledge of Japanese cooking, indoor gardening, and points travel.

If it's your first time here - learn more about me.

I go Live on Youtube each Weds - Live Cooking Season 2 @ 6PM PST! join me in my kitchen!

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All Day I eat like a shark is a blog about Japanese food and travel.

If you're the kind of person who enjoys either, subscribe to my Youtube channel for new videos each week!

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Saturday, February 18, 2017

As Parents, Let's Choose the Things that Matter for Our Kids

We can get caught up in "doing" a lot of things for our kids. In our culture we're all about "things."

More things.

Better things.

Lots of things.

We're consumers and takers. We want status and prestige and the best things. We have resulting high expectations for achievement.

We want getting ahead. Pushing. Demanding. Meeting the world's standards.

Let's breathe as parents. I'm reminded as I find myself in that place again. Comparing. Compromising. And I ask myself, `What matters for my kids?'

To serve and not be served.

To go and make disciples.

To love the Lord with all their heart, soul, strength and mind.

What matters are the things that last.

The things that build family.

The things that transcend culture.

What matters is the love and faith and hope and trust and joy and peace that keep us together when the world around us crumbles.

You don't find it's what the world offers.

You find it reflecting and radiating from the Son sent to live and die and live again for each one of us. All of us.


Tag Archives: radio astronomy

Radio telescope in Greenland sees first “light”

Astronomers have successfully initiated operations of a new radio telescope dish, the first ever located in Greenland.

The Greenland Telescope is a 12-meter radio antenna that was originally built as a prototype for the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) North America. Once ALMA was operational in Chile, the telescope was repurposed to Greenland to take advantage of the near-ideal conditions of the Arctic to study the Universe at specific radio frequencies, collaborating with the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) and MIT Haystack Observatory.

ASIAA led the effort to refurbish and rebuild the antenna to prepare it for the cold climate of Greenland’s ice sheet. In 2016, the telescope was shipped to the Thule Air Base in Greenland, 1,200 km inside the Arctic Circle, where it was reassembled at this coastal site. ASIAA also built receivers for the antenna. “It is extremely challenging to quickly and successfully set up a new telescope in such a cold environment, where temperatures fall below -30 degrees Celsius,” said Ming-Tang Chen from ASIAA and the Greenland Telescope project manager. “This is now one of the closest radio telescopes to the North Pole.”

They have also linked this radio telescope to others across the globe, helping to increase the resolution of any data these radio telescopes gather as a unit.

First results from Breakthrough Listen’s search for alien radio signals

The National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) has renamed the thirty-one year old Very Large Array (VLA) after Karl Jansky, the man who invented radio astronomy.

A fitting honor: The National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) has renamed the recently upgraded thirty-one year old Very Large Array (VLA) after Karl Jansky, the man who invented radio astronomy.

Karl Guthe Jansky joined Bell Telephone Laboratories in New Jersey in 1928, immediately after receiving his undergraduate degree in physics. He was assigned the task of studying radio waves that interfered with the recently-opened transatlantic radiotelephone service. After designing and building advanced, specialized equipment, he made observations over the entire year of 1932 that allowed him to identify thunderstorms as major sources of radio interference, along with a much weaker, unidentified radio source. Careful study of this “strange hiss-type static” led to the conclusion that the radio waves originated from beyond our Solar System, and indeed came from the center of our Milky Way Galaxy.

His discovery was reported on the front page of the New York Times on May 5, 1933, and published in professional journals. Jansky thus opened an entirely new “window” on the Universe. Astronomers previously had been confined to observing those wavelengths of light that our eyes can see. “This discovery was like suddenly being able to see green light for the first time when we could only see blue before,” said Lo.


Jun 24, 2018
2013-2014 Undergraduate and Graduate Catalog
2013-2014 Undergraduate and Graduate Catalog [ARCHIVED CATALOG]

PA 428 - Cardiovascular Medicine Module

(5 credits)
Employs a comprehensive and integrated approach to exploring disease processes that affect the heart, peripheral circulation and lymphatic system. Components of the module will include instruction on scientific concepts, such as pertinent anatomy and physiology, pathophysiology and genetic implications as well as health maintenance. Students will develop history taking and physical examination skills, learn to order and interpret laboratory and diagnostic studies, formulate a differential diagnosis and determine the most likely diagnosis. Clinical interventions (non-pharmacological interventions) and clinical therapeutics (pharmacology) are also included. A strong emphasis is placed on critical thinking and problem solving, as well as patient education.


Tuesday, January 31, 2006

Pneumococcal Cellulitis - Abstracts

Bacteremic pneumococcal cellulitis compared with bacteremic cellulitis caused by Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes.

Capdevila O, Grau I, Vadillo M, Cisnal M, Pallares R.

Clinical Research Unit, Hospital de Bellvitge and University of Barcelona, Feixa Llarga s/n, 08907 L' Hospitalet, Barcelona, Spain.

In order to better characterize bacteremic cellulitis caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, a review was conducted of 10 cases of bacteremic pneumococcal cellulitis, which represented 0.9% of all cases of pneumococcal bacteremia (n=1,076) and 3.2% of all cases of community-acquired bacteremic cellulitis (n=312) that occurred in the Hospital de Bellvitge, Barcelona, from 1984 to 2001. In addition to these 10 cases, 28 cases of bacteremic pneumococcal cellulitis from the literature (Medline 1975-2001) were reviewed.

Pneumococcal cellulitis of the face, neck, and trunk was observed more frequently in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and hematologic disorders, while pneumococcal cellulitis of the limbs was more common in patients with diabetes, alcoholism, and parenteral drug use. In the Hospital de Bellvitge group, bacteremic cellulitis due to Streptococcus pneumoniae was more frequently associated with severe underlying diseases than that due to Staphylococcus aureus or Streptococcus pyogenes (100%, 57%, and 72%, respectively;P=0.01).

A concomitant extracutaneous focus of infection (e.g., respiratory tract infection) suggesting hematogenous spread with metastatic cellulitis was more frequent in patients with pneumococcal cellulitis, while a local cutaneous entry of microorganisms was feasible in most patients with Staphylococcus aureus or Streptococcus pyogenes cellulitis. The 30-day mortality was 10% in patients with pneumococcal cellulitis, 13% in patients with Staphylococcus aureus cellulitis, and 23% in patients with Streptococcus pyogenes cellulitis (P=0.3). Thus, bacteremic pneumococcal cellulitis is an unusual manifestation of pneumococcal disease and occurs mainly in patients with severe underlying diseases. In most cases, pneumococcal cellulitis has a different pathophysiologic mechanism than cellulitis caused by Staphylococcus aureus or Streptococcus pyogenes.

PMID: 12783279

PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

Clinical syndromes associated with adult pneumococcal cellulitis.

Parada JP, Maslow JN.Department of Medicine, Stricht School of Medicine, Loyola University, Maywood, IL, USA.

Streptococcus pneumoniae is an uncommonly recognized etiology of cellulitis in adults. A review of the literature uncovered 30 cases of pneumococcal skin infection in adults. Typically, all patients with pneumococcal cellulitis had an underlying chronic illness, or were immunocompromised by drug or alcohol abuse. Pneumococcal cellulitis presents as two distinctive clinical syndromes: one with extremity involvement in individuals with diabetes and substance abuse; and a second involving the head, neck and upper torso in individuals with systemic lupus erythematosis, nephrotic syndrome and hematologic disorders. For each there are statistically significant associations between the location of pneumococcal cellulitis and underlying clinical disorders. In contrast to other common bacterial etiologies, pneumococcal cellulitis is frequently associated with blood stream invasion, tissue necrosis and suppurative complications. Patients often require surgical interventions and prolonged hospitalizations. A high degree of suspicion and early aggressive management is needed for those presenting with cellulitis characterized by bullae and violaceous color.

Pub Med

Pneumococcal Cellulitis

Case Based Pediatrics For Medical Students and Residents

A 2-year-old male presents to the emergency department with a chief complaint of left thigh swelling, fever, irritability, and unwillingness to stand upright for the last 2 days. He has been scratching at mosquito bites that he had gotten while weekend camping about 1 week ago.
Exam: VS T 39.5, P 110, R 26, BP 120/70. Growth parameters are normal for age. He is fussy, somewhat distractible, but clearly uncomfortable. He is continuously scratching at a left upper inner thigh lesion measuring 6 x 3 cm. The skin over the area is indurated, erythematous and tense, and tender. No fluctuance or wound drainage is noted. There is no joint involvement. Some tender lymph nodes are palpable in the left inguinal region.

He is prescribed cephalexin and anti-pyretics. In follow-up the next day, the erythematous region is slightly darker (a shift from red toward a shade of purple). Tiny blisters are also noted over the area. These changes are expected and treatment is continued. On follow-up day 2, the fever has resolved and the cellulitis appears to be clearly improving. His parents are instructed to finish the course of antibiotics. He is next seen in follow-up 7 days later, at which time, his cellulitis is resolved.

The basic response to infection is fever. The local, dermatological acute inflammatory reaction of cellulitis stems specifically from granulocytic infiltrations, hyperemia, and capillary leakage. This is the basis for the skin disruption inherent in cellulitis. The patient may guard the tender area. If the cellulitic area overlies a mobile area such as a joint, the patient may display resistance or anxiety with limb movement, either passive or active.

The specific visual characteristics (appearance) of the cellulitic region can provide important clues as to the organism(s) involved, with implications for treatment and prognosis. Clinical presentation, treatment, and prognosis differ depending on the causative organism and the location of the cellulitis. The remainder of this chapter will be stratified by these factors.

Group A strep cellulitis

Generally, cellulitis suggests the presence of a skin infection due to group A beta-hemolytic streptococci (GABHS, also known as Strep pyogenes). GABHS cellulitis is a painful, erythematous, indurated infection of the skin and subcutaneous tissues. It is classically described as large lesions, erythroderma in color (magenta), slightly raised at the border, with a small, central open skin lesion (frequently an insect bite). It is common for varicella lesions to become secondarily infection with GABHS. GABHS cellulitis may present with scarlet fever.

Abscess formation beneath the cellulitis is very uncommon. GABHS is penicillin and cephalosporin sensitive.

Staph aureus cellulitis

Staph aureus is commonly cultured from impetigo lesions, albeit usually as a secondary pathogen, along with GABHS. Some of these lesions develop into cellulitis, which may be primarily caused by GABHS or alternatively, caused primarily by Staph aureus. Staph aureus cellulitis is typically smaller (than the larger GABHS cellulitis) and is frequently associated with an abscess or pustule. In many of these cases, the abscess is the major problem (i.e., incision and drainage is required), as opposed to the cellulitis which is relatively less of a problem.

H. flu type b cellulitis

H. influenzae type b (Hib) used to account for in 5-14% of the cellulitis cases in young children. More than 85% of children with H. influenzae type b cellulitis are 2 years of age or younger. Hib is a particularly virulent organism which is frequently associated with sepsis. A common location for Hib cellulitis was the periorbital and buccal region. Cellulitis is a complication of H. influenzae septic arthritis 10-30% of cases. Fortunately, there has been a substantial decline in the incidence of invasive infection caused by Hib with the practice of routine immunization of infants against this organism, to the point where Hib infection is almost non-existent. Hib is covered by high generation cephalosporins (e.g., ceftriaxone) and by broad spectrum oral drugs such as amoxicillin-clavulanate and cefuroxime.

Pasteurella/animal bite cellulitis

Cellulitis and lymphangitis typically appears 24-36 hours after mammalian bite injuries. The etiologies of infections following mammalian bites are polymicrobial and consist of mixed anaerobic and aerobic bacteria. In one study, an average of three different bacterial species was isolated from infected dog bites while a mean of five different species was recovered from infected human bites. Because of the numerous bacterial species in mammalian oral cavities and on the victim's skin, contamination of bite injuries is universal. Pasteurella multocida is sensitive to penicillins, but it is less sensitive to cephalosporins. Amoxicillin-clavulanate is generally used for animal bites to cover Pasteurella, staph aureus and anaerobes.

Orbital and periorbital cellulitis

Periorbital (preseptal) cellulitis involves inflammation of the lids and periorbital tissues without signs of true orbital involvement, such as proptosis or limitation of eye movement. It presents as a red and swollen infection limited to the superficial tissue layers anterior to the orbital septum. History usually yields an antecedent respiratory infection or bacteremia. Historically, H. influenzae type b was an important cause, and presented with fever, edema, tenderness, warmth of the lid, and, occasionally, purple discoloration (violaceous hue). However, streptococcal organisms are the most common cause of bacteremia associated with periorbital cellulitis in the post Hib-vaccinated era (9). S. pneumonia, Staphylococcus aureus, and group A beta-hemolytic streptococci cause clinically indistinguishable preseptal cellulitis (2). The latter two pathogens are more likely when fever is absent and with an interruption of the integument (e.g., an insect bite) (1).

Distinguishing periorbital from orbital cellulitis can be difficult. If proptosis, extraocular movement dysfunction, or visual deficits are clearly present, then orbital cellulitis is likely. However, in the absence of these findings, the diagnosis is unclear. In periorbital cellulitis, the lid swelling may be so severe, that it is not possible to tell if proptosis is present. A CT scan of the orbits will reliably distinguish periorbital from orbital cellulitis. Since the difference between the two can be important, a CT scan of the orbits has become routine in the evaluation of most patients with severe periorbital cellulitis and/or suspected orbital cellulitis.

Orbital cellulitis refers to a condition involving not only edema of the conjunctiva (chemosis), and inflammation and swelling of the eyelids, but also involvement of the tissues of the orbit, with subsequent proptosis (limitation of movement of the eye). In general, orbital cellulitis may follow direct infection of the orbit from a wound, metastatic deposition of organisms during bacteremia, or direct extension or venous spread of infection from contiguous sites such as the lids, conjunctiva, globe, lacrimal gland, nasolacrimal sac, or paranasal sinuses. The most common cause of orbital cellulitis in children is paranasal sinusitis, with the most frequent pathogenic organisms being Haemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus, group A beta-hemolytic streptococci, and Streptococcus pneumonia. Orbital cellulitis must be recognized promptly and treated aggressively. Hospitalization and systemic antibiotic therapy are usually indicated. In some cases surgical intervention is necessary to drain infected sinuses, or a subperiosteal or orbital abscess. Intravenous treatment for 10 to 14 days is highly recommended, along with repeated eye exams (visual acuity, pupillary reactivity, extraocular movements, and visual fields) to evaluate possible progression of infection and/or involvement of the optic nerve (10). As a worst case scenario, orbital cellulitis can lead to the complication of brain abscess, especially in the frontal lobe.

Finally, orbital cellulitis is an infrequent presenting sign of retinoblastoma. The severe clinical implications of retinoblastoma (enucleation may be inevitable) warrants vigilance for a white pupillary reflex (leukocoria, the reflection of light off the white tumor), pseudohypopyon (tumor cells layered inferiorly in front of the iris caused by tumor seeding in the anterior chamber of the eye), and hyphema (blood layered in the anterior chamber) secondary to iris neovascularization or vitreous hemorrhage.

Erysipelas is an acute, well-demarcated aggressive infection of the skin with lymphangitis involving the face (associated with pharyngitis) and extremities (wounds). The skin is erythematous and indurated. The advancing margins of the lesions have raised, firm borders. The skin lesion usually is associated with fever, vomiting, and irritability. In some cases, streptococci break through the lymphatic barrier (lymphangitis), and subcutaneous abscesses, bacteremia, and metastatic foci of infection are observed. Bacteremia and death have been associated with streptococcal cellulitis, and progression may be so rapid that there may be no response to treatment with penicillin. The popular press has termed severe cases of GABHS cellulitis (necrotizing fasciitis) as "flesh eating bacteria".

Lymphangitis is an inflammation of the lymphatics draining an area of infection (i.e., a cellulitis site). On exam, tender red streaks extend proximally from the infected site. S. aureus and group A strep are the most frequent pathogens. A history of impetigo is also suggestive of cellulitis, in that, cellulitis has been reported in approximately 10% of patients with nonbullous impetigo but rarely follows the bullous form. There is no correlation between the number of lesions and clinical involvement of the lymphatics or development of cellulitis in association with streptococcal impetigo. The history is consistent with pruritic lesions subject to frequent scratching and secondary infection (including insect bites, pediculosis and scabies). This is followed by the development of a vesicle or vesiculopustule with an erythematous base that erodes through the epidermis into the dermis to form an ulcer with elevated margins. A dry crust that contributes to the persistence of the infection obscures the ulcer. Lesions may be spread by autoinoculation, may be as large as 4 cm, and occur most frequently on the legs or pruritic areas within reach.

Risk of osteomyelitis and septic arthritis

Although the risk of osteomyelitis and septic arthritis is fairly rare unless a penetrating wound is present, the relationship between osteomyelitis and cellulitis deserves special attention, in that a progression to osteomyelitis from cellulitis mandates a far more aggressive and prolonged antibiotic course, not to mention possible orthopedic surgical debridement. Thus, when a diagnosis of cellulitis is made, the comorbid presence of osteomyelitis must also be strongly considered especially when corroborated by a history of a penetrating wound. At the very least, cellulitis accompanied by point tenderness or joint pain is highly suggestive of osteomyelitis. Attempts at diagnosis are complicated by the fact that cellulitis of structures in proximity to bone can mimic osteomyelitis.

To effectively discern cellulitis with possible underlying osteomyelitis, combining technetium bone scanning with other radionuclide scanning techniques or MRI scanning may be useful. In a three phase bone scan, focal increased uptake in the initial phase, with subsequent decline in the later phases (especially the bone phase), is suggestive of cellulitis without osteomyelitis. In osteomyelitis, localized uptake is seen in all three phases, especially in the bone phase.
If the history, physical exam, or radiological studies suggest deep cellulitis near a joint, the level of suspicion is raised with regard to an infection in the respective joint, not to mention osteomyelitis, synovitis, septic bursitis and pyomyositis in nearby muscles. Deep cellulitis is also consistent with psoas or retroperitoneal abscesses. Cellulitis overlying a joint can interfere with studies crucial to the diagnosis of septic arthritis. If a cellulitic area is traversed during arthrocentesis for a workup for septic arthritis, the results can be confounded if organisms are introduced into a previously sterile uninvolved joint.

Cellulitis and immunodeficiency

The presence of cellulitis in the face of concomitant immunodeficiency requires inpatient treatment. Deficient expression of leukocyte adherence glycoproteins can present as cellulitis or small (<1>

Defects in the normal host response may be reflected in study findings that are disproportionately severe when compared to relatively benign findings on the physical exam. For example, deep cellulitis may be quite impressive on a CT of a neutropenic patient who has only mild superficial swelling or erythema. Indeed, surface pus formation is unusual at sites of even severe cellulitis in such patients.

Cellulitis in children with burns illustrates not only the acute effects of interrupted skin and mucous membrane barriers, presence of necrotic tissue, long-term administration of antibiotics and prolonged intravenous or urinary catheterization, but also the concomitant abnormal immune response to infection, including neutrophil dysfunction. The resulting neutrophil chemotactic defect, combined with an associated hypogammaglobulinemia is a perfect scenario for cellulitis with Pseudomonas aeruginosa being the most common organism.

In the neonatal period, cellulitis can be a manifestation of invasive infection, as is bacteremia with a septic-like clinical picture, pneumonia, respiratory distress syndrome with shock, conjunctivitis, scalp abscess, or meningitis. Cellulitis may be the presenting sign of immunodeficiency in an infant. Cellulitis, delayed separation of the umbilical cord and gingivitis is consistent with an infant with leukocyte adhesion deficiency. Cellulitis of the labia majora, pyogenic skin infections, oral ulcerations, or abscesses has been the presenting manifestations of autoimmune neutropenia of infancy.

Cellulitis of the perirectal area, sites of iatrogenic puncture (central venous catheter insertion, venipuncture, lumbar puncture, and bone marrow biopsy), or abrasions is a setup for gram negative dissemination. In the context of vaginitis, beta-hemolytic streptococcus is a common cause in prepubertal girls and may present with perianal cellulitis with local itching, pain, blood-streaked stools, erythema, and proctitis (3).

Rarely, cellulitis or skin discoloration overlying a fluctuant mass might be the presenting finding in tuberculosis of the superficial lymph nodes, often referred to as scrofula, the most common form of extrapulmonary tuberculosis in children. The tonsillar, anterior cervical, submandibular, and supraclavicular nodes become involved secondary to extension of a primary lesion of the upper lung fields or abdomen. The nodes usually enlarge gradually in the early stages of lymph node disease. They are firm (but not hard), discrete, and nontender. The nodes often feel fixed to underlying or overlying tissue. Disease is most often unilateral, but bilateral involvement may occur because of the crossover drainage patterns of lymphatic vessels in the chest and lower neck.

Cellulitis of the sublingual and submandibular spaces (Ludwig angina) tends to spread rapidly without lymph node involvement or abscess formation. It is an acute, life-threatening entity that may require tracheostomy in the event of respiratory obstruction.

Cellulitis of the auricle and external auditory canal is usually caused by S. pyogenes (GABHS) or occasionally by S. aureus. The skin is red, hot, and indurated, without a sharply defined border. Fever may be present with little or no exudate in the canal.

Cellulitis can be a complication of hidradenitis suppurativa, a chronic, inflammatory, suppurative disorder of the apocrine glands in the axillae or anogenital area, and occasionally, the scalp, posterior aspect of the ears, female breasts, and around the umbilicus. Cellulitis of the lateral nail fold can occur as spicules that have separated from the nail plate, penetrate the soft tissue. Predisposing factors include compression of the side of the toe from poorly fitting shoes, particularly if the great toes are abnormally long and the lateral nail folds are prominent, and improper cutting of the nail in a curvilinear manner rather than straight across. Oral antibiotics are necessary to treat cellulitis of the lateral nail fold.

Lab tests are generally not very helpful in cellulitis. A CBC might help to assess infection severity. A blood culture may be indicated if bacteremia or sepsis is suspected. A gram stain of a leading edge aspirate is done by injecting a small amount of non-bacteristatic saline into the leading edge of the cellulitis, then aspirating back the saline. Leading edge cultures have a low yield and they are usually not obtained. Since introduction of the Hib vaccine, the most common organisms are streptococci. In a series of 243 children admitted with cellulitis, Sadow and Chamberlain (1998) contend that, given a treatment threshold based on a band-to-neutrophil ratio of 0.20 on a CBC differential, routine cultures contribute little to the decision to treat (7). Most cases of early or mild cellulitis, especially those without fever, do not require laboratory testing. Empiric antibiotic treatment is successful in most instances.

Antibiotic treatment is targeted mainly against the usual pathogen, group A strep. Staph aureus is uncommon (unless an abscess is present), but difficult to exclude without a leading edge aspirate culture. GABHS is sensitive to penicillin and cephalosporins. Staph aureus used to be sensitive to anti-Staph aureus penicillins (cloxacillin, dicloxacillin, methicillin, oxacillin, nafcillin) and cephalosporins. However, currently, 25% of Staph aureus are resistant (i.e., methicillin and cephalosporin resistant). If GABHS is very likely, then utilizing a cephalosporin or penicillin is acceptable. However, if Staph aureus is suspected, then there is a 25% failure rate for cephalosporins and anti-Staph aureus penicillins. There is less Staph aureus resistance to clindamycin (also covers GABHS) and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (does not cover GABHS as well). Thus, clindamycin is generally indicated if Staph aureus is suspected. Vancomycin and aminoglycosides are parenteral and can only be used for inpatient treatment of staph aureus. Erythromycin has been used in the past, but GABHS and Staph aureus have high resistance rates to erythromycin. If a satisfactory clinical response is not achieved within 7 days, a culture and sensitivity should be taken of a leading edge aspirate. If a resistant organism is detected, an appropriate antibiotic should be given for an additional 7 days.

Young children (<36>

Finally, aggressive attempts to restore skin integrity should be initiated. The skin should be gently moistened and cleansed. Impetiginous crusts should be softened with warm compresses and removed with an antibacterial soap. Application of an emollient provides lubrication and decreases discomfort. Topical antibiotics are unnecessary once systemic intervention is started.

Pneumococcal Cellulitis

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Others: Why I Support CHI

 Charles Walbridge

 Ana Nieves

 Jean Elliott

 Rita Albertson

“When you give to CHI, you support essential tools and practices that deeply improve the way we study cultural materials.” More…

 Tom Malzbender

“Give to CHI and you support the documentation and preservation of our human heritage.” More…

 Prof. Graeme Earl, University of Southampton, UK

 Dale Kronkright, Head of Conservation, Georgia O'Keeffe Museum

JuliaCheri Hoos: Why I Support CHI

JuliaCheri Hoos: Why I Support CHI

I am a history teacher with a background in archaeology. I love my class of 14-year-old students, but they can be a tough crowd. Persuading them that they need to understand the Constitution, the War of 1812, or early American tariff policy is a challenge.

To enter into such deep and difficult subjects, we use images of maps, letters, treaties, currency, newspapers, and so on to give us something to hold onto and focus our conversation. A fragment of pottery, a petroglyph, a coin, a painting, portraits, political cartoons, and words on parchment – all are rich with information about the people who made them, and the world that made us. All give us access to the story of our past.

But today, loss of cultural sites and artifacts is a constant threat around the world. When they are lost, we lose a piece of ourselves.

As a public school educator, I deeply value Cultural Heritage Imaging (CHI) and their focus on preserving the material culture of our world. This is noble work that confers immediate value as well as long-term impact. CHI offers imaging technologies, RTI and photogrammetry, and trains conservators, archivists, librarians, and other cultural stewards so that they can apply those techniques to preserve our human history. And in preserving our history, CHI preserves that which has made us.

Like me, you can help support this noble work. Please help with a financial gift to CHI!

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Climbers have a strong culture and connection to nature. But all their gear speaks against that, it’s technical, it’s the lightest, it’s the strongest, but it is alien to the nature context.

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I wanted to create a chalk bag that incorporated three elements: functionality, emotional value and a strong symbolic tie to nature.

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Each creature I chose  is closely related to different settings of the outdoors. They also have their own personalities and I wanted to capture that in the material and texture chosen for each one of them

Process included making multiple prototypes, testing the prototypes and producing the final product for sale.

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Sasquatch is out there, looking at you, somewhere through the trees. Let him acompany you in your quest into the mysterious outdoors!

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The mammoth, though he actually existed, has gained himself the status of mythological. Go becom mythological like him!

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The jackalope, a jackrabbit with antlers, is said to imitate the sound of human voice to elude danger. Let him protect you!

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The chupacabra is a reptile-alien like creature that is said to drain small animals’ bood. Let his energy fuel you!

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If you suffer from anxiety, panic (attacks), depression, a functional medical problem like chronic pain, chronic back pain, migraines, or POTS (just to name a few), or a functional gastrointestinal problem like Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS), then you should care about your vagus nerve. The vagus nerve is heavily involved in Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) regulation, and the regulation of your ANS is key to your healing.

In the last blog post, I gave you twelve ways to stimulate your vagus nerve in order to facilitate ANS regulation. In this blog post I’m going to talk more about the ANS and get into the details about how the vagus nerve is linked to the ANS and how stimulation promotes healing.

What the Vagus Nerve Is

The vagus, or wandering, nerve, is the body’s 10th cranial nerve, connecting your brain with your gut and the rest of your vital organs, including the lungs, heart, stomach, liver, spleen, colon, and other parts in the abdominal cavity. In other words, your nervous system is directly linked to your digestive, circulatory, respiratory, endocrine, immune, and renal systems.

What the Vagus Nerve Does

The vagus nerve is very much involved in the regulation of your Autonomic Nervous System (ANS), which is comprised of the Sympathetic, Parasympathetic, and Enteric Nervous Systems. These three systems work together without your conscious control to regulate all kinds of ANS activities.

The Enteric Nervous System (ENS) is often referred to as your body’s “second brain”. The ENS looks structurally like brain tissue, houses as many or more neurons than your spinal cord, and contains all of the same neurotransmitters (chemicals that facilitate the transmission of neuronal messages) that are contained in your “first brain”. Your ENS is like another right brain with “feelings” and sensations without a left brain to put into words and logic what it is experiencing. What it experiences, like many of your most vital organs, has a whole lot to do with what your sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are doing.

Now let’s talk about what your Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems do. Older thinking was that these two systems work in opposition. The Sympathetic Nervous System activates the body’s stress response, engaging fight-or-flight so that the body can prepare for an active defense against the perceived threat, while the Parasympathetic Nervous System was the body’s system for undoing the stress response, generating a state of calm and ease, and restoring peace throughout the body. The Sympathetic Nervous System was thought to affect many different systems, including the ENS, in preparing the body for fight-or-flight, while Parasympathetic Nervous System was thought to facilitate a return to normal functioning of many systems, including the ENS, once the stressful event was over. While much of this information is accurate, it turns out this two-system model is overly simplistic.

The Parasympathetic Nervous System is more complex than previously thought. Based on Stephen Porges’ Polyvagal Theory, it is believed that you have not one but two distinct branches of the parasympathetic nervous system. And guess what? The vagus nerve is home to both of them!

The Two Branches of the Parasympathetic Nervous System

Named for where they attach to the brain, you have the ventral (front) vagal parasympathetic branch and the dorsal (back) vagal parasympathetic branch. Together they promote settling, ease, flow, healing, and recovery in your body. That is what your body needs a lot of if it is chronically stressed, tense, in pain, or ailing.

1) Ventral Vagal = Tend-and-Befriend

The ventral vagal branch is attached to a variety of bodily structures in your face, neck, and upper chest that relate to social engagement. Think of the ventral vagal system as the “tend-and-befriend” parasympathetic branch associated with bonding and connecting with people.

2) Dorsal Vagal = Rest-and-Digest or Freeze

The dorsal (back) vagal parasympathetic branch is attached to lower bodily structures like the belly, lungs, and heart and coordinates “rest-and-digest”. Interestingly, the dorsal vagal branch is also responsible for activating the body’s freeze or shut-down response. It’s even been suggested that the dorsal vagal branch is responsible for heart attacks.

Polyvagal Theory explains that you really have three systems—Ventral Vagal Parasympathetic, Dorsal Vagal Parasympathetic, and Sympathetic Nervous Systems—working together in a coordinated way in order to:

• Activate your body’s fight-or-flight system under stress, or when the brain perceives that you are in a dangerous predicament. (Sympathetic)
• Engage protective responses like freeze or dissociation, like out-of-body, disorientation, or depersonalization responses, in life-or-death situations. (Parasympathetic-Dorsal)
• Bring your body back into a state of ease, flow, and recovery after stressful event. (Parasympathetic)
• Coordinate the process of digestion. (Parasympathetic-Dorsal)
• Foster relationships through bonding, connecting, settling, and socializing. (Parasympathetic-Ventral)

In Good Times and In Bad

As you can see from the list above, both ventral and dorsal branches of the parasympathetic nervous system are involved in many activities that happen when the body is not under stress. In fact, Sympathetic, Ventral Vagal, and Dorsal Vagal systems all work one way in good times and another way in bad times. For example, the sympathetic nervous system is involved in any kind of movement we make, like exercise, which is not associated with the fight-or-flight response that happens under stress. The Dorsal Vagal system works to promote ease and flow in good times, while under extreme stress like a life-threatening situation, the dorsal vagal generates a freeze or shut-down response, leading to evacuation—diarrhea or vomiting. The Ventral Vagal System promotes connection and relationships, facilitating communication and eye contact, when we feel safe enough. When we don’t, the Ventral Vagal System shifts toward disconnection. You have probably experienced this in conversations…You know when there is flow and good feeling in relationship? That is you and the other person in pleasant ventral vagal activation. And when there’s not, one or both of you has moved to some degree out of that pleasant ventral vagal state.

Certain Activities Readily Disrupt Unpleasant Patterns

When you stimulate the vagus nerve in one of the twelve ways mentioned in my last blog post, you directly stimulate the parasympathetic nervous system in a benign way, facilitating digestion, rest, ease, inner peace, compassion, and connection with others. Over time, as you give your body more experiences that stimulate your parasympathetic nervous system, repeatedly disrupting the ANS patterns that underlie your psychological and physiological symptoms, your body learns how to shift into greater ease. When you shift out of patterns that keep you chronically stuck, you will find relief. The more often you find relief, the more your body learns how to go into these patterns and then come out of them. As you practice going in and out of these patterns, you are teaching your ANS how to be more regulated.


Lesbian dating how to

I don’t necessarily know the right answers, if there even are right answers, but I know what worked for me.

If she doesn’t identify as being a lesbian (or someone who is romantically attracted to women), and you feel a more-than-friends connection, you might still be right. Which of course can be super awk, but only if you let it.

But once you know, well, there’s a lot to discover. When I started dating the first woman I ever dated (shout out to my wife), I was moderately terrified.


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  • Crosby Ravensworth CE (A) Primary School
'Promoting a love of learning'
'Promoting a love of learning'

Foundation curriculum subjects

History & Geography

At Crosby Ravensworth we teach history to help children gain a coherent knowledge and understanding of Britain’s past and that of the wider world.  We aim to inspire pupils’ curiosity to know more about the past.  In line with the new curriculum for 2014, we plan to equip them to ask perceptive questions, think critically, weigh evidence and develop perspective and judgement. Our history is taught through cross-curricular themes where children will be able to develop an understanding of the history of Britain, how lives have shaped this nation and how Britain has influenced and been influenced by the wider world. Over the course of their time in school, children will also learn about significant aspects of the history of the wider world: the nature of ancient civilisations; the expansion and dissolution of empires; characteristic features of past non-European societies and the achievements and follies of mankind.  Trips will be organised trips, including residential visits, to support the learning and excitement of learning about history.

At Crosby Ravensworth we teach geography to inspire children to become curious and fascinated about the world and its people.

Children will learn about diverse places, people, resources and natural and human environments, together with a deepening understanding of the interaction between physical and human processes.  Geography is taught through cross-curricular themes where the children will be given opportunities to develop their own geographical skills including map reading, using aerial photos and satellite images, globes, diagrams and the internet. These skills will have a much greater focus than previously with the new curriculum for 2014.

French is taught in Key Stage 2 by Mrs Walsh, who is a specialist language teacher linked with Appleby Grammar School.  The emphasis is on Oral work, learning vocabulary through games and rhymes.  The culture of France is also studied.  As a French language speaker, Mr Priestley also supports the teaching of French through regular short daily activities such as taking the register or during transitional periods in the day.

Art & Design

Foundation Stage

Key Stage 1

  • Develop skills in drawing, painting and sculpture.

Key Stage 2

  • Use sketch books to develop observation skills and develop ideas.

  • All children engage in physical activity for sustained periods of time
  • All children are taught basic skills
  • All children have opportunities to develop their basic skills and apply them to a range of activities including dance, gymnastics, athletics, games swimming and outdoor adventure activities.
  • All children have opportunities to engage in competitive sport.
  • All children understand and can make healthy choices.

The school has close links with other schools and there are opportunities for KS2 children to participate in inter school sport activities. These include local tournaments and friendly matches for football, cricket, high five and district athletics.

The school attends swimming sessions at Appleby swimming pool, which we use in the spring term. Each class from Reception to Year 6 swims each week during that time, with children split into ability groups regardless of age.

Where possible, the school encourages all children to engage in a range of after school activity clubs provided by outside agencies.

Our aim is that the pupils experience a balance of composing, performing and appreciating music. The pupils use a variety of instruments as well as their voices in their lessons. Music enables the children to express themselves through sound and gives an opportunity to perform in groups.

Opportunities are given during weekly singing practice to learn and rehearse the singing of hymns, traditional and popular songs.

Peripatetic music lessons are offered in school on a variety of instruments.  Children will also have the opportunity to experiment and compose music using the school's new ipads, using apps such as 'garage band'.

Sex and relationship education is also part of the PSHE curriculum, with specific sessions delivered along with our partner 'MESS' schools to children in Years 5 and 6.

Parents have a right to withdraw their child from all or part of specific SRE lessons.

Design Technology

Design and technology inspires children to use their imagination and creativity to solve real and relevant problems in a variety of contexts. They apply their skills from other disciplines such as mathematics, computing, science and art. Design and technology involves the pupils in developing skills of analysis, planning, designing, making and doing, and evaluation what they have produced. We aim for pupils to learn to take risks, become resourceful, innovative and enterprising. Children will be taught skills systematically and made aware of how to use resources safely. Children will evaluate their own work and that of others including major designers.

Foundation Stage

Children will be introduced to basic skills and materials for making a range of products. They will be introduced to making a design for their product and refer to it in their making. They will learn about where food comes from and healthy foods in a variety of  cooking activities.

Key Stage 1

Pupils will be taught to design functional and appealing products based on specific criteria. They will make their designs using a wide range of tools and equipment. Pupils will explore and evaluate products and make references to their own products. They will develop their technical knowledge of different mechanisms and techniques to improve their work.

All children will develop skills in food technology and an understanding of where food comes from and it’s nutritional value.

Key Stage 2

Pupils will build on their knowledge and skills developed in Key stage 1. They will research and develop their own criteria for products and plan in various ways including annotated sketches, diagrams, prototypes and computer aided designs. They will learn to use a wider range of tools safely and purposefully and become more selective in the choice of resources for their projects. Pupils will be able to make effective use of their evaluation to improve their work. They will be able to apply knowledge of mechanisms to their own designs including electrical and computing systems.  Pupils will deepen their knowledge of how technology has affected and shaped the world we live in.

All children will develop their skills in food technology, cooking a range of dishes using a variety of techniques. They will develop a deeper understanding of how food is grown, reared, caught and processed.


President Bush discussing public policy at the Georgia Public Policy Foundation(87652)Credit: John TrainorCredit: John Trainor

Changes in policy can be driven by a variety of factors each with a different effect on the type of change that occurs within policy (i.e. major change, incremental change, or no changes). The primary factors that will bring about a policy change are when a new president is elected, there are significant changes within the existing administration, a change in congressional membership, a focusing event (i.e. a massive disaster like the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill or the 9/11 terrorists attacks), a shift in the national mood, and a change in policy image or venue. All of these factors result in the convergence of three primary factors which include opportunity for policy change, politics influences, , and an identified problem, which is considered as a “policy window” which is a short duration of time when enough political and mass public attention is focused on an issue which could lead to changes in policy.

When a new administration takes office, key political actors are introduced, or congressional membership changes, this opens up the opportunity for some interest groups, legislators, and agencies to push their positions and proposals when they may not have had the opportunity with the previous administration or political actors in office (Kingdon, 2003). New political actors will be eager to start strong once entering into a new office and therefore be more receptive to proposed policy changes that could make them look good while providing a desired need to the public.

Focusing events can have an effect on both the national mood and the way a policy image is perceived. For example, the 9/11 terrorists attacks identified that existing homeland security procedures as they stood were outdated, and with the national mood being outraged with the ensuing devastation, the collapse of the twin towers in New York and the extensive damage to the Pentagon building in Washington D.C., the existing policies images was damaged appearing as week and in need of change.  As a result new policy reforms were made to both immigration and airport security policies.

Factors that lead to the promotion of a policy change are comprised of several elements.  From the political side of things, a clear identification of a problem with the existing policy is a primary important factor which will help justify actions taken towards any made changes.  The availability of alternatives for consideration will also aid in policy change as they provide a picture of options which could lead to the least effective result, status quo result, and most effective result with emphasis on economic costs required and greatest benefit given the expenditure.  Factors which promote policy changes in the public arena include the media and volume of attention which is broadcast on a particular topic (i.e. currently the increased attention on Health Care Reform or following the progress of the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill). The more media attention a topic receives the greater volume of public attention will be received  which can influence the national mood putting pressure on local and state political actors, which will travel up the chain, putting increased pressure on Congress and the court system as lawsuits are filed and mass public support increases for reform. Since most elected officials would like to keep their job, they tend to be in favor of appeasing the majority of the voting public which will keep them in office come time for re-election.  Additionally, Presidential involvement on an issue will provide a major increase in promotion for potential changes to an existing policy.

In contrast, there are just as many factors which could inhibit and prevent changes in policy from occurring.  The lack of an obvious problem on why the policy should be amended will likely result in poor public and political support, making it difficult to even make its way onto the political agenda for consideration.  Should the issue make it onto the agenda, the complexity and economic costs could result in negative feedback from politicians, interest groups, and the general public which could effectively eliminate the proposed change from advancing.  Additionally, the more complex a problem, the greater likelihood there will be controversy between democrats and republicans on a successful path forward which could result in waning interest after long periods of time and energy have been expended, resulting in a stalemate and blocking of the proposed change (i.e. amending the Endangered Species Act; last amendment occurred in 1988, after several proposals and long, extensive arguments as recent as 2006, the Act still remains unchanged due to political and public stalemate). Many factors that can promote changes in policy can also inhibit them, such as increased media coverage against a topic (i.e. health care), national mood/attention against an action, and Presidential involvement expressing disagreement with a proposed police change action.

Major policy changes, incremental changes, and status quo/no changes to policy all occur under different circumstances.  Most major policy changes occur following a change in the administration as the new president looks to make a good first impression (i.e. President Obama’s work towards Health Care Reform) or after a focusing event or event driven incident, such the natural disaster caused by Hurricane Katrina which lead to the proposed policy changes of the Federal Emergency Management Policy. Incremental policy changes are the norm in U.S. politics which are made at the margins of existing policies through minor amendments (Kraft and Furlong, 2010). These changes typically occur when a political actor is working towards making achievements towards their own initiatives while providing a service to the public, as evidenced through the Head Start preschool program or the Health Care Policy between the years of 1947-1981.  Other policies, like the Endangered Species Act of 1973, do not go through any change following several attempted proposed amendments due to several reasons including a lack of efficient, readily available solutions to identified problems, lack of consensus on how to solve the problem, lack of political and/or public support, or the issue may be overly complex with no clear benefit which would result from a policy change.

References Cited:

 Kingdon, John W. Agendas, Alternatives and Public Policies, 2nd ed. Longman Classics, 2003.


Upper & Lower New

2 Days in a Row White Water Rafting on West Virginia's New River

Exciting and Climactic!

So, you'd like to see more of the world-famous, world-class New River, eh? Well then, this is the trip for you. Spend two separate days on the river with a leisurely float on the first day through the scenic and historic Upper New River Gorge, where the rapids are long and wavy. Take a break from the river that night, then spend the second day in the exciting and climactic Lower New River Gorge on the river section that started the West Virginia whitewater craze. Rapids like the class-V Keeneys and Double Z, plus monster class-IV wave trains of Miller's Folly and Fayette Station provide a booming climax to this action-packed 2-day thrill ride.

Prices are per person and do not include tax and fees, nor lodging and meals. For our getaway package that does include lodging and meals, check here. Prices vary by day of the week.

2 Days

Fall, Spring, Summer

$169 - $229

What kind of river is the New?

What does Rivermen provide?
We provide transportation to and from the river, all rafting equipment (helmet, life jacket, paddle & boat) and professional guides in each raft. That's everything you need, except your private gear, medications, etc.

How much time do we spend on the water?
The total trip time both days is around 6-7 hours from the time you leave base camp until you return. Some of that is driving to and from the river, but most if it—around 5 hours—is on the water.

How big are the boats?

What else might we need?