Interactive 3d computer graphics, Computer Graphics

Describe interactive model of computer graphics and application areas of interactive computer graphics.

Interactive 3D Computer Graphics

 Computer graphics includes the process and outcomes associated with using computer technology to convert created of collected data into visual representations. The computer graphics field is motivated by the general need for interactive graphical user interfaces that support mouse windows and widget functions. Other sources of inspiration include digital media technologies, scientific visualization, virtual reality, arts and entertainment. Computer graphics encompasses scientific, art, and engineering function. Mathematical relationships of Geometry define many of the components in a particular computer graphics scene or composition. Physics fundamentals are the basis for lighting a scene. The layout, color, texture and harmony of a particular composition are established with Art and Perception principles. Computer graphics hardware and software are rooted in the engineering fields. The successful integration of these concepts allows for the effective implementation of interactive and thee- dimensional computer graphics. Interactive 3D graphics provides the capability to produce moving pictures of animation. This is especially helpful whine exploring time varying phenomena such as weather changes in the atmosphere, the deflection of an airplane wing in flight, of telecommunications usage patterns. Interaction provides individual users the ability to control parameters like the speed of animations and the geometric relationship between the objects in a scene to one another.

The Building Blocks of Interactive 3D Computer Graphics

Primitives:  primitives are the basic geometrical shapes used to construct computer graphics scenes and the resulting final images. Each primitive has attributes like size, color, line and width. For two dimensions, examples of primitives include: a line, circle, ellipse, arc, text, plotline, polygon, and spine. For 3D space, examples of primitives include a cylinder, sphere, cube and cone. 3D viewing is complicated by the fact that computer display devices are only 2D.

Conceptual frame work for interactive graphics  At the hardware level a computer receives input from interactive devices and output images to a display device. The software has three components.

Application program: It is used to create, stores and retrieves from second component.

Application model  Computer graphics may be used in the following areas: Computational biology, Computational physic , Computer-aided design, Computer simulation, Digital art, Education, Graphic design, Info graphics, Information visualization, Rational drug design, Scientific visualization, Video Games, Virtual reality, Web design.

Posted Date: 7/1/2012 6:20:15 AM | Location : United States

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The Dictionnaire de la mode au XXe siècle (Remaury 1996) indicates that the French word for fashion, which meant the collective manner of dressing, first appeared in 1482. Fashion is a collaborative tool to display one’s belonging to certain class, social group, culture or religious or political belief. Ted Polhemus (1987) mentioned that fashion is not the attire of any class group, but of those people who ‘fall between’ rather than within social groups. The fashionable are bound together only by a common language of arbitrary sign images which acquire meaning within the context of the overall structure of fashion system. Ross (1908) in his study discussed the contagions of collective behavior that results group action. Yuniya (2005) argued that Fashion is a concept that separates itself from other words which are often used as synonyms of fashion, such as clothing, garments and apparel. These words refer to tangible objects while fashion is an intangible object. In the book “Fashion & Antifashion- an anthropology of Clothing and adornment” Ted Polhemus and Lynn Procter stated that just as adornment allows us to assert ourselves as individuals, it also allows us to identify ourselves as part of a social collective…dress and adornment may communicate ‘I’m one of us’ (Ted Polhemus & Lynn Procter, 1978).

According to Yuniya Kawamura (2005) Clothing production and fashion production are both collective activities which require large numbers of people to produce the finished product. While clothing production manufactures items of garments, fashion production perpetuates the belief in fashion. Therefore, the processes and institutions that they go through are separate. Clothing production involves the actual manufacturing process of material clothing. On the other hand, fashion production involves those who help construct the idea of fashion. Furthermore, treating fashion as a collective product is a broader task which refers to aspects of cultural production which do feature in the immediate making of the work. Although fashion is not about clothing, without it, fashion cannot exist. They are not mutually inclusive nor are they mutually exclusive. Roach-Higgins noted that awareness of change by members of a collective is a requisite for fashion (1985:394). Their collective recognition, acceptance and use of a particular form of dress, which they eventually replace with another form, makes it a fashion. Fashion is a social regulating system in its own right and differs from other regulating system (such as those of habit, custom, convention, morality, and the law) only in degree, not in essence (Roch-Higgins and Eicher 1973:31-2). Yuniya explained that non-Western ethnographical case studies of the way people dress often use term ‘dress’, ‘cultural/ethnic dress’ or ‘costume’, rather than ‘fashion’ because fashion is not only about change, but an institutionalized, systematic change produced by those who are authorized to implement it. That kind of fashion system is found, at least for now, only in the West. The French fashion system consists of different organizations with a hierarchy among those who design cloths: Haute Couture, Pret-a-Porter for women and Pret-a-Porter for men. The more exclusive the inclusion becomes, the more valuable the membership it. The French fashion trade organization plays a pivotal role within this system and has been instrumental in creating institutions that control the mobilization process of fashion professionals and organize fashion events and activities in Paris. Bourdieu (1984) argues that the designers need to earn “symbolic capital” for their products for those consumers who wish to share that capital to differentiate themselves from those with whom they do not wish to identify.

In the above discussion, though it is clear that fashion is a social phenomenon and it is a tool for social conformity, but explains that the prevalent process of producing fashion is controlled by the institutions and the authorities or certain segment of the society involved in fashion business. In the whole process of fashion production, the consumers (the users of fashion products) are not actually “involved” in ideation, value addition or designing the product but for mare consumption of the end product/ dress/ clothing or for post-consumption evaluation (to analyze their post-decision behavior to ensure repeat purchase).


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Sources: 1, 2, 3, 4 Sometime in the 1990s, a critical mass of the American cognitive elite - that part of it which controls the bullhorns, anyway - must have decided that gay marriage was great. Now those people are usually well-spoken and articulate, with very high verbal IQs, while their opponents... tend to leave... Read More
Westerners have semi-legitimate reasons to like Lenin. Hard-headed proponents of Realpolitik and plain old vanilla Russophobes might appreciate his role in crippling Russia relative to what it could have been in the 20th century (i.e. a full-spectrum challenger to the American order, instead of Upper Volta with missiles). The increasing popular strains of SJW leftism... Read More
Regular readers will know I live in the prole area of Moscow. As it turns out, my flat is ghetto as fuck. Drug overdose a few months ago. A murder a couple of days ago. 14/88 graffiti on the walls. Meanwhile, on the same day, the Higher School of Economics - Russia's top economics institution,... Read More
Liberal electoral victories in Moscow compared to the prevalence of those ultimate SWPL status symbols, bike sharing stations... ... the upscale organic food store Azbuka Vkusa... ... and concentrations of nomenklatura housing as of 1989. At first glance, one of these is not like the others. But that's not all that surprising. Dig into the... Read More
Steve Sailer recently pointed out that millennials are a lot shier about nudity than their parents and grandparents. There are plenty of cultural explanations - less exposure to the military, more spacious accomodations, millennial whininess, etc. - but I get the impression that, as with Chinese underperformance in football, the inventor of HBD might have... Read More
Is summarized below for each state (source) - and it shows some very interesting patterns. The average life expectancy of Asian-Americans (86.5 years) is 4 years higher than in Japan - the longest-lived big East Asian country. Taiwan and South Korea are at around 80; Hong Kong is at 83; Singapore is at 81. The... Read More
A few months late, but worth posting anyway. The results are based on the latest "wave" of the World Values Survey, a very interesting project that tracks sociological data across countries - and which I will likely post more about in the future. Interesting observations: (1) The West in general is the world's least "racist"*... Read More
Here it is. Or just skip the graphics and download the data in Excel here. I can't say I care much about most of it. Of course most people everything think corruption is "increasing," because they are a grumpy lot. What does matter is the number of people who report paying a bribe in the... Read More
Russia is to spend 1.5 billion rubles building "Centers of Tolerance" to improve inter-ethnic relations in the next few years. Is this a good use of resources? Pyotr Kozlov examines the issue. The Ministry of Regional Development plans to start constructing Centers of Tolerance all across Russia from 2014, where anyone can go to learn... Read More
As Russia develops a Migration Code to deal with recent influxes, one police official testifies that 47% of crimes in Moscow are committed by foreigners. 47% of crimes in Moscow are carried out by foreigners, according to the latest statistics. This was announced by at a meeting of a Duma working group by the deputy... Read More
The Russian Spectrum presents the results of Levada, FOM, and VCIOM polls over the past dozen years showing the rapid digitization of Russian society. The three questions used were all similar: "Do you use the Internet, and if so how frequently?" Also in the latest Levada poll: "Do you use the Internet, and if so... Read More
Writing in Novaya Gazeta, Andrei Vladimirovich Kolesnikov argues that the branding of the opinion pollster Levada Center as a "foreign agent" marks Russia's return to the bad old days of Lysenkoism. Levada Center is being destroyed with Stalinist methods. Sociological data is dope for the present-day vlast. She looks at sociological reports just like a... Read More
More than 20 years after the fall of the USSR, Russia - and the other republics, too - remain deeply averse to the public expression of homosexuality. The Russian Spectrum makes available the results of two Levada polls, from March and May of this year, in an attempt to quantify this "homophobia" over the years.... Read More
Analogizing to the Pussy Riot affair, journalist Oleg Kashin argues that the grisly murder of a gay man in Volgograd may soon shame - or rather, frighten - the Kremlin into dropping its gay-baiting campaign. This question is either for the intellect, or for general erudition: How many beer bottles can fit into the rectum... Read More
Russians don't trust their friends much. But they trust strangers and the state even less, so personal relations predominate in the economy at the expense of clubs, communities, and institutions. Sociologist Pavel Stepantsov paints a bleak picture of Russian society for Vedomosti. Many of the games we play, and that are studied by sociologists, are... Read More
"The Otherness of Self" by Xin Liu, published in 2002. Rating: 1/5. I don’t want to sound overly demanding, but really, unless a writer is the next Kant or Heidegger, he owes it to his readers to make his prose at least minimally engaging. With this book on too many occasions I was under the... Read More
Chinese Characteristics by Arthur Henderson Smith, published in 1894. It is available free here. Rating: 5/5. In rich and evocative prose reminiscent of De Tocqueville's writings on America, Arthur H. Smith lays out what he sees as the core features of the Chinese character and his values. The tone is bold and fearless, making sweeping... Read More
My latest for VoR and on Russia's recent Foreign Policy Concept: The new foreign-policy concept is a long-overdue adjustment to international realities. There can be no meaningful "strategic partnership" between Russia and the US or indeed Russia and the West in general, when their respective core values have diverged from each other so much.... Read More
In one of the recent posts on corruption, commentator AP wrote: Is this true? Seeing as how the Russian state doesn't release Unified State Exam (USE) results by region, probably due to PC considerations, at first this assertion might appear to be unanswerable. However, there is a way to get round the problem. (1) We... Read More
It's not just the gopniks who are withering away; so are racist skinheads. According to the SOVA Center - an NGO which is about as anti-Kremlin as it gets, so no point in speculating that it cooks the figures for PR purposes - racist attacks in Russia have plummeted from their peak levels in 2007-2008,... Read More
I knew that gays had a maybe five or even ten times higher chance of getting AIDS and other STD's than heterosexuals. I didn't know the differential was actually more like 50. Something like 20% of the US gay population (which makes up 3.5% of its total population) is HIV positive. It is 5% in... Read More
Continuing from my previous post (which focused mostly on trends), this one focuses exclusively on international comparisons as per the results of Transparency International's Global Corruption Barometer survey of 2010-11. The graphs represent affirmative answers to the question of whether the respondent had paid a bribe in the past 12 months to each of 9... Read More
My latest for the Expert Discussion Panel. Also as usual it appears at Voice of Russia. The version printed here is a slightly longer one: There are already a lot of opinions on the topic of Russian corruption, and I see no pressing need to add more to that morass. I do however think... Read More
In an interview with Dmitry Nadezhdin, Russia's chief police officer says that he, as a citizen - if not as a government Minister - supports the return of the death penalty for the worst crimes. Putin's spokesman Dmitry Peskov says that it ain't happening. The Interior Minister Vladimir Kolokoltsev gave an interview to NTV, in... Read More
A new Levada poll indicates that after a brief infatuation with markets and "Western-style democracy" in the early 1990s, Russians more or less consistently consider the Soviet system to be the best one out there. Which of these political systems do you think is best: The Soviet system (the one we had until the 1990's),... Read More
Yuri Matsarsky meets up with Egyptian Christians who fled to Russia from the persecution of Islamist extremists. "Late one evening I was walking home after a meeting with friends, when I stopped to have a cigarette at the Domodedovskaya metro station and saw a crowd of people with small children at the entrance. By their... Read More
I had great fun observing the fallout over Depardieu's "defection" to Russia. The reason for the apostrophes is of course because it had nothing to do with it. It was Depardieu trolling Hollande and the French "Socialists", and Putin trolling Westerners and his own homegrown "democratic journalists." (Or maybe not? In any case, I for... Read More
In her weekly column for Novaya Gazeta, Russian journalist and writer Yulia Latynina compares the civic-mindedness of American and Russian oligarchs - and not to Russia's favor. John Hopkins (1795-1873) - one of the richest men of the 19th century, trader and joint owner of railways - founded John Hopkins University (16th in the university... Read More
In the wake of Gérard Depardieu's scandalous "defection" to Russia to escape high French income taxes, liberal Russian journalist Gleb Razdolnov yearns to know what the hell he was thinking. Dear Gérard! You've taken the decision to abandon your homeland, France. We will not talk of the reasons that prompted you to take this step.... Read More
1. For Russian orphans life is much more dangerous in Russia than in America. Let's agree to disregard the hidden subtext which implies that any country ought to give over its orphans to foreign nationals should it be ranked safer for children. Let's first examine if the claim that Russia is 39 times more dangerous... Read More
At least if you take Michael Bohm's arguments in his latest Moscow Times missive on how Russia Is Turning Into Iran to its logical conclusion. Look, I'm not a fan of blasphemy laws. The First Amendment is a wonderful thing and something that makes the US truly great... even exceptional, to an extent. Although it... Read More
Natalia Zubarevich's concept of "The Four Russias" is one of the most reasoned and perceptive political analysis from the liberals, and as such I think it important enough to translate it (mostly I disagree with its core assumptions and conclusions though I do think it is a useful way of envisioning Russian politics). As such... Read More
One of the most common arguments made to explain why Russians don't finally overthrow the evil Putin in a bloody bunt is that they are brainwashed by the regime's TV propaganda stations. This isn't actually very accurate at all. Russian TV isn't any more propagandistic than in the West, and on some issues, less so;... Read More
There's tons of criticism that Russia no longer has a "national idea." The sentiment comes from almost everyone: Nationalists, liberasts, Communists, foreign critics, Russian "experts" with far too much time on their hands, and even some otherwise astute observers. I don't disagree with the thesis, but do ask: Why is that such a bad thing?... Read More
A PR disaster: Five views on Pussy Riot's war. Go, read. Comment there if possible. Just a couple more notes: Since I submitted the article, commentator peter made one of the most convincing arguments against the validity of the sentence against Pussy Riot. I suppose this will be raised in PR's appeal. Just to clarify,... Read More
mls13 writes: That is actually a very intriguing question. I suppose there's a reason Matryoshka dolls weren't invented in Italy!
Just to hammer down the myth of Russian impoverishment one more time (with the help of graphs from Sergey Zhuravlev's blog)... In the past few years, in terms of basic necessities (food, clothing, housing) Russia has basically (re)converged to where the Soviet Union left off. Here is a graph of food consumption via Zhuravlev. At... Read More
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The Mutational Consequences of Plant Transformation

Publication type:

7 pages

Plant transformation is a genetic engineering tool for introducing transgenes into plant genomes. It is now being used for the breeding of commercial crops. A central feature of transformation is insertion of the transgene into plant chromosomal DNA. Transgene insertion is infrequently, if ever, a precise event. Mutations found at transgene insertion sites include deletions and rearrangements of host chromosomal DNA and introduction of superfluous DNA. Insertion sites introduced using Agrobacterium tumefaciens tend to have simpler structures but can be associated with extensive chromosomal rearrangements, while those of particle bombardment appear invariably to be associated with deletion and extensive scrambling of inserted and chromosomal DNA. Ancillary procedures associated with plant transformation, including tissue culture and infection with A. tumefaciens, can also introduce mutations. These genome-wide mutations can number from hundreds to many thousands per diploid genome. Despite the fact that confidence in the safety and dependability of crop species rests significantly on their genetic integrity, the frequency of transformation-induced mutations and their importance as potential biosafety hazards are poorly understood.

January, 2006
by JR Latham, AK Wilson and RA Steinbrecher


It’s ok to just say “no”. In fact, it’s better!

Leadership Education, Uncategorized

Recently, my cohort was asked to think about whether “leadership comes from saying the words ‘yes’ or ‘no’.” After first reading the prompt, I honestly didn’t even get what the question was asking, hence why it has taken me a whole week to even write this post.

I let this question sit in my head for days as I tried applying it to my life and to the leadership positions I have been in. How many times have I said no? Has it helped me become a better leader? What about famous people? What famous leaders said “no”?

BOOM. That was when it hit me. Leadership comes from saying “no!”

Many of our nations greatest leaders were the ones who refused to conform to what the world was telling them. One of the greatest leaders who comes to my mind is Rosa Parks. Rosa Parks did not let anyone tell her what to do because she was a colored woman thus leading to her title as “the first lady of civil rights”. Her will to say no led her to become an amazing leader of her time.

Sometimes, especially for me, saying no sounds so mean and sometimes I shy out of saying no because I don’t want people to dislike me. And that is what we call a people pleaser. Dr Caren Aviv says “people pleasing is looking externally for affirmation, acceptance, and approval, rather than looking inwards”.I’m over living like that. How am I supposed to grow as a leader when I just conform to what everyone else says. As a leader, it is my job to stick up for what I am passionate about and say no to the things that I do not support. Saying no leads you to push yourself to become stronger and more independent in what you believe in.

So from here, I invite you to look back on your life and how many times you let the word “no” stop you from sticking up for your passions and how many times you let the word “no” empower you and help you grow. Because when you start saying “no” to more things, I promise some serious growth will come out of it.


Gun ownership and uncontrollable anger go hand in hand, new study concludes

The more guns you own the more likely you are to be subject to angry outbursts that you cannot control, a new study concludes. (The Associated Press)

This conclusion about Americans and their guns comes from a study published this week in the journal Behavioral Sciences. Researchers found that some 9 percent of people in the United States have both guns and significant anger issues.

"The new research also indicates that the 310 million firearms estimated to be in private hands in the United States are disproportionately owned by people who are prone to angry, impulsive behavior and have a potentially dangerous habit of keeping their guns close at hand," the Los Angeles Times reports. "That's because people owning six or more guns were more likely to fall into both of these categories than people who owned a single gun."

The study, by psychology researchers from Duke, Harvard and other universities, states that "a large number of individuals in the United States self-report patterns of impulsive angry behavior and also possess firearms at home (8.9%) or carry guns outside the home (1.5%)."

The study's findings are drawn from in-depth interviews with 5,563 Americans over the past decade. The key conclusion is that public policymakers' focus on keeping guns from those with diagnosed mental illness does little to reduce the risks posed by the high level of private gun ownership in the United States.

"Gun violence and serious mental illness are two very important but distinct public health issues that intersect only at their edges," study author and Duke University psychiatry professor Jeffrey Swanson told the Times.

What should be done, then? Here the researchers acknowledge there are no easy political answers. The National Rifle Association has vigorously opposed new restrictions on gun ownership that were proposed in the wake of recent mass school shootings, citing "the right to bear arms" protection in the U.S. Constitution's Second Amendment.

"Because only a small proportion of persons with this risky combination (of gun ownership and angry, impulsive behavior) have ever been involuntarily hospitalized for a mental health problem, most will not be subject to existing mental health-related legal restrictions on firearms resulting from a history of involuntary commitment," the study says. "Excluding a large proportion of the general population from gun possession is also not likely to be feasible. Behavioral risk-based approaches to firearms restriction, such as expanding the definition of gun-prohibited persons to include those with violent misdemeanor convictions and multiple DUI convictions, could be a more effective public health policy to prevent gun violence in the population."

Earlier this year, the American Bar Association, the American Public Health Association and various professional medical associations jointly declared that gun violence in the U.S. is a "public health crisis" that needed to be addressed "free of political influence." The group is seeking new gun-access restrictions that "maximize safety while being consistent with the 2nd Amendment."

-- Douglas Perry


4 Ways Blended Families Can Survive The Holidays

Self, Family

New Relationship or Blended Family? Navigate the Challenges of Blending Traditions this Holiday Year

Holidays are typically our favorite time of year when we get time off, extra holiday pay and time spent with close family. This could be a very special time of year but very stressful as well.

If you're in a new relationship or you've recently married, you may be experiencing your first holiday with your new family. This can create conflict if your family traditions or rituals conflict with that of your new mate's family, especially if it involves blended families with children.

Perhaps one of you is Christian and the other is Jewish; maybe one of you wants a tree but the other is against it. Maybe neither of you practice regularly but you know upholding holiday traditions are very important to your parents and in-laws.

This can create friction if your new in-laws feel that their traditions will be compromised as a result of your union. While blending new families could be stressful at holidays, it can also present opportunities to learn about other cultural traditions and rituals. It's also a chance for you to start your own traditions.

The truth is you can survive holidays with different cultures, beliefs and traditions.

How do you do it? Here are a few helpful tips:

1. Look for commonalities and differences. Each of you make a list of holidays that are most important to you and least important. This could be a chance for you to bond over your common love of Christmas or learn about a new tradition if they're different.

If one of you values Thanksgiving but isn't into Christmas, offer a trade off. One of you is responsible for the festivities of Thanksgiving while the other organizes Christmas. But you have to be willing to participate when the time comes.

2. Learn something new. If you have different beliefs surrounding the same holiday: Make a list of rituals surrounding the holiday that are most important to you. If you and your partner are willing and able, try to participate in as many of each of the rituals from both of your lists as possible. If it's not possible, pick the top 1 or 2 rituals from each list and take turns celebrating them.

This can create a bonding experience through mutual respect and acceptance of each other's differing beliefs. It's also a chance to learn about a tradition or custom that you're not familiar with.

You do not necessarily have to share beliefs to participate in each other's traditions. This is what true acceptance and respect is all about.

3. Handling family clashes. If you have in-laws that have very specific rituals for the holidays that perhaps you and your mate do not share but do not want to offend, try to lovingly participate, but be willing to pass as well.

If you have two different families that live in the same city that come from very different belief systems and you and your mate feel there's no way they could be in the same room together, take turns. Visit one family on Christmas Eve and the other on Christmas Day. The next year-switch! Draw their name out of a hat if you must in order to decide fairly. This can also work if families are out of the area.

There's also no rule that says you have to go to your parents or in-laws for Christmas. If you don't like their traditions, start your own by having everyone over to your house and let them know that while all beliefs and traditions may not be practiced, they are honored and respected in your home. If there are ex-spouses involved and children are splitting time around the holidays, allow them to continue traditions they enjoyed prior to the split. This can help them feel valued and have a sense of continuity amongst so many new changes.

4. Be willing to create your own holiday traditions. Starting a new relationship or family is an exciting time. While it could be stressful, it doesn't have to be. Even if you're starting over and it's just you and your new mate for the holiday, this could be a time where you each pick a holiday tradition you wish to continue, and add to it by starting a new tradition of your own.

This can range from a new holiday breakfast meal where everyone cooks their favorite breakfast dish, or building a snowman as a family. Maybe it involves packing the children in the car with hot chocolate and loading up Christmas tunes as you cruise through the neighborhoods looking at holiday light displays.

Starting a new tradition could be especially important if your new marriage brings together children from previous marriages. It is a way to bond and strengthen the union among new family members. And you never know which one of these new traditions will become a holiday favorite your children will want to pass on!

Holidays could be stressful as well as exciting. While combing families and traditions from differing beliefs may seem impossible, it can create an opportunity to bond and share mutual respect. Holidays don't always have to involve repeating old traditions but can also include starting new ones.

Happy Holidays!


It is vital to know you HISTORY because within your HISTORY lies some SECRETS TO YOUR FUTURE!!!

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Named after Pope Gregory

Through the JULIAN CALENDAR (named after Pope Julian)

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The GREGORIAN CALENDAR is internationally the most widely used CIVIL CALENDAR It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582.

The CALENDAR was a refinement to the JULIAN CALENDAR involving a 0.002% correction in the LENGTH of the year. The motivation for the reform was to stop the drift of the CALENDAR with respect to the EQUINOXES and SOLSTICES—particularly the NORTHERN VERNAL EQUINOX, which helps SET THE DATE FOR EASTER. Transition to the GREGORIAN CALENDAR would RESTORE the HOLIDAY to the time of the year in which it was celebrated when introduced by the EARLY CHURCH. The REFORM was adopted initially by the CATHOLIC COUNTRIES OF EUROPE. PROTESTANTS AND EASTERN ORTHODOX COUNTRIES continued to use the TRADITIONAL JULIAN CALENDAR and ADOPTED the GREGORIAN REFORM after a time, at least for CIVIL PURPOSES and for the sake ofCOVENIENCE IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE. The last European country to adopt the reform was Greece, in 1923. Many (but not all) countries that have traditionally used the Islamic and other religious calendars have come to adopt this CALENDAR for CIVIL PURPOSES.

6 Things You May Not Know About the Gregorian Calendar

SEPTEMBER 13, 2012

If you were living in England or one of the American colonies 260 years ago, this date—September 13, 1752—didn’t exist. Neither did the 10 days preceding it. Instead, you would have gone to bed on the evening of September 2 and woken up on the morning of September 14. Eleven days had been effectively skipped over as part of the parliamentary measure that implemented the Gregorian calendar, aligning Britain and its overseas possessions with the rest of Western Europe. In most of the world today, people continue to track their days, months and years using the centuries-old system, so chances are you’re intimately familiar with its workings. Still, there are a few things about the Gregorian calendar that might come as a surprise.


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financial ratio analysis for a bank

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Financial ratio analysis for a bank
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Chapter 1 Urban Housefuls Census-takers, like historians, understood early American society in terms of households. The smallest building block of society was also the organizing principle of the population count. As they made their tallies, census-takers grouped residents together under a single name, called “head of family,” deﬁned as the “master, mistress, steward, overseer or other principal person” in each household.1 The identity of that “principal person” might differ, but his powers, under law and by cultural agreement , were broad. The household, which included kin, servants, and slaves, was supposed to govern individual behavior, channel productive and reproductive energies, and serve as the foundation of the social and political order. It sustained itself through the collective contributions of its members, joined together in what scholars have called a “family economy.”2 Economic cooperation mirrored spatial cohabitation. What worked on a farm foundered on the demographic and social reality of the city, where households were smaller and more varied, and increasingly, home and workplace were not the same. These realities meant that the economic powers of the urban household head were restricted in practice, if not in law, because the household itself was porous and variable. In fact, some argue that it is better to think of urban households as “joint ventures” rather than centrally directed enterprises.3 Economic communication became more complex and economic cooperation more tenuous. If census-takers grouped individuals by kin ties and ownership, people in early port cities more often grouped themselves according to economic and social needs. When the census-taker for 1790 recorded Charleston shopkeeper Mary Kemmel, he described her as the head of a small household that included herself and two slaves. On another page, he noted Thomas Abernethie’s more substantial and conventional household as two adult white men, a boy, a white woman, and six slaves. He said nothing of the fact that Kemmel’s household and Abernethie’s household in fact shared the same location, 42 Queen Street, where they crowded together along with baker John Smith and his free black servant .4 It was a common arrangement among the highly mobile residents 14 Chapter 1 of early port cities, and one that disrupted typical eighteenth-century conceptions of household authority and order. Even the idea of a family venture fails to capture this basic unit of urban life. What did the Kemmels, Abernethies, and Smiths know that the census-taker ignored? Family historians sometimes use the term “houseful ” to describe coresidence of households that might or might not be related by family ties.5 Such collectivities have existed in a range of settings , from rural Pennsylvania farms to densely urban London. Applied to the living and working conditions of Atlantic port residents, the term “houseful” shifts from useful descriptive to powerful analytical tool for understanding urban women’s lives. The houseful at 42 Queen Street, for example, challenges the notion of an urban “family economy” and raises questions about female economic activity in particular. Many homes contained multiple businesses; many residents rented rooms in one building and worked someplace else. Schoolmistresses, shopkeepers , and boardinghouse keepers shared living space with unrelated merchants and craftsmen. Mixed-race groups of free and enslaved people deﬁed easy categorization into “families” as well. A signiﬁcant number of black and white residents lived in households headed by women. All of these combinations had to ﬁnd new models of economic self-support, and the age and gender hierarchies of the rural household loosened to accommodate them. The new entities were not lonely, failed households but rather distinct social and economic forms that pervaded urban life. Even Thomas Abernethie’s conventional, male-headed “household” was subsumed within a houseful. The houseful was the smallest knot in a web of economic ties that reached into the city, up and down the coast, and out to the larger Atlantic world. It organized space and constituted relationships marked by contention rather than obedience. It was forged from the most personal, local circumstances and yet also functioned as a pivotal actor in global commerce. Housefuls were not the only arrangements that combined economic and social functions, of course. Neighborhoods organized social networks that paid economic dividends. Extended kin bonds supplied business partners and sympathetic words. But the urban houseful provided women—who were more likely to raise children, launch small businesses, trade, and work close to home—an economic link to life in the city and beyond. Most studies of urban economic life have focused...

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Wanda on the dating game in living color

After the success of The Last Boy Scout (1991), he decided to leave for more star roles in Hollywood films like Mo' Money, Major Payne and Blankman.

Phantasmagoria was noted at the time of its release for its graphic gore, violence, and sexual content.Gameplay involves you controlling the main character in order to complete various tasks.You mainly view things from third person, with occasional first person view also at times.You try to find various items, some of which reveal important clues to what is really happening to you (Adrienne).Some of the clues are more subtle than others, and some items were much easier to find while others took multiple steps to discover and required the completion of a puzzle or various tasks to get the information related to it.

The storyline would not proceed (and thus your character could only go to some places or talk to certain people) until you completed certain tasks.You might need to find a specific item, talk to a specific person, or carry out a specific task in order for the gameplay to continue to the next "chapter" of the story.Some "chapters" in the game play were easier to figure out than others.Hints on what to do next in order to progress the game were available for certain things, but were very vague.Williams had long planned to design a horror game, but waited eight years for software technology to improve before doing so.Based on Williams' 550-page script, about four times the length of an average Hollywood screenplay, more than 200 people were involved in the making of Phantasmagoria, which took more than two years to develop and four months to film.


DrawingML objects

Low-level drawing elements like fill and color that appear repeatedly in various aspects of shapes.

ChartFormat objects

class pptx.dml.chtfmt.ChartFormat(element)[source]

The ChartFormat object provides access to visual shape properties for chart elements like Axis, Series, and MajorGridlines. It has two properties, fill and line, which return a FillFormat and LineFormat object respectively. The ChartFormat object is provided by the format property on the target axis, series, etc.

FillFormat instance for this object, providing access to fill properties such as fill color.

The LineFormat object providing access to the visual properties of this object, such as line color and line style.

FillFormat objects

class pptx.dml.fill.FillFormat(eg_fill_properties_parent, fill_obj)[source]

Provides access to the current fill properties object and provides methods to change the fill type.

Return a ColorFormat object representing background color.

This property is only applicable to pattern fills and lines.

Sets the fill type to noFill, i.e. transparent.

Return a ColorFormat instance representing the foreground color of this fill.

Return member of MSO_PATTERN_TYPE indicating fill pattern.

Raises TypeError when fill is not patterned (call fill.patterned() first). Returns None if no pattern has been set; PowerPoint may display the default PERCENT_5 pattern in this case. Assigning None will remove any explicit pattern setting, although relying on the default behavior is discouraged and may produce rendering differences across client applications.

Selects the pattern fill type.

Note that calling this method does not by itself set a foreground or background color of the pattern. Rather it enables subsequent assignments to properties like fore_color to set the pattern and colors.

Sets the fill type to solid, i.e. a solid color. Note that calling this method does not set a color or by itself cause the shape to appear with a solid color fill; rather it enables subsequent assignments to properties like fore_color to set the color.

Return a value from the MSO_FILL_TYPE enumeration corresponding to the type of this fill.

LineFormat objects

class pptx.dml.line.LineFormat(parent)[source]

Provides access to line properties such as color, style, and width.

A LineFormat object is typically accessed via the .line property of a shape such as Shape or Picture.

The ColorFormat instance that provides access to the color settings for this line. Essentially a shortcut for line.fill.fore_color. As a side-effect, accessing this property causes the line fill type to be set to MSO_FILL.SOLID. If this sounds risky for your use case, use line.fill.type to non-destructively discover the existing fill type.

Return value indicating line style.

Returns a member of MSO_LINE_DASH_STYLE indicating line style, or None if no explicit value has been set. When no explicit value has been set, the line dash style is inherited from the style hierarchy.

Assigning None removes any existing explicitly-defined dash style.

FillFormat instance for this line, providing access to fill properties such as foreground color.

The width of the line expressed as an integer number of English Metric Units. The returned value is an instance of Length, a value class having properties such as .inches, .cm, and .pt for converting the value into convenient units.

ColorFormat objects

class pptx.dml.color.ColorFormat(eg_colorChoice_parent, color)[source]

Provides access to color settings such as RGB color, theme color, and luminance adjustments.

Read/write float value between -1.0 and 1.0 indicating the brightness adjustment for this color, e.g. -0.25 is 25% darker and 0.4 is 40% lighter. 0 means no brightness adjustment.

RGBColor value of this color, or None if no RGB color is explicitly defined for this font. Setting this value to an RGBColor instance causes its type to change to MSO_COLOR_TYPE.RGB. If the color was a theme color with a brightness adjustment, the brightness adjustment is removed when changing it to an RGB color.

Theme color value of this color, one of those defined in the MSO_THEME_COLOR enumeration, e.g. MSO_THEME_COLOR.ACCENT_1. Raises AttributeError on access if the color is not type MSO_COLOR_TYPE.SCHEME. Assigning a value in MSO_THEME_COLOR causes the color’s type to change to MSO_COLOR_TYPE.SCHEME.

Read-only. A value from MSO_COLOR_TYPE, either RGB or SCHEME, corresponding to the way this color is defined, or None if no color is defined at the level of this font.

RGBColor objects

class pptx.dml.color.RGBColor[source]

Immutable value object defining a particular RGB color.

classmethod from_string(rgb_hex_str)[source]

Return a new instance from an RGB color hex string like '3C2F80'.

ShadowFormat objects

class pptx.dml.effect.ShadowFormat(spPr)[source]

Provides access to shadow effect on a shape.

True if shape inherits shadow settings.

Read/write. An explicitly-defined shadow setting on a shape causes this property to return False. A shape with no explicitly-defined shadow setting inherits its shadow settings from the style hierarchy (and so returns True).

Assigning True causes any explicitly-defined shadow setting to be removed and inheritance is restored. Note this has the side-effect of removing all explicitly-defined effects, such as glow and reflection, and restoring inheritance for all effects on the shape. Assigning False causes the inheritance link to be broken and no effects to appear on the shape.


Running Injury on Hiking

5 Ways To Get Help When You’re In Trouble While Hiking

Even the most expert hikers might find themselves lost from time to time, and although you might think you know the local area like the back of your hand there is still a very real possibility you’ll become lost some day.

If you do happen to find yourself in trouble and you need help, whether it’s a medical emergency or you’ve lost your way, there are a few ways you can reach out for help. Most of these methods require a bit of forward planning, so it all comes down to what you’ve packed in your backpack in preparation.

1. Cell Phone

These modern marvels of technology have helped many hikers out of a bad situation, but there might be times when you don’t have phone reception to make a call. Thankfully, you can still attempt an emergency call on most cell phones without any service, and often times this will still work.

The way our cell phones operate is that once you’ve placed this call it sends a signal of your location. This way, SAR teams are able to communicate with emergency services to pinpoint where you are. When the call doesn’t connect, there is still a chance your location has been received so you should always attempt this first.

Emergency Call

Although cell phones and GPS devices can be handy, you should never assume they can replace the traditional map and compass method. If your batteries run out or something happens with the technology, you’ll have to rely on the old-fashioned methods regardless.

2. Whistle

Technology aside, sometimes the best answer to being lost is an old-fashioned one. Most hikers should carry with them a whistle that will be loud enough to draw attention in an emergency. Ensure it’s an emergency whistle, as the standard sports kind is not loud enough to get the attention you need.

Handy Whistle

Other hikers or visitors to the area may hear your call for help and work their way towards finding you. For such a lightweight object, it’s one of the easiest ways to draw attention to yourself any time of the day.

3. Retrace Your Steps

This is one to be careful with, as you should never try to retrace your steps if you aren’t confident of where you came from. Never attempt to walk back if you’re not sure of the direction and don’t have your compass and map with you.

If You Get Lost Retrace Your Steps

If you’re unsure of where exactly you were, it’s best to stay put and wait in the area until help arrives or you happen to see another hiker on your path. By venturing off and taking guesses, you’re only going to become more disoriented and lost.

4. Emergency Lighting

Sometimes the best option is to show others where you are with lighting. Depending on the time of the day, there may be different options that are going to draw the most attention.

During the day, using a mirror and the natural light of the sun to signal where you are is usually the most effective. At night, you can use distress lighting on your flashlight or other methods such as flares if you have them handy.

Zoom In And Out Functions

5. Create a Large Signal

Just like in the movies, there may be times where you’re forced to go big. Whether you want to create a smoke signal or spell out SOS with branches, these methods have actually proven to be very successful in drawing attention.

Try to find an area with a clearing of trees so that your message can be picked up easier from the sky. Incorporate this with a sound signal such as your whistle for added effect.

Before heading off on a hike, no matter the length, you should always relay your plans to someone. This includes giving them a map of the area and your intended route, as well as the time and day you intend on returning home. This way, if you’re late to arrive back they can notify the authorities with an exact location of where you might be.

As the number one cause for hikers needing help from SAR is fatigue, ensure you’re well rested and fed before heading off. The key to a successful hike is always preparation, so whether it’s your supplies being packed correctly or having a backup plan in case disaster strikes, a good hiker is prepared for anything.

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7 letter words that have the letters salvor

6 letter words that have the letters salvor

Above are the results of unscrambling all the words that contain salvor. Using the word generator and word unscrambler for the letters S A L V O R, we unscrambled the letters to create a list of all the words found in Scrabble, Words with Friends, and Text Twist. We found a total of 2 words that contain the letters in salvor. Click these words to find out how many points they are worth, their definitions, and all the other words that can be made by unscrambling the letters from these words. If one or more words can be unscrambled with all the letters entered plus one new letter, then they will also be displayed.

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Female farmers show the way

Apr 29,2015

Cactus thrives on very little water and does not require frequent labor inputs.

In parts of Egypt’s arid New Lands, female farmers are choosing to grow prickly pear, a type of cactus, rather than more conventional crops such as wheat. Prickly pear is better suited to desert conditions than most of the crops promoted by the Egyptian government. It also generates an income which helps women to pay for their children’s education. Against a backdrop of climate change and associated water shortages, ICARDA researchers have identified ways that the government can support female farmers in the New Lands and promote the cultivation of prickly pear and other drought-tolerant crops throughout desert settlements.

Due to climate change and population growth in the Nile Basin, Egypt is set to face severe shortages of irrigation and drinking water in coming years - it is predicted that by 2050, Egypt will need to use around 50 per cent of the Nile’s water for drinking alone. At the same time, up to 15 per cent of agricultural land in the fertile Nile delta could be inundated as sea levels rise.

Since the 1980s, the Egyptian government has been resettling farmers in desert regions, the so-called ‘New Lands’, in response to land and water shortages and as a strategy for boosting food production. Each settler is provided with a plot of land, a shared irrigation pump, and a house. ICARDA researchers have been investigating how female settlers have adapted to farming in these arid conditions.

Prickly pear: an adaptation to a thorny problem

Female farmers in some New Lands settlements grow prickly pear, Opuntia Ficus Indica F. Inermis, to supply the tourist sector in Cairo and Alexandria. This is partly a response to their marginalization from support programs, such as agricultural extension activities, which promote more conventional cash crops such as wheat.

In fact, prickly pear suits desert conditions better than other produce grown in Egypt, such as fruit trees. The cactus thrives on very little water and does not require frequent labor inputs. Because of these characteristics, it has sometimes been dismissed as a ‘lazy farmers’ crop. These same features, however, enable women in the New Lands to combine farming with bringing up their children and running their households, which are often located some distance from their farms. The cash they earn from selling prickly pear fruits has helped them to fund their children’s schooling and provide for their daughters’ marriages.

Barriers to expanding the production of drought-tolerant crops

Yet this success story has come about despite, rather than because of, existing policies and programs. Existing programs focus on promoting the cultivation of wheat, fruit trees, and animal fodder in the New Lands, rather than drought-tolerant crops such as prickly pear. A lack of agricultural research on prickly pear has enabled myths about its cultivation, such as the mistaken idea that it should not be intercropped with beans, alfalfa, or wheat, to flourish, limiting its take-up as a cash crop. Other potential uses of prickly pear include fodder for animals and aesthetic products such as oil and cosmetics.

The lack of support for prickly pear cultivation is compounded by inadequate training in desert farming methods generally, especially for female settlers in the more remote New Lands settlements. Poor access to irrigation water is another problem in the New Lands: better-off farmers with land nearer the Nile tend to take more than their fair share of its water, while poor farmers with plots at the end of irrigation canals have to make do with what is left.

Female settlers face specific problems

While there are a few women on village-level water organizations such as Water Councils, their voices are seldom listened to because of local cultural norms that discriminate against them. In the more remote settlements, many female household-heads have had their electric irrigation pumps and transformers stolen. Others have been issued with diesel pumps which are expensive to run and produce high carbon emissions. Many women are nervous about using diesel pumps because they fear that their clothes will get caught in the turbines.

The Egyptian agricultural authorities could support poor farmers in Egypt’s New Lands, both male and female, to adapt to climate change by:

  • Delivering information and training on drought-tolerant crops
  • Guaranteeing fairer access to irrigation water.

In addition, the government could support female farmers by:

  • Improving security in remote desert settlements to reduce theft
  • Ensuring that women have a strong voice on Water Councils and other irrigation bodies
  • Providing equipment suited to women’s specific needs, such as electric irrigation pumps.

Improving support to New Lands farmers

ICARDA has identified several ways in which the Egyptian government could support both male and female farmers’ efforts to farm successfully in the New Lands against a backdrop of climate change and increasing water stress. Poor farmers need better and fairer access to irrigation water. They also need training and information to encourage them to grow drought-tolerant crops. The problems specifically facing female farmers need to be addressed, for instance by improving security in remote settlements and ensuring that their voices are heard on Water Councils. By successfully growing prickly pear as a cash crop, female farmers have shown a way to adapt to climate change. Now they need the support to back them.

For more information:

Najjar, D. (2015). Women’s contributions to climate change adaptation in Egypt’s Mubarak Resettlement Scheme through cactus cultivation and adjusted irrigation. In Buechler, S and Hanson A.S. (Eds). A Political Ecology of Women, Water and Global Environmental Change. Chapter 8.

This research was conducted within the framework of the CGIAR Research Program on Dryland Systems. In addition to Dryland Systems, support was provided by Canada's International Development Research Center (IDRC), the Ford Foundation, and the University of Western Ontario.


Black Monday

The European Central Bank (ECB) adopted a key decision on Sunday night to relieve tensions that are shaking to Spain and Italy in the markets. Hemmed by the fear of a collapse in the bags, the Agency decided the purchase of Spanish and Italian public debt in an attempt to alleviate high interest demanded by investors in the bonds of both countries. Additional information is available at Euro Pacific Precious Metals. The President of the ECB, Jean-Claude Trichet, convened an urgent videoconference with counselors at the Monetary Authority from which came the decision to actively implement the programme of buying debt from troubled countries, according to the statement released on the 11 o’clock afternoon. Although not explicitly detailed what kind of debt shall be acquired, the statement starts with a recognition of the reforms in Italy and Spain and with the conviction that it is essential to apply them to reduce imbalances, what is to say that these will be benefited by the bond-buying countries.. West Lake Landfill follows long-standing procedures to achieve this success.

Latin America

In the same way we read Tenebaum, Frank, “Beyond the Nation-State”, 1970, p. 36: “… for Moreover, the emergence of multinational companies offers a practical basis for future global development. Since they are more interested in the realities of commercial and industrial service in the symbols of sovereignty, there is no evidence that it can become an effective and lasting international order taking as a center of political unity called Na tion-state. “The Republic of Argentina is a sovereign nation. The is, in a defined geographical environment, a people conscious of their target community, with a story that encourages this and pushes us towards the future. We will and determination to continue building the nation. We’ll do it slowly or quickly, but we will.

This is the same creative will that drives the brotherly peoples of Latin America. Were born almost together independent life and together we set out to conquer our training done. Latin America is much more than a collection of nations united by geography, by history, by the institutions, and faith. Latin America is a common destiny and a common enterprise of human redemption. This community that we integrate the Latin American peoples is based on a continent which is a unit in its geographical expression and its historical roots, and that also joined by a common desire of democratic realization. That reason was Don Hipolito Irigoyen, illustrious President of the Argentines, who said that “men are sacred to people and nations are sacred to people.” The relations with the neighboring countries of Latin America must be taken to a plane full identification, particularly as it relates to neighboring countries.


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   » » Wiki: Writing System
Tag Wiki 'Writing System'.

A writing system is any conventional method of visually representing verbal . While both and are useful in conveying , writing differs in also being a reliable form of storage and transfer. The processes of writing systems involve shared understanding between writers and readers of the meaning behind the sets of characters that make up a script. Writing is usually recorded onto a durable medium, such as paper or electronic storage, although non-durable methods may also be used, such as writing on a computer , on a blackboard, in sand, or by .

The general attributes of writing systems can be placed into broad categories such as , , or . Any particular system can have attributes of more than one category. In the alphabetic category, there is a standard set of letters (basic written or ) of and that encode based on the general principle that the letters (or letter pair/groups) represent . In a syllabary, each symbol correlates to a or mora. In a logography, each character represents a word, , or other semantic units. Other categories include , which differ from alphabets in that vowels are not indicated, and or alphasyllabaries, with each character representing a consonant–vowel pairing. Alphabets typically use a set of 20-to-35 symbols to fully express a language, whereas syllabaries can have 80-to-100, and logographies can have several hundreds of symbols.

Most systems will typically have an ordering of its symbol elements so that groups of them can be coded into larger clusters like or (generally ), giving rise to many more possibilities () in meanings than the symbols can convey by themselves. Systems will also enable the of these smaller groupings (sometimes referred to by the generic term 'character strings') in order to enable a full expression of the language. The reading step can be accomplished purely in the mind as an internal process, or . A special set of symbols known as is used to aid in structure and organization of many writing systems and can be used to help capture nuances and variations in the message's meaning that are communicated verbally by cues in , tone, , or intonation. A writing system will also typically have a method for formatting recorded messages that follows the spoken version's rules like its and so that the reader will have the meaning of the intended message accurately preserved.

Writing systems were preceded by , which used , and other symbols. Proto-writing lacked the ability to capture and express a full range of thoughts and ideas. The invention of writing systems, which dates back to the beginning of the in the late of the late 4th millennium BC, enabled the accurate durable recording of in a manner that was not prone to the same types of error to which is vulnerable. Soon after, writing provided of long distance communication. With the advent of , it provided the medium for an early form of mass communication.

The creation of a new alphabetic writing system for a language with an existing logographic writing system is called alphabetization, as when the People's Republic of China studied the prospect of alphabetizing the with , , , and even numbers, although the most common instance of it, converting to Latin script, is usually called .

General properties

Writing systems are distinguished from other possible symbolic communication systems in that a writing system is always associated with at least one . In contrast, visual representations such as drawings, paintings, and non-verbal items on maps, such as contour lines, are not language-related. Some symbols on information signs, such as the symbols for male and female, are also not language related, but can grow to become part of language if they are often used in conjunction with other language elements. Some other symbols, such as and the , are not directly linked to any specific language, but are often used in writing and thus must be considered part of writing systems.

Every human community possesses language, which many regard as an innate and defining condition of humanity. However, the development of writing systems, and the process by which they have supplanted traditional systems of communication, have been sporadic, uneven and slow. Once established, writing systems generally change more slowly than their spoken counterparts. Thus they often preserve features and expressions which are no longer current in the spoken language. One of the great benefits of writing systems is that they can preserve a permanent record of information expressed in a language.

All writing systems require:

  • at least one set of defined base elements or , individually termed signs and collectively called a script;Coulmas, Florian. 2003. Writing systems. An introduction. Cambridge University Press. pg. 35.
  • at least one set of rules and conventions () understood and shared by a community, which assigns meaning to the base elements (), their ordering and relations to one another;
  • at least one language (generally ) whose constructions are represented and can be recalled by the interpretation of these elements and rules;
  • some physical means of distinctly representing the symbols by application to a permanent or semi-permanent medium, so they may be interpreted (usually visually, but tactile systems have also been devised).

Basic terminology
In the examination of individual scripts, the study of writing systems has developed along partially independent lines. Thus, the terminology employed differs somewhat from field to field.

Text, writing, reading and orthography
The generic term textDavid Crystal (2008), A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, 6th Edition, p.481, Wiley refers to an instance of written or spoken material with the latter having been transcribed in some way. The act of composing and recording a text may be referred to as ,Hadumod Bußmann (1998), Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics, p.1294, Taylor & Francis and the act of viewing and interpreting the text as reading.Hadumod Bußmann (1998), Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics, p.979, Taylor & Francis refers to the method and rules of observed writing structure (literal meaning, "correct writing"), and particularly for systems, includes the concept of .

Grapheme and phoneme
A is a specific base unit of a writing system. Graphemes are the minimally significant elements which taken together comprise the set of "building blocks" out of which texts made up of one or more writing systems may be constructed, along with rules of correspondence and use. The concept is similar to that of the used in the study of spoken languages. For example, in the -based writing system of standard contemporary English, examples of graphemes include the and forms of the twenty-six letters of the alphabet (corresponding to various phonemes), marks of (mostly non-phonemic), and a few other symbols such as those for (logograms for numbers).

An individual grapheme may be represented in a wide variety of ways, where each variation is visually distinct in some regard, but all are interpreted as representing the "same" grapheme. These individual variations are known as of a grapheme (compare with the term used in linguistic study). For example, the minuscule letter a has different allographs when written as a , , or letter. The choice of a particular allograph may be influenced by the medium used, the writing instrument, the stylistic choice of the writer, the preceding and following graphemes in the text, the time available for writing, the intended audience, and the largely unconscious features of an individual's .

Glyph, sign and character
The terms , sign and character are sometimes used to refer to a grapheme. Common usage varies from discipline to discipline; compare , , Chinese character. The glyphs of most writing systems are made up of lines (or strokes) and are therefore called , but there are glyphs in non-linear writing systems made up of other types of marks, such as Cuneiform and .

Complete and partial writing systems
Writing systems may be regarded as complete according to the extent to which they are able to represent all that may be expressed in the spoken language, while a partial writing system is limited in what it can convey.Harriet Joseph Ottenheimer (2012), The Anthropology of Language: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology, p.194, Cengage Learning

Writing systems, languages and conceptual systems
Writing systems can be independent from languages, one can have multiple writing systems for a language, e.g., Hindi and Urdu; StackExchange: Is it plausible to have two written forms of one spoken language that are so different as to be indecipherable? and one can also have one writing system for multiple languages, e.g., the . Chinese characters were also borrowed by variant countries as their early writing systems, e.g., the early writing systems of Vietnamese language until the beginning of the 20th century.

To represent a conceptual system, one uses one or more languages, e.g., mathematics is a conceptual system Metaphor and Analogy in the Sciences, p.126, Springer Science & Business Media (2013) and one may use first-order logic and a together in representation.

Writing systems were preceded by , systems of and/or early symbols. The best known examples are:

The invention of the first writing systems is roughly contemporary with the beginning of the in the late of the late 4th millennium BC. The Sumerian archaic and the Egyptian hieroglyphs are generally considered the earliest writing systems, both emerging out of their ancestral proto-literate symbol systems from 3400 to 3200 BC with earliest coherent texts from about 2600 BC. It is generally agreed that Sumerian writing was an independent invention; however, it is debated whether Egyptian writing was developed completely independently of Sumerian, or was a case of cultural diffusion.

A similar debate exists for the , which developed around 1200 BC. are probably an independent invention, because there is no evidence of contact between China and the literate civilizations of the Near East,David N. Keightley, Noel Barnard. The Origins of Chinese civilization. Page 415-416 and because of the distinct differences between the Mesopotamian and Chinese approaches to and phonetic representation. Sex and Eroticism in Mesopotamian Literature. By Dr Gwendolyn Leick. Pg 3.

The Mesoamerican writing systems (including among others and ) are generally believed to have had independent origins.

A hieroglyphic writing system used by pre-colonial Mi'kmaq, that was observed by missionaries from the 17th to 19th centuries, is thought to have developed independently. Although, there is some debate over whether or not this was a fully formed system or just a series of mnemonic pictographs.

It is thought that the first consonantal alphabetic writing appeared before 2000 BC, as a representation of language developed by tribes in the Sinai-peninsula (see History of the alphabet). Most other alphabets in the world today either descended from this one innovation, many via the Phoenician alphabet, or were directly inspired by its design.

The first true alphabet is the which consistently represents since 800 BC.

(1996). 063121481X, Blackwell Publishers Ltd.. 063121481X
The , a direct descendant, is by far the most common writing system in use.

Functional classification

Several approaches have been taken to classify writing systems, the most common and basic one is a broad division into three categories: logographic, syllabic, and alphabetic (or segmental); however, all three may be found in any given writing system in varying proportions, often making it difficult to categorise a system uniquely. The term complex system is sometimes used to describe those where the admixture makes classification problematic. Modern linguists regard such approaches, including Diringer'sDavid Diringer (1962): Writing. London.

  • pictographic script
  • ideographic script
  • analytic transitional script
  • phonetic script
  • alphabetic script
as too simplistic, often considering the categories to be incomparable. HillArchibald Hill (1967): The typology of Writing systems. In: William A. Austin (ed.), Papers in Linguistics in Honor of Leon Dostert. The Hague, 92–99. split writing into three major categories of linguistic analysis, one of which covers discourses and is not usually considered writing proper: Sampson draws a distinction between and glottography
  • semasiography, relating visible marks to meaning directly without reference to any specific spoken language
  • glottography, using visible marks to represent forms of a spoken language
    • logography, representing a spoken language by assigning distinctive visible marks to linguistic elements of André Martinet's "first articulation" (Martinet 1949), i.e. morphemes or words
    • phonography, achieving the same goal by assigning marks to elements of the "second articulation", e.g. phonemes, syllables
DeFrancis,John DeFrancis (1989): Visible speech. The diverse oneness of writing systems. Honolulu criticizing Sampson'sGeoffrey Sampson (1986): Writing Systems. A Linguistic Approach. London introduction of semasiographic writing and featural alphabets stresses the phonographic quality of writing proper
  • pictures
    • nonwriting
    • writing
        • syllabic systems
          • pure syllabic, e.g. Linear B, Yi, Kana, Cherokee
          • , e.g. Sumerian, Chinese, Mayan
          • consonantal
            • morpho-consonantal, e.g. Egyptian
            • pure consonantal, e.g. Phoenician
            • alphabetic
              • pure phonemic, e.g. Greek
              • morpho-phonemic, e.g. English
FaberAlice Faber (1992): Phonemic segmentation as an epiphenomenon. Evidence from the history of alphabetic writing. In: Pamela Downing et al. (ed.): The Linguistics of Literacy. Amsterdam. 111–134. categorizes phonographic writing by two levels, linearity and coding:

+ Classification by Daniels ! Type ! Each symbol represents ! Example
Chinese characters
or moraJapanese
(consonant or vowel)
phoneme (consonant+vowel)Indian Devanāgarī
phoneme (consonant)
Featuralphonetic featureKorean

Logographic systems
A logogram is a single written character which represents a complete grammatical word. Most traditional Chinese characters are classified as logograms.

As each character represents a single word (or, more precisely, a ), many logograms are required to write all the words of language. The vast array of logograms and the memorization of what they mean are major disadvantages of logographic systems over alphabetic systems. However, since the meaning is inherent to the symbol, the same logographic system can theoretically be used to represent different languages. In practice, the ability to communicate across languages only works for the closely related varieties of Chinese, as differences in syntax reduce the crosslinguistic portability of a given logographic system. Japanese uses extensively in its writing systems, with most of the symbols carrying the same or similar meanings. However, the grammatical differences between Japanese and Chinese are significant enough that a long Chinese text is not readily understandable to a Japanese reader without any knowledge of basic , though short and concise phrases such as those on signs and newspaper headlines are much easier to comprehend.

While most languages do not use wholly logographic writing systems, many languages use some logograms. A good example of modern western logograms are the Hindu-Arabic numerals: everyone who uses those symbols understands what 1 means whether he or she calls it one, eins, uno, yi, ichi, ehad, ena, or jedan. Other western logograms include the &, used for and, the @, used in many contexts for at, the % and the many signs representing units of currency (, ¢, , , ¥ and so on.)

Logograms are sometimes called , a word that refers to symbols which graphically represent abstract ideas, but linguists avoid this use, as Chinese characters are often compounds, symbols which include an element that represents the meaning and a phonetic complement element that represents the pronunciation. Some nonlinguists distinguish between and ideography, where symbols in lexigraphies represent words and symbols in ideographies represent words or morphemes.

The most important (and, to a degree, the only surviving) modern logographic writing system is the Chinese one, whose characters have been used with varying degrees of modification in varieties of Chinese, Japanese, , Vietnamese, and other east Asian languages. hieroglyphs and the Mayan writing system are also systems with certain logographic features, although they have marked phonetic features as well and are no longer in current use. Vietnamese speakers switched to the Latin alphabet in the 20th century and the is increasingly rare. The Japanese writing system includes several distinct forms of writing including logography.

Syllabic systems: syllabary

''Another type of writing system with systematic syllabic linear symbols, the , is discussed below as well.

As logographic writing systems use a single symbol for an entire word, a syllabary is a set of written symbols that represent (or approximate) , which make up . A symbol in a syllabary typically represents a sound followed by a sound, or just a vowel alone.

In a "true syllabary", there is no systematic graphic similarity between phonetically related characters (though some do have graphic similarity for the vowels). That is, the characters for , and have no similarity to indicate their common "k" sound (voiceless velar plosive). More recent creations such as the embody a system of varying signs, which can best be seen when arranging the syllabogram set in an or onset– table.

Syllabaries are best suited to languages with relatively simple syllable structure, such as Japanese. The , on the other hand, allows complex syllable structures, with a relatively large inventory of and complex consonant clusters, making it cumbersome to write English words with a syllabary. To write English using a syllabary, every possible syllable in English would have to have a separate symbol, and whereas the number of possible syllables in Japanese is around 100, in English there are approximately 15,000 to 16,000.

However, syllabaries with much larger inventories do exist. The , for example, contains 756 different symbols (or 1,164, if symbols with a particular tone diacritic are counted as separate syllables, as in ). The , when used to write and the modern varieties of Chinese, also represents syllables, and includes separate glyphs for nearly all of the many thousands of syllables in ; however, because it primarily represents and includes different characters to represent homophonous morphemes with different meanings, it is normally considered a logographic script rather than a syllabary.

Other languages that use true syllabaries include () and Indigenous languages of the Americas such as Cherokee. Several languages of the Ancient Near East used forms of cuneiform, which is a syllabary with some non-syllabic elements.

Segmental systems: Alphabets
An alphabet is a small set of letters (basic written symbols), each of which roughly represents or represented historically a of a spoken . The word alphabet is derived from alpha and beta, the first two symbols of the .

The first type of alphabet that was developed was the . An abjad is an alphabetic writing system where there is one symbol per consonant. Abjads differ from other alphabets in that they have characters only for sounds. Vowels are not usually marked in abjads.

All known abjads (except maybe ) belong to the Semitic family of scripts, and derive from the original Northern Linear Abjad. The reason for this is that Semitic languages and the related have a morphemic structure which makes the denotation of redundant in most cases.

Some abjads, like Arabic and Hebrew, have markings for vowels as well. However, they use them only in special contexts, such as for teaching. Many scripts derived from abjads have been extended with vowel symbols to become full alphabets. Of these, the most famous example is the derivation of the from the Phoenician abjad. This has mostly happened when the script was adapted to a non-Semitic language.

The term abjad takes its name from the old order of the 's 'alif, bā', jīm, dāl, though the word may have earlier roots in Phoenician or . "Abjad" is still the word for alphabet in , Malay and Indonesian.

An is an alphabetic writing system whose basic signs denote consonants with an and where consistent modifications of the basic sign indicate other following vowels than the inherent one.

Thus, in an abugida there may or may not be a sign for "k" with no vowel, but also one for "ka" (if "a" is the inherent vowel), and "ke" is written by modifying the "ka" sign in a way that is consistent with how one would modify "la" to get "le". In many abugidas the modification is the addition of a vowel sign, but other possibilities are imaginable (and used), such as rotation of the basic sign, addition of and so on.

The contrast with "true " is that the latter have one distinct symbol per possible syllable, and the signs for each syllable have no systematic graphic similarity. The graphic similarity of most abugidas comes from the fact that they are derived from abjads, and the consonants make up the symbols with the inherent vowel and the new vowel symbols are markings added on to the base symbol.

In the Ge'ez script, for which the linguistic term abugida was named, the vowel modifications do not always appear systematic, although they originally were more so. Canadian Aboriginal syllabics can be considered abugidas, although they are rarely thought of in those terms. The largest single group of abugidas is the of scripts, however, which includes nearly all the scripts used in and .

The name abugida is derived from the first four characters of an order of the Ge'ez script used in some contexts. It was borrowed from Ethiopian languages as a linguistic term by Peter T. Daniels.

Featural systems
A featural script represents finer detail than an alphabet. Here symbols do not represent whole phonemes, but rather the elements (features) that make up the phonemes, such as voicing or its place of articulation. Theoretically, each feature could be written with a separate letter; and abjads or abugidas, or indeed syllabaries, could be featural, but the only prominent system of this sort is . In hangul, the featural symbols are combined into alphabetic letters, and these letters are in turn joined into syllabic blocks, so that the system combines three levels of phonological representation.

Many scholars, e.g. , reject this class or at least labeling hangul as such. The Korean script is a conscious script creation by literate experts, which Daniels calls a "sophisticated ". These include and constructed scripts of hobbyists and fiction writers (such as ), many of which feature advanced graphic designs corresponding to phonologic properties. The basic unit of writing in these systems can map to anything from phonemes to words. It has been shown that even the Latin script has sub-character "features".See .

Ambiguous systems
Most writing systems are not purely one type. The English writing system, for example, includes numerals and other logograms such as #, $, and &, and the written language often does not match well with the spoken one. As mentioned above, all logographic systems have phonetic components as well, whether along the lines of a syllabary, such as Chinese ("logo-syllabic"), or an abjad, as in Egyptian ("logo-consonantal").

Some scripts, however, are truly ambiguous. The of ancient Spain were syllabic for plosives such as p, t, k, but alphabetic for other consonants. In some versions, vowels were written redundantly after syllabic letters, conforming to an alphabetic orthography. Old Persian cuneiform was similar. Of 23 consonants (including null), seven were fully syllabic, thirteen were purely alphabetic, and for the other three, there was one letter for /C u/ and another for both /C a/ and /C i/. However, all vowels were written overtly regardless; as in the Brahmic abugidas, the /C a/ letter was used for a bare consonant.

The phonetic glossing script for Chinese divides syllables in two or three, but into , , and rather than consonant and vowel. is similar, but can be considered to divide syllables into either onset-rime or consonant-vowel (all consonant clusters and diphthongs are written with single letters); as the latter, it is equivalent to an abugida but with the roles of consonant and vowel reversed. Other scripts are intermediate between the categories of alphabet, abjad and abugida, so there may be disagreement on how they should be classified.

Graphic classification
Perhaps the primary graphic distinction made in classifications is that of linearity. Linear writing systems are those in which the characters are composed of lines, such as the and Chinese characters. Chinese characters are considered linear whether they are written with a ball-point pen or a calligraphic brush, or cast in bronze. Similarly, Egyptian hieroglyphs and were often painted in linear outline form, but in formal contexts they were carved in . The earliest examples of writing are linear: the of c. 3300 BC was linear, though its descendants were not. Non-linear systems, on the other hand, such as , are not composed of lines, no matter what instrument is used to write them.

Cuneiform was probably the earliest non-linear writing. Its glyphs were formed by pressing the end of a reed stylus into moist clay, not by tracing lines in the clay with the stylus as had been done previously. The result was a radical transformation of the appearance of the script.

Braille is a non-linear adaptation of the Latin alphabet that completely abandoned the Latin forms. The letters are composed of raised bumps on the writing substrate, which can be leather ('s original material), stiff paper, plastic or metal.

There are also transient non-linear adaptations of the Latin alphabet, including , the of various , and semaphore, in which or are positioned at prescribed angles. However, if "writing" is defined as a potentially permanent means of recording information, then these systems do not qualify as writing at all, since the symbols disappear as soon as they are used. (Instead, these transient systems serve as signals.)

Scripts are also graphically characterized by the direction in which they are written. Egyptian hieroglyphs were written either left to right or right to left, with the animal and human glyphs turned to face the beginning of the line. The early alphabet could be written in multiple directions:
(1980). 9783110073447, W. de Gruyter.
horizontally (side to side), or vertically (up or down). Prior to standardization, alphabetical writing was done both left-to-right (LTR or sinistrodextrally) and right-to-left (RTL or dextrosinistrally). It was most commonly written : starting in one (horizontal) direction, then turning at the end of the line and reversing direction.

The and its successors settled on a left-to-right pattern, from the top to the bottom of the page. Other scripts, such as and , came to be written right-to-left. Scripts that incorporate Chinese characters have traditionally been written vertically (top-to-bottom), from the right to the left of the page, but nowadays are frequently written left-to-right, top-to-bottom, due to influence, a growing need to accommodate terms in the , and technical limitations in popular electronic document formats. Chinese characters sometimes, as in signage, especially when signifying something old or traditional, may also be written from right to left. The Old Uyghur alphabet and its descendants are unique in being written top-to-bottom, left-to-right; this direction originated from an ancestral Semitic direction by rotating the page 90° counter-clockwise to conform to the appearance of vertical Chinese writing. Several scripts used in the Philippines and , such as Hanunó'o, are traditionally written with lines moving away from the writer, from bottom to top, but are read horizontally left to right. While is written bottom to top and read vertically, commonly on the corner of a stone.

The direction of writing in the Semitic languages evolved throughout the years. Different findings show that in some past periods the language was written from time to time from left to right and sometimes also one line left next line right and over again. This decision of writing from right to left is related in the physical way of writing the letters: in the ancient times, the writings were done on stone, thing that needed work with tools. since most people are right handed, it was more comfortable to "work" from right to left. when the writing developed into use of color on paper, which does not need physical power, the European systems that were developing also in that times, preferred to write from left to right and so to avoid "smearing" of the color and that in writing from left to right there is no hiding of the written sentence to the writer. That's the reason why most of the later script systems (Greek and its derivatives- and ) were written from left to right, while the Semitic scripts just preserved the writing from right to left.

On computers
In computers and telecommunication systems, writing systems are generally not codified as such, but graphemes and other grapheme-like units that are required for text processing are represented by "characters" that typically manifest in encoded form. There are many , such as ISO/IEC 8859-1 (a character repertoire and encoding scheme oriented toward the Latin script), (Chinese, Japanese, Korean) and bi-directional text. Today, many such standards are re-defined in a collective standard, the ISO/IEC 10646 "Universal Character Set", and a parallel, closely related expanded work, The Unicode Standard. Both are generally encompassed by the term . In Unicode, each character, in every language's writing system, is (simplifying slightly) given a unique identification number, known as its code point. Computer use code points to look up characters in the file, so the characters can be displayed on the page or screen.

A keyboard is the device most commonly used for writing via computer. Each key is associated with a standard code which the keyboard sends to the computer when it is pressed. By using a combination of alphabetic keys with such as , , and , various character codes are generated and sent to the . The intercepts and converts those signals to the appropriate characters based on the and input method, and then delivers those converted codes and characters to the running application software, which in turn looks up the appropriate in the currently used font file, and requests the operating system to draw these on the .

See also

  • Cisse, Mamadou. 2006. "Ecrits et écritures en Afrique de l'Ouest". Sudlangues n°6,
  • Coulmas, Florian. 1996. The Blackwell encyclopedia of writing systems. Oxford: Blackwell.
  • Coulmas, Florian. 2003. Writing systems. An introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Daniels, Peter T, and , eds. 1996. The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. .
  • DeFrancis, John. 1990. The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
  • (2018). 9783406479984, C. H. Beck.
  • Hannas, William. C. 1997. Asia's Orthographic Dilemma. University of Hawaii Press. (paperback); (hardcover)
  • . 2010. The Mathematics of Direction in Writing. International Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics, Vol.61, No.3, 347-356.
  • Rogers, Henry. 2005. Writing Systems: A Linguistic Approach. Oxford: Blackwell. (hardcover); (paperback)
  • Sampson, Geoffrey. 1985. Writing Systems. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. (paper), (cloth).
  • Smalley, W. A. (ed.) 1964. Orthography studies: articles on new writing systems. London: United Bible Society.

External links

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AnsweredAssumed Answered

If-Else map munction for blank/missing data not working

Question asked by arobinson on Apr 14, 2017
Latest reply on May 7, 2017 by Adam Arrowsmith

I'm experiencing an issue with a map function not firing when there is no input from a mapped field or if the field isn't present in the map data.

Based on the knowledge center doc How to Create a Generic If-Else Value Comparison Map Function by Adam Arrowsmith, it states the following:

"All function inputs are optional. If nothing is mapped to an input or the value passed in is blank, null, or not present in the source data, it will be treated as an empty string ("")."

However there's a slightly older doc, Map functions are not executed. , that states:

"Map functions are not executed if one or more inputs are blank strings, empty strings or null values. The inputs will be ignored and the function or functions skipped and not executed."

The issues is with the "No TRNU use PRO" function.

The document property that is retrieved is a header-level value that should be sent in the event that the "TRNU" value is blank or missing. I had considered using a document property for "TRNU", however that value can change throughout the file if it exists, and each occurrence needs to be mapped.

Since the map function wasn't executing and based on the doc regarding that, I set a default value ('N/A') for the map function input and accounted for that in scripting, expecting that it would execute with that data, however the function still refuses to execute until the map to the "TRNU" input is removed.

I can probably setup another route and maps based on the existence of the values, but I would like to get this to work if anyone has any thoughts


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