{"content": "A steep cliff, jutting to unparalleled heights, blocks the sun from our cold limbs. It is barren, unscalable, unyielding stone. Our rocky valley is unreached by far off places.\n\nI often contemplate the meaning of our existance here, my family and me. Why do we choose to live in this desolate valley, scratching out our living in the cold stony earth?\n\nWe have lived here for centuries, creating our little life where there should be none, and with each successive generation our history is passed on, to our children and our children's children in a never-ending cycle.\n\nMy grandmother is the storyteller of our tiny stone hut village. Tonight, she will gather all of us together around the fire and look at us with her leathery, wrinkled face, smiling on us all. Her hair will be as it has always been, white, sticking out in all directions as though a gust of wind had swirled around her, causing it to tangle.\n\nAround her weak frame will be wrapped the shawl of the of the storyteller, which has been passed down through the centuries, each storyteller leaving their mark and passing it on to the next, deep into the obscurity of time.\n\nWith her, she will carry the storyteller's staff, carved with animals, faces, scenes, all from stories that have been passed down through many generations. Each storyteller, when they inherit the staff, carves their own story into it for coming generations to see. One day I will inherit that staff, and in my spare thoughts, I wonder how my story will read.\n\nI sit on the hill, overlooking the whole valley, watching the other children play, all much younger than me, nephews, neices, cousins... my sister's children and those of my aunts and uncles.\n\nI am the youngest of my generation, sixteen summers, almost a woman. This winter, I will marry my cousin, Tehrumaron, who is five years older than me. He is handsome, I suppose, but I feel a strange restlessness toward the idea. At the end of the year, I will cease having the freedom of childhood. As wife, I have to put away childish dreams and take on the responsibilities of womanhood. I will do everything that has been expected of me since birth.\n\nIs that all I am made for? I ask myself, to be a wife and mother? To never travel beyond the valley? Is this the only life I'll ever know?", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8958420753479004}
{"content": "You are here\n\nScuds: mobile missiles that sow terror\n\nBy AFP - Dec 13,2012 - Last updated at Dec 13,2012\n\nWASHINGTON — The mobile, medium-range Scud missile, which US officials say Syria’s embattled regime has fired on rebels, is a fearful, indiscriminate weapon with a bloody history in the region.\n\nThe Soviet-designed missiles can carry a warhead of up to 1,000 kilogrammes but, owing to their relative inaccuracy, have more often been used to sow terror in cities than to scatter armies in the field.\n\nThe missiles can be equipped with conventional, chemical or nuclear warheads and their arrival on the battlefield will increase fears that Bashar Assad’s increasingly beleaguered regime could turn to desperate measures.\n\nIraqi leader Saddam Hussein famously lobbed dozens of the relatively unsophisticated Scuds at Israel and Saudi Arabia during the 1990-91 Gulf War as US-led troops expelled his forces from Kuwait, but he caused few casualties.\n\nAllied aircraft — along with US and British special forces on the ground — struggled to take out Saddam’s mobile Scuds, which were hidden in gullies and culverts and quickly shifted out of sight after night launches.\n\nThe Scud missile was originally developed by the Soviet Union in the 1950s with help from captured German scientists, and was based on the Nazi V-2 rocket fired on London during World War II, according to Jane’s Defence Review.\n\nOther countries, including North Korea, Egypt, Iran, Iraq and Syria are believed to have developed their own versions of the ballistic missile — which can be transported by and fired from trucks — after the end of the Cold War.\n\nThe rockets were first used in combat during the 1973 Arab-Israeli war, and during the Iran-Iraq war in the 1980s both sides rained Scud missiles down on civilian targets in the so-called “War of the Cities”.\n\nSmaller numbers were used during wars in Afghanistan, Yemen and Chechnya in the 1990s, and Libyan strongman Muammar Qadhafi’s forces fired at least two Scud missiles last year during the NATO-backed rebellion that overthrew him.\n\nScud-type missiles are usually about 11 metres long and have a range of roughly 300 kilometres, though some versions can strike beyond 500 kilometres. However, they lack the accuracy of so-called smart bombs.\n\nNorth Korea is believed to have developed more modern versions of the Soviet Scud missile and to have exported hundreds of the so-called Scud-C and Scud-D rockets to the Middle East and Africa.\n\nSyria is believed to possess the so-called Scud-D or Hwasong-7, the latest North Korean model, which carries a smaller payload of 500 kilogrammes but can travel farther, up to 800 kilometres, according to Jane’s.\n\nThe Scuds would be of little use troops battling rebels in the streets of major cities like Damascus or Aleppo, but could be used to target military bases seized by rebels or to sow panic in towns or neighbourhoods.\n\n4 users have voted.\n\n\n\nSaturday 28 November 2015\n\n\nGet top stories and blog posts emailed to you each day.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9366296529769897}
{"content": "The ground realities should not be ignored\n\nBy : Business Standard\n\nWill rich farmers, a class which never even pays income tax, be brought under the ambit of the inheritance tax?\n\nWith the fiscal deficit rising, the government is under pressure to moblise revenue. The recent telecom spectrum auction has not fetched the government enough revenue. Tax collection as a percentage of the GDP is low and our finance minister is adept in identifying new avenues to improve collection. In 2005, during his earlier tenure, he introduced the fringe benefit tax. Now, he could be looking at inheritance tax.\n\nThe Indian economy has been growing with a 32 per cent saving rate and the number of rich people is also increasing. The prices of real estate and gold have increased manifold in the recent past. These are good factors for the FM to explore the tax levy.\n\nIt is a tax levied on the wealth passed on to legal heirs upon the death of their parent. Many developed countries such as the US, the UK, Spain, Belgium, the Netherlands, Finland and Germany levy this tax. The primary objective is redistribution of wealth.\n\nThe government collects this tax upon the death of the individual and spends it for the welfare of the public. In other countries, there are threshold limits for it, beyond which it is levied at progressive rates. The rate is low when the wealth passes on to close relatives such as spouse, children, etc, and will go up when it goes to other relatives (uncles, aunties, nephews, etc), and the rate will be even more if the wealth passes to other legal heirs. Some countries also have a gift tax. In other words, whether you transfer assets during your lifetime or after death, there is a tax on the transfer. Further, some of these countries also have wealth tax and/or estate duty.\n\nIn India, there used to be an estate duty levy, abolished in the mid-1980s. Currently, we have wealth tax, which is levied at the rate of one per cent on net wealth exceeding Rs 30 lakh. But collection from such a tax is not that great. There also used to be a gift tax in India, which was abolished in the late 1990s. However, lately, certain gifts from strangers have been made taxable in the hands of the recipient. Gifts from close relatives still continue to be tax-exempt.\n\nSeveral factors need to be considered before introducing inheritance tax in India. One, there is a huge gap between the rich and the poor. The middle class segment is growing at a faster pace. Developed countries impose this tax at a high rate, but they have a smaller population base and strong social security systems. But in India, there is no strong social security system and this growing working class would easily get hurt if they are not properly protected.\n\nIn India, farmers, including the rich ones, do not pay any income tax on their agricultural income. Will rich farmers, a class which never even paid income tax, be brought under the ambit of this tax? These realities cannot be ignored by the finance minister.\n\nCertain Budget changes such as provisions relating to the General Anti Avoidance Rules and amendments with retrospective effect were not well received by the business community and they have dampened the market sentiment. This forced the government to review those changes before implementation, in order to improve the general business confidence and environment. Therefore, it would be a good idea if the government brings out a discussion paper on this tax to seek public opinion. China brought out rules for it in 2002, but it has not levied an inheritance tax so far. Countries such as Australia, Brazil and Russia do not have the tax. If Chidambaram decides to go for the tax, the ground realities, as discussed above, should not be ignored.\n\nThe government has already proposed a simplified tax regime such as a direct taxes code and a goods and services tax. This should also be kept in mind before bringing in the levy.\n\nKuldip Kumar\nED, Tax & Regulatory Services, PwC India\n\n(Views expressed are personal)\n\nMore from Sify:", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9308919906616211}
{"content": "Show Mobile Navigation\nWeird Stuff\n\n10 Notable People Thought To Be Immortal\n\nTheodoros II\n\n\nCommon sense tells us that everything dies. But rather than face that dark truth, humankind continues to believe in alternative sources of infinite life and these ten stories are no exception to this rule.\n\n\nThe Three Nephites\n\n3 Nephites\n\nThe stories of the Three Nephites comprise one of the most striking religious legends in the United States. Bearing some resemblance to stories of the prophet Elijah in Jewish lore, or of the Christian saints in the Catholic tradition, the Three Nephite accounts are nevertheless distinctly Mormon. The members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, known as Mormons, believe that Jesus Christ visited America after his resurrection and chose 12 apostles from among an ancient group of people there called the Nephites to help spread his Gospel message in the new world. Three of those apostles asked Jesus to change them from human beings into angels and let them remain on Earth until the end of the world so they could help people in need wherever they traveled on the planet, according to the Book of Mormon. Those three translated beings (people who have become angels) are known as the Three Nephites, and stories about their appearances have become a popular part of Mormon lore.\n\n\n\n32 Eos And Memnon1350537451133\n\nIn Greek mythology, Memnon was an Ethiopian king (probably the most popular figure of African heritage in Greek mythology) and son of Tithonus and Eos. During his life he was thought to be an immortal, while as a warrior he was considered to be inferior only to Achilles. At the Trojan War, he brought an army to Troy’s defense but he was killed by Achilles in retribution for killing Antilochus. The death of Memnon echoes that of Hector, another defender of Troy whom Achilles also killed out of revenge for a fallen comrade, Patroclus. Memnon’s death is related at length in the lost epic Aethiopis, composed after The Iliad around the 7th century B.C. Quintus of Smyrna records Memnon’s death in Posthomerica. His death is also described in Philostratus’ Imagines. Memnon’s story might not be very popular, but it’s definitely one of the most intense to read if the chance is given.\n\n\nLeonard Jones\n\n768464740 163296116F O\n\nLeonard Jones wasn’t an immortal of course and he knew it very well. He was not a very successful politician either, but like most politicians he had the power of convincing others. No matter how unbelievable it might sound to us now, the fact is that he ran his political campaign on the platform of his immortality, and what’s even more odd is that he convinced a lot of people who subsequently voted for him.\n\nThe eccentric American who was born in Kentucky in 1797, repeatedly ran for President of the United States and Governor of Kentucky, citing his self-proclaimed immortality as his main political argument. According to Mr. Jones immortality could be achieved through prayer and fasting. He obviously didn’t do enough of these two, because he died from Pneumonia on August 30, 1868 at the young age (for an immortal) of 71.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nAchilles Artclon.Com Coypel Charles-Antoine-Zzz-Fury Of Achilles\n\nMany historians today would agree that Achilles existed and Homer just exaggerated his warrior-skills and accomplishments. Most scholars nowadays believe that Troy itself was no imaginary Shangri-la but a real city, and that the Trojan War indeed happened. Archaeologists who have been digging into the myth of Homer’s poem, believe the legendary war may have been a process rather than a single event and most (if not all) figures mentioned by Homer, indeed existed.\n\nBack to our topic, according to the myths, Achilles was dipped into the river Styx as a baby by his mother to gain impenetrable skin against any weapons, so he was practically invincible . . . Until the moment that Paris decided to poison his heel, which his mother held onto him by. It is generally believed that Achilles was shot in the heel with an arrow and the tendon of the heel has become known as Achilles Tendon and the term Achilles’ Heel has become a metaphor for vulnerability of any sort, after the story of the great epic warrior.\n\n\nNicolas Flamel\n\n\nIf you’re into mysteries, magic and adventures, then you should definitely check out the story of Nicolas and Perenelle Flamel. In Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone, Nicholas Flamel is featured as the creator of the “Philosopher’s Stone.” Because this stone allows its owner to live forever, it must be protected from falling into the hands of the evil Lord Voldemort.\n\nAlthough Harry Potter is fictional, Frenchman Nicolas Flamel lived during the late 14th and early 15th centuries. A scholar and scribe, Flamel devoted his life to understanding the text of a mysterious book filled with encoded alchemical symbols that some believed held the secrets of the Philosopher’s Stone. Many myths surround Flamel, including the belief that he successfully created the Stone. His death in 1417 didn’t hurt that myth, and his quest for the Philosopher’s Stone lives on in his writings. Although modern scholarship has cast doubt on the authenticity of alchemical texts ascribed to him, he remains an important figure in the alchemical world.\n\n\nWandering Jew\n\nApr22 Wand Jew2-724447\n\n\n\nCount of St. Germain\n\nCount Of St Germain1\n\nEnigmatic and attractive, the young count’s skin seemed not to have experienced the passage of time. He used to move from one place to another every moment, taking with him the great secret of his personality, as captivating as it was mysterious. Myths, legends and speculations about St. Germain began to be widespread in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and continue today. They include beliefs that he is immortal, the Wandering Jew, an alchemist with the “Elixir of Life”, and that he prophesied the French Revolution. The Count of St. Germain has been variously described as a courtier, adventurer, charlatan, inventor, alchemist, pianist, violinist and amateur composer, but his story remains one of the biggest mysteries to this day.\n\nAfter a charmed life of meeting leaders and dignitaries from around the globe, in 1779 the mysterious count arrived in Eckenförde, Germany, where—according to some official records—he passed away in his residence there in the year 1784; however, there is no tombstone in that town bearing his name. Almost 200 years after his death, Richard Chanfray, a French magician and singer claimed to be the Count of St. Germain, but unfortunately he died too.\n\n\n\nAnnibale Carracci - The Choice Of Heracles - Wga4416\n\n\n\n\nQin Shi Huang\n\nThe Mystery Of Qin Shi Huangdi’s Mausoleum 4\n\nQin Shi Huang, the founder of the Qin dynasty, is until this day best remembered as the person who gave China a face. His marvelous construction of the Great Wall and the famous Terra cotta Army are both known to everyone in the world. He was one of the most significant Chinese emperors, shaping the country’s history and culture. The people around him, heavily influenced by his great accomplishments started to believe that he was immortal and he tried to make it come true.\n\nAccording to legend, in his search for eternal life, Qin Shihuang sent one of his servants to find the secret of immortality. The servant, Xu Fudong set sail eastward with thousands of young boys and girls. They never returned to China, perhaps because they feared punishment for failing the mission. Legend says that they found and populated the island we now know as Japan. Qin Shihuang died at the age of 50 in 210 B.C. He died of a quick and lethal disease and proved to his dedicated followers that he was as mortal as every other human being.\n\n\nTheodoros II\n\n\nRead More: Yahoo Answers Flickr", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.6112534999847412}
{"content": "Psychology Wiki\n\nNeural development\n\n34,141pages on\nthis wiki\n\nRedirected from Developmental neuroscience\n\n\n\nNeural development comprises the processes that generate, shape, and reshape the nervous system, from the earliest stages of embryogenesis to the final years of life. The study of neural development aims to describe the cellular basis of brain development and to address the underlying mechanisms. The field draws on both neuroscience and developmental biology to provide insight into the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which complex nervous systems develop. Defects in neural development can lead to cognitive, motor, and intellectual disability, as well as neurological disorders such as autism, Rett syndrome, and mental retardation.\n\nOverview of brain developmentEdit\n\nThe brain emerges during embryonic development from the neural tube, an early embryonic structure. The most anterior part of the neural tube is called the telencephalon, which expands rapidly due to cell proliferation, and eventually gives rise to the brain. Gradually some of the cells stop dividing and differentiate into neurons and glial cells, which are the main cellular components of the brain. The newly generated neurons migrate to different parts of the developing brain to self-organize into different brain structures. Once the neurons have reached their regional positions, they extend axons and dendrites, which allow them to communicate with other neurons via synapses. Synaptic communication between neurons leads to the establishment of functional neural circuits that mediate sensory and motor procesing, and underlie behavior.\n\nDevelopment of nervous system\n\nHighly schematic flowchart of human brain development.\n\nAspects of neural developmentEdit\n\n\n\n\nNeural inductionEdit\n\nDuring early embyonic development the ectoderm becomes specified to give rise to the epidermis (skin) and the neural plate. The conversion of undifferentiated ectoderm to neuro-ectoderm requires signals from the mesoderm. At the onset of gastrulation presumptive mesodermal cells move through the dorsal blastopore lip and form a layer in between the endoderm and the ectoderm. These mesodermal cells that migrate along the dorsal midline give rise to a structure called the notochord. Ectodermal cells overlying the notochord develop into the neural plate in response to a signal to a diffusible signal produced by the notochord. The remainder of the ectoderm gives rise to the epidermis (skin). The ability of the mesoderm to convert the overlying ectoderm into neural tissue is called Neural Induction.\n\nThe neural plate folds outwards during the third week of gestation to form the neural groove. Beginning in the future neck region, the neural folds of this groove close to create the neural tube. The formation of the neural tube from the ectoderm is called Neurulation. The anterior (front) part of the neural tube is called the basal plate; the posterior (rear) part is called the alar plate. The hollow interior is called the neural canal. By the end of the fourth week of gestation, the open ends of the neural tube (the neuropores) close off.[1]\n\nIdentification of neural inducers\n\nA transplanted blastopore lip can convert ectoderm into neural tissue and is said to have an inductive effect. Neural Inducers are molecules that can induce the expression of neural genes in ectoderm explants without inducing mesodermal genes as well. Neural induction is often studied in Xenopus embryos since they have a simple body pattern and there are good markers to distinguish between neural and non-neural tissue. Examples of Neural Inducers are the molecules Noggin and Chordin.\n\nWhen embryonic ectodermal cells are cultured at low density in the absence of mesodermal cells) they undergo neural differentiation (express neural genes), suggesting that neural differentiation is the default fate of ectodermal cells. In explant cultures (which allow direct cell-cell interactions) the same cells differentiate into epidermis. This is due to the action of BMP4 (a TGF-β family protein) that induces ectodermal cultures to differentiate into epidermis. During neural induction, Noggin and Chordin are produced by the dorsal mesoderm (notochord) and diffuse into the overlying ectoderm to inhibit the activity of BMP4. This inhibition of BMP4 causes the cells to differentiate into neural cells.\n\n\nLate in the fourth week, the superior part of the neural tube flexes at the level of the future midbrain—the mesencephalon. Above the mesencephalon is the prosencephalon (future forebrain) and beneath it is the rhombencephalon (future hindbrain).\n\nThe optical vesicle (which will eventually become the optic nerve, retina and iris) forms at the basal plate of the prosencephalon. The alar plate of the prosencephalon expands to form the cerebral hemispheres (the telencephalon) whilst its basal plate becomes the diencephalon. Finally, the optic vesicle grows to form an optic outgrowth.\n\nPatterning of the nervous systemEdit\n\n\nDorsoventral axis [2]\n\nThe ventral half of the neural plate is controlled by the notochord, which acts as the 'organiser'. The dorsal half is controlled by the ectoderm plate which flanks the neural plate on either side.\n\nEctoderm follows a default pathway to become neural tissue. Evidence for this comes from single, cultured cells of ectoderm which go on to form neural tissue. This is postulated to be because of a lack of BMPs, which are blocked by the organiser. The organiser may produce molecules such as follistatin, noggin and chordin which inhibit BMPs.\n\nThe ventral neural tube is patterned by Shh from the notochord, which acts as the inducing tissue. The Shh inducer causes differentiation of the floor plate. Shh-null tissue fails to generate all cell types in the ventral tube, suggesting Shh is necessary for its induction. The hypothesised mechanism suggests that Shh binds patched, relieving patched inhibition of smoothend, leading to activation of gli transcription factors.\n\nIn this context Shh acts as a morphogen - it induces cell differentiation dependent on its concentration. At low concentrations it forms ventral interneurones, at higher concentrations it induced motor neurone development, and at highest concentrations it induces floor plate differentiation. Failure of Shh-modulated differentiation causes haloprosencephaly.\n\nThe dorsal neural tube is patterned by BMPs from the epidermal ectoderm flanking the neural plate. These induce sensory interneurones by activating Sr/Thr kinases and altering SMAD transcription factor levels.\n\nRostrocaudal axis\n\nDorsoventral induction of ventral tissue expresses characteristic forebran tissue. Other signals manipulate posterior tissues differentiation, including FGF and retinoic acid.\n\nThe hindbrain, for example, is patterned by Hox genes, which are expressed in overlapping domains along the anteroposterior axis. The 5' genes in this cluster and expressed most posteriorly. Hoxb-1 is expressed in rhombomere 4 and gives rise to the facial nerve. Without this Hoxb-1 expression, a nerve which is similar to the trigeminal nerve arises.\n\nNeuronal migrationEdit\n\nMain article: Neuronal migration\nFile:Corticogenesis in a wild-type mouse.gif\n\n\nFile:Interneuron-radial glial interactions in the developing cerebral cortex.png\n\nRadial migration Neuronal precursor cells proliferate in the ventricular zone of the developing neocortex. The first postmitotic cells to migrate form the preplate which are destined to become Cajal-Retzius cells and subplate neurons. These cells do so by somal translocation. Neurons migrating with this mode of locomotion are bipolar and attachs the leading edge of the process to the pia. The soma is then transported to the pial surface by nucleokinesis, a process by which a microtubule \"cage\" around the nucleus elongates and contracts in association with the centrosome to guide the nucleus to its final destination.[4] Radial glia, whose fibers serve as a scaffolding for migrating cells, can itself divide[5] or translocate to the cortical plate and differentiate either into astrocytes or neurons.[6] Somal translocation can occur at any time during development.[3]\n\nSubsequent waves of neurons split the preplate by migrating along radial glial fibres to form the cortical plate. Each wave of migrating cells travel past their predecessors forming layers in an inside-out manner, meaning that the youngest neurons are the closest to the surface.[7][8] It is estimated that glial guided migration represents 90% of migrating neurons in human and about 75% in rodents.[9]\n\n\nOthers modes of migration There is also a method of neuronal migration called multipolar migration.[10][11] This is seen in multipolar cells, which are abundantly present in the cortical intermediate zone. They do not resemble the cells migrating by locomotion or somal translocation. Instead these multipolar cells express neuronal markers and extend multiple thin processes in various directions independently of the radial glial fibers.[10]\n\nNeurotrophic factorsEdit\n\n\n\n\n\nSynapse formationEdit\n\n\nIn the mature synapse each muscle fiber is innervated by one motor neuron. However, during development many of the fibers are innervated by multiple axons. Lichtman and colleagues have studied the process of synapses elimination. This is an activity-dependent event. Partial blockage of the receptor leads to retraction of corresponding presynaptic terminals.\n\n\n\nNeuroligins and SynCAM as synaptogenic signals: Sudhof, Serafini, Scheiffele and colleagues have shown that neuroligins and SynCAM can act as factors that will induce presynaptic differentiation. Neuroligins are concentrated at the postsynaptic site and act via neurexins concentrated in the presynaptic axons. SynCAM is a cell adhesion molecule that is present in both pre- and post-synaptic membranes.\n\nSynapse eliminationEdit\n\nSeveral motorneurones compete for each neuromuscular junction, but only one survives till adulthood. Competition in vitro has been shown to involve a limited neurotrophic substance that is released, or that neural activity infers advantage to strong post-synaptic connections by giving resistance to a toxin also released upon nerve stimulation. In vivo it is suggested that muscle fibres select the strongest neuron through a retrograde signal.\n\nSee alsoEdit\n\n\n  1. Estomih Mtui; Gregory Gruener (2006). Clinical Neuroanatomy and Neuroscience, 1, Philadelphia: Saunders.\n  2. Jessell, Thomas M.; Kandel, Eric R.; Schwartz, James H. (2000). \"Chapter 55\" Principles of neural science, 4th, New York: McGraw-Hill.\n\nExternal linksEdit\n\n\nAround Wikia's network\n\nRandom Wiki", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5030354857444763}
{"content": "Written by Steven S. Zumdahl\n\n\nArticle Free Pass\nWritten by Steven S. Zumdahl\n\noxide, any of a large and important class of chemical compounds in which oxygen is combined with another element. With the exception of the lighter inert gases (helium [He], neon [Ne], argon [Ar], and krypton [Kr]), oxygen (O) forms at least one binary oxide with each of the elements.\n\nBoth metals and nonmetals can attain their highest oxidation states (i.e., donate their maximum number of available valence electrons) in compounds with oxygen. The alkali metals and the alkaline earth metals, as well as the transition metals and the posttransition metals (in their lower oxidation states), form ionic oxides—i.e., compounds that contain the O2− anion. Metals with high oxidation states form oxides whose bonds have a more covalent nature. Nonmetals also form covalent oxides, which are usually molecular in character. A smooth variation from ionic to covalent in the type of bonding in oxides is observed as the periodic table is traversed from the metals on the left to the nonmetals on the right. This same variation is observed in the reaction of oxides with water and the resulting acid-base character of the products. Ionic metal oxides react with water to give hydroxides (compounds containing the OH ion) and resultant basic solutions, whereas most nonmetal oxides react with water to form acids and resultant acidic solutions (see the table).\n\nPeriodic variation of the properties of oxides of the elements of the third period\ngroup 1 group 2 group 13 group 14 group 15 group 16 group 17\nreaction of oxides with water and the acid-base character of hydroxides Na2O gives NaOH (strong base) MgO gives\nMg(OH)2 (weak base)\nAl2O3 nonreacting SiO2 nonreacting P4O10 gives H3PO4 (weak acid) SO3 gives H2SO4 (strong acid) Cl2O7 gives HClO4 (strong acid)\nbonding in oxides Na2O ionic MgO ionic Al2O3\nSiO2 covalent P4O10 covalent SO3 covalent Cl2O7 covalent\nSource: From W. Robinson, J. Odom, and H. Holtzclaw, Jr., Chemistry: Concepts and Models, D.C. Heath and Co., 1992.\n\nCertain organic compounds react with oxygen or other oxidizing agents to produce substances called oxides. Thus, amines, phosphines, and sulfides form amine oxides, phosphine oxides, and sulfoxides, respectively, in which the oxygen atom is covalently bonded to the nitrogen, phosphorus, or sulfur atom. The so-called olefin oxides are cyclic ethers.\n\nMetal oxides\n\nMetal oxides are crystalline solids that contain a metal cation and an oxide anion. They typically react with water to form bases or with acids to form salts.\n\nThe alkali metals and alkaline earth metals form three different types of binary oxygen compounds: (1) oxides, containing oxide ions, O2−, (2) peroxides, containing peroxide ions, O22−, which contain oxygen-oxygen covalent single bonds, and (3) superoxides, containing superoxide ions, O2, which also have oxygen-oxygen covalent bonds but with one fewer negative charge than peroxide ions. Alkali metals (which have a +1 oxidation state) form oxides, M2O, peroxides, M2O2, and superoxides, MO2. (M represents a metal atom.) The alkaline earth metals (with a +2 oxidation state) form only oxides, MO, and peroxides, MO2. All the alkali metal oxides can be prepared by heating the corresponding metal nitrate with the elemental metal.2MNO3 + 10M + heat → 6M2O + N2 A general preparation of the alkaline earth oxides involves heating the metal carbonates.MCO3 + heat → MO + CO2 Both alkali metal oxides and alkaline earth metal oxides are ionic and react with water to form basic solutions of the metal hydroxide.M2O + H2O → 2MOH (where M = group 1 metal)MO + H2O → M(OH)2 (where M = group 2 metal) Thus, these compounds are often called basic oxides. In accord with their basic behaviour, they react with acids in typical acid-base reactions to produce salts and water; for example,M2O + 2HCl → 2MCl + H2O (where M = group 1 metal). These reactions are also often called neutralization reactions. The most important basic oxides are magnesium oxide (MgO), a good thermal conductor and electrical insulator that is used in firebrick and thermal insulation, and calcium oxide (CaO), also called quicklime or lime, used extensively in the steel industry and in water purification.\n\nPeriodic trends of the oxides have been thoroughly studied. In any given period, the bonding in oxides progresses from ionic to covalent, and their acid-base character goes from strongly basic through weakly basic, amphoteric, weakly acidic, and finally strongly acidic. In general, basicity increases down a group (e.g., in the alkaline earth oxides, BeO < MgO < CaO < SrO < BaO). Acidity increases with increasing oxidation number of the element. For example, of the five oxides of manganese, MnO (in which manganese has an oxidation state of +2) is the least acidic and Mn2O7 (which contains Mn7+) the most acidic. Oxides of the transition metals with oxidation numbers of +1, +2, and +3 are ionic compounds consisting of metal ions and oxide ions. Those transition metal oxides with oxidation numbers +4, +5, +6, and +7 behave as covalent compounds containing covalent metal-oxygen bonds. As a general rule, the ionic transition metal oxides are basic. That is, they will react with aqueous acids to form solutions of salts and water; for example,CoO + 2H3O+ → Co2+ + 3H2O. The oxides with oxidation numbers of +5, +6, and +7 are acidic and react with solutions of hydroxide to form salts and water; for example,CrO3 + 2OH- → CrO42− + H2O. Those oxides with +4 oxidation numbers are generally amphoteric (from Greek amphoteros, “in both ways”), meaning that these compounds can behave either as acids or as bases. Amphoteric oxides dissolve not only in acidic solutions but also in basic solutions. For example, vanadium oxide (VO2) is an amphoteric oxide, dissolving in acid to give the blue vanadyl ion, [VO]2+, and in base to yield the yellow-brown hypovanadate ion, [V4O9]2−. Amphoterism among the main group oxides is primarily found with the metalloidal elements or their close neighbours.\n\nWhat made you want to look up oxide?\n\nPlease select the sections you want to print\nSelect All\nMLA style:\n\"oxide\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.\nAPA style:\noxide. (2014). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/436674/oxide\nHarvard style:\nChicago Manual of Style:\nEncyclopædia Britannica Online, s. v. \"oxide\", accessed September 21, 2014, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/436674/oxide.\n\n\nWe welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles.\n(Please limit to 900 characters)\n\nOr click Continue to submit anonymously:", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7844372987747192}
{"content": "Exhibitions: Life, Death, and Transformation in the Americas\n\nLadle with Skull\n\nSkull imagery is usually associated with the Tánis (Hamatsa) ceremony practiced by the Heiltsuk and Kwakwawa’wakw people. Young males are initiated into the community during a four-part ritual in which they are symbolically transformed from flesh-eating cannibals, a state equated with death, into well-behaved members of society. The skull thus symbolizes the rebirth of initiates as they come back from the dead. Skull items such as this one are sometimes used during the final stages of the ceremony: ritual feeding of the skull possibly by special ceremonial spoons such as this precede a ceremonial meal for the initiates.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.999787449836731}
{"content": "Home FBI Records/FOIA Overview Privacy\n\nOverview Privacy\n\nDescription of the Privacy Act\n\nThe Privacy Act of 1974 (Title 5, U.S. Code, Section 552) establishes a code of fair information practices that governs the collection, maintenance, use, and dissemination of personally identifiable information about individuals. The purpose of the law is to balance the government’s need to maintain information about individuals with the rights of individuals to be protected against unwarranted invasions of their privacy from the collection and disclosure of these records by federal agencies. Unlike the Freedom of Information Act, the Privacy Act is not a disclosure Act.\n\nThe Privacy Act allows individuals—a citizen of the U.S. or an alien lawfully admitted to the U.S. for permanent residence—to request records that are retrievable by name and/or personal identifiers. It also allows individuals to use a representative to make a request on their behalf and/or to request records on the behalf of a minor child or someone who is mentally incompetent if they are that person’s legal guardian or are acting in their best interest.\n\nThe focus of the Act is on four basic policy objectives:\n\n  1. To restrict disclosures of personally identifiable records maintained by agencies;\n  2. To grant individuals increased rights of access to agency records maintained on themselves;\n  3. To grant individuals the right to see amendment of agency records maintained on themselves upon a showing that the records are not accurate, relevant, timely, or complete; and\n  4. To establish a code of “fair information practices” that requires agencies to comply with statutory norms for collection, maintenance, and dissemination of records.\n\nThe Act applies only to federal agencies in the executive branch of the federal government (including the Executive Office of the President) such as the Department of Justice (DOJ) and as part of the DOJ, the FBI. Generally, the Act does not apply to state and local governments or to private companies, unless such entities are involved in a computer matching program with the federal government or are under contract to maintain an agency-approved system of records for an agency. A system of records is a group of records in the agency’s control from which information is retrieved by a unique identifier—such as a name, date of birth, home address, Social Security number, or some other identifying number or symbol. Only U. S. citizens and aliens lawfully admitted for permanent residence may request access to, copies of, or correction of their personal information being maintained by the federal government that is not timely, accurate, relevant, or complete. The Privacy Act requires that agencies give the public notice of their systems of records by publication in the Federal Register.\n\nRecords kept on individuals that are not retrieved by a unique identifier are not subject to the Act. The Act provides that agencies may not maintain information on individuals about how they exercise their First Amendment rights, unless maintenance of that information is specifically authorized by statute or relates to a law enforcement activity.\n\nThe Act requires each agency to maintain only such information about an individual that is relevant and necessary to accomplish a purpose of the agency required to be accomplished by statute or by executive order of the President and to collect information to the greatest extent practicable directly from the individual.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8567819595336914}
{"content": "Ohio Resource Center\n\nOhio's Academic Content Standards in English Language Arts\n\nPhonemic Awareness, Word Recognition and Fluency Standard\n\nStudents in the primary grades learn to recognize and decode printed words, developing the skills that are the foundations for independent reading. They discover the alphabetic principle (sound-symbol match) and learn to use it in figuring out new words. They build a stock of sight words that helps them to read quickly and accurately with comprehension. By the end of the third grade, they demonstrate fluent oral reading, varying their intonation and timing as appropriate for the text.\n\nAcquisition of Vocabulary Standard\n\nStudents acquire vocabulary through exposure to language-rich situations, such as reading books and other texts and conversing with adults and peers. They use context clues, as well as direct explanations provided by others, to gain new words. They learn to apply word analysis skills to build and extend their own vocabulary. As students progress through the grades, they become more proficient in applying their knowledge of words (origins, parts, relationships, meanings) to acquire specialized vocabulary that aids comprehension.\n\nReading Process: Concepts of Print, Comprehension Strategies and Self-Monitoring Strategies Standard\n\nStudents develop and learn to apply strategies that help them to comprehend and interpret informational and literary texts. Reading and learning to read are problem-solving processes that require strategies for the reader to make sense of written language and remain engaged with texts. Beginners develop basic concepts about print (e.g., that print holds meaning) and how books work (e.g., text organization). As strategic readers, students learn to analyze and evalute texts to demonstrate their understanding of text. Additionally, students learn to self-monitor their own comprehension by asking and answering questions about the text, self-correcting errors and assessing their own understanding. They apply these strategies effectively to assigned and self-selected texts read in and out of the classroom.\n\nReading Applications: Informational, Technical and Persuasive Text Standard\n\nStudents gain information from reading for the purposes of learning about a subject, doing a job, making decisions and accomplishing a task. Students need to apply the reading process to various types of informational texts, including essays, magazines, newspapers, textbooks, instruction manuals, consumer and workplace documents, reference materials, multimedia and electronic resources. They learn to attend to text features, such as titles, subtitles and visual aids, to make predictions and build text knowledge. They learn to read diagrams, charts, graphs, maps and displays in text as sources of additional information. Students use their knowledge of text structure to organize content information, analyze it and draw inferences from it. Strategic readers learn to recognize arguments, bias, stereotyping and propaganda in informational text sources.\n\nReading Applications: Literary Text Standard\n\nStudents enhance their understanding of the human story by reading literary texts that represent a variety of authors, cultures and eras. They learn to apply the reading process to the various genres of literature, including fables, tales, short stories, novels, poetry and drama. They demonstrate their comprehension by describing and discussing the elements of literature (e.g., setting, character and plot), analyzing the author's use of language (e.g., word choice and figurative language), comparing and contrasting texts, inferring theme and meaning and responding to text in critical and creative ways. Strategic readers learn to explain, analyze and critique literary text to achieve deep understanding.\n\nWriting Process Standard\n\nStudents' writing develops when they regularly engage in the major phases of the writing process. The writing process includes the phases of prewriting, drafting, revising and editing and publishing. They learn to plan their writing for different purposes and audiences. They learn to apply their writing skills in increasingly sophisticated ways to create and produce compositions that reflect effective word and grammatical choices. Students develop revision strategies to improve the content, organization and language of their writing. Students also develop editing skills to improve writing conventions.\n\nWriting Applications Standard\n\nStudents need to understand that various types of writing require different language, formatting and special vocabulary. Writing serves many purposes across the curriculum and takes various forms. Beginning writers learn about the various purposes of writing; they attempt and use a small range of familiar forms (e.g., letters). Developing writers are able to select text forms to suit purpose and audience. They can explain why some text forms are more suited to a purpose than others and begin to use content-specific vocabulary to achieve their communication goals. Proficient writers control effectively the language and structural features of a large repertoire of text forms. They deliberately choose vocabulary to enhance text and structure their writing according to audience and purpose.\n\nWriting Conventions Standard\n\nStudents learn to master writing conventions through exposure to good models and opportunities for practice. Writing conventions include spelling, punctuation, grammar and other conventions associated with forms of written text. They learn the purpose of punctuation: to clarify sentence meaning and help readers know how writing might sound aloud. They develop and extend their understanding of the spelling system, using a range of strategies for spelling words correctly and using newly learned vocabulary in their writing. They grow more skillful at using the grammatical structures of English to effectively communicate ideas in writing and to express themselves.\n\nResearch Standard\n\nStudents define and investigate self-selected or assigned issues, topics and problems. They locate, select and make use of relevant information from a variety of media, reference and technological sources. Students use an appropriate form to communicate their findings.\n\nCommunications: Oral and Visual Standard\n\nStudents learn to communicate effectively through exposure to good models and opportunities for practice. By speaking, listening and providing and interpreting visual images, they learn to apply their communication skills in increasingly sophisticated ways. Students learn to deliver presentations that effectively convey information and persuade or entertain audiences. Proficient speakers control language and deliberately choose vocabulary to clarify points and adjust presentations according to audience and purpose.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.967444658279419}
{"content": "Forgotten Racial Equality: Implicit Bias, Decision-Making and Misremembering\n\n\n\nTo test the theory, the author conducted an empirical study that examined how people remember legally relevant facts. In the study, participants read two short stories resembling legal cases—one about a fight and another about an employment termination. The race of the characters in the stories was varied so that some participants read about African Americans, some read about Hawaiians, and others read about Caucasians. Participants were later asked to recall facts of the stories. Results of this recall task indicated that people systematically misremembered legally relevant facts in racially biased ways. For example, participants who read about an African American or Hawaiian involved in a fight were significantly more likely to remember aggressive actions from the fight, compared to participants who read about a Caucasian. Participants even sometimes generated false memories about the African American, erroneously believing that he had engaged in aggressive behaviors when he had not. Other results indicated that implicit memory biases are not related to consciously racist attitudes or preferences—even less “racist” people manifested systematic implicit racial biases. The results strongly support the theory that implicit memory biases operate in the legal setting, and that they operate without the conscious knowledge of judges or jurors.\n\nThe extension of an implicit racial bias model to legal decision-making raises concerns about the legal system’s ability to achieve social justice, as well as the cultural responsibility for implicit racial biases. Evidence on biases and stereotypes indicates that they are formed early, automatically, and based on cultural forces. Attempts to “debias” implicit racism have been mixed—reducing harms temporarily is possible but longer term change is resistant to scientific efforts. Thus, the only foolproof suggestion to eliminate implicit racial biases is for cultural change to occur over time and through coordinated efforts. In the meantime, however, the author argues that a variety of temporary debiasing measures must be taken.\n\n\nCivil Rights and Discrimination | Law and Society | Psychology and Psychiatry\n\nDate of this Version\n\nAugust 2006", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5598694086074829}
{"content": "x close\n\n\n1x Evolution, Data Optimized. 1xEV-DO devotes a 1.25 MHz channel for packet data traffic and yields transmission rates of up to 2.4 Mbps.\n\n1x Radio Transmission Technology. 1X is 21 times more efficient than analog cellular and four times more efficient than TDMA networks. 1X networks can provide rates of up to 144 Kbps for packet data and an average throughput range of 60-90 Kbps on a loaded network.\n\nThird Generation. The phase of development that followed the first generation (1G) and second generation (2G) in wireless communications. Phase 1G produced the first true mobile phone systems (known as “cellular mobile radio telephone”) that operated on analog networks for voice traffic only. Phase 2G produced digital network technology that provides voice and data traffic services. 2.5G refers to technology that is more advanced than 2G, but does not meet the requirements of 3G. Phase 3G provides increased voice and data capacity over the 2G and 2.5G networks at a minimum of 144 Kbps.\n\nThe specifications issued by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) for Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs). This family of specifications transmits data over the air on an unlicensed frequency with wireless access points that connect to an Ethernet hub or server. This allows for wireless transmissions over relatively short distances (approximately 100 feet). The family of 802.11 specifications includes: 802.11a – Operates on the 5 GHz band and uses an OFDM modulation scheme. This specification applies to wireless ATM systems and is used in access hubs. 802.11b – Operates on the 2.4 GHz band and uses DSSS for signal modulation. Offers wireless transmissions at up to 11 Mbps. 802.11g – Also operates on the 2.4 GHz band, but allows for faster data rates than 802.11b. It is compatible with both 802.11a and 802.11b and uses similar modulation techniques for both standards. Offers wireless transmission at up to 54 Mbps.\n\nAdvanced Mobile Phone Service. The standard system for analog signal cellular telephone service used in the United States and other countries. AMPS uses frequency ranges within the 800 and 900 MHz spectrum for cellular telephone.\n\nGoogle's operating system for mobile devices. With the growing number of Android handsets, third party developers port their applications to the Android operating system. Famous applications that have been converted to the Android operating system include Shazam, Backgrounds, and WeatherBug. The Android operating system has also been considered important enough by a lot of the most popular internet sites and services to create native android applications. These include MySpace™, Facebook®, and Twitter™.\n\nA short-range (approximately 10 meters) wireless communication technology that transmits both voice and data between phones, computers and other devices. Operates on the 2.45 GHz frequency band and provides data transmission rates of up to 10 Mbps.\n\nBinary Runtime Environment for Wireless. An application development platform that makes it possible for developers to create portable applications that will work on wireless devices. Users can then download designated applications (e.g., ringtones, games, content, enhanced email, location positioning, etc.) from their carrier networks to their BREW-enabled phones.\n\nCode-Division Multiple Access. A digital wireless technology that works by converting speech into digital information and then transmitting it as a radio signal over a wireless network. CDMA is compatible with other cellular technologies, which allows for nationwide roaming.\n\nCDMA2000 1X\nSee 1xRTT.\n\nA set of specifications that supports mobile voice and data communications at speeds ranging from 144 Kbps to 2 Mbps. The CDMA2000 family includes CDMA2000 1X, CDMA2000 1xEV-DO and CDMA2000 1xEV-DV standards. It is also known as IS-2000.\n\nCompactFlash Card. A memory card that uses flash memory to store data on a smaller memory card for a wide variety of computing devices (e.g., digital cameras, desktop computers and PDAs). The CF card measures 43x36 mm (about the size of a matchbook) and is available with storage capacities ranging up to 1 GB or at higher capacities for higher prices. There are two different types of CF cards for different capacities, Type I and Type II, which has more capacity. Adapters can be used with CF cards for access through a standard diskette drive, USB port or PC card slot.\n\nComplementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor. The semiconductor technology used in the transistors that are manufactured into most of today’s computer microchips and imaging products. CMOS transistors use almost no power when not needed, which allows the digital camera systems found in wireless handheld devices to run longer on batteries. In camera phones, digital cameras or video cameras, CMOS can be used as the “eye” that senses light focused on its surface, like electronic film.\n\nCompact Media Extension. Software for wireless devices that provides support for applications requiring time-synchronized multimedia outputs of MIDI-based music, text, graphics, animation and voice.\n\nColor Super Twisted Nematic. See STN.\n\nDaylight Savings Time Patch\nCongress changed the dates for Daylight Saving Time (DST) in the United States in 2007. Canada adopted similar DST dates. These changes could cause clocks and Microsoft Outlook calendar appointments on Windows Mobile-powered devices to display incorrect times for March 11 – April 1 and October 28 – November 4. To learn more about updating your data device, click here.\n\nDual Band\nWireless devices that are equipped to operate on either the 800 MHz or 1900 MHz frequencies and can switch back and forth between these bands.\n\nEnhanced 911. Rules that seek to improve the effectiveness and reliability of wireless 911 service by providing 911 dispatchers with location information on wireless 911 calls. The E911 program is divided into two parts – Phase I and Phase II. Phase I requires service providers to report the telephone number of a wireless 911 caller and the location of the antenna that received the call. Phase II requires wireless service providers to provide location information within 50 to 100 meters. Phase II is to be completed by December 31, 2005.\n\nEnhanced Data GSM Environment. An upgrade to GSM wireless service that triples data speeds over standard GPRS. EDGE is designed to deliver data at rates of up to 384 Kbps and enable the delivery of multimedia and other broadband applications to mobile phone and computer users.\n\nA string of text characters that are meant to represent an emotional state. For example: :-) = smiley face, :-( = frowney face, ;-) = winkey face (used for sarcasm) and :-/ = wry face (used for wry humor).\n\nEnhanced Messaging Service. Based on SMS (Short Message Service), EMS is a wireless service that allows users to send and receive messages that include small pictures, animations, sound effects and text. EMS messages can be exchanged between phones regardless of model or make as long as they support the EMS standard. Non-EMS supported mobile phones treat EMS messages like SMS text messages and only display text items.\n\nFlash Memory\nAlso known as “flash RAM,” flash memory is a type of constantly powered nonvolatile memory that can be erased and reprogrammed in units of memory called blocks. It is called flash memory because the microchip is organized so that a section of memory cells is erased in a single action or “flash.” Flash memory retains information without electrical power and therefore is used in removable memory cards so data can be retained when the device is turned off.\n\nGigabyte. When referring to disk storage capacities it usually means 1000 MB.\n\nGeneral Packet Radio Services. An upgrade to the GSM network that provides data rates of up to 115 Kbps and continuous connection to the Internet for mobile phone and computer users. It is considered a 2.5G technology and is an evolutionary step EDGE.\n\nGlobal Positioning System. A global navigation system developed by the U.S. Department of Defense that uses a constellation of satellites to pinpoint the geographic location of ground receivers with an accuracy of 10 to 100 meters. GPS receivers can be used to relate location with other information, such as traffic or weather conditions.\n\nA technology solution that combines GPS and wireless network infrastructure to provide enhanced position location services. GPSOne accelerates the location determination process and provides industry-leading accuracy for callers’ E911 or GPS-enabled commercial applications.\n\nGlobal System for Mobile Communication. A digital mobile telephone system that is based on TDMA technology and is widely used in Europe and other parts of the world. GSM operates at either the 850 MHz or 1900 MHz frequency band in the United States, Canada and most of the Americas, and 900 MHz and 1800 MHz in most other parts of the world.\n\nGraphical User Interface. Pronounced GOO-ee, it is a graphical (as opposed to textual) user interface to a computer. Elements of a GUI include such things as windows, pull-down menus, buttons, scroll bars, iconic images, wizards and the mouse. Examples of familiar GUIs are the Mac or the Windows operating systems and their applications.\n\nHot Spot\nA wireless access point (e.g., a coffee shop, bookstore, airport or hotel) where users can establish a WLAN or “Wi-Fi” connection with their service provider, but of limited coverage (approximately 100 feet).\n\nAlso known as Evolved High-Speed Packet Access is a wireless broadband standard defined. HSPA+ provides higher data speeds.\n\nInfrared Radiation. A technology that uses energy in the region of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum at wavelengths longer than those of visible light, but shorter than those of radio waves. It is typically used to transmit data through the air, for short distances, in a straight line or beam. It can be used to wirelessly connect various devices such as phones, computers and printers. For an IR connection to succeed, the infrared ports of communicating devices must be nearby and aimed at each other.\n\nJava 2 Micro Edition. A technology that allows programmers to use the Java programming language and related tools to develop programs for mobile wireless devices. It is geared toward small, user-installable software applications such as games, specific functions, corporate-based applications or other custom written applications, and can be Internet-enabled, which allows for real-time transmissions over the Internet.\n\nIntroduced by Sun Microsystems in 1995, Java is a programming language that was expressly designed for use in the distributed environment of the Internet, but simpler than C++ language. It enforces an object-oriented programming model and can be used to create complete applications for a single computer or to be distributed among servers and a network. It can also be used to build a small application module for use as part of a web page.\n\nLocal Area Network. A group of computers and associated devices that share the resources of a single processor or server within a small geographic area, such as within an office building. A LAN can serve two or three users or many thousands of users.\n\nLiquid Crystal Display. A technology used for displays in small computer devices. LCDs block light instead of emitting it, which allows them to be thinner CRT displays and consume less power than LED or gas-display displays.\n\nLight-Emitting Diode. A semiconductor device that emits visible light when an electric current passes through it. Mostly monochromatic, LEDs are common on small devices for service or message lights, for LCD backlights and as device key backlights.\n\nMegabyte. One million bytes, or 1,048,576 bytes in decimal notation.\n\nMegabits per second. One million bits per second.\n\nOne million pixels and a unit of measurement for image sensing capacity in digital cameras. Typically, more megapixels in a camera will result in better resolution when printing the image. For example, a digital camera with a 1.3 megapixel resolution will print a good quality 4x3 inch print at 300 dpi (dots per inch).\n\nMegahertz. One million hertz or cycles per second. Wireless mobile communications within the United States operate on several MHz bands, including 800 MHz and 1900 MHz bands.\n\nA format for removable flash memory cards. SD is an acronym of Secure Digital. The cards are commonly used in cellular phones, as well as in some newer handheld GPS devices, portable media players, digital audio players, expandable USB flash memory drives, and digital cameras.\n\nMicrosoft® ActiveSync®\nThe synchronization software for Windows Mobile-based Pocket PCs and smartphones, with enhanced security features for improved desktop synchronization.\n\nMicrosoft Outlook® Mobile\nA mobile version of Microsoft’s email client and personal information manager program, called Outlook, specifically designed and formatted for the Windows Phone operating system.\n\nMusical Instrument Digital Interface. A protocol designed for recording and playing back music on digital synthesizers. It is used as an industry-standard, efficient file format for describing music. MIDI files are very small in size, but lack specific sound control.\n\nMultimedia Message Service. An enhanced short message service for mobile wireless devices, it allows video clips, photos, graphics, audio clips, longer text or a combination thereof to be transmitted. MMS-enabled phones are generally backward-compatible with SMS and EMS.\n\nMusic on Demand. A feature that provides a mobile library of audio clips that may be downloaded to a user’s wireless device.\n\nMPEG Layer 3. A standard developed by the Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) digital audio compression and a file format. This technology can compress a sound sequence into a very small file, which allows digital music to be transmitted and stored efficiently, while still preserving the original level of sound quality when it is played.\n\nMoving Picture Experts Group. A family of standards for digital video and digital audio compression.\n\nOperating System. The software that manages the basic operations of a computer system. The OS controls memory apportionment, the order and method of handling tasks and the flow of data to and from the main processor and peripherals. Examples of common operating systems are Windows, UNIX and Symbian.\n\nPC Card\nA card device that operates as a wireless modem on PCs or wireless communication devices. A PC card is compatible with the Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA) PC Card standard.\n\nPersonal Computer Memory Card International Association. An industry group organized in 1989 to promote standards for a credit card-size memory or input/output device for personal computers.\n\nThe basic unit of programmable color on a computer display or in a computer image.\n\nPocket Internet Explorer®\nA mobile version of Microsoft’s web browser program, called Internet Explorer, specifically designed and formatted for the Pocket PC operating system.\n\nPolyphonic Ringtone\nA ringtone for mobile phones that is produced by playing several tones simultaneously (rather than a series of single or monophonic tones), which produces a more natural and realistic sound. Polyphonic ringtones can be downloaded from websites to a mobile phone.\n\nQuarter VGA. A resolution of 320x240 pixels, or one-quarter the area of VGA resolution (640x480 pixels), that is used on handheld devices.\n\nQWERTY Keyboard\nPronounced KWEHR-tee, a QWERTY keyboard is the standard typewriter and computer keyboard in countries that use a Latin-based alphabet and refers to the first six letters on the upper row of the keyboard.\n\nRandom Access Memory. The place in a computer where the operating system, application programs and data in current use are kept so that they can be quickly reached by the computer’s processor.\n\nRead-Only Memory. A computer’s built-in memory that can only be read, not written to, and contains the programming that allows your computer to be “booted up” or regenerated each time you turn it on.\n\nSecure Digital. A tiny memory card, approximately the size of a postage stamp, used to make storage portable among various devices (e.g., mobile phones, PDAs, digital cameras, personal computers, etc.). SD cards have a high data transfer rate and low battery consumption, which makes them ideal portable devices, and use flash memory that does not require a power source to retain stored data.\n\nSecure Digital Input/Output. A card format that provides additional functionality to devices with SD card slot. Examples include Wi-Fi and Bluetooth adapters, GPS receivers, digital cameras and wireless networking cards.\n\nSynchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory. The generic name for various kinds of DRAM that are synchronized with the clock speed that the microprocessor is optimized for. This tends to increase the number of instructions that the processor can perform in a given time.\n\nService Provider\nThe wireless service carrier or operator that provides communication services and content for mobile device users. Examples include Verizon, Sprint, T-Mobile and AT&T.\n\nSubscriber Identity Module. A removable “smartcard” chip built into GSM devices that can identify the user, the services to which the user subscribes and store data, such as telephone numbers and addresses.\n\nA category of mobile phones that provides integrated wireless data and voice capabilities on one handset. Smartphones run complete operating system software and allow users to make calls, send emails, browse the Internet, access corporate databases and operate other software applications via this one device.\n\nShort Message Service. A service for sending text messages of up to 160 characters (224 characters if using a 5-bit mode) to wireless handsets. SMS messages can be held for a number of days if a wireless device is out of range or inactive, and will be received when the device is active and within range.\n\nSuper Twisted Nematic. A type of LCD flat-panel display technology that provides better contrast than twisted nematic (TN) by rotating the direction of the liquid crystal from 180 to 270.\n\nStreaming Multimedia\nA feature on wireless devices that allows users to play audio or video content in real time, without the need to download the content first.\n\nText on Nine Keys. A text input system that effectively makes a keyboard out of the numeric keypad by eliminating multitapping for text entries. For example, instead of typing 8-4-4-3-3 for the word “the,” with T9™ text entry you would type only 8-4-3 and it would recognize (or predict) it as “t-h-e.” This greatly facilitates text entries.\n\nTransmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. A communications protocol that was developed by the U.S. Department of Defense, it has become the standard protocol for the Internet. Two interrelated protocols, TCP provides transport functions and IP provides the routing mechanism. It can also be used as a communications protocol in a private network. Every computer with direct access to the Internet uses a copy of the TCP/IP program.\n\nTime Division Multiple Access. A wireless technology used in digital cellular telephone communication that divides each cellular channel into three time slots to increase the amount of data that can be carried. It is used by Digital-American Mobile Phone Service (D-AMPS), Global System for Mobile communications (GSM) and Personal Digital Cellular (PDC).\n\nThin-Film Transistor. A type of LCD flat-panel technology that has a transistor for each pixel, which provides excellent image quality, but uses more power and is more expensive.\n\nTri Band\nWireless devices that are equipped to operate on three of the GSM frequency bands. In the Americas, tri band devices support the 800/850, 1800 and 1900 MHz bands, and in Europe, tri band devices support the 900, 1800 and 1900 MHz bands. Triband devices can be used in North America, Europe, Asia, Australia and Africa.\n\nText Telephone/Telecommunication Device for the Deaf. A device that lets people who are deaf, hard of hearing or speech-impaired use the telephone to communicate, by allowing them to type messages back and forth to one another. The device is required on both ends of the conversation for successful communication.\n\nUniversal Serial Bus. A plug-and-play hardware interface between a computer device and add-on devices. For example, a USB can be used to connect a wireless device to a PC and is useful for quickly transferring files or synchronizing contact and calendar information.\n\nVideo Graphics Array. A display screen resolution of 640x480 pixels and 16 colors that has become the accepted minimum standard for PCs.\n\nVideo on Demand. A feature that allows wireless users to request video clips, such as TV programming content or music videos, to be played on their wireless device.\n\nVoice over Internet Protocol. Also known as IP telephony, it is the technology that allows voice conversations to be routed over the Internet or any other IP network.\n\nVirtual Private Network. A private network that is configured within a public network and uses encryption and other security mechanisms to ensure that only authorized users access the network.\n\nWide Area Network. A geographically dispersed communications network that is usually public, but may be privately owned or rented.\n\nWireless Application Protocol. A specification for a set of communication protocols that standardize the way mobile wireless devices access the Internet, including email and the World Wide Web.\n\nWideband Code-Division Multiple Access. A 3G mobile wireless technology that offers higher data speeds of up to 384 Kbps for mobile wireless devices and uses 10 MHz of wireless spectrum, a 5 MHz uplink and 5 MHz downlink, for both voice and data.\n\nWireless Fidelity. Another name for WLAN technology and the 802.11b/g/n wireless standard, it provides short-range wireless high-speed data transmissions between mobile data devices and Wi-Fi access points. See also 802.11.\n\nWindows Media Player 10 Mobile™\nThe mobile version of Microsoft’s Windows Media Player software program for Windows Phone-based smartphones. Windows Media Player 10 plays popular digital audio and video file formats from either removable storage cards or streamed over the Internet.\n\nWindows Phone®\nWindows Phone (previously Windows Mobile until the launch of Windows Mobile 6.5) is a mobile operating system developed by Microsoft for use in smartphones and mobile devices.\n\nWireless Local Area Network. A local area network that transmits over the air in an unlicensed frequency, such as the 2.4 GHz band, with wireless access points that connect to an Ethernet hub or server and transmit a radio frequency over an area of several feet. See also Wi-Fi and 802.11.\n\nWireless Wide Area Network. A radio-based voice or data network that covers an entire metropolitan area.\n\nContact Us\n\nTo contact us directly, simply click here.\n\nPhones and Devices\n\nTo browse our wireless devices and phones, click here.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8654323816299438}
{"content": "UK United Kingdom\n\nExplainer: what is the circular economy?\n\n\n\n\nIt’s a term the average person may not have come across yet, but the idea has gained sufficient traction in business, political and environmental circles to be the subject of a report released at the Forum’s influential annual meeting and to be the focus of an initiative supported by leading companies to encourage business to embrace its principles.\n\nIn Europe, the biggest annual conference on environmental policy will this year focus on the circular economy and how to unlock its potential, while China’s latest five-year plan has an entire chapter devoted to efforts to “vigorously develop a circular economy”.\n\nIn Australia, various NGOs and academic institutions are already engaged with promoting and developing a better understanding of the model.\n\n\nSo what is the circular economy and why should Australians care about it? While many may assume it is about recycling, the model involves much more than that.\n\n\nGlobally, in the consumer goods sector about 20% of total material value is recovered while 80% goes to waste.\n\nIn Australia, about half the waste we generate is being recycled but with continued growth in economic output, the volume of waste going into landfill here continues to rise.\n\nOften, we are throwing away valuable resources in this “linear” model. Without change, this can only get worse as three billion new middle-class consumers enter the global market in the next 15 years.\n\nThe circular economy addresses these unnecessary resource losses.\n\nHow does it do that? More recycling is part of it but the circular economy involves much more. It is a model of industrial production which involves designing products so they last longer, so they can be repaired and upgraded, so they can be reused or resold (on eBay, for example), and so their materials can be used in remanufacture.\n\nIt is a more “restorative” process, where components and materials can be reused many times.\n\nThis will involve a shift on the part of businesses that are accustomed to generating ongoing revenue via planned or “inbuilt” obsolescence.\n\nOne example of the sort of switch that might be involved is for businesses to sell services instead of products – for example, selling “hours behind the wheel” rather than selling cars, which is what happens with car-share schemes such as GoGet, Hertz 24/7 and GreenShareCar.\n\nThis sort of change is starting to happen, but the report launched by the WEF and the Ellen McArthur Foundation at Davos last month considered a crucial issue: how to scale up the circular economy model.\n\nDominic Barton, Managing Director of McKinsey & Co, which collaborated on the report, spelled out the business case. The world economy is A$72 trillion in size but applying the circular economy model would lead to at least $1 trillion in savings immediately, he said, and potentially much more in years ahead.\n\nThese savings would flow from waste reduction and lower capital requirements for businesses. Other potential benefits include reduced volatility in the price of inputs, along with greater innovation and job creation.\n\nRemanufacturing and recycling in Europe, for example, already employs more than one million people. There, companies such as Renault have found that while remanufacturing is more labour-intensive, reduced waste and lower capital expenses mean profits are maintained.\n\nEllen MacArthur released Project Mainstream at the World Economic Forum. Laurent Gillieron/EPA\n\nProject Mainstream, which was launched at Davos, is designed to promote collaboration in pursuit of the circular economy, particularly across the massive global supply networks of key industry sectors. Household names such as Unilever, Cisco, Philips and Renault are some of the global partners with the Ellen MacArthur Foundation in this initiative.\n\nA number of factors will help drive progress towards a circular economy. Businesses will increasingly be motivated to do more with less as water, energy and resources become more expensive in coming decades.\n\nIn an era of “big data”, we know more about where resources are, which means it will be easier to recover them profitably. New technologies such as 3D printing offer the potential to reduce materials and energy use, and wastage, by allowing products to be produced on demand rather than just in case.\n\nMeanwhile, there is growing acceptance of economic models based on access rather than ownership and this “collaborative consumption” will also help unlock the untapped value of assets.\n\nFor Australia, rethinking the productivity of materials holds promise at what is a challenging time for traditional manufacturing. The circular economy offers the potential of job creation and innovation and a pathway to a resilient economic growth.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7152865529060364}
{"content": "Help - Search - Members - Calendar\nFull Version: Mk 6 Escort Van Mods?\nLets not all answer at once!\n\n\"Modify\" means a lot of different things to a lot of different people, it could mean go faster stripes, sticking on a set of alloys, messing about with lights, ice - like a new sub/ headunit,lowering/ coilovers, privacy glass gel, racing seats, remap/ decat/ panel filter right through to total interior retrim transmission upgrades/ (4wd etc) engine swaps etc\nAs above.\n\nI's go for a turbo diesel or zetec conversion.\nCosworth style rear bumper\n\ncosworth YB, Capri rear axle, type 9 box = rwd conversion\n\n\nescort cossie body kit, lowered a touch but not too much, spray it a nice colour and terrorise the tarmac! \n\nFull Colour Version: Mk 6 Escort Van Mods?", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5527877807617188}
{"content": "Caesarea Maritima\n\n\n\n\nHome > Sites > Sharon > Caesarea Maritima (overview)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nPontius Pilate\n\n\n\nAerial views\n\n\n\n\n\n\nHistory of the place:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nGeneral View:\n\n\n   The following photo shows the Roman city in the foreground (Herod's palace). In the background:  the Crusader's city, Ottoman mosque and buildings, and the ancient port just behind them. The Roman city is on the right side, although not seen in this photo.\n\n\n\n\n  A large Roman theater, built by Herod, is still in use today for  concerts and shows. In addition to this theater, Herod also built a Hippodrome and an additional amphitheater for the pleasure of the citizens. \n\n\n\n\n   The Roman city was a major sea port, which included large warehouses to store the goods, and a large harbor that was built by Herod. In the photo below - the vast warehouses. In the left background - the place of the ancient harbor.\n\n\n   In the left background, the remains of the two-level building which was the Governor's house. This was probably Pontius Pilate's house.\n\n\n\n  One of the famous sites in Caesarea is the Aqueduct (click on the link to get more details on this). It is also a popular beach.\n\n\n\n\n\nPontius Pilate in Caesarea:\n\n\nThe Hippodrome:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nStone Tablet:\n\n\n\n\n\n              (1) TIBERIEUM,,\n\n             (2) (PON) TIUS    PILATUS\n\n             (3)  (PRAEF) ECTUS IUDA (EAE)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nMosaic Floor: Kalokeria\n\n\n   When you enter Israel via Ben-Gurion airport, there are 3 mosaic floors displayed on the entrance to the border patrol booths. The lower right one is from Caesarea, and is seen below. The 6th C AD  mosaic floor is decorated with animals, geometric shapes, animals and trees, and in the center a woman holding a fruit basket. Her Greek name, Kalokeria, is inscribed around the figure and suggests prosperity. This is the spirit of the city: fruitful, large, plentiful, a good city.\n\n\n\n\nBiblical References:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nAerial Views:\n\n\nThese photos are part of a collection of  aerial images of BibleWalks's partner. For purchasing details, visit our shop.\n\n\n   In the first aerial photo you can see the western layout of the city, with Herod's theater on the bottom side, Herod's palace on the left side, the Hippodrome and the Roman city in the center, and the Crusaders and port on the top side.\n\n\n\nIn the next photo you can see the large Roman theater, built by Herod, on the right side. Herod's palace in the front center, and the Hippodrome on the left side.\n\n\n\n\n   The aerial photo below was captured north to the previous photo, and shows the Roman city on the right side, and the crusaders city and the ancient port on the center.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8183667063713074}
{"content": "4iq6 Summary\n\n\nGsk-3beta with inhibitor 6-chloro-N-cyclohexyl-4-(1H-pyrrolo[2,3-b]pyridin-3-yl)pyridin-2-amine\n\nThe structure was published by Tong, Y., Stewart, K.D., Florjancic, A.S., et al., Johnson, E.F., Shoemaker, A.R., and Penning, T.D., in 2013 in a paper entitled \"Azaindole-Based Inhibitors of Cdc7 Kinase: Impact of the Pre-DFG Residue, Val 195\" (abstract).\n\nThis crystal structure was determined using X-ray diffraction at a resolution of 3.12 Å and deposited in 2013.\n\n\nThis PDB entry contains multiple copies of the structure of Glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta.\n\n\n\n\nA Glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta P49841 (1-420) (GSK3B_HUMAN)search Homo sapienssearch 91% 426 77%\n\nThis entry contains 1 unique UniProt protein:\n\nUniProt accession Name Organism PDB\nP49841 (1 - 420) Glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta Homo sapiens\n\nChain Sequence family (Pfam)\nA, B (P49841) PF00069: Protein kinase domainsearch\n\nA, B (P49841) ATP bindingsearch protein bindingsearch RNA polymerase II transcription factor bindingsearch kinase activitysearch ubiquitin protein ligase bindingsearch protein kinase activitysearch protein serine/threonine kinase activitysearch integrin bindingsearch nucleotide bindingsearch transferase activity, transferring phosphorus-containing groupssearch tau-protein kinase activitysearch beta-catenin bindingsearch tau protein bindingsearch NF-kappaB bindingsearch protein kinase bindingsearch transferase activitysearch protein kinase A catalytic subunit bindingsearch ionotropic glutamate receptor bindingsearch p53 bindingsearch protein complexsearch membrane raftsearch cytosolsearch beta-catenin destruction complexsearch membranesearch plasma membranesearch dendritic shaftsearch nucleussearch cytoplasmsearch perinuclear region of cytoplasmsearch centrosomesearch ribonucleoprotein complexsearch dendritic spinesearch growth conesearch cell bodysearch neuronal cell bodysearch membrane-bounded organellesearch negative regulation of signal transductionsearch axon guidancesearch phosphorylationsearch negative regulation of dendrite morphogenesissearch cell migrationsearch negative regulation of canonical Wnt signaling pathwaysearch negative regulation of glycogen (starch) synthase activitysearch negative regulation of MAP kinase activitysearch negative regulation of neuron projection developmentsearch circadian rhythmsearch cellular response to mechanical stimulussearch positive regulation of protein catabolic processsearch fat cell differentiationsearch Wnt signaling pathwaysearch glycogen metabolic processsearch positive regulation of protein bindingsearch protein phosphorylationsearch negative regulation of protein complex assemblysearch canonical Wnt signaling pathwaysearch response to drugsearch peptidyl-serine phosphorylationsearch innate immune responsesearch extrinsic apoptotic signaling pathway in absence of ligandsearch positive regulation of mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization involved in apoptotic signaling pathwaysearch regulation of gene expression by genetic imprintingsearch positive regulation of apoptotic processsearch positive regulation of proteasomal ubiquitin-dependent protein catabolic processsearch protein localization to microtubulesearch ER overload responsesearch epidermal growth factor receptor signaling pathwaysearch multicellular organismal developmentsearch negative regulation of protein bindingsearch myoblast fusionsearch canonical Wnt signaling pathway involved in positive regulation of apoptotic processsearch hypermethylation of CpG islandsearch cell differentiationsearch regulation of neuronal synaptic plasticitysearch positive regulation of transcription from RNA polymerase II promotersearch neurotrophin TRK receptor signaling pathwaysearch myotube differentiationsearch rhythmic processsearch establishment of cell polaritysearch re-entry into mitotic cell cyclesearch nervous system developmentsearch negative regulation of apoptotic processsearch positive regulation of protein complex assemblysearch epithelial to mesenchymal transitionsearch negative regulation of type B pancreatic cell developmentsearch cellular response to interleukin-3search fibroblast growth factor receptor signaling pathwaysearch regulation of microtubule-based processsearch protein export from nucleussearch carbohydrate metabolic processsearch Fc-epsilon receptor signaling pathwaysearch phosphatidylinositol-mediated signalingsearch negative regulation of NFAT protein import into nucleussearch positive regulation of Rac GTPase activitysearch positive regulation of stem cell differentiationsearch negative regulation of neuron maturationsearch superior temporal gyrus developmentsearch positive regulation of cell-matrix adhesionsearch hippocampus developmentsearch response to lithium ionsearch intracellular signal transductionsearch positive regulation of protein export from nucleussearch positive regulation of peptidyl-threonine phosphorylationsearch establishment or maintenance of cell polaritysearch negative regulation of cardiac muscle hypertrophysearch positive regulation of peptidyl-serine phosphorylationsearch negative regulation of glycogen biosynthetic processsearch organ morphogenesissearch axonogenesissearch\n\nChain InterPro annotation", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9999489784240723}
{"content": "This post is a TED video of Martin Sigelman discussing the state of psychology.  Sigelman discusses the “good,” the “not good,” and the “not good enough” aspects of the field by giving a brief review of the past 50 years. Initially, psychology was used as a means of alleviating pain and misery, which was good, but it neglected the importance of building happiness. The emergence of “positive psychology” is an example of the new direction psychology is headed.\n\nIf you are interested in taking scientifically tested questionnaires on emotion, engagement, meaning, and life satisfaction, visit the Authentic Happiness website.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9918392300605774}
{"content": "Association Management Services\n\nIndustry associations are one of the most effective tools for bringing new technologies and standards to market. Associations foster collaboration and cooperation among competitors, integrators, solution providers and users resulting in rapid market adoption.\n\nIndustry associations are effective whether it is open to all industry players or limited to adopters of a company-specific technology, it requires both human and financial resources. These resources are used to fund development of important programs such as market education and awareness, testing and compliance, and industry adoption.\n\nPrincipals in the Lakeview Group have extensive experience creating and managing industry ecosystems, alliances and standards involving energy, semiconductor, communication and consumer-related industries.\n\nUnlike large, formula driven association management companies, the Lakeview Group is managed by a senior team and draws upon domain experts to support the specific requirements of each alliance. This approach eliminates the unnecessary overhead of a large agency, while drawing from a senior-level group of professionals, each contributing their unique skills and experience.\n\nWeb Hosting", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9902822971343994}
{"content": "Bilingual Education: Teachers' Narratives\n\n\nThis book grew out of the joys and challenges the author experienced as a Spanish/English bilingual teacher of culturally and linguistically diverse students. It tells what it is like to be a bilingual teacher. As a result, it helps other teachers and prospective teachers understand the complex nature of bilingual teaching, shares some successful teaching strategies that other teachers have used, and encourages teachers to find their own solutions despite limited support.\n\nThe book is structured in three parts. The introduction explains how the book evolved, defines its relation to other qualitative research, and offers suggestions for how to use the book. The second part consists of eight bilingual teachers' stories that provide a glimpse of them as people, their schools and programs, their successes and struggles, and their solutions and coping mechanisms within their contexts. It concludes with a discussion chapter that looks at the teachers' collective strengths and struggles comparatively, connecting these to broader issues. The final section presents bilingual education resources -- useful information for practitioners. This includes foundation texts on the theories and practices of bilingual education, demographic information, a glossary of bilingual education terms, listings of curricula, tests, and literature mentioned by the teachers, and professional network sources.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9593414664268494}
{"content": "IUCN Reference Libraries\n\nPage 1 of about 3 Articles\nZinos Petrel Pterodroma Madeira\n2013-04-21 09:46:05\n\nThe Zino’s Petrel (Pterodroma madeira) is a little seabird in the gadfly petrel genus which is endemic to the island of Madeira. This long-winged petrel has a grey back and wings, with a dark “W” marking across the wings, and a grey upper tail. The undersides of the wings are blackish except for a white triangle at the front edge near the body, and the belly is white with grey flanks....\n\nZapata Rail Cyanolimnas cerverai\n2012-11-27 00:03:03\n\nThe Zapata Rail is the only member of the monotypic genus Cyanolimnus. It is overall a dark-colored rail bird. It has grayish-blue underparts, a red-based yellow bill, brown upperparts, white under tail coverts, and red eyes and legs. Their short wings make it almost unable to fly. It is endemic to the wetlands of the Zapata Peninsula in southern Cuba, where its only known nest was discovered...\n\nSawfish Anoxypristis\n2012-08-17 06:50:56\n\n\nWord of the Day\nThis word is partly Irish in origin.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5604197382926941}
{"content": "HP OpenVMS Systems\n\nask the wizard\nContent starts here\n\nDECnet and Multiple Controllers?\n\n» close window\n\nThe Question is:\n\nFurther to the Answer on the Question on \"(6704) Configure DECnet on Network\n Controller? \".  I have tried re-run\nHowever NETCONFIG.COM (at least with v7.1-2 of OpenVMS) would only configure\n Decnet on EWA-0 and would not configure it on EWB-0.\nI treied edit NETCONFIG.COM to use EWB-0 and it still end up with the same\nAt the moment, I end up using EWB-0 for UCX only\nand leave Decnet on EWA-0.\nI would apprecitate any help to move Decnet to EWB-0 as well.\nI would prefer to stay with DECnet Phase IV.\nOne question is: would upgrading to OpenVMS v7.2 or v7.3 helps?\n\nThe Answer is :\n\n  Due to network addressing requirements, DECnet Phase IV permits one\n  connection to an unbridged, unrouted network segment.\n  When multiple connections are present, DECnet Phase IV end-node hosts\n  can operate on only one network controller at a time and must be\n  manually switched to other controllers as required.\n  DECnet Phase IV routing is available on OpenVMS VAX only.\n  DECnet Phase IV routers can operate across multiple controllers,\n  again assuming that no two network controllers are connected to the\n  same network segement.\n  If you attempt to connect multiple controllers to the same network\n  segment on a DECnet Phase IV host, you will receive an \"IVADDR, invalid\n  media address\" error upon starting the second and subsequent controllers\n  connected to the same segment.\n  DECnet-Plus permits multiple connections to the same network segment,\n  and permits multiple active circuits on an end-node, and (with recent\n  versions) does provide for host-based routing.\n\n\n» close window", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8236543536186218}
{"content": "An on-line editor\n\nPeter Deutsch and Butler Lampson\n\n\nCitation: Comm. ACM 10, 12 (Dec. 1967), pp 793-799\n\n\nEmail: This paper is at\n\n\n\nAn online, interactive system for text editing is described in detail, with remarks on the theoretical and experimental justification for its form. Emphasis throughout the system is on providing maximum convenience and power for the user. Notable features are its ability to handle any piece of text, the content-searching facility, and the character-by-character editing operations. The editor can be programmed to a limited extent.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9924637675285339}
{"content": "\n\nVietnam was the first war ever fought without any censorship. Without censorship, things can get terribly confused in the public mind.\n\nWilliam Westmoreland", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8384307622909546}
{"content": "Exploration and Production Technologies\n\nUltra-Deep Wave-Equation Imaging and Illumination\n\n\nThe purpose of the project is to develop and test a novel technology designed to enhance seismic resolution and image quality using wave-equation depth migration and wave-equation velocity model building.\n\nComparison between wave equation imaging with 3 km aperture (left) and 10 km aperture (right).Note improved imaging of steeply dipping beds.\n\nOil and gas companies use seismic imaging to visualize the shape and complexity of a reservoir prior to drilling a well. The current technologies for depth imaging are the Kirchhoff pre-stack depth migration and the wave-equation depth migration. Wave equation methods are potentially more accurate and robust because they incorporate the full 3-D wave equation rather than being based on 2-D ray theory. The current project develops the ability to image deep gas prospects in onshore and offshore areas of the Gulf coast by using wave equation migration to handle multiple arrivals, and using a wider acquisition aperture (10-15 km) to optimize image quality for depths greater than 15,000 feet.\n\n\nHouston, Texas 77084\nOnshore and offshore Gulf Coast\n\nPotential Impact:\nThe potential impact of the project will be to allow better imaging of deep onshore and offshore plays that contain large volumes of undiscovered oil and gas. The Mineral Management Service (MMS) estimates that there are 193 Tcf of undiscovered, conventionally recoverable natural gas in the deeper sediments of the Gulf of Mexico. This technology will enhance industry’s ability to locate and develop this resource.\n\nAs of September 2005, 3DGeo had completed a set of algorithms to optimize pre-stack time migration and wave-equation velocity model building. In October 2005 3DGeo took delivery of PGS Onshore’s ultra-deep POC2 line that spans the onshore and offshore portion of the Texas gulf coast. The processing team began running iterations of the algorithms developed during the first year of the project, using the POC2 vibroseis/airgun dataset. In January 2006, 3DGeo began testing a true-amplitude imaging algorithm that improves the clarity of deep and steeply dipping events, conducting a series of tests to validate the algorithms developed.\n\nCurrent Status\n\nProject Start: October 1, 2004\nProject End: September 30, 2006\n\nDOE Contribution: $504,944\nPerformer Contribution: $130,236\n\nContact Information:\nNETL – Frances Toro (frances.toro@netl.doe.gov or 304-285-4107)\n3DGeo – Alexander Mihai Popovici (mihai@3Dgeo.com or 281-579-9712 x103)\n\nAdditional Information:\n\nFinal Report [PDF-3.50MB]\n\nStayConnected Facebook Twitter LinkedIn RssFeed YouTube", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.6606564521789551}
{"content": "Chats with the University Librarian\n\nJune 8, 2009 | Chats with the University Dean\n\n“What Google Books Deal Means for Libraries” is the first in a series of chats with Curtis Kendrick, CUNY University Librarian, on a wide variety of topics affecting libraries, CUNY and the community at large. Since Curtis took office in 2004, he has been committed to improving access to information through exchange of ideas and resources among CUNY faculty and the library, within departments, and with other NYC educational and cultural organizations. In the same spirit of exchange, this column encourages dialogue among all of these communities. We invite our readers’ responses.\n\nWhat Google Book Deal Means for Libraries\n\nSince Google began work in 2002 on its plan to digitize millions of books in the collections of major research libraries, the digital conversion project known as Google Book Search has been the subject of intense debate. After publishers and authors sued Google for copyright infringement, Google agreed to seek the permission of copyright holders before licensing their material. If the settlement is approved in the coming months, Google will have permission to digitize nearly all copyrighted materials in the United States. Google continues to face stiff opposition from critics, including the American Library Association, and the nonprofit Internet Archive, which maintains that the settlement would give copyright immunity to Google alone and has filed a motion to intervene in this case. The Justice Department has opened an antitrust inquiry into the settlement.\n\nIrene Gashurov, an editor for the Office of Library Services, talked to Curtis Kendrick, CUNY University Librarian, about the issues behind the Google project and what it may mean for libraries.\n\nIG: Google’s website says the Book Search will benefit everyone-libraries, publishers, authors, readers. Some major libraries have allowed Google to scan their collections. Why is there such an outcry against the project?\n\nCurtis: There are at least two and likely many more sides to this story. On the one hand, there is a vision of open access to an unfettered repository of digitized information, free of charge or restrictions. Every Internet user will have access to this knowledge from a terminal at the public library or from a desktop at home. Since the holdings of the great libraries will become available, scholarship stands to get wider distribution and influence. No longer will there be need to pay publishers to reprint faculty’s own publications from scholarly journals. Such access is a great boon for scholarship, for intellectual democracy.\n\nIG: And on the other?\n\nCurtis: In another scenario, Google will have exclusive control over this digital library. Some critics have called the Google Book Search project a monopoly over information, where the property is copyright and information. If this holds true, Google can charge whatever prices it wants for access to its online materials. And with no competition, it will have full copyright privileges to orphan or out-of-print books.\n\nIG: What is at issue with out-of-copyright books?\n\nCurtis: They are at the heart of the controversy. It could be said that Google is renewing access to this out-of-print material, which can get lost in library stacks. But according to the settlement, which I hear has been delayed until August, there’s no copyright infringement, only because no author or publisher can be found to authorize Google’s use of these books. Orphan books make up a large part of research library collections. That’s the territory over which the Internet Archive is in opposition to Google. Internet Archive is saying that the settlement agreement gives Google exclusive rights to digitize orphan books, which is why they’ve intervened in the case.\n\nIG: So what’s the optimum scenario for libraries?\n\nCurtis: I believe that a company like Google is very useful for creating open access to the information stored in our research collections. It has the wealth to achieve this quickly. But Google should not have an exclusive right to these orphan works. If some other entity wants to digitize them they should be allowed to as well. Sometimes the possibility of competition is sufficient to ward off some of the less desirable aspects of a monopoly. Allowing for the possibility of competitors’ creating their own digital libraries can serve as a restraint on prices.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8015767931938171}
{"content": "Birthwork: A compassionate guide to being with birth\nby Jenny Blyth\n\n[2005, Australia: Queensland Complete Printing Service; 460 pages, paperback.]\n\n\n“Inherently, we have the ability to use our positive human qualities skillfully.”\n\nBirthwork is about what we are, how we react and wise ways of being with birth.\n\nJenny’s unique concepts thread this book together. Her idea is to fast-track the exploration of awareness during the childbearing year, keeping up with the continual fast pace at which life moves. She delves into the issues confronting care providers and mothers: how to face these issues and work toward better understanding and better birth. Helping mothers feel prepared and ready spiritually, emotionally and physically creates a whole way of caring for birth. This book does a thorough job while encouraging readers to search themselves for new awareness.\n\nThe book has four parts. Part 1 concerns preparation. The author explores how we communicate, the art of language, the middle way of care that helps prevent burnout, and relationship factors such as dynamics within teamwork, conflict and weaving in and out of birthing families’ lives.\n\nPart 2 concerns birthing. How we work with labor instinctively and intuitively. Breath work, freeing up “stuck-ness” body structure and inherited attitudes are just a few of the ideas revealed.\n\nPart 3 involves the bigger picture. How we work within the birthing field. Reflections on safety issues, responsibility, birth culture and crossing cultural paradigms. Looking at the whole picture of birth through holism and spirituality, along with the sacredness of birth.\n\nFinally, part 4 rounds out the book with further considerations. Using bodywork, vaginal preparation, working with water and nurturing breastfeeding are examples of what is presented.\n\nI loved this book. The way it is written, the layout of the book and the content all resonate with what birthwork is all about. Jenny does a fantastic job of presenting her experience and insights in a well-rounded manner. I drank up the information and felt satisfied and contented.\n\nReviewer Jill Cohen lives in Gates, Oregon, with her husband and two of her four beautiful children. After being a lay midwife for over 20 years she has now returned to school to obtain a nursing degree.\n\nOrder this book from Amazon today!", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.6349729895591736}
{"content": "The fallout from the entry of Palestine into UNESCO continues. In addition to the US, bound by statute, removing their funds for UNESCO, Canada canceled its voluntary funding. The organization’s budget is probably close to 1/4 smaller than it was just a few days ago. And that can’t help but impact UNESCO’s work around the world.\n\nWhat’s more, Israel has responded, not by targeting the member states that voted for Palestine’s entry, but by thumbing their nose at Palestine:\n\nIsraeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has called for the accelerated construction of some 2,000 housing units in areas in the West Bank and around Jerusalem, an official statement said on Tuesday.\n\nThe statement came after Netanyahu called a special cabinet session to discuss the granting of full membership to the Palestinians by UNESCO, the U.N. cultural agency, a move opposed by Israel and the United States.\n\nA senior government official said after the meeting that the cabinet had also decided to halt money transfers to the Palestinians Authority as a temporary measure until a final decision was made.\n\n“You can’t demand from the Israeli public to continue to show restraint when the Palestinian leadership continues to slam the door in their face,” said the official, speaking on condition of anonymity.\n\nI think he has that the other way around. The door is being slammed in the Palestinian’s face, and has been for over 60 years. Faced with no hope and continued statelessness, the Palestinian Authority embarked on the only leverage they had left. And the result has been more anger and provocation. These are vengeful actions that reflect a pattern of abuse. Juan Cole adds:\n\nAs for the fall-out for the United States, an informed reader wrote to remind me that if the Palestinians are welcomed into other UN bodies, the US could well lose substantial influence and have its interests adversely affected. He notes that the International Telecommunication Union allocates radio spectrum usage globally, “including the spectrum reserved for military and commercial use.” The World Health Organization is clearly important to the US for combating epidemics. The World Meteorological Organization is a matrix of information about weather that has agricultural and military implications. The World Intellectual Property Organization recognizes patents and copyrights worldwide.\n\nThese sorts of UN organizations, which are, whether Americans want to recognize it or not, important to the United States, could be forced to expel the US and cease sharing information with it if it does not pay its dues. Congress in the 1990s, under the influence of the Israel lobbies, passed a law forbidding the US government from giving money to bodies that recognize Palestine.\n\nIf Israel wants to go down the road of an apartheid state, and the attendant global outcry that is sure to follow, they’re doing a good job, and the US is cheering them as they follow that path.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9820318818092346}
{"content": "\n\nDepth on different levels is so important to me. You look at a band like The Beatles, all their material has so much depth to it. And I want people to be able to run away with my melodies and get lost in them and take the lyrics and be able to relate to them.\n\nHaley Reinhart", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8631750345230103}
{"content": "Search our database of handpicked sites\n\n\nSearch results from our links database\nNext Prev\n\nShowing 41 - 50 of 171\n\nQuantum Time Development\n\nThis applet enables the user to show how a quantum wave packet develops with time.\n\nVisit Quantum Time Development\n\n\n\nHits: 1518\n\nHow aerogel will change the world\n\n\nVisit How aerogel will change the world\n\n\n\nHits: 1655\n\nSpace-time for beginners\n\nA quick guide to help you get to grips with Einstein’s concept of gravity and space-time.\n\nVisit Space-time for beginners\n\n\n\nHits: 283\n\nPositive Velocity and Positive Acceleration\n\nShows, by means of simple animation, the displacement time, velocity time, and acceleration time graphs for an object moving with positive velocity and positive acceleration.\n\nVisit Positive Velocity and Positive Acceleration\n\n\n\nHits: 2981\n\nBending sound, the weird path of sound in the ocean\n\nRead about how sound travels in the ocean, the SoFAR channel and one experiment to test how far could you hear a sound underwater.\n\nVisit Bending sound, the weird path of sound in the ocean\n\n\n\nHits: 1933\n\nTime Dilation\n\nExplanation of time dilation with example of two identical clocks moving relative to each other.\n\nVisit Time Dilation\n\n\n\nHits: 2438\n\nHow Time Works\n\nA fascinating, historical description of how Time works, how we meaure it and more from HowStuffWorks.com.\n\nVisit How Time Works\n\n\n\nHits: 880\n\n2 plus 2\n\nA new scheme that offers an unconventional route to studying physics or chemistry, for those without the usual qualifications. You study part-time for two years with the Open University, then for two ...\n\nVisit 2 plus 2\n\n\n\nHits: 713\n\nElectric Arc\n\nThe phenomena of an electric arc is when electricity travels from one object to another object through the air.\n\nVisit Electric Arc\n\n\n\nHits: 205\n\nSpeed of light\n\n\nVisit Speed of light\n\n\n\nHits: 2252\n\nNext Prev\n\nShowing 41 - 50 of 171", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5435595512390137}
{"content": "Do Your Lipstick Right\n\n\"Lipstick makes such a difference — never leave the house without it,\" says makeup genius Mally Roncal. Start with a soft rose, peach, or berry shade, then follow her how-tos so it lasts for hours.\n\n\n\nStep 3\n\nBlot your mouth with a tissue, then dab on a second coat of lipstick (don't swipe or you'll smudge your liner). To finish, pat your lips together several times like you're saying \"ma, ma, ma\" to distribute the shade evenly.\n\nTip: This (pictured) is the right way to tissue-blot (not between your lips).", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.6066091060638428}
{"content": "The latest headlines are awash with news of security breaches at major companies, including the likes of Morrisons, Target and Kickstarter.\n\nWe spoke to Catalin Cosoi, Chief Security Strategist at Bitdefender, about whether businesses can better educate their staff to be security aware, and how security strategies can be simplified..\n\nTechRadar Pro: Could the enterprise do better when it comes to the education of staff as far as IT security is concerned?\n\nCatalin Cosoi: The average enterprise does not train general staff in IT security matters and this is more or less as it should be. Training should be restricted to familiarisation with job-relevant security procedures, of which the fewer there are, the fewer there are to get wrong. IT staff on the other hand really should be more security-aware.\n\nTRP: How should training differ at different levels of the business? Should all employees receive the same level of education?\n\nCC: Generally speaking, an attacker will aim for the 'low-hanging fruit' first and will look to spear-phish the director's secretary, not the director himself – at least not initially. One of the jobs of IT security is to ensure that the gains are similarly low and that \"privilege escalation\" attacks are hard.\n\nThat being said, a small dose of operational paranoia instilled into key personnel can work wonders. To give an example of why education at all levels is so important, the HBGary \"hack\" was only possible because an administrator was a bit too trusting and accepting.\n\nTRP: What would Bitdefender consider to be best practice when it comes to IT security education for businesses and their staff?\n\nCC: Identify who needs to be educated and then think long and hard about what you want to teach. For example, training people to change their passwords often is pretty useless, while showing them how spear phishing works might be useful.\n\nKeep in mind that normally there is a tension between security and convenience and a harried middle manager will always choose convenience, unless training has convinced him or her that it is necessary to make such decisions in a conscious manner and that taking on security risks is not \"free\".\n\nTRP: Should network security now be reliant on more than just passwords following the recent news that researchers in Liverpool have created a computer virus that can spread via Wifi?\n\nCC: The Chameleon virus' potential to spread through networks \"like a common cold\" highlights the importance of having robust administrative security procedures in place; an area that is overlooked by many.\n\nOrganisations should take steps to ensure that critical infrastructure and routers are protected from this, and similar, virus threats and technology should be the element that makes the difference.\n\nHome routers and networks are actually beyond most people's IT administration skills, and as such the need to secure them doesn't even register. This is why passwords are often not secure enough.\n\nIn order to achieve true protection, security and maintenance should be simplified and automated as much as humanly possible. Things should just work securely out of the box, because most people don't have the time, inclination or indeed motivation to become network security professionals.\n\nTRP: What are considered industry gold standards in today's cloud security industry?\n\nCC: Despite industry efforts, cloud providers have yet to establish a standard framework to guide the interactions between enterprises and cloud service providers.\n\nThere are a number of organisations that ratify proposals for open standards and develop cloud security guidelines. Cloud Security Alliance (CSA) provides one of the industry's most comprehensible set of best practices for secure cloud computing.\n\nThe CSA has developed a compliance standard known as the CCM or Cloud Control Matrix, which describes various areas of cloud infrastructure including risk management and security threats.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8614975214004517}
{"content": "XLR8R - logo\n\nCanto 6\n\n\nMon.-Fri., 7:30a-6:30p; Sat.-Sun., 8a-5p\n\nOn weekends, Jamaica Plain residents line up out the door for this French-style bakery's special end-of-the-week treats, which have been known to include a blue-cheese-and-ham biscuit and specialty croissants, like pear and chocolate almond. During the week, it's a hotspot for breakfast coffee and pastries, and fancy lunchtime sandwiches are worth a mention, though its few tables can be occupied by the mom 'n' stroller set. Best to roll solo, or picnic in a nearby park.\n\n3346 Washington St., Jamaica Plain\n(617) 983-8688\n\nHave corrections or suggestions? Please email cityguide@xlr8r.com.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9080530405044556}
{"content": "The Daniel Plan Day 40: The Final Weigh In\n\ncrossroadsFeb 14 2014, 13 views\n\nThe 100 Huntley hosts did their final weigh in individually and we would say it's been a success! Collectively, we have lost 63lbs! Let's continue on and live strong for Jesus!\n\n\nPress the button\n\nif you liked the video! Thank you!\n\n\n\nEditor's Pick", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.995303213596344}
{"content": "\n\n[Xylo-SDR] The Poop\n\n\n\nHere is a little more information. It does require a computer restart. The virus program exploiting this is pretty bad as it will install a number of Trojans. Microsoft has been updating 1 time per month, and tomorrow is the next critical update release. They released this as a ‘single’ today due to the seriousness of the vulnerability.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSecurity Update for Windows XP (KB912919)\n\n\nTypical download size: 196 KB , less than 1 minute\nA remote code execution security issue has been identified in the Graphics Rendering Engine that could allow an attacker to remotely compromise your Windows-based system and gain control over it. You can help protect your computer by installing this update from Microsoft. After you install this item, you may have to restart your computer.  Details...", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5944962501525879}
{"content": "Leviathan Quiz\n\n\n\nDirections: Click on the correct answer.\n\nQuestions 1-5 of 25:\n\n\nWhat does Hobbes say is the first of four causes of spiritual darkness? (from Part 4 Chapter 44)\n\n\nWhat did the Jews do with the concept of demons they got from the Greeks? (from Part 4 Chapter 45)\n\n\nWhat does Hobbes say the goal of the Bible is? (from Part 3 Chapter 32 & 33)\n\n\nHow does Hobbes suggest the idea of philosophy began to grow? (from Part 4 Chapter 46 & 47)\n\n\nWhat do counsels for the aristocracy generally do? (from Part 2 Chapter 19)\n", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5630224943161011}
{"content": "\n\nIn general, the objects in the universe that are very high-energy objects, or the processes that are high-energy processes, will radiate more in the short wavelength range towards the gamma rays or the x-rays.\n\nClaude Nicollier", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9985440969467163}
{"content": "Search Langley\n\n\nText Size\n\nBlended Wing Body – A potential new aircraft design\n\nNASA and its industry partners are investigating a blended wing aircraft concept for potential use as a future air transport for both civilian and military applications. The concept is called the blended wing body (BWB). The BWB is a hybrid shape that resembles a flying wing, but also incorporates features from conventional transport aircraft. This combination offers several advantages over conventional tube-and wing airframes. The BWB airframe merges efficient high-lift wings with a wide airfoil-shaped body, allowing the entire aircraft to generate lift and minimize drag. This shape helps to increase fuel economy and creates larger payload (cargo or passenger) areas in the center body portion of the aircraft.\n\nThe basic concept for a blended wing body was first developed decades ago and variations of it have been used in the famous B-2 bomber (a blended wing) and the lesser-known YB-49 (a pure flying wing from the 1940’s). Like the B-2, the BWB design uses composite materials that are stronger and lighter than conventional metal construction. The BWB also has several control surfaces on the trailing edge, like the B-2, instead of the conventional tail assembly.\n\nBWB artist concept\nImage above is artist concept of one version of the blended wing body aircraft.\n\nThe BWB shape allows unique interior designs. Cargo can be loaded or passengers can board from the front or rear of the aircraft. The cargo or passenger area is distributed across the wide fuselage, providing a large usable volume. For passengers in the interior of the craft, real-time video at every seat would take the place of window seats.\n\nNASA and industry studies suggest that a large commercial BWB aircraft could be developed. Because of its efficient configuration, the BWB would consume over 20 percent less fuel than a comparable conventional aircraft flying at high subsonic cruise speeds over a 7,000 nautical-mile range. An aircraft of this type would have a wingspan slightly greater than a Boeing 747 and could operate from existing airport terminals. The BWB would also weigh less, generate less noise and emissions, and cost less to operate than an equally advanced conventional transport aircraft.\n\nNASA BWB Research\n\nNASA is studying the flying characteristics of the BWB. Because it is a configuration that has only been used in military missions, there are a number of critical questions that researchers must address before a BWB can be commercially certified. The primary goals of the research are to study the flight and handling characteristics of the BWB design, match the vehicle's performance with engineering predictions based on computer and wind tunnel studies, develop and evaluate digital flight controls, and assess the integration of the propulsion system to the airframe. Future research must also address the wide, flat pressurized payload bay of the BWB.\n\nOver the past several years, wind tunnel and freeflight model tests have been conducted to study particular aerodynamic characteristics of the BWB design. At the NASA Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia, researchers tested five wind tunnel models of three versions of the BWB to evaluate the concept's aerodynamic, noise, stability and control, and spin and tumble characteristics. Data obtained during these tests were used to develop computer performance models and flight control laws. The researchers will incorporate all wind tunnel (and later flight) data into simulations of a full-scale BWB to evaluate the flying characteristics.\n\nBWB scale model tests\nA scale model of an early blended wing body design was tested in one of the NASA Langley wind tunnels.\n\nResearch and Test Team\n\nThe NASA BWB Project is managed by Langley Research Center.\n\nThe BWB shape, called the outer mold line, was developed by The Boeing Phantom Works of Huntington Beach, California.\n\nThe Langley Full Scale Tunnel operated by Old Dominion University will be used for free-flight model tests of the BWB.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9400184154510498}
{"content": "Secondhand smoke remains unfiltered threat\n\nWhile many smokers take precautions like only lighting up in an isolated room, on a porch or in the yard, those steps seldom eliminate the dangers that nicotine and other chemicals from burning tobacco pose to infants and children. These range from increased risks for respiratory infections and Sudden Infant Death Syndrome to higher lifetime risks for cancer.\n\nBut short of setting up an array of lab sensors in the home, there's no way to tell how much smoke residue is entering a particular space.\n\nNow, researchers at Dartmouth University report they've come up with a prototype sensor sensitive and compact enough to use just about anywhere.\n\nSmaller and lighter than a cell phone, the prototype -- developed in the lab of chemistry professor Joseph BelBruno -- can fit in the palm of the hand. It uses polymer films to collect, trap and measure nicotine levels in the air. The project was described in the March issue of the journal Nicotine and Tobacco Research.\n\nWhile a patent is pending for the first device, BelBruno expects that a consumer version will eventually be available featuring a computer processor, a rechargeable battery and perhaps a screen to show immediate readouts.\n\nOutside of the home, the devices could be used commercially in places where smoking is banned, such as hotel rooms, rental cars and restaurants.\n\nSecondhand smoke combines smoke from the burning end of a cigarette and the smoke exhaled by tobacco users. Thirdhand smoke is the tobacco residue left behind after smoking that can build up on clothing, walls, curtains, furniture and other surfaces. The residue can return to the air and cause harm long after active smoking has stopped.\n\nThere is no risk-free level of exposure to secondhand smoke. According to the federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, secondhand smoke contains more than 7,000 chemicals. Hundreds of these are toxic and about 70 cause cancer. Nonsmokers exposed to secondhand smoke face a 20 to 30 percent increased risk of developing lung cancer.\n\nSignificant exposure to toxic chemicals from secondhand smoke can happen in as little as 10 to 20 minutes.\n\nSimply breathing in a smoky bar or car can constrict a healthy adult's airway in as little as 20 minutes, researchers at the University of Athens in Greece found. They tested subjects in a chamber simulating the exposure to smoke particulates, and reported their findings at the American College of Chest Physicians' annual meeting in October.\n\nSpending just 10 minutes in the back seat of a car with a smoker in front boosts a child's daily exposure to harmful pollutants by up to 30 percent, another study found. The study, published in November by the journal Tobacco, measured pollutant levels in 22 tests inside a stationary vehicle and found levels higher than those found in bars, restaurants and casinos.\n\nTests were done with front car windows all the way down and partially open. In both cases, pollutant levels were three times as high as those measured outside the car, taking into account both tobacco and vehicle emissions.\n\nThe CDC recommends that parents forbid smoking around their children, particularly in the home or car, and avoid restaurants or other indoor spaces that allow smoking.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5773769617080688}
{"content": "Chemistry: A Volatile History\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nChemistry: A Volatile History\nGenre History of science\nPresented by Jim Al-Khalili\nStarring Andrea Sella\nNarrated by Jim Al-Khalili\nOriginal language(s) English\nNo. of episodes 3\nRunning time 60 minutes\nProduction company(s) BBC\nOriginal channel BBC Four\nOriginal airing 21 January 2010 (2010-01-21)\nExternal links\n\n\n\nEpisode 1: Discovering the Elements[edit]\n\n\nOnly in the last 200 years have we known what an element is – a substance that cannot be broken down further by chemical reaction.\n\nThe Ancient Greeks, with no way of breaking open substances, could only base their ideas of the elements on what they could see: Earth, Fire, Water and Air.\n\nIn the 16th century alchemists were busy trying to turn base metals like lead, into gold.\n\nParacelsus and the Tri Prima[edit]\n\nIt was the Swiss alchemist and surgeon Paracelsus who first challenged the Ancient Greek idea of four elements.\n\nIn 1526 Paracelsus was in Basel, when the famous printer Frobenius was told he would have to have his leg amputated in a life-saving operation. Instead of accepting the received wisdom, he called upon Paracelsus who cured him in the unconventional way of using his alchemical knowledge. This established him as a radical thinker, giving weight to his ideas, principal amongst which was the idea that the world was actually made of three elements: the tria prima comprising salt, sulphur and mercury.\n\nParacelsus did not succeed in convincing the establishment – instead he managed to enrage them by burning their established medical texts, and eventually had to flee Switzerland for Germany.\n\nIt was, however, the alchemical pursuit for gold that led to the first breakthrough in the hunt for new elements.\n\nHennig Brand and the Icy Noctiluca[edit]\n\nIn 1669 Brand was looking for a way of extracting gold from the human body, and struck upon the idea of using urine, thinking that urine might contain some part of the ‘life force’ vital to sustaining human life. To get rid of the unimportant parts, primarily water, Brand boiled the urine for several days until he was left with a thick paste. Finally, fragments of a substance emerged which burned brighter than any Medieval candle available at the time, but which left the vessel it burnt in cold: Brand named this new substance icy noctiluca – ‘cold night light’.\n\nSoon after its discovery, icy noctiluca toured the Royal Houses of Europe and in 1677 it came before the Royal Society in London, then under the chairmanship of Charles II, where one of its members decided to investigate.\n\nIn his book New Experiments and Observations Made Upon the Icy Noctiluca Robert Boyle describes an experiment in which sulphur and phosphorus powders are mixed causing them to burn fiercely. This discovery was the basis for the invention of the match.\n\nPhosphorus, as icy noctiluca is now known, is used in everything from match heads to toothpaste and ultimately in the Second World War bombs which destroyed the very city in which Brand discovered it – Hamburg.\n\nWhilst Brand never discovered gold, his accidental discovery of the element now known as phosphorus gave rise to the idea that elements could be hidden inside other substances.\n\nRobert Boyle and The Sceptical Chemist[edit]\n\nMore than a decade earlier in 1661, a year after the Royal Society opened, Boyle deposited The Sceptical Chemist in its vaults. This book is usually regarded as the turning point that signalled the transition from alchemy to chemistry. The Sceptical Chemist was innovative in several ways: it was not written in Latin, as had been the tradition for alchemical books, but in English; it dispensed with the old alchemical symbols for various elements, using English names instead; and most crucially it was actually published, as opposed to kept secret.\n\nBoyle was willing to share his discoveries to allow others to build on his work and further the scientific understanding of the elements. He wanted to put alchemy on a more scientific footing – ditching the metaphysical baggage it had brought with it from the previous century.\n\nUnfortunately, this new age of chemical enlightenment was fraught with blind alleys.\n\nJohann Becher and Phlogiston[edit]\n\nIn 1667 the German scientist Johann Becker proposed that fire was caused by an ethereal, odourless, tasteless, colourless, weightless entity called phlogiston. The idea was that phlogiston causes things to burn, reducing them to their pure form. For example, burning wood releases phlogiston, leaving the pure form of wood – ash, therefore wood is composed of ash (pure wood) and phlogiston.\n\nPhlogiston was accepted as scientific truth, paralysing the scientific community’s ability to discover more, true elements. One scientist even claimed to have isolated phlogiston.\n\nHenry Cavendish and Inflammable Air[edit]\n\nA major shareholder in the Bank of England with royal connections, Henry Cavendish was a painfully shy character, who made the vital chemical contribution of discovering the first elemental gas.\n\nHe added some zinc to spirit of salt (hydrochloric acid) and collected the evanescence given off as bubbles. The gas he collected was tasteless, odourless and colourless, and moreover it produced a squeaky pop in the presence of a flame – this led Cavendish to name the gas inflammable air, which he believed to be one and the same as phlogiston.\n\nCavendish made an important observation, though little did he realise it, about burning phlogiston in air, a dewy liquid was formed on the inside of the glassware: water. This should have had enormous repercussions for the whole scientific community in the 1700s, who still believed water to be an elemental substance. Yet, if water could be made by burning inflammable air, then water is not an element, but a compound.\n\nHowever, it simply did not occur to Cavendish that water was a compound – instead he assumed that the airs contained a form of water, which phlogiston modified into liquid, elemental water.\n\nPhlogiston had given the Ancient Greek idea of water as an element a brief reprieve, but the Greek system was now under heavy scrutiny as the Royal Society commissioned its members to investigate the invisible airs.\n\nJoseph Priestley and Dephlogisticated Air[edit]\n\nBy the mid-1700s there were three known ‘airs’:\n\n  • Common air – the air we breathe;\n  • Cavendish’s inflammable air;\n  • Fixed air.\n\nIt was this last air which caught the attention of Joseph Priestley, a Unitarian minister whose favourite pastime was the investigation of airs – specifically, fixed air, given off by the fermentation process in breweries.\n\nPriestley’s passion for science led to an invitation to Bowood House, to tutor the children of Lord Shelburne. This was an excellent opportunity, given that Priestley did not have the money of earlier chemists like Boyle and Cavendish, and would still be free to pursue his own research.\n\nIn 1774 Priestley performed a hugely important experiment: he heated mercuric calc and collected the gas given off. He discovered that this gas was able to relight the embers of a previously lit wooden splint. He concluded that the splint was introducing phlogiston to the gas, only after which could it burn, therefore the gas must be ‘without phlogiston’ – this led Priestley to name it dephlogisticated air.\n\nIn October 1775 Priestley accompanied Lord Shelburne on a trip to Paris where they were invited to dine with the preeminent scientists of the time. It is here that Priestley met the French scientist Antoine Lavoisier.\n\nAntoine Lavoisier and the end of Phlogiston[edit]\n\nPriestley told Lavoisier all the details of his experiments upon the production of dephlogisticated air. Unlike Priestley, Lavoisier had one of the best equipped laboratories in Europe and now turned his attention to the highly accurate measurement of the masses of substances before and after they were heated.\n\nLavoisier weighted a sample of tin, then reweighed after he had heated it and found it had increased in mass. This was an unexpected result given that the tin was thought to have released phlogiston during the burning process. Lavoisier was struck with a ground-breaking thought – maybe the tin had absorbed something from the air, making it heavier, but if so, what?\n\nTo investigate this further, Lavoisier reran Priestley’s experiment in reverse – he heated some mercury in a sealed container until it turned into mercuric calc and measured the amount of air absorbed. He then heated the mercuric calc and measured the amount of air released and discovered the quantities were the same. Lavoisier realised that something was absorbed from the air when mercury was heated to make mercuric calc, and that same gas was released when the mercuric calc was heated. Lavoisier concluded that this gas was unrelated to phlogiston, but was in fact a brand new element, which he named oxygen.\n\nLavoisier had successfully dispensed with the need for the theory of phlogiston and recognised Priestley’s ‘dephlogisticated air’ as the element oxygen. Despite the fact it was Priestley’s original work that laid the foundations for his discovery, Lavoisier claimed he had discovered oxygen; Priestley, after all, had failed to recognise it as a new element.\n\nTable from the English translation of Lavoisier's Traité élémentaire de chimie, 2 vols. Chez Cuchet, Paris (1789). Translated from the French by Robert Kerr, Elements of Chemistry, 4th edition. William Creech, Edinburgh: (1790).\n\nLavoisier went on to give science its first definition of an element: a substance that cannot be decomposed by existing chemical means. He also set about drawing up a list of all the elements – now 33 elements replaced the ancient four. His list was grouped into four categories: gases, non-metals, metals and earths.\n\nOn top of this, Lavoisier created a classification system for the ever increasing array of chemicals being discovered. As mentioned, ‘dephlogisticated air’ became oxygen, ‘inflammable air’ became hydrogen, but the nomenclature of compounds was also put on a more logical footing as ‘oil of vitriol’ became sulphuric acid, ‘philosophical wool’ became zinc oxide and ‘astringent mars saffron’ became iron oxide.\n\nUnfortunately, whilst Lavoisier had rid the world of the phlogiston paradigm, he introduced two new erroneous elements now known to be pure energy: lumière and calorique; light and heat.\n\nIn revenge for his sympathies with the revolutionaries in France, Priestley’s home in England was targeted by arsonists in 1791, luckily he escaped thanks to a tip-off, but decided to flee to America. Lavoisier’s contributions to science were cut short in 1794 by the revolutionaries, who arrested him on grounds of being an enemy of the French people, and had him guillotined.\n\nHumphry Davy and Potash[edit]\n\nIn 1807, the Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution in London was the Cornishman Humphry Davy. He was investigating crystalline salts of potash because he was unconvinced potash was an element, but by the end of the previous century, Lavoisier had been unable to break it down further.\n\nSince then however, the first electric battery had recently been invented (rows of metal plates and cardboard soaked in saltwater). Although scientists were aware that the production of a continuous electric current was due to some property of the metals, Davy believed that a chemical reaction was taking place. If that was true, then maybe the reverse was also true: an electric current could cause a chemical reaction.\n\nDavy heated the potash until it was liquid, then introduced two electrodes and passed a current through the molten potash. A lilac flame was observed, the result of successfully breaking down potash into its constituent elements – one of which, was the previously never before seen element potassium.\n\nDavy went on to add six new elements to Lavoisier’s list, as well as confirming that substances like chlorine and iodine were also elements. By the time of his death in 1829 the idea of the elements was firmly established, 55 separate elements had been discovered, and the world had a new science: Chemistry.\n\nEpisode 2: The Order of the Elements[edit]\n\n\nAt the beginning of the 19th century only 55 of the 92 naturally occurring elements had been discovered. Scientists had no idea how many more they might find, or indeed if there were an infinite number of elements. They also sought to answer a fundamental question, namely: is there a pattern to the elements?\n\nJohn Dalton’s Atoms[edit]\n\nDalton's atomic symbols, from his own books.\n\nScientists had recently discovered that when elements combine to form compounds, they always do so in the same proportions, by weight. John Dalton thought that for this to happen, each element had to be made of its own unique building blocks, which he called atoms.\n\nDalton suggested that everything in the universe was made of atoms, and that there are as many kinds of atoms as there are elements, each one with its own signature weight. Based on these ideas, working completely alone, Dalton attempted to impose some order on the elements by drawing up a list, where each element was represented by an alchemical-looking symbol, ordered by atomic weight.\n\nAlthough Dalton did not get all his atomic weights correct, he was pointing science in the right direction. Sadly, in the early 1800s few scientists accepted the idea that elements had different weights.\n\nJöns Jacob Berzelius’ Pursuit of Atomic Weights[edit]\n\nThe Swedish scientist Berzelius was one of the few scientists who strongly believed in the idea of atomic weights, and thought that knowing as much as possible about their weights was vitally important. When he heard of Dalton’s theory, he set about the gargantuan task of measuring the atomic weight of every single known element – without any proof that Dalton’s atoms actually existed.\n\nThis was even more challenging than it first seems once you consider the fact that very little of the chemical glassware necessary for such precise measurements had been invented. Berzelius had to manufacture much of it himself.\n\nBerzelius’ experiences with glass-blowing had an additional bonus, in 1824 he discovered that one of the constituents of glass was a new element – silicon. Having already discovered three other elements prior to silicon: thorium, cerium and selenium, Berzelius spent the next ten years obsessively measuring more than two thousand chemical compounds in pursuit of accurate atomic weights for the elements. Eventually Berzelius had remarkably accurate atomic weights for 45 elements; his value for chlorine was accurate to within 0.2% of the value we know today.\n\nHowever, by the time Berzelius had produced his results, other scientists were now measuring atomic weights – and getting conflicting results. In fact, scientists were looking for all sorts of patterns throughout the elements.\n\nJohann Döbereiner’s Triads[edit]\n\nOne such pattern hunter was German chemist Johann Döbereiner. He believed the key to understanding the elements lay not with their atomic weights but with their chemical properties. He noticed that one could often single out three elements that exhibited similar properties, such as the alkali metals, which he called triads.\n\nThe problem was that Döbereiner’s triads only worked for a few of the elements and got scientists no further than atomic weights.\n\nDmitri Mendeleev moves to St Petersburg[edit]\n\nIn 1848 a huge fire destroyed the factory of the widow Maria Mendeleeva. Facing destitution she decided to embark on the 1,300 mile journey from Western Siberia to St Petersburg – walking a significant portion of the route – so her son Dmitri Mendeleev could continue his education in the capital of the Russian Empire.\n\nAt the time the scientific community was grappling with the problem of how to bring order to the 63 elements that were now known. Mendeleev was still a student when he attended the world’s first international chemistry conference – convened to settle the confusion surrounding atomic weights.\n\nStanislao Cannizzaro’s Standard for Measuring Atomic Weights[edit]\n\nSicilian chemist Stanislao Cannizzaro was still convinced that atomic weights held the key to the order of the elements and had found a new way of measuring them. Cannizzaro knew that equal volumes of gases contain equal numbers of particles, therefore instead of working with solids and liquids and all the unreliability that entails, he proposed measuring the densities of gases to measure the weights of individual gaseous atoms.\n\nWhereas Berzelius’ results had failed to convince anyone, Cannizzaro’s method set an agreed standard for measuring atomic weights accurately. Chemists soon found that even with accurate atomic weights, the elements still seemed unordered, but then, a solitary English chemist made a curious discovery.\n\nJohn Newland’s Octaves[edit]\n\nVisualization of John Newlands' Law of Octaves.\n\nIn 1863 John Newlands noticed that when ordered by weight, every eighth element seemed to share similar properties, such as carbon and silicon in the sequence: carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, sodium, magnesium and silicon. He called this a Law of Octaves.\n\nThree years later, in 1866, he presented his ideas to the Chemical Society, unfortunately for Newlands, the musical analogy was not well received – the audience suggesting he might as well have ordered the elements alphabetically.\n\nToday, Newland’s Octaves are known as the Law of Periodicity, and Mendeleev was thinking along the same lines.\n\nMendeleev’s Periodic Table[edit]\n\nBy 1869 Mendeleev had been trying to find an order for the elements for a decade. One day he struck upon the idea of making up a pack of cards with the elements’ names on and began playing a game he called ‘chemical solitaire’. He began laying out the cards, over and over, just to see if he could form a pattern where everything fitted together.\n\nTo date, chemists had tried to group elements in one of two ways:\n\n  • By their atomic weights (Berzelius’ and Cannizzaro’s Atomic Weights);\n  • By their chemical properties (Döbereiner’s Triads and Newland’s Octaves).\n\nMendeleev’s genius was to combine those two methods together. However, the odds were stacked against him – little more than half the known elements had been discovered: he was playing with an incomplete deck of cards.\n\nHe stayed up for three days and nights then, finally, on 17 February 1869, he fell asleep and dreamt of all 63 known elements laid out in a grand table.\n\nDmitri Mendeleev's periodic table from 1871 with gaps (-) left for new elements.\n\nMendeleev’s table reveals the relationship between all the elements in their order:\n\n  • Atomic weights increase reading from left to right;\n  • Triads and Octaves are visible reading down the columns.\n\nNotice carbon and silicon are in Group IV and the volatile gases fluorine, chlorine and bromine are in Group VII.\n\nMendeleev was sufficiently confident in the layout of his table that he was willing to leave gaps for unknown elements to make the pattern fit – believing other elements would later be discovered that filled the gaps.\n\n  • After Calcium (Ca, weight 40) he left a gap, predicting a metallic element slightly heavier than calcium;\n  • After Zinc (Zn, weight 65) he left a gap, predicting a metal with a low melting point and atomic weight 68;\n  • Immediately after that gap, he left a further gap, predicting another metal, dark grey in colour.\n\nSo, for Mendeleev to be vindicated, the gaps needed to be filled, and luckily, in 1859, new instrumentation had been developed for discovering elements.\n\nBunsen’s Burner and Kirchhoff’s Spectrometer[edit]\n\nRobert Bunsen knew that when certain elements burned in the flames of his burner they each turned the flame a different colour. Copper burned green, strontium red and potassium lilac – Bunsen wondered if every element had a unique colour.\n\nBunsen was joined in his research by Gustav Kirchhoff. Kirchhoff used the concept of the dispersion of white light by a prism in the invention of the spectroscope, a device with a prism at its centre which split the light from Bunsen’s flames into distinct bands of its constituent colours – the element’s spectral lines.\n\nKirchhoff and Bunsen realised these spectral lines were unique to each element, and, using this technique they discovered two new elements, cesium and rubidium.\n\nPaul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran discovers Gallium[edit]\n\nIn 1875 the Parisian chemist Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran used a spectroscope to discover a new metallic element. It was a silvery-white, soft metal with an atomic weight of 68, which he named gallium, after his native France. It also turned out to have a very low melting point, thus matching all the expected properties of the element Mendeleev expected to fill the gap he had left after zinc; indeed, this is exactly where the element was placed in the periodic table.\n\nEven though Mendeleev had left the necessary gap for gallium as well as other elements, it was becoming clear there was an entire group that was missing altogether.\n\nPierre Janssen and Norman Lockyer discover Helium[edit]\n\nIn 1868, the French astronomer Pierre Janssen travelled to India in time for the total solar eclipse that occurred in August of that year. As well as his telescope, he also went equipped with a spectroscope, to study the spectral lines of the light emitted from the sun. Normally, due to the intensity of sunlight many weaker spectral lines are not visible next to the extreme brightness of the stronger lines. Janssen hoped that he would observe more spectral lines during the eclipse when the sun’s light was less intense.\n\nThe eclipse allowed Janssen to observe a spectral line never seen before, which was not associated with any known element. The same spectral line was confirmed by the English astronomer Norman Lockyer, who thinking the element only existed in the sun, named it helium, after the Greek Sun God.\n\nHowever, it wasn’t long before another British scientist had discovered helium on Earth.\n\nWilliam Ramsay discovers the noble gases[edit]\n\nBy dissolving the radioactive ore cleveite in acid, William Ramsay was able to collect a gas trapped within the rock, which had an atomic weight of 4, and the same spectral lines which Lockyer had observed: helium. Prior to this, Ramsay had already isolated a new gas from the atmosphere; argon, with an atomic weight of 40.\n\nA problem now arose – Mendeleev had not left any gaps which were suitable for either of these two new elements, which led Ramsay to conclude an entire group was missing from the periodic table – only two of whose members were now known to exist, helium and argon.\n\nRamsey successfully discovered all the other stable elements in the group which he named neon (Greek for new), krypton (Greek for hidden) and xenon (Greek for stranger). All the elements of this new group had one overwhelming characteristic; their lack of reactivity. It was this particular characteristic that brought to mind a name for the new group: the noble gases.\n\nMendeleev vindicated[edit]\n\nMendeleev’s statue and his periodic table in St Petersburg.\n\nMendeleev’s periodic table had brought order to all the elements, allowing him to make predictions that future scientists tested and found to be true. By the time he died he was world-renowned in chemistry. His periodic table was set in stone in St Petersburg and an element was eventually named after him: mendelevium.\n\nThe periodic table does not however tell us why some elements are highly reactive, others completely inert, why some are volatile, whilst others less so. It wasn’t until the beginning of the 20th century that an entirely different branch of science began to unravel the answers to these questions.\n\nNiels Bohr’s fixed shell model[edit]\n\nIn 1909, the physicist Ernest Rutherford proposed the structure of the atom was like that of a solar system: mostly empty space with electrons floating around a dense nucleus.\n\nSubsequently the Danish Physicist Niels Bohr introduced the idea that electrons occupied \"fixed shells\" around the nucleus, which was further developed when it was suggested that each such shell could only accommodate a fixed number of electrons: 2 in the first shell; 8 in the second shell; 18 in the third shell, and so on, each shell holding an increasing number of electrons.\n\nThe chemical behaviour of all elements is explained by the number of electrons in their outer shells: to increase the energetic stability of their electron configurations atoms have a tendency to gain or lose electrons in such a way so as to achieve a full outer shell. Sodium, with 11 electrons – one in its outer-most occupied shell, will transfer an electron in the presence of fluorine to its outer-most occupied shell, which contains seven electrons. The result is both sodium and fluorine now have a full outer shell, and Sodium Fluoride is formed.\n\nThis theory explained why all elements react in the way they do and why some formed the compounds they do, while others did not. It also explained why elements had the physical properties they did, which in turn explained why the periodic table had the shape it did. However, there was one fundamental question left unanswered: how many elements were there – could there be an infinite number of elements between Hydrogen and Uranium?\n\nHenry Moseley’s proton numbers[edit]\n\nEarly 20th century chemist Henry Moseley speculated that the answer to the number of elements lay in the nucleus. By firing a radioactive source at copper, he was able to knock electrons from their atoms, releasing a burst of energy in the form of an x-ray. When measured, the x-rays always had the same energy, unique to copper. He discovered each element released x-rays of different energies. Moseley’s brilliance was to realise the x-ray energy is related to the number of protons inside the atom: the atomic number.\n\nBecause this is the number of protons, the atomic number must be a whole number – there cannot be any fractional values. Moseley realised it was the atomic number, not the atomic weight that determines the order of the elements. What’s more, because the atomic number increases in whole numbers from one element to the next there can be no extra elements between Hydrogen (atomic number 1) and Uranium (atomic number 92) – there can only be 92 elements, there is no room for any more.\n\nMoseley was just 26 when he completed this research. Aged 27 he was killed in action during the First World War – shot through the head by a sniper.\n\nEpisode 3: The Power of the Elements[edit]\n\n\nJust 92 elements combine to form all the compounds on Earth. Iron, when combined with chromium, carbon and nickel makes stainless steel. Glass is made of silicon and oxygen.\n\nSince prehistoric times, people have been engaging in ‘bucket chemistry’ – adding all sorts of chemicals together, just to see what would happen. As a result, many early discoveries in chemistry were accidental.\n\nHeinrich Diesbach produces the first synthetic paint[edit]\n\nIn 18th century Prussia, Heinrich Diesbach was trying to produce a synthetic red paint. He started by heating potash (potassium carbonate), with no idea that his potash had been contaminated with blood. When heated, the proteins in blood are altered, allowing them to combine with the iron in the blood, whilst the carbonate reacts with the haemoglobin to produce a solid.\n\nAfter heating the resulting solid to an ash, filtering and diluting, Diesbach added green vitriol (iron sulphate) to create a complex ion: ferric ferrocyanide. Finally, adding spirit of salt (hydrochloric acid) draws out a brilliant colour: Prussian Blue.\n\nJustus von Liebig and Friedrich Wöhler encounter isomerism[edit]\n\nEver since seeing fireworks as a child, another German chemist, Justus von Liebig, had become obsessed with trying to better understand the elements by creating explosive combinations. Specifically, he was interested in the explosive compound silver fulminate.\n\nIn 1825 he read a paper written by Friedrich Wöhler in which he describes a compound called silver cyanate, made in equal parts of silver, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen, which he described as harmless and stable. Von Liebig immediately wrote back a furious letter condemning Wöhler as a hopeless analyst: those elements combined in equal proportions were exactly what made the explosive silver fulminate.\n\nInstead of backing down, Wöhler challenged von Liebig to make silver cyanate for himself. The results would have astounded him – the same elements that combined according to von Liebig’s method, when combined according to Wöhler’s method made two completely different compounds.\n\nWöhler and von Liebig had inadvertently discovered isomerism: the same number of atoms of the same elements combining in different ways to make different compounds. In time, this would explain how just 92 elements could make the vast array of compounds we know today.\n\nChemists started to realise that understanding the arrangement of atoms within compounds was crucial if they wished to design new compounds, and the first step in this direction was taken by studying carbon.\n\nSmithson Tennant discovers what diamonds are made of[edit]\n\nIn 1796 Smithson Tennant was experimenting on diamonds when he decided to burn one. Using only sunlight and a magnifying glass he managed to ignite a diamond sufficiently for it to produce a gas, which he collected and was able to identify as carbon dioxide.\n\nHaving started with only diamond and oxygen, and produced a gas which contains only carbon and oxygen, Tennant had discovered that diamonds are made of carbon.\n\nUnaware of atomic theory at the time, scientists were unable to explain how carbon, already known to exist as one of the softest substances in the form of graphite, could also be the sole constituent element of the hardest known substance: diamond.\n\nExactly 50 years later, a young Scottish chemist discovered there are no prizes in Science for coming second.\n\nArchibald Scott Couper formulates the theory of chemical bonds[edit]\n\nIn 1856 Archibald Scott Couper went to work for a French chemist, Charles-Adolphe Wurtz. Whilst in Paris he came up with the idea of links between atoms that could explain how individual atoms formed compounds. He called these links bonds. Somehow, Couper realised that carbon can form four bonds, thereby attaching itself with different strengths to other carbon atoms in a compound:\n\n  • In diamond all four bonds are connected to other carbon atoms in three-dimensions, making it so hard.\n  • In graphite only three bonds are connected to other carbon atoms in a two-dimensional hexagonal lattice, allowing layers to slide over each other, making graphite soft.\n\nThe ability of carbon to form four bonds also means it can exist in a huge variety of chemical structures, such as long chains and even rings, making it a rarity amongst the elements. This helped to explain the abundance of carbon in all life forms, from protein and fat, to DNA and cellulose, and why carbon exists in more compounds than any other element.\n\nAll that remained for Couper was to get his paper published...\n\nFriedrich Kekulé formulates the same theory of chemical bonds[edit]\n\nFriedrich Kekulé was a German scientist who spent some time studying in London. It was apparently whilst riding a London bus he struck upon the idea of atoms ‘holding hands’ to form long chains. Kekulé rushed to compose a paper formalising his ideas on an equivalent theory of chemical bonds.\n\nMeanwhile in Paris, Wurtz had been slow to publish Couper’s paper and Kekulé, whose work appeared in print first, claimed all the credit. When Couper discovered Wurtz had delayed in sending his paper to be published he flew into a rage and was promptly expelled from the laboratory by Wurtz.\n\nThe crushing disappointment at having lost out on his chance of scientific recognition led him first to withdraw from Science and then to suffer a nervous breakdown. He spent years in and out of an asylum.\n\nHowever, now that scientists were beginning to understand the way carbon combines with itself and other elements, it was possible to create new compounds by design and industrial chemistry was born.\n\nWallace Carothers invents nylon[edit]\n\nTwo decades after the world’s first plastic – Bakelite – had been invented in 1907, Wallace Carothers successfully drew off a fibre from the interface of two liquids: hexane-1,6-diamine and decanedioyl-dichloride, which could be spun into a very fine, very strong thread. It was given the name nylon.\n\nShockingly, only three weeks after the patent for nylon had been filed, a depressed Carothers slipped another carbon based compound into his own drink, potassium cyanide, and killed himself.\n\nEvidently, industrial chemistry wasn’t without its downsides, and one chemist was arguably responsible for single-handedly polluting the entire Earth with lead.\n\nThomas Midgley Junior prevents engines from knocking[edit]\n\nIn his capacity as an engineer with General Motors, Thomas Midgley experimented with a myriad of different compounds, which he added to petrol in an attempt to prevent engines from knocking. Eventually, he discovered one compound that worked brilliantly: tetraethyllead.\n\nBy the 1970s the use of leaded petrol was ubiquitous worldwide, but research was emerging about the damage that it was doing to humans and the environment. In 1983, a Royal Commission asked the question: \"Is there any part of the Earth’s surface, or any form of life that remains uncontaminated?\"\n\nToday nearly all petrol is unleaded, although lead lives on in motor vehicles in their batteries.\n\nHenri Becquerel discovers radioactivity[edit]\n\nIn 1896 the French scientist Henri Becquerel was working with uranium crystals when he found UV light made them glow. Leaving the uranium crystals on an unexposed photographic plate overnight, he returned the next morning to discover they had caused the part of the plate they were sat on to develop.\n\nBecquerel correctly reasoned the only source of energy that could have caused this was the crystals themselves. He had discovered radioactivity, and a young Polish scientist began to investigate.\n\nMarie Curie investigates radioactivity[edit]\n\nMarie Curie began her investigations by testing a uranium ore called pitchblende with an electrometer. She discovered it was four times more radioactive than pure uranium, and wondered if this was due to the presence of an even more radioactive element in the pitchblende.\n\nCurie began stockpiling tonnes of pitchblende, then in the most basic of workshops with primitive equipment she undertook a multitude of complex and dangerous procedures in an attempt to isolate this new element.\n\nIn the event, Curie discovered two new elements, polonium named after her native Poland and radium. Whilst these were naturally occurring elements, they fuelled a scientific desire to create entirely new, artificial elements.\n\nErnest Rutherford explains radioactivity[edit]\n\nAt the beginning of the 20th century it was widely believed that atoms never change: an atom of one element stayed that way forever. Rutherford had already revealed the structure of an atom to consist mostly of empty space with a dense nucleus of protons at the centre, and Henry Mosley had shown that it is the number of protons that gives an atom its identity as a particular element. An atom of the element carbon has 6 protons, whilst an atom with 7 protons is one of nitrogen.\n\nRutherford came to the conclusion that the number of protons in a radioactive element could change – through a process of decay where parts of the nucleus are ejected from the atom. Rutherford named these fragments of ejected nucleus alpha particles.\n\nRutherford realised that if an atom is losing protons, its identity is changing at the same time, since an atom’s identity is governed by its proton number. Radioactive decay causes atoms of one element to transmute into atoms of a different element. He then sought to artificially engineer a specific transmutation.\n\nRutherford fixed a source of alpha particles – each of which contains two protons – at one end of a cylindrical chamber. At the other end he fixed a screen. Each time an alpha particle reached the screen it produced a flash. He then introduced nitrogen into the chamber and observed additional, different flashes on the screen. Occasionally, an alpha particle would collide with a nitrogen nucleus and get absorbed by it, knocking out a proton in the process. These protons then travelled on through the chamber to the screen to produce the additional flashes.\n\nHowever, the nucleus of nitrogen – having absorbed two protons but lost only one – had gained a proton and become a nucleus of oxygen. Rutherford’s work gave hope to scientists trying to create new elements, but one final discovery about the atom was necessary.\n\nIn 1932 the Cambridge scientist James Chadwick discovered the neutron – electrically neutral particles which also sit inside the nucleus along with the protons.\n\nEnrico Fermi claims to have made elements heavier than uranium[edit]\n\nNow in Italy, Enrico Fermi – nicknamed ‘the pope’ by his colleagues for his infallibility, realised the potential of the newly discovered neutron in the search for elements heavier than uranium. Until now, scientists had been bombarding uranium with alpha particles in the hope they would enter the nucleus. Unfortunately, this was very unlikely because both alpha particles and nuclei are positively charged – the alpha particles could never overcome the electrostatic repulsion of the nucleus.\n\nFermi reasoned that because neutrons carried no electric charge, they would have a much better chance of penetrating the nucleus of a uranium atom. So Fermi set about firing neutrons at uranium. Fermi thought that this, coupled with his knowledge of beta decay, whereby an unstable nucleus attempts stabilisation by converting one neutron to a proton and ejecting a newly formed electron, would result in an element with one extra proton than uranium: element 93.\n\nIndeed, Fermi discovered elements he did not recognise. He tested for elements below uranium in the periodic table: radon, actinium, polonium, as far back as lead – it was none of these. So, in 1934, the infallible Fermi declared to the world he had created elements heavier than uranium.\n\nOtto Hahn disproves Fermi’s claims[edit]\n\nIn 1938, a team of German scientists, led by Otto Hahn, decided to investigate Fermi’s bold claim. Unfortunately for Fermi, they quickly disproved his assertion; one of the elements produced was barium, which, with 56 protons, was nowhere near the 92 protons the nucleus started with when it was uranium.\n\nHahn wrote of his confusion to his colleague Lisa Meitner who, as an Austrian Jew, had recently fled Nazi Germany for Sweden.\n\nLise Meitner explains Fermi’s work[edit]\n\nOver Christmas 1938, Meitner considered the problem of the uranium nucleus, which she reasoned, given its relative size, must be quite unstable. She decided to model the nucleus as a drop of water, ready to divide with the impact of a single neutron. She realised the nucleus had split in half, and both Fermi and Hahn had witnessed what is now known as nuclear fission.\n\nHowever, in doing the calculations for such an event, Meitner was unable to make the equations balance. She calculated that the products of the fission reaction were lighter than the initial uranium, by about one fifth of a proton. Somehow, a small amount of mass had disappeared. Then slowly, the solution to this discrepancy occurred to Meitner – Einstein and E = mc2 – the missing mass had been converted to energy.\n\nThe Manhattan Project[edit]\n\nMeitner’s work was published in 1939, but as well generating interest amongst the scientific community, Meitner’s revelations were also coming to the attention of governments on the verge of war. Fuelled by fears Nazi Germany was investigating nuclear weapons of its own, scientists were assembled in America to work on the Manhattan Project aimed at creating the first atomic bomb.\n\nFor an explosion to occur, there must be a rapid release of energy – a slow release of energy from uranium nuclei would give a uranium fire, but no explosion. Both sides poured their effort into creating the necessary conditions for a chain reaction.\n\nIn 1942 Enrico Fermi, now living in America, successfully induced a chain reaction in uranium, but processing uranium for bombs was both difficult and costly. America had just come up with a different solution to win the atomic race.\n\nNow finally, scientists’ dream of creating an element beyond the end of the periodic table was about to be realised.\n\nEdwin McMillian and Phillip Ableson create the first synthetic element[edit]\n\nIn California, scientists were trying to create a new element heavier than uranium using cyclotron machines. This involved using huge magnets to steer atoms round in circles faster and faster until they reached a tenth of the speed of light, whereupon they were smashed into a uranium target.\n\nEdwin McMillian and Phillip Ableson blasted uranium with a beam of particles to create the first synthetic element, heavier than uranium – element 93, which they named neptunium.\n\nThe next synthetic element, plutonium, quickly followed in 1941, which scientists realised was readily able to undergo fission in a way capable of producing the desired chain reaction. It was soon being made into a bomb.\n\nA mere seven years after the discovery of nuclear fission, on 6 August 1945, half a gram of uranium was converted into energy when the world’s first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima. As Lisa Meitner’s calculations suggested, this conversion released energy equivalent to 13,000 tonnes of TNT. A plutonium bomb was dropped on Nagasaki three days later.\n\nGSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research[edit]\n\nUsing one of the world’s largest particle accelerators, scientists working at the Heavy Ion Research facility in Darmstadt, Germany, have so far confirmed the existence of element 112, which they have named copernicium, after Polish astronomer Nicholas Copernicus.\n\nThese physicists have become the new chemists – testing the foundations of the periodic table, and hence our understanding of the universe, in light of new discoveries.\n\nIn addition to producing new elements, scientists are also attempting to discern their properties. Copernicium is found to be a volatile metal that would be liquid at room temperature if enough were ever made – exactly what Mendeleev would predict for element 112 – which sits directly beneath mercury in the periodic table.\n\nBroadcast in the United States[edit]\n\nIt aired in the United States under the title \"Unlocking the Universe.\" [1]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n\nExternal links[edit]", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.6313666105270386}
{"content": "Chapter 5\nThe glorious Sun, stays in his course, and plays the alchemist\nShakespear, King John, III, 1\n\nThis is chapter summarizes some important aspects of stars and stellar physics. Stars play several important roles in cosmology. Most obviously, stars make up the majority of the luminous matter in the universe. Many cosmological questions are related to the lives of the stars. How many stars are there? What are their masses? How much of the mass of the universe is made up of stars, including those too dim to see? How are stars born? How do they die?\n\nStars are born in huge clouds of interstellar gas and dust. In the hearts of these molecular clouds, gravitational forces overwhelm regions of cold gas, drawing these cold clumps into dense cores. From such cores stars will form. An example of a region of active star formation is the Orion Nebula here seen in an HST photo. The Orion nebula is visible to the naked eye as the fuzzy patch in the sword of Orion. Here is a recent HST image of an Evaporating Gaseous Globule where stars are forming in great pillars of molecular hydrogen.\n\nWe argue, using some basic physical considerations, that hydrogen burning stars (so-called main sequence stars) increase in luminosity approximately as their mass to the third power. For a mathematical demonstration of this see the Mass-Luminosity Relation. Since a star's lifetime will be affected mainly by its mass divided by its luminosity, it follows that the more massive stars die first. Thus we can use the main sequence on the Herzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram to determine the ages of the oldest star clusters. The most ancient star clusters are the globular clusters, dense balls of stars that are found surrounding galaxies such as the Milky Way. M3, pictured below, is an example of a globular cluster. Determining the ages of stars in such clusters provides a lower limit to the age of the universe. Currently the best data and calculations imply that the oldest clusters are 12 to 15 billion years old.\n\nM3, a globular cluster\n\nAstronomers know that there is a great deal of mass in the universe that is not in ordinary stars. This unseen material is often referred to as the missing mass or dark matter. One of the possible candidates for this dark matter is small star-like objects that have too little mass for nuclear fusion to occur in their cores. These objects are called brown dwarfs. Recently the HST took the first picture of a brown dwarf, orbiting a cool red star known as Gliese 229.\n\nBrown Dwarf orbiting Gliese229\n\nThough the lives of stars are important for cosmology, perhaps even more interesting is their deaths. Stars cannot live forever, since they emit energy and nothing has an infinite source of energy. Once the star has run out of useable hydrogen fuel for the nuclear furnace at its core, it must find another source of energy or die. The next most easily fused element is helium. When the star begins to burn helium at its core, its outer layers are no longer heated as effectively and cool, causing the star's size to swell drastically, creating a red giant . But stars begin with only about a quarter as much helium as hydrogen, and an even smaller fraction of the helium can be fused because of practical limitations; thus the helium-burning red giant phase of the star's existence is relatively brief. When the useable helium is gone, the star has even fewer options. Modest stars such as the Sun, and stars up to about six times its mass, simply fade away. They have too little mass to generate a sufficiently high temperature at their cores to fuse any elements heavier than helium, so they cease nuclear fusion. The bloated outer layers are expelled, forming a planetary nebula (so named because of a vague resemblance in color and shape to a gas giant planet, though a planetary nebula is several orders of magnitude larger than any planet). Without the extreme gas pressure generated by the heat of nuclear fusion, the remnant core collapses until the electrons of its atoms can no longer be squeezed any closer. This phenomenon, called electron degeneracy, is a consequence of the Pauli exclusion principle of quantum mechanics discussed in Chapter 4. The core, now a white dwarf , continues to shine feebly as light diffuses through it, cooling over billions of years until finally it leaves behind a dead, compact, black dwarf.\n\nLarger stars have more spectacular ends. The most massive stars are able to ignite heavier elements, moving from helium to carbon to continue to shine. The sequence continues until iron is reached, but iron refuses to fuse unless energy is supplied to it; at this point, no more energy production is possible. If the star was able to shed enough mass during its giant phase, it might fade away as a white dwarf like its smaller brethren. If not, it collapses catastrophically, blowing its outer layers into space in a supernova , one of the most brilliant displays of cosmic fireworks. The energy released in a supernova is so great that iron is induced to fuse, starting a chain of reactions that produces the heavy metals. The core left behind is too massive even for electron degeneracy to support it; instead the electrons and protons are squeezed together into neutrons, and the core becomes a great ball of neutrons, packed as densely as possible, called a neutron star . Neutron stars are visible only when they beam radiation as they rotate, in which case we detect them as pulsars . In addition to accounting for some of the most bizarre phenomena in the universe, neutron stars are another of the faint stellar remnants that must be considered when we add up the total mass in stars in the universe. Supernovae themselves also play an important role in cosmology because their brilliance allows them to be seen for great distances. A knowledge of their intrinsic luminsosity would thus allow luminosity distances to be derived for remote galaxies.\n\nFor more information see Questions and Answers related to Chapter 5.\n\nResearchers using the Lick Observatory in California have discovered planets around normal stars. These jupiter-sized planets were discovered indirectly by measurements of Doppler shifts in the stars around which they orbit. Further information can be found from the Other Worlds, Distant Suns website, and the Extra Solar Planets Encyclopedia. NASA has a new program to investigate the origins of planets and life in the universe. Visit the NASA Origins website for further information.\n\nLearn more about stars at the NASA Star Page. You can also learn more about Binary Star Systems, or take a Star Journey at National Geographic. Finally check out the explosive deaths of stars at the NASA Supernova Page.\n\nLooking for pretty pictures of an astronomical nature? Check out the NASA Photo Gallery\n\nOriginal content © 2005 John F. Hawley", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.635007917881012}
{"content": "Fresh flavours and mellow fragrances\n\nLocated on the lower ground of the hotel, our Chinese restaurant Yong Yi Ting specialises in regional Jiang Nan cuisine. Using only the finest and freshest seasonal ingredients, celebrated Chef Tony Lu adds a touch of modernity to both his presentation and cooking techniques.\n\nJiang Nan (literally meaning ‘south of the Yangtze river’) cuisine is known for its light, delicate flavours and aromatic scents. To complement your dining experience, our wine cellar features an eclectic list of wines in addition to a large selection of premium quality teas. For wine connoisseurs, we can offer the use of a wine tasting room situated inside the cellar.\n\nVisit Destination MO for a related article\n\n\nAuthentic, delicious and memorable\n\nYong Yi Ting specialises in authentic Jiang Nan cuisine, which embraces the culinary styles of Shanghai and its neighbouring provinces, Jiangsu and Zhejiang. Jiang Nan cuisine heralds from the southern Yangtze River region and is renowned for its delicate flavours, exquisite preparation and use of fresh seasonal ingredients.\n\nCentral to our restaurant is our traditional Jiang Nan dim sum lunch menu, which offers a wide range of mouth-watering baked, seared and pan-fried dim sum.\n\n\nChef Tony Lu\n\nCelebrated chef Tony Lu has recently been appointed Chef Consultant at Yong Yi Ting, Mandarin Oriental Pudong, Shanghai’s signature Chinese restaurant.\n\nBorn and raised in Shanghai, Chef Lu’s passion for cooking began as a child. His career began as he gained experience working in several high-end Cantonese restaurants before rising to international prominence as the culinary mastermind behind Shanghai’s finest independent Chinese restaurants Fu1039, Fu1088 and Fu1015.\n\nAs Yong Yi Ting’s Chef Consultant, Chef Lu brings his refined Jiang Nan style cuisine and expert presentation to Mandarin Oriental Pudong, Shanghai.\n\n\nThe ultimate dining experience\n\nIn addition to our main dining room, we have eight private dining rooms, one of which has access to an outdoor sunken courtyard. We also have a Chef’s Table, allowing guests to enjoy cooking demonstrations and degustation menu sampling.\n\n\nReserve a table\n\n\n\n+86 (21) 2082 9978", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9724165201187134}
{"content": ", Volume 420, Issue 1, pp 73-90\n\nMolecular genetic analyses of species boundaries in the sea\n\nRent the article at a discount\n\nRent now\n\n* Final gross prices may vary according to local VAT.\n\nGet Access\n\n\nThe tools of molecular genetics have enormous potential for clarifying the nature and age of species boundaries in marine organisms. Below I summarize the genetic implications of various species concepts, and review the results of recent molecular genetic analyses of species boundaries in marine microbes, plants, invertebrates and vertebrates. Excessive lumping, rather than excessive splitting, characterizes the current systematic situation in many groups. Morphologically similar species are often quite distinct genetically, suggesting that conservative systematic traditions or morphological stasis may be involved. Some reproductively isolated taxa exhibit only small levels of genetic differentiation, however. In these cases, large population sizes, slow rates of molecular evolution, and relatively recent origins may contribute to the difficulty in finding fixed genetic markers associated with barriers to gene exchange. The extent to which hybridization blurs species boundaries of marine organisms remains a subject of real disagreement in some groups (e.g. corals). The ages of recently diverged species are largely unknown; many appear to be older than 3 million years, but snails and fishes provide several examples of more recent divergences. Increasingly sophisticated genetic analyses make it easier to distinguish allopatric taxa, but criteria for recognition at the species level are highly inconsistent across studies. Future molecular genetic analyses should help to resolve many of these issues, particularly if coupled with other biological and paleontological approaches.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.708843469619751}
{"content": "by Paul Gilster\n\nYesterday we looked at the possibility of colonizing worlds much different from the Earth. Seen in one light, pushing out into the Kuiper Belt and building settlements there is part of a slow migration to the stars that may occur without necessarily being driven by that purpose. Seen in another, experimenting with human settlements in extreme environments is a way of exploiting the resources of nearby space, pushing the human presence out into the Oort Cloud. Either way, we can find places that, while not ‘habitable’ in the classic sense of liquid water at the surface, are nonetheless colonizable.\n\nIn his Tale of Two Worlds, novelist Karl Schroeder works on a definition of a colonizable world. It has to have an accessible surface, for one thing, meaning one we can work with — obviously a surface gravity of 4 g’s is going to be a problem. Much smaller worlds like Pluto, as we saw yesterday in Ken Roy’s work on possible colonies there, pose less of a challenge, as we can imagine strategies to produce one g for the inhabitants. Schroeder also notes there has to be a manageable flow of energy at the surface in which we can move heat around. That seems reasonable enough, although advanced technologies will have a wider zone than we have.\n\nBut I found Schroeder’s third point interesting. Here he’s drawing on a 1978 paper in Science called “The Age of Substitutibility,” by Harold Goeller and Alvin Weinberg (Oak Ridge National Laboratory), in which the authors describe the artificial mineral they call ‘demandite.’ It comes, as Schroeder notes, in two forms:\n\n\nThe point is that the right elements have to be accessible on the object you’re trying to live on to make it colonizable. Now if you can find a place that meets the three criteria, surprising things can happen. Centauri B b looks to be a nightmarish place, probably tidally locked and roiling with lava on its day side, and almost certainly without a breathable atmosphere. But from the standpoint of colonizability, we can’t rule out the night side, and the fact that this (still unconfirmed) world has a surface gravity about the same as Earth’s also works in its favor.\n\nFrom the Kuiper Belt Past Proxima\n\nKen Roy’s talk at Huntsville looked at places that seemed equally inhospitable, but which may have the necessary resources to provide an advanced human civilization with what it needs to create settlements there, whether as part of a deliberate interstellar migration or simple exploration. Yesterday I focused on Pluto, but of course the Kuiper Belt is stuffed with objects, hundreds of which may be Pluto-sized, while cometary bodies in the Oort Cloud are thought to number in the trillions, based on the study of long-period comets and their frequency.\n\nLike Schroeder, Roy is interested in brown dwarf possibilities as well. The odds on our finding a brown dwarf closer than Proxima Centauri are dwindling, though I don’t think we can rule out a possible ultra-cool Y dwarf in this space (please correct me with any updated information). In any event, the WISE mission (Wide-field Infared Survey Explorer) has shown us that brown dwarfs are less common than we thought. WISE has discovered 200 brown dwarfs (including 13 Y dwarfs), 33 of which are within 26 light years of the Sun. Given that there are 211 stars in the same volume of space, we’ve found that there are about six stars for every brown dwarf.\n\nIf they’re not as abundant as we had thought, brown dwarfs may still become useful staging areas for far-future interstellar expeditions, for we know that some have accretion disks that indicate the possibility of planet formation. I’ve written before about brown dwarf habitable zones (see Brown Dwarfs and Habitability), but Roy’s point is that whether or not we find a world that’s habitable in the classic sense, we can still assume we’ll find the same kind of small, icy planets we see in our own Kuiper Belt, and the same technologies could exploit them.\n\nRoy is one of those intrigued with the idea of ‘rogue’ planets that move through the interstellar deep far from any star. We know little about these worlds, but it’s assumed that great numbers of them are out there, doubtless the result of gravitational interactions in young solar systems that caused them to be ejected. Dorian Abbot and Eric Switzer (University of Chicago) call these ‘steppenwolf’ planets because they ‘exist like a lone wolf wandering over the galactic steppe.’\n\n\nImage: A ‘steppenwolf’ planet moving between the stars. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech.\n\n\n\n\nSource: Centauri Dreams\n\nAbout these ads", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.698982834815979}
{"content": "1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Next 10\n\n\nDescription: An unknown man is posed on a couch holding a book that has been renamed \"Goon History, Volume 3.\"\n\nDate: 1947-11-08 \n\nDescription: Prize winners at a costume dance sponsored by Local 1114, United Steelworkers of America (Harnischfeger Corporation).\n\n\nTugboat in Lake\n\nDate:  date unknown\n\nDescription: A tugboat with possibly a sinking ship in the background.\n\n\nMilk and Baseball\n\nDate: 1956-06-04 \n\n\n\nH.P. Lovecraft\n\n\nDescription: Head and shoulders portrait of H.P. Lovecraft wearing a suit jacket, vest, and tie taped to a piece of paper.\n\nDate: 1944-07-04 \n\nDescription: Group of people decorating the Garden Queen float for a Fourth of July parade near a large garage. The float reads \"Greendale-The Garden City,\" \"Pop. 2800\"...\n\nDate: 1958-05-16 before\n\nDescription: Milwaukee Braves manager Fred Haney instructs his players. Andy Pafko is visible immediately to the left of Haney's cap.\n\nDate: 1903-06-13 \n\n\n\n\n\nJohn F. Cramer\n\nDate: 1913-10-09 \n\n\nDate: 1977-03-18 \n\n\nDate: 1915 ca.\n\nDescription: Portrait of a small group of men, women, and children standing waist-deep in the water.\n\nDate: 1958-09-02 \n\n\nDate: 1908-08-26 \n\n\nDate: 1937-09-21 \n\n\n\nHay Market\n\nDate:  date unknown\n\nDescription: Elevated view of horse-drawn carts filled with hay and parked in rows at a market. Men stand between the rows, and houses surround the market square.\n\nDate: 1905 ca.\n\n\nDate: 1946-03 \n\n\nDate: 1944-07-04 \n\n\n\nEddie Mathews\n\nDate: 1965-06-19 before\n\n\n1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Next 10\n\nHave Questions?\n\n", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 1.0000091791152954}
{"content": "Diwali Festival\n\nHere is the description of the 5 days of Deepavali and the activities of Diwali.\n\n5 Days of Diwali\n\nDiwali is a Hindu festival, which occurs in the month of Kartika. In India innumerable communities with varying cultures and customs mingle together to make Diwali celebrations a very happy occasion for all. The festival of lights and fireworks is celebrated for 5 days. This festival gives an occasion to meet families and friends t, enjoy and establish a word of closeness. Gifts are exchanged and special dishes are prepared. People decorate their houses .The celebration Stars with Dhanteras and ends with Bhai Duj.\n\nThe 5 Diwali Days are-\n\nBhai Duj\nThe fifth and last day of the diwali is called Bhai Duj. This day is also known as 'Bhav-Bij' in the Marathi-speaking communities and in Nepal by the name of 'Bhai-Tika'and 'Bhai Phota' in Bengali. It is generally held on the second day of Shukla Paksh, the bright fortnight of Kartik This festival is observed as a symbol of love between sisters and brothers.\n\nChoti Diwali\n\nDhanteras or Dhanatrayodashi falls on the thirteenth day of the dark fortnight in the month of Kartik (October-November), i.e. two days before Diwali. The word \"Dhan\" means wealth. New Dhan or some form of precious metal is bought as a sign of good luck. \" Dhanteras is essentially Diwali eve. The celebration of Dhanteras is prevalent in east Bihar and northern India.\n\nMain Diwali\nThe third day of Diwali or the Main Diwali is the day when Goddess Lakshmi is worshipped. People celebrate this with a lot of enthusiasm. All the houses are illuminated and people forget their differences and go to the temple for worship. Diwali is the last day of financial year in traditional Hindu business and businessmen perform Chopda Puja on this day on the new books of accounts.\n", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9960441589355469}
{"content": "Text and walk at your peril — and the peril of those around you\n\n\nChecking texts while walking impairs a person’s ability to follow a straight line and keep a normal pace, and may pose risks to other pedestrians, according to a study released Wednesday.\n\nResearchers at the University of Queensland in Australia decided to study texting while walking since it appeared no one had scientifically analyzed how the modern preoccupation impacts a person’s gait.\n\nAnecdotally, the evidence was clear, even among the 26 people they selected for the study: One in three admitted to having had some sort of texting accident, “including falls, trips and collisions with obstacles or other individuals.”\n\n\n\nFor this study, volunteers agreed to walk about 9 meters without any distraction so their gait could be tracked with a three-dimensional movement analysis system.\n\n\n\nPosture and balance were also compromised.\n\n\n", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9953709840774536}
{"content": "Snap Judgment\n\n\nRecent Episodes\n\nSnap #406 - Making It Work\n\nWe are a species that sees a way out of no way. Tell us it can't be done, and we'll tell you that you simply haven’t thought about it hard enough. Today on Snap Judgment, from PRX and NPR, we proudly present \"Making It Work.\" Amazing stories from real people who simply would not accept no for an answer.\n\nSnap #507 - Lost Cause\n\n\nSnap #506 - The Mercenary\n\nAn all-NEW Snap...\"The Mercenary.\" Amazing stories from people paid to do our dirty work.  Storytelling with a beat... from PRX and NPR.\n\nSnap #308 - Original Pranksters\n\nSnap Judgment proudly presents \"Original Prankster\", amazing stories from people who take the joke waaaaaaay too far . . .\n\nSnap #505 - The Pact\n\nPeople will say they're going to do something, but when you look another person in the eye and vow that it will happen... you've gone to another level. From NPR and PRX, Snap Judgment presents \"The Pact\".    \n\nSnap #327 - Partners In Crime\n\nOn the next Snap, we do stuff together we would never do alone. From PRX and NPR, Snap Judgment proudly presents \"Partners in Crime.\"", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7114548683166504}
{"content": "Dr. James  Blankenship\n\nDr. James Blankenship\n\nAssociate Professor of Biblical Studies\n\nPh.D., University of Pennsylvania\n\nM.A.T.S., Gordon Conwell Theological Seminar\n\nJ.D., Vanderbilt University School of Law\n\nB.A., Indiana University, Bloomington, IN\n\n\nJim’s doctoral dissertation is Subject to the Governing Authorities: A Tradition of Pauline Interpretation in Late Antiquity.  It analyzes how both John Chrysostom and John of Damascus used Romans 13.1-10, in light of their very different historical situations.  His Master’s degree includes concentrations on both HB/OT and in NT studies.\nJim’s main research interests are both the role that context does play and the role it should play in shaping one’s understanding of the Bible.  Jim does presentations on the Bible and its background in both religious and secular settings.  Jim is also involved in ministry in several local churches, including teaching and preaching.\nWhen he is not preparing for classes or other presentations, Jim enjoys spending time with his wife and college sweetheart, Lynn.  He also trains in several martial arts, enjoys baseball, and at times will re-read the works of Chaim Potok and Flannery O’Connor.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9108625054359436}
{"content": "MBA Application Resume\n\nMBA Application Resume\nBusiness school resume\n\nBusiness school resumes may look different than your application resume.  What you present to the admissions committee will likely have little in common with the resume you graduate with and that is ok.  The purpose of your application resume is to help you get admitted, only to get admitted.\n\nMBA application resume\n\nAdmissions committees typically want to see your existing resume when you apply for admission.  They don’t often want you to spend any extra time getting your resume into a specific format.  If a school requires you to put your resume into a specific format just to apply, you are less likely to apply to that school.  There are lots of schools out there and admissions directors are afraid you will simply apply elsewhere so they have incentive to keep the hassles to a minimum.  It is rare to see a school that wants the resume is a specific format for admissions.\n\nWriting a business school resume\n\nIf you don’t already have a resume, here is how to create one.  Remember though that your admission resume is focused on one thing: getting you admitted.  Use these templates and guidelines to create a resume that represents your experience well.\n\nMBA application resume sample\n\nThere are different formats for varying levels of experience.  Choose the template that most suits your experience profile.\n\nResume template for recent graduates\n\nRecent graduates have little work experience, except maybe for an internship or two, so their resume is heavily focused on educational qualifications.  Leadership experiences, extracurricular activities, and coursework are prominently featured on resumes for recent graduates.  Include organizational involvement (especially when you were a designated leader).  Include committee or event involvement and highlight the leadership or complex challenges you faced in those roles.  The achievements in all cases are also important.\n\n  • Increased number of on-campus speaker events by 15% through direct outreach to corporate HR offices.\n  • Chaired biennial biotech symposium marketing committee.  Implemented electronic sales strategy that increased ticket sales by 20%\n\nExample resume early career professionals\n\nEarly career professionals may have a summary of qualifications but more often have an objective statement.  They also generally list experience in reverse chronological order with education at the top or bottom.  Education may be more important at the top if you are trying to change industries, but experience may be more important if you are trying to move up in the same sector.  For an MBA admissions committee, however, there is no difference.  It is fine either way.\n\nSample resume for 7+ years of experience\n\nThis format is characterized by having done away with reverse chronological listings in favor of achievement based descriptions.  Think Action words.  You may have a summary statement at the top with a few bullet points showing skills, but the main attraction is the bullet list under each prior experience.  They start with a verb and show a result followed by a short statement of the action that caused the outcome.  For example:\n\n  • Grew market share by 4% over one year by designing new customer relationship management system.\n  • Reduced product cost by 8% in two years by applying six sigma concepts to manufacturing process.\n  • Increased subscriber base by 35% in six months by implementing affiliate marketing strategy.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5626876354217529}
{"content": "Defining the 3 goals of palliative care\n\nAfter finishing medical school and my residency in internal medicine, I undertook an additional year of training in a field called palliative care.  Patients who notice my background sometimes ask me what exactly palliative care means.  It’s really a simple concept.  Palliative care is helping people with a serious illness have the best possible quality of life.  It’s enabling sick patients to make the most of the time they have left to live.  The term palliative care comes from the latin word palliare which means to cloak or support.\n\nHelping people have the best quality of life possible is a simple idea, but how do you do it? I will address that point, but first I want to distinguish palliative care from hospice since the two terms are often understandably confused.  Hospice provides care for terminally ill patients and their families.  Hospice care is often provided in a person’s home, but it can also be utilized in a facility such as a nursing home or assisted living.  Hospice incorporates a team of healthcare professionals, from doctors and nurses, to social workers, health aids, and chaplains.  It is a benefit under Medicare and many insurance plans.  Palliative care is a broad concept that encompasses hospice.  At some point, a person with an illness will move closer to death and hospice may helpful for allowing them to have the best possible quality of life.  But helping a person with an illness feel their best doesn’t have to wait until he  or she is dying.  It can start as soon as they are diagnosed and while they are receiving treatment to cure their illness or prolong their life.\n\nPalliative care’s roots can be traced to Dame Cecily Saunders’ work in Great Britain in the 1960s developing the modern hospice movement.  In the 1970s, an oncologist named Dr. Balfour Mount in Canada incorporated the principles of hospice into care even before people approached the end of life.  He coined the term palliative care.  Over time, more and more hospitals have developed palliative care teams and recently formal specialized training programs in palliative care have been developed.\n\nSo how do we provide palliative care?  What are the ways that we can enable a person with a serious illness to enjoy the best possible quality of life?  I’m going to discuss three essential components of palliative care:  identifying goals of care, controlling symptoms and caring for the whole person.\n\nQuite often when caring for somebody with an illness the goal simply becomes treating the illness.  So if somebody has lung cancer the goal is to eliminate or slow down the cancer.  Or if somebody has congestive heart failure, the goal is to have the heart pump effectively for as long as possible. But why do we treat the illness in the first place? Treating the illness is a means to helping the person be their best and make the most of their life.  Treating the illness should not be the primary goal.\n\nI want to provide some examples of identifying goals of care. The first centers upon a person I’ll call Mary.  Rather than being an exact story of a particular case, Mary’s tale is a composite of some situations I’ve encountered over the years of my training and practice.  Mary was a 88-year-old frail woman with many different chronic illnesses.  She developed severe pneumonia for which she was hospitalized.  In the hospital, she became very weak, so that she had to discharged from the hospital to a rehabilitation facility to try to regain some strength.  Soon I received a note from the hospital stating that she had been admitted again for another episode of pneumonia.  During this hospitalization, she suffered a stroke.  When I went to visit her in the hospital, she was scheduled to have a feeding tube inserted since the stroke had left her with difficulty swallowing.  I sat with her family and we discussed what was right for Mary.  We first exchanged information.  I asked them their understanding of what was going on with her body.  I then explained that the feeding tube would not prevent her aspirating her saliva.  In addition, the stroke had left her confused and if a feeding tube was inserted, Mary would likely try to pull it out.  She might have to be restrained or receive heavy sedative medications to keep the feeding tube in.  Since Mary was too confused to make any decisions, I asked her family, what would have been her goals of care in this situation.  After reflecting upon this, they felt certain she would not have wanted the tube inserted.  She would have most valued her quality of life.   So we did not have the tube inserted and she was sent home with the support of hospice.  When I received a note from Mary’s daughter later telling me she had died, they were grateful they had not put her through another procedure and that she had been able to spend her final days in the comfort and familiarity of home rather than at the hospital.\n\nAnother example of identifying goals of care is Amy Berman.  She is a nurse who has become a spokesperson for palliative care.  When she was diagnosed with advanced, incurable breast cancer she was first advised to have a mascectomy and intensive chemotherapy and radiation.  Getting a second opinion from a different oncologist and a palliative care physician, she decided on a different course.  In order to be able to feel well enough to enjoy the time she had left to live, she decided on a gentler, less toxic chemotherapy regimen and high quality symptom control.  My patient Mary and Amy Berman benefited because instead of just going with the flow, there was thought given to what their goals of care were.\n\nAnother task of palliative care, another way that we seek to enable people have the best possible quality of life, is through controlling burdensome symptoms.  Sometimes in treating illness, especially cancer, burdensome symptoms get neglected.   So the cancer may be shrinking, but the person’s pain may be excruciating.  Palliative care doctors and nurses work to be very good at treating pain and other symptoms.  They also seek to train other health care providers to do this effectively.  Some of the common symptoms we treat are pain, nausea, shortness of breath, fatigue, depression, anxiety, delirium, and constipation.  There is an art and science to treating each of these symptoms well and doing so can make a tremendous difference to a patient and their loved ones.\n\nThe last component of palliative care is treating the whole person.  I’d like to ask you to imagine for a moment that you were facing imminent death.  What things would allow you to best bear this experience?  What could make it as positive and meaningful as possible?  In a national survey published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, 340 seriously ill patients were asked to rank 9 attributes of quality of life at the end of their lives.  The patients ranked “peace with God” just below “freedom from pain” as the most important attribute of a good death.\n\nThis points to the fact that illness is not just something that happens to our bodies.  It affects the way we think about ourselves and make sense of the world. It affects our finances.  It affects our relationships. Cicelly Saunders’ term for the many ways that an illness affects a person is called “total pain.”  Palliative care seeks to provide holistic care by attending to the multiple ways that illness affects a person.\n\nTo do this, palliative care uses a team approach.  A typical palliative care team includes a physician, nurse, social worker, and a chaplain.  They each have skills to address the different aspects of person’s experience of illness.\n\nSo what is palliative care?  Palliative care is the goal of helping people live as well as possible for as long as possible.  It does so by aiding individuals in identifying their goals of care, controlling burdensome symptoms, and caring for the whole person.\n\nAlthough most of my work as a doctor is in the field of internal medicine, I still have the privilege of practicing from time to time at Hospice Austin’s Christopher House.  A gift to the Austin community, Christopher House serves people enrolled in hospice whose symptoms are too severe to be controlled at home.  It seeks to honor this sacred time in individuals’ lives by providing a home-like environment for patients and their families.\n\nJames Marroquin is an internal medicine physician who blogs at his self-titled site, James Marroquin.\n\n\n  • Tiredoc\n\n    Thank you for your post. It’s always nice to hear that palliative medicine isn’t just about pain control, but supporting patients in their, not your goals.\n\n  • EE Smith\n\n    There seem to be so many misconceptions out in the wider community about palliative care, a lot of confusion, even conflating palliative medicine with the dreaded “death panels”.\n\n    This was an excellent piece, one that I am bookmarking to send on to friends and family. Thank you for writing it.\n\n  • katerinahurd\n\n    Do you think that the legal equivalent of palliative care is Death with Dignity acts of Oregon and Washington? Do you think that aggressive medical treatment leads to palliative care? Who qualifies for palliative care?\n\n    • Mika\n\n      Palliative and hospice care offer true death with dignity. What assisted suicide people use the euphemism “death with dignity” for is “killing people”.\n\n      We have made great strides in palliative care and hospice care, and will continue to get even better … unless there is an “out” offered, i.e. “well all that is just too hard, and too expensive, let’s just kill you instead”.\n\n      Last week it emerged that a staggering one in 30 deaths in the Netherlands are now from euthanasia, after the Dutch government allowed mobile death squads to kill sick and elderly people in their homes. In Belgium, where nearly 1 in 50 deaths are people deliberately killed by their doctors, a cancer specialist recently killed a 44 year old transsexual who was unhappy with a botched sex-change operation… at his request, of course.\n\n      Don’t conflate true death with dignity, which is achieved by skilled medicos and allied care workers providing top-notch comfort care to terminally ill patients, with “assisted suicide”, which is allowing doctors to kill those patients instead. That scares me.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.6676415205001831}
{"content": "Esso Hockey since 1936Legends Of Hockey\nEsso Hockey since 1936\nGillies, Clark\n\nGillies, Clark\n\nClark Gillies' leadership qualities and hockey ability was a large reason why his teams won championships at both the amateur and professional level. His amateur career was highlighted by a Memorial Cup championship prior to a National Hockey League career that spanned 14 seasons. At 6'3\" and 215 lbs., Gillies was one of the league's premiere power forwards during the second half of the 1970's and early 1980's. The left winger teamed up with fellow Hockey Hall of Famers Mike Bossy and Bryan Trottier to form one of the decade's most lethal forward lines, nicknamed the \"Trio Grande\".\n\nGillies was born on April 7, 1954 in Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan, Canada. He earned a reputation of playing tough with the ability to provide offence during his three seasons with the Western Canada Junior Hockey League's Regina Pats. In 1973-74, the Pats won the west and then became the best junior team in the nation by winning the Memorial Cup championship. He was named to the WCJHL First All-Star team that season. Later that spring he was drafted fourth overall by the New York Islanders whereupon he made the team following his first NHL training camp, never playing a minor professional game. At the World Hockey Association draft the same year, Gillies was selected in the third round by the Edmonton Oilers.\n\n\nAt around the halfway point of Gillies' third NHL season, Eddie Westfall, the New York Islanders captain, removed the \"C\" from his sweater. After a special dressing room vote, the young Gillies was chosen as the new team captain. As a test of his strength in the dressing room, Gillies backed it up with leadership on the ice. During the 1977 NHL playoffs during a quarterfinal round against Buffalo he recorded three consecutive game-winning goals to tie an NHL record. After two and a half seasons, Gillies resigned as captain and was succeeded by future Hockey Hall of Famer Denis Potvin. A period of league domination continued in the spring of 1980 as the Islanders won their first of four consecutive Stanley Cups equaling Montreal's achievement in the late 1970's. During the 1984 playoffs, Gillies notched a career-best 12 goals that included a hat trick in game two of the finals against the Edmonton Oilers. Nicknamed \"Jethro\" (after the Beverly Hillbillies TV show character) by his teammates, Gillies played two more seasons to end his years as a member of the Uniondale, New York-based team. His career with the Islanders spanned 12 seasons where he registered regular season totals of 304 goals and 663 points, fourth in all-time scoring for the franchise. Ninety-two of those goals, or almost one-third were power play markers. As well, fifty-four of his regular season goals were either game-winning or game-tying goals.\n\nDuring the summer of 1986 he was obtained by another New York State team, the Buffalo Sabres, in the annual Waiver Draft. He played two seasons with the Sabres, before retiring after the 1987-88 season.\n\nGillies was a two-time NHL First Team All-Star left wing in 1977-78 and 1978-79. He participated in the 1978 NHL All-Star Game and the following year was selected to play with the NHL All-Stars in the 1979 Challenge Cup. His Islander line was the number one NHL unit against the Soviet Union national team. \"The Trio Grande\" was also an obvious choice to lead Team Canada at the 1981 Canada Cup, where Gillies helped Canada earn a second place finish.\n\nHe retired from the NHL with regular season totals of 319 goals, 378 assists for 697 points. In 147 NHL playoff games he scored 47 and assisted on the same for 94 points. On December 7, 1996, Clark Gillies' number \"9\" was retired by the New York Islanders as a symbol of his great contribution and significance to the team.\n\nEsso hockey medals of achievement", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7347006797790527}
{"content": "Connecticut approves highest state minimum wage\n\nGov. Dannel P. Malloy announces a proposal to raise the minimum wage in Connecticut. File photo\n\nHARTFORD >> Connecticut state lawmakers Wednesday became the first in the country to pass legislation that would increase the state’s minimum wage to $10.10 an hour, by 2017, the same rate President Barack Obama wants for the federal minimum wage.\n\nDemocratic Gov. Dannel P. Malloy, who recently appeared with Obama and several New England governors to tout the proposal, applauded Wednesday’s votes, saying he’ll sign the bill into law at the same New Britain restaurant where Obama dined earlier this month during a visit.\n\n“I am proud that Connecticut is once again a leader on an issue of national importance,” Malloy said. “Increasing the minimum wage is not just good for workers, it’s also good for business.”\n\nJack Temple, a policy analyst for the National Employment Law Project, said Connecticut’s vote clears the way for other states to pass the legislation, and possibly Congress.\n\n“I think the significance cannot be overstated for this,” he said. “The more action we see on the state level like this, that’s always an ingredient for momentum at the federal level as well.”\n\nThe New York-based nonprofit research and advocacy group said similar proposals are also being considered by lawmakers in Maryland, Massachusetts, Hawaii and elsewhere.\n\nThe $10.10 wage is the highest imposed by a state, but there are higher minimum wages imposed by cities, including $10.74 in San Francisco. Washington, D.C., will raise its minimum wage to $11.50 by 2016.\n\n“I hope Members of Congress, governors, state legislators and business leaders across our country will follow Connecticut’s lead to help ensure that no American who works full time has to raise a family in poverty, and that every American who works hard has the chance to get ahead,” Obama said in a statement after Wednesday’s vote.\n\nYet Republican lawmakers said the move was the latest in a string of legislation, including mandatory paid medical leave, making Connecticut uncompetitive.\n\n\nThe bill passed the Democratic-controlled General Assembly on largely party lines Wednesday. It passed 21-14 in the Senate and 87-54 in the House.\n\nUnder current law, Connecticut’s minimum wage was already scheduled to climb by 30 cents to $9 on Jan. 1, 2015. But under this bill, it would instead increase to $9.15 an hour. It would go up to $9.60 on Jan. 1, 2016 and to $10.10 on Jan. 1, 2017.\n\nBetween 70,000 and 90,000 people earn the minimum wage in Connecticut, said Senate President Donald Williams, D-Brooklyn.\n\nRepublican senators acknowledged some people would benefit but questioned whether struggling small businesses and the state’s economy are strong enough to absorb the increase.\n\n“To call it soft is a compliment,” said Sen. Joe Markley, R-Southington. “We’re increasing the minimum wage at a time when the demand for employment is already low.”\n\nMalloy, who has yet to announce his re-election plans, has made the minimum wage a major political issue. Besides appearing with Obama, Malloy was involved in a recent on-camera partisan feud outside the White House with Louisiana Republican Gov. Bobby Jindal over the $10.10 federal minimum wage proposal.\n\nAccording to a Quinnipiac University Poll released earlier this month, 6 in 10 registered Connecticut voters support increasing the wage to $10.10 or more. The survey of 1,878 registered voters had a margin of sampling error of plus or minus 2.3 percentage points.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9331603050231934}
{"content": "Bring Back Bubba! - On Missing Bill Clinton:\n\nColumnist Steven Chapman is missing Bill Clinton, a sentiment that has often occurred to me in recent years as well:\n\n\nClinton, for all his appetites and excesses, was a cautious, centrist sort of Democrat. He had innumerable ideas for things the government could do, but most were small and fairly innocuous. He was willing to go along with Republicans on some of their sound ideas—such as balancing the budget, reforming the welfare system, and expanding foreign trade.\n\nHe focused on making government better, not making it bigger. He didn't greatly enlarge Washington's role in our lives. He proclaimed—or conceded—that the \"era of big government is over....\"\n\nObama's fiscal blueprint builds on profligate habits established by George W. Bush. Under Clinton, federal spending fell to 18.4 percent of gross domestic product—the lowest level since 1966. By 2007, it was up to 20 percent. By 2019, according to the administration, it would rise to 22.6 percent.\n\n\nIn retrospect, Clinton's record looks very good compared to that of both of his successors, each of whom presided over massive expansions of government. Among the many flaws of Obama's recently passed stimulus bill is its undermining of the 1996 welfare reform act, one of Clinton's greatest achievements.\n\nThere is no need to romanticize Clinton. Government growth was constrained on his watch in part because his worst instincts were checked by a Republican Congress, and he in turn checked theirs. As a general rule, divided government leads to limited government. Obviously, Obama has also been able to take advantage of a massive economic crisis, the kind of event that often provides opportunities for expanding government power. Clinton's relatively impressive record was in part the product of the political constraints he faced (no big crisis to exploit, and a Congress controlled by a hostile opposition party during his last six years in office).\n\nStill, Clinton appears to have had a genuine commitment to welfare reform and free trade, among other market-oriented policies. No such tendencies are evident in Obama. I never knew how much I would miss Bubba until he was gone.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5657780766487122}
{"content": "Blog des AK Psychiatriekritik der NFJ Berlin\n\nKategorie: Diskriminierung\n\nHeteronormative Violence of Mainstream Psychiatry: A Cautionary Tale\n\nIn 2013, California became the first state to pass legislation banning licensed professionals from trying to change the sexual orientation of minors from homosexual to heterosexual. In 2014, similar legislation passed in New Jersey, with other states, including New York, Massachusetts, and Ohio, following suit. However, “reparative therapy,” which grew in popularity with psychiatry’s increased medicalization of same sex erotic desire throughout the 20th century, is hardly a practice of a bygone era. In June 2014, the Republican Party endorsed the support of reparative therapy in Texas, while organizations such as the National Association for Research and Therapy of Homosexuality continue “treating” homosexual men and women in an effort to change their sexual desires to heterosexuality–all with dire consequences to individuals undergoing such treatments.\n\nI was in a form of reparative therapy in British Columbia, Canada, for six years, after which I filed a medical malpractice suit against my former psychiatrist, “Dr. Alfonzo,” for treating my homosexuality as a disease. If these new laws are to be criticized, it is that the use of “change” therapies on people older than 18 should be prohibited as well. I was 24 when I met Dr. Alfonzo, 31 when I left his therapy, and almost 40 when the lawsuit ended in an out-of-court settlement in 2002. Nearly twenty years after leaving the therapy, I am still affected by the consequences of those six years of “treatment.”\n\n\nWhy Do We Say That Mental Health Detention is Discrimination?\n\n\n\n\nTime for a Policy Against Psychiatric Bullying\n\nIn the domestic violence field, the methods employed by men to bully and abuse women and children are identified in the Duluth Project’s Power and Control Wheel, a tool developed by survivors of domestic abuse.\n\nReplace male privilege with medical privilege, change a few descriptors and you have a good explanation of the ways in which psychiatry maintains its dominance over individuals and societies.\n\nName calling (diagnostic labelling), coercion (forced treatment), threats (removal of children, incarceration) . . . the parallels are obvious.\n\nThere is no accepted definition of bullying either in statute or general use but the elements common to most definitions include the misuse of power and influence to cause fear, distress, humiliation and harm to vulnerable people. Bullying within family, work and student relationships is generally understood as being learned and practiced within social, cultural and institutional contexts.\n\nArguably, psychiatry is nothing more than officially sanctioned bullying and abuse.\n\n\nNot all South Africans have the right to register\n\n8(c) of the Electoral Act No. 73 of 1998 also states that persons declared by a High Court to be of “unsound mind” or declared “mentally disordered” may not be registered on the voters roll. This is discriminatory and excludes people with a psychosocial disability from the voters roll.\n\n\nKeine Zwangsbehandlung für Hartz-IV-Empfänger per Eingliederungsbescheid\n\nDas Jobcenter Schleswig-Flensburg versuchte einen Empfänger von Leistungen nach dem SGB II (Hartz IV) per Eingliederungsbescheid unter Sanktionsdrohung dazu zu zwingen, sich psychiatrisch behandeln zu lassen. Dass dies Grundrechte verletzt, meint auch das Sozialgericht Schleswig.\n\n\n\nErhalte jeden neuen Beitrag in deinen Posteingang.\n\nSchließe dich 27 Followern an", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7733513712882996}
{"content": "Names Searched Right Now:\n\nGet email updates on Amelina\n\nGender: F Meaning of Amelina: \"work\" Origin of Amelina: Old German form of Emmeline and Amelia\n\nPopularity: this week.\n\nNow that the range of names including the modern Emmeline and Amelia -- relatives of each other, but of neither Emily nor Emma -- have become so fashionable, the original root name Amelina is due up for reconsideration as well. A lovely, delicate choice, its main disadvantage is that it sounds like a modern elaboration rather than the original name. And perhaps that it will be so often misspelled and mistaken for other forms of itself. But it is a lovely name with deep roots.\n\nFamous People Named Amelina\n\nPop Culture References for the Name Amelina", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9977352619171143}
{"content": "How to remove hotfix backup files\n\nHotfix backup files can grow into the dozens. Here's a free tool to remove hotfix uninstall directories.\n\nWhenever a hotfix is installed in Windows XP or Windows Server 2003, a copy of all the files replaced by the hotfix is placed in a hidden directory in the %SystemRoot% folder (usually C:\\Windows). This hidden directory is named after the Knowledge Base article for the relevant hotfix, such as $NtUninstallKB867282$, and contains an uninstallation utility.\n\nIf the hotfix doesn't work -- or breaks more than it fixes -- you can remove the hotfix using the executable in the hotfix's spuninst directory. However, the hotfix almost always works fine.\n\nThe problem is that the number of installed hotfixes on a system can get pretty high, especially if there's a long period between service packs. When a service pack is installed, all the hotfix directories are removed since the service pack contains all of those hotfixes anyway -- and since they've been thoroughly regression-tested by that point, the uninstaller really isn't needed. But between service packs, the number of uninstallation directories for a given system can be in the dozens, wasting space.\n\nProgrammer Doug Knox has written a tool called XP Remove Hotfix Backup that cleans out the hotfix uninstall directories.The tool not only removes the directories, but also the relevant Add/Remove Programs entry for each hotfix. (Though hidden by default, these entries are still there; you'll see them if you check the \"Show Updates\" box at the top of the Add/Remove Programs window.)\n\nNote: XP Remove Hotfix Backup does not remove hotfixes for native Windows applications, such as Outlook Express, Internet Explorer or Windows Media Player, but only for the operating system itself. Note also that the deleted files are removed permanently; the program has no \"undelete\" option.\n\nThe free version of the tool deletes all the hotfix backups it can find. The licensed version can selectively delete hotfixes.\n\nThe program will run under Windows 2000 as well as XP, but it has not been tested to do so, so it is not recommended that you use it for that.\n\n\nMore information on this topic:\n\nThis was first published in November 2005\n\nDig deeper on Windows File Management\n\n\n\n\n\n\nForgot Password?\n\n\nYour password has been sent to:", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.597041130065918}
{"content": "Different kinds of light are all waves, they just have different wavelengths and frequencies. If you know the wavelength or frequency of a wave of light, you can also figure out its energy. Long wavelengths have low energies, while short wavelengths have high energies. It’s easy to remember if you think about being on a boat. If you were out sailing on a day with short, choppy waves, you’d probably be pretty high energy yourself, running around to keep things from falling over. But on a long wavelength sea, you’d be rolling along, relaxed, low energy.\n\nAnimation by Pew36 Animation Studios\n\nView the Making of a TED-Ed Lesson: Bringing a pop-up book to life\n\n\nView the TED-Ed Lesson Particles and waves: The central mystery of quantum mechanics\n\nOne of the most amazing facts in physics is that everything in the universe, from light to electrons to atoms, behaves like both a particle and a wave at the same time. But how did physicists arrive at this mind-boggling conclusion? Chad Orzel recounts the string of scientists who built on each other’s discoveries to arrive at this ‘central mystery’ of quantum mechanics.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9994086623191833}
{"content": "Home      Discussion      Topics      Dictionary      Almanac\nSignup       Login\nEmotional contagion\n\nEmotional contagion\n\nAsk a question about 'Emotional contagion'\nStart a new discussion about 'Emotional contagion'\nAnswer questions from other users\nFull Discussion Forum\nEmotional contagion is the tendency to catch and feel emotion\n\ns that are similar to and influenced by those of others. One view developed by John Cacioppo\nJohn Cacioppo\nJohn T. Cacioppo is the Tiffany and Margaret Blake Distinguished Service Professor at the University of Chicago. He founded and is Director of the University of Chicago Center for Cognitive and Social Neuroscience and the Director of the Arete Initiative of the Office of the Vice President for...\n\n of the underlying mechanism is that it represents a tendency to automatically mimic and synchronize facial expression\nFacial expression\n\ns, vocalizations, postures, and movements with those of another person and, consequently, to converge emotionally. A broader definition of the phenomenon was suggested by Sigal G. Barsade—\"a process in which a person or group influences the emotions or behavior of another person or group through the conscious or unconscious induction of emotion states and behavioral attitudes\".\n\n\nEmotional contagion may be involved in mob psychology crowd behaviors, like collective fear\n\n, disgust\n\n, or moral outrage, but also emotional interactions in smaller groups such as work negotiation, teaching and persuasion\nPersuasion is a form of social influence. It is the process of guiding or bringing oneself or another toward the adoption of an idea, attitude, or action by rational and symbolic means.- Methods :...\n\n\n contexts. It is also the phenomenon when a person (especially a child) appears distressed because another person is distressed, or happy because they are happy. The ability to transfer moods appears to be innate in humans. Emotional contagion and empathy\n\n have an interesting relationship; for without an ability to differentiate between personal and pre-personal experience (see individuation\nIndividuation is a concept which appears in numerous fields and may be encountered in work by Arthur Schopenhauer, Carl Jung, Gilbert Simondon, Bernard Stiegler, Gilles Deleuze, Henri Bergson, David Bohm, and Manuel De Landa...\n\n), they appear the same. In The Art of Loving\nThe Art of Loving\nThe Art of Loving is a book written by psychologist and social philosopher Erich Fromm , which was published as part of the \"World Perspectives Series\" edited by Ruth Nanda Anshen...\n\n, Erich Fromm\nErich Fromm\nErich Seligmann Fromm was a Jewish German-American social psychologist, psychoanalyst, sociologist, humanistic philosopher, and democratic socialist. He was associated with what became known as the Frankfurt School of critical theory.-Life:Erich Fromm was born on March 23, 1900, at Frankfurt am...\n\n explores the autonomy\nAutonomy is a concept found in moral, political and bioethical philosophy. Within these contexts, it is the capacity of a rational individual to make an informed, un-coerced decision...\n\n necessary for empathy which is not found in contagion. Fromm extolled the virtues of humans taking independent action and using reason to establish moral values rather than adhering to authoritarian moral values. Recognizing emotions and acknowledging their cause can be one way to avoid emotional contagion. Transfers of emotions have been studied in different situations and settings. Social and physiological causes are the two largest areas of research.\n\n\n, organizational morale, and corporate morale. Furthermore, Worline, Wrzesniewski, and Rafaeli (2002) make mention that organizations have an overall \"emotional capability\" (p. 318), while McColl-Kennedy and Smith (2006) examine the concept of \"emotional contagion\" (p. 255) specifically in customer interactions. These terms are arguably all attempting to describe a similar phenomenon; each term is different from one another in subtle and somewhat indistinguishable ways. Future research might consider where and how the meanings of these terms intersect, as well as how they differ.\n\nImplicit emotional contagion\n\nUnlike cognitive\nIn science, cognition refers to mental processes. These processes include attention, remembering, producing and understanding language, solving problems, and making decisions. Cognition is studied in various disciplines such as psychology, philosophy, linguistics, and computer science...\n\nComputer-mediated communication\nComputer-mediated communication is defined as any communicative transaction that occurs through the use of two or more networked computers...\n\n\nOne view, proposed by Hatfield and colleagues, describes the emotional contagion process as a primitive, automatic and unconscious behavior. According to them, it takes place through a series of steps. When a receiver is interacting with a sender, he perceives the emotional expressions of the sender. The receiver automatically mimics those emotional expressions. Through the process of afferent feedback\nFeedback describes the situation when output from an event or phenomenon in the past will influence an occurrence or occurrences of the same Feedback describes the situation when output from (or information about the result of) an event or phenomenon in the past will influence an occurrence or...\n\nSocial comparison theory\nSocial comparison theory is a theory initially proposed by social psychologist Leon Festinger in 1954. It explains how individuals evaluate their own opinions and desires by comparing themselves to others.- Basic framework :...\n\n\nDispositional affect\nDispositional affect, similar to mood, is a personality trait or overall tendency to respond to situations in stable, predictable ways. This trait is expressed by the tendency to see things in positive or negative way. People with high positive affectivity tend to perceive things through “pink...\n\n at which the emotion is displayed. As higher energy causes more attention to it, the prediction is that the same emotional valence\nDispositional affect\n\n\nExplicit emotional contagion\n\nContrary to the automatic infection of feelings described above, there are times when others' emotions are being manipulated by a person or a group in order to achieve something. This can be a result of intentional affective influence by a leader or team member. Suppose this person wants to convince the others in something, he may do so by sweeping them in his enthusiasm. In such a case, his positive emotions are an act with a purpose of \"contaminating\" the others' feelings. A different kind of intentional mood contagion is by giving the group a reward, or treat, in order to alleviate their feelings.\n\nEmotional labor\n\nEmotional labor\n\n develops into deep acting\nEmotional labor\n\n, emotional contagion is the byproduct of intentional affective impression management.\n\nFactors influencing group contagion\n\nThere are several factors which determine the rate and extent of emotional convergence in a group. Some of these are: membership stability, mood-regulation norms, task interdependence and social interdependence.\n\nBesides these event-structure properties, there are personal properties of the group's members, such as openness to receive and transmit feelings, demographic characteristics and dispositional affect, that influence the intensity of emotional contagion.\n\nEvolutionary point of view\n\nA somewhat different explanation of the emotional contagion phenomenon is provided by evolutionary theorists: \"Given that emotions function to help humans adapt to social situations it makes sense that one person's emotion would affect another's. Just as herd animals would benefit from rapidly passing messages about risk and reward, emotional contagion seems to be adaptive for humans to function in groups. This system can enable a rapid communication of opportunity and risk, mediate a group interaction, and help humans attend to social rules and norms such as maintaining harmonious interaction with a powerful ally\".\n\nIntragroup emotional contagion\n\nIndustrial and organizational psychology\nIndustrial and organizational psychology is the scientific study of employees, workplaces, and organizations. Industrial and organizational psychologists contribute to an organization's success by improving the performance and well-being of its people...\n\n that highlight the benefits of work-teams. Also, putting people together as a group and expecting everything to pass quietly is being naïve. Emotion\n\ns come into play and a \"group emotion\nGroup Emotion\n\n\" is formed.\n\nThe group's emotional state has an influence on factors such as cohesiveness, moral\n\n, rapport\nRapport is a term used to describe, in common terms, the relationship of two or more people who are in sync or on the same wavelength because they feel similar and/or relate well to each other....\n\n\nEmployee-customer emotional contagion\n\nThe interaction between service employees and customers is considered an essential part of both customers' assessments of service quality and their relationship with the service provider. Positive affective displays in service interactions are positively associated with important customer outcomes, such as intention to return and to recommend the store to a friend. It is the interest of organizations that their customers be happy, since a happy customer is a satisfied one. Research has shown that the emotional state of the customer is directly influenced by the emotions displayed by the employee/service provider via emotional contagion. But, this influence is dependent on the degree of authenticity of the employee's emotional display, such that if the employee is only surface-acting, the contagion of the customer is poor, in which case the beneficial effects stated above will not occur.\n\nMarried couples\n\nRobert Levenson, Ph.D., researches human psychophysiology. Levenson uses longitudinal studies\nLongitudinal study\n\n of married couples\n\n' physiological responses. He measures how empathy requires a calm and receptive emotional environment for the couple to be in physiological sync. When an emotional hijacking is taking place (anger or argument) empathy declines and the cognitions of the spouse are blocked.\n\n\nDr. Ed Diener maintains that genetics influences our positive and negative dispositions. David Lykken offers an emotional set point\nSet point\nSet point or setpoint might mean one of:* Set point , a tennis term meaning one player is one point away from winning a set* Set point , a term referring to any one of a number of quantities Set point or setpoint might mean one of:* Set point (tennis), a tennis term meaning one player is one point...\n\n theory he backs up with habitability studies of twins.\n\n\nPsychologist Elaine Hatfield theorizes emotional contagions as a two-step process: Step 1: We imitate people, if someone smiles at you, you smile back. Step 2: Changes in mood through faking it. If you smile you feel happy, if you frown you feel bad. Mimicry seems to be one foundation of emotional movement between people. Hour old infants will mimic a person's facial expressions such as smiling.\n\nMartin E.P.Seligman, Ph.D., uses synchrony games to build children's learning that \"your actions matter and can control outcomes\". When a baby bangs on a table the adult bangs on the table, replicating the action. This is one way emotional learning can be validated by an adult.\n\nNeurological mechanisms\n\nVittorio Gallese\nVittorio Gallese\n\n posits that mirror neuron\nMirror neuron\n\nPremotor cortex\n\n\n\nThe amygdala\n\n is the part of the brain mechanism that underlies empathy and allows for emotional attunement and creates the pathway for emotional contagions. The basal areas including the brain stem form a tight loop of biological connectedness, re-creating in one person the physiological state of the other. Howard Friedman, a psychologist at the University of California at Irvine thinks this is why some people can move and inspire others. The use of facial expressions, voices, gestures and body movements transmit emotions to an audience from a speaker.\n\nInsulation and inoculation\n\nThe concept of insulating oneself from emotional contagion is called emotional detachment\nEmotional detachment\nEmotional detachment, in psychology, can mean two different things. In the first meaning, it refers to an \"inability to connect\" with others emotionally, as well as a means of dealing with anxiety by preventing certain situations that trigger it; it is often described as \"emotional numbing\" or...\n\n. Alexithymic conditions may be one avenue people use to avoid emotional contagions. Primary alexithymia has a distinct neurological basis and a physical cause, such as genetic abnormality, disrupted biological development\nDevelopmental biology\nDevelopmental biology is the study of the process by which organisms grow and develop. Modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of cell growth, differentiation and \"morphogenesis\", which is the process that gives rise to tissues, organs and anatomy.- Related fields of study...\n\n or traumatic brain injury\nTraumatic brain injury\n\n (an example would be stroke). Secondary alexithymia results from psychological influences such as sociocultural conditioning, neurotic retroflection or defense against trauma. Secondary is often seen in post-traumatic stress patients. Secondary alexithymia is presumed to be more transient than primary alexithymia and hence more likely to respond to therapy or training.\n\nHoward Gardner\nHoward Gardner\nHoward Earl Gardner is an American developmental psychologist who is a professor of Cognition and Education at Harvard Graduate School of Education at Harvard University, Senior Director of Harvard Project Zero and author of over twenty books translated into thirty languages. Since 1995, he has...\n\n has developed his multiple intelligence\nTheory of multiple intelligences\nThe theory of multiple intelligences was proposed by Howard Gardner in 1983 as a model of intelligence that differentiates intelligence into various specific modalities, rather than seeing it as dominated by a single general ability....\n\n theory to include:\n  • intrapersonal intelligence, which entails the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one's feelings, fears and motivations. In Howard Gardner's view it involves having an effective working model of us, and to be able to use such information to regulate our lives.\n\nThe use of interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence can create an atmosphere of growth for individuals.\n\nSee also\n\nFurther reading\n\n    Cambridge University Press\n    Cambridge University Press is the publishing business of the University of Cambridge. Granted letters patent by Henry VIII in 1534, it is the world's oldest publishing house, and the second largest university press in the world...\n\n    . (1994)\n    St. Martin's Press\n\n     Griffin. (2000)\n  • Seligman, Martin\n    Martin Seligman\n    Martin E. P. \"Marty\" Seligman is an American psychologist, educator, and author of self-help books. His theory of \"learned helplessness\" is widely respected among scientific psychologists....\n\n    . Authentic Happiness, Free Press\n    Free Press (publisher)\n    Free Press is a book publishing imprint of Simon and Schuster. It was founded by Jeremiah Kaplan and Charles Liebman in 1947 and was devoted to sociology and religion titles. It was headquartered in Glencoe, Illinois, where it was known as The Free Press of Glencoe...\n\n     ( 2002)\n  • Showalter, Elaine\n    Elaine Showalter\n    Elaine Showalter is an American literary critic, feminist, and writer on cultural and social issues. She is one of the founders of feminist literary criticism in United States academia, developing the concept and practice of gynocritics.She is well known and respected in both academic and popular...\n\n     Hysterical Epidemics and Modern Culture New York: Columbia University Press\n    Columbia University Press\n    Columbia University Press is a university press based in New York City, and affiliated with Columbia University. It is currently directed by James D. Jordan and publishes titles in the humanities and sciences, including the fields of literary and cultural studies, history, social work, sociology,...\n\n  • Goleman, Daniel\n    Daniel Goleman\n    Daniel Jay Goleman is an author, psychologist, and science journalist. For twelve years, he wrote for The New York Times, specializing in psychology and brain sciences. He is the author of more than 10 books on psychology, education, science, and leadership.-Life:Goleman was born in Stockton,...\n\n     Working with Emotional Intelligence Bantam Books\n    Bantam Books\n\n    . (1998)\n\nExternal links", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9517280459403992}
{"content": "Kauai's Tree Tunnel on the way to Koloa town and Poipu beach, was planted over 150 years ago when the wealthy 'Scotsman' and Kauai cattle rancher Walter Duncan McBryde donated over 500 Eucalyptus trees that were left over after landscaping his estate. The tree tunnel is over a mile long and shades the cars that pass underneath along the highway.\nWhere I was standing to get this shot was at a three way intersection, and of course I picked one of the busiest times to try and get it! I really wanted this shot without any cars in it and I noticed that every few minutes there would be a break in the traffic. After standing in the middle of the road for about 10 minutes I got this shot a split second before a car came into the frame on my right side. The only thing I had to clone out was some lady standing on the right side of the road taking pictures with her camera phone!\n\nDiscover more inspiring photos like this one.\n\nDownload the FREE 500px app Open in app", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8837944269180298}
{"content": "Supreme Court guts Voting Rights Act\n\nThe Supreme Court today gutted the landmark Voting Rights Act of 1965 by a 5-to-4 decision. Before the ink even dried on today's landmark ruling its implications quickly became stunningly clear.\n\n\nHuge crowd pledges to fight for MLK's 'Dream'\n\nFifty years after Dr. King first gave his \"I Have a Dream Speech\" to 100,000 in this city, a diverse sea of people again flooded a two-mile stretch of Woodward Ave, Detroit's main thoroughfare.\n\n\nEnd of slavery celebrated on June 19\n\nTexans, and an increasing number of people across America, celebrate the end of slavery on June 19 because on that day in 1865 Gen. Gordon Granger announced that slavery was ended for good.\n\n\n\n\n\nDetroit remembers 50 years after King's \"I Have a Dream\" speech\n\nWhy are tens of thousands again prepared to march in Detroit? \"We need a better Detroit, better Michigan, better jobs, and better justice, to turn the dream of 1963 into the reality of 2013.\"\n\n\n“Jackson, hell yes:” Chokwe Lumumba elected mayor\n\nThe right wing's Southern strategy can only be defeated by a progressive Southern strategy.\n\n\n\nChicago’s “Red Squad” stories reveal damage to democracy\n\nCHICAGO - A lively symposium on this city's infamous \"Red Squad\" took place June 1 at the Chicago History Museum.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9822215437889099}
{"content": "How 'Tivoli' would ruin Yarmouth\n\nI read with interest your Nov. 26 front-page story about the revitalizing efforts for the much-maligned Route 28 in Yarmouth. I studied the schematic of the proposed \"Tivoli Center\" water park, marveling at the idyllic depiction of Route 28 with three or four cars wending their way by the six-story, 30-acre entertainment complex. I got to thinking about what this project might mean for my South Yarmouth neighborhood and the Cape in general.\n\nWhatever the concerns or worries Yarmouth's citizens may or may not have regarding taste level and design of a venue from the man who gave us the giant skull now gracing his property, I can't imagine that any Cape Codder believes traffic is not going to be a monstrous problem at \"Tivoli Center.\"\n\nLouis Nickinello, the developer, says that tourists today want a \"Disney culture\" where folks won't have their vacation ruined by the weather. Anyone who has been on Route 28 on a rainy August day can well imagine the result when hundreds of people trying to salvage their vacation from the weather head to \"Tivoli.\" They will join the throngs already lining the roadway in the rain.\n\nWe can imagine them sitting bumper to bumper in idling vehicles with the kids, AC cranked, burning $4-a-gallon gas, filling the sea air with exhaust fumes, inching to an indoor water park that may as well be in Oklahoma for all the Cape Cod feeling it has (Tivoli?).\n\nIs this really the best we have to offer our visitors? And does it really matter how \"green\" and eco-friendly the destination is when the act of getting there is so environmentally destructive?\n\nWisconsin Dells is cited as an example of the success of such water park recreation. Having lived in Wisconsin for 16 years, I had a good laugh over this. Wisconsin Dells is a tiny town in the middle of miles of open farmland, beautiful wild country and state parks. It is in a huge state situated in the middle of the country. It has a population of less than 3,000 and lots of room. The density is nowhere near that of the Cape.\n\nWisconsin Dells lies less than two miles from Interstate 94 and, despite its wee size, has its own exit off that highway. The area is flanked and crisscrossed by multiple state and county roads, including some four-lane divided highways. In other words, it is in the middle of nowhere and has abundant access from multiple directions. Even so, Wisconsinites know to avoid the Dells area in the summer because of the traffic.\n\nOf course traffic is only the start when thousands of people flood into small areas. A quick check of reveals that the crime rate in Wisconsin Dells, including rape, burglary, theft and auto theft, is two to four times that of the U.S. average. It has exceeded the U.S. violent and property crime rates for the past 10 years and requires twice the number of law enforcement personnel as the U.S. average. On Neighborhood Scout's crime graph of 0-100, with 100 being the safest communities, Wisconsin Dells ranks a 0 (Yarmouth an 18). Additionally, its household income is generally lower than the U.S. average, belying the \"hundreds of good jobs\" enticement we've heard from \"Tivoli\" proponents.\n\nThe special town meeting (representative of less than 5 percent of the population of Yarmouth, by the way) had speakers bemoaning that visitors and others wanting to get from Hyannis to points down-Cape are frequently directed to go through Yarmouth, as there is nothing to stop for. I submit that this development will, indeed, solve that problem. People will be instructed to go around Yarmouth because in addition to the 800-car underground parking garage at \"Tivoli\" there will be a 1,000-car parking lot known as Route 28.\n\nDoes Yarmouth's Route 28 need planning and new development? Yes. Most of the proposed plans sound wonderful and do speak to traffic issues. The \"Tivoli\" project, however, has little to say about how traffic will affect not only Route 28, but all the thickly settled, primarily residential roads feeding the area. There is no mention of the impact on the nearby historic district, which we can envision inundated with vehicles trying to avoid 28.\n\nTo pretend that this megaplex is the answer and, in fact, the key to revitalization, while offering no solutions to already stifling traffic problems, is to insult the people who have invested themselves in making South Yarmouth their home.\n\nWe can only hope that clearer minds will prevail through the permitting process as all Cape Codders realize the negative impact that putting this high-capacity tourist park in the middle of an already densely populated and traffic-burdened area will have on their quality of life.\n\nMaureen Carser lives in South Yarmouth.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8891689777374268}
{"content": "Recycling Think and Sort Game\n\neasrth day activities for kids\n\nThere is no way I would have ever expected this game to be half as popular as it is with my son. He has always loved garbage and recycling, but he took what I thought would be a fun activity and made it something he uses with this other toys. Calling it his recycling depot he has plopped it down on our family room floor all weekend next to the lego fire station and ferry dock. Oh and he continues to sort and re sort the items too! He’s using his imagination, pre math skills and problem solving too!\n\n  1. Gather your materials. You will need 2-3 containers, some card stock, magazines , scissors, and double stick tape.\n  2. Start by cutting out different recyclable and non recyclable  items. This is where they need to really stop and think . If you are doing this with a younger or easily frustrated kiddo do this step yourself and have the game ready for them to figure out. My son was reading when I did this step , it would have been too much for him to make and play the game.\n  3. Tape them onto the card stock. I am using some of the 250 plus business cards that read notimeforflashcards,com  <— did you catch the comma? I digress. \n  4. Make simple recycle and garbage signs on some card stock and place in the containers.\n  5. Ok time to play.\n  6. Something I loved about this was how hard he thought about each picture. With the kleenex he said ” Well we throw away the tissue with boogers but recycle the box…” then thought for a while before deciding. After this super simple activity he has been asking ” Is this recyclable Mama? “About everything in our house!\n\n\n\nLittle Pirate: Why Do We Recycle? by Innovative Kids is a really fun book about recycling with a pirate theme. Yes a pirate theme. Readers learn about recycling, composting and garbage along with two young pirates who need to clean up their ship. The pirates ask questions about different waste and the wise parrot fills them into the facts like the best bag to use while shopping is a cloth one, and what happens to the metal, glass and paper after we put them in the recycle bin.\n\nTrash And Recycling by Stephanie Turnball is a great book ! I learned more about garbage and the recycling process reading this to my son over lunch than I ever knew! He loved it and despite being a pretty sophisticated book for a 3 year old immediately asked to read it again as soon as I closed it. It explains the whole process from curbside pick up, land fills, incineration and recycling. The idea for today’s activity came from the sorting of  recyclable garbage from this book!", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.623437225818634}
{"content": "buy pakula 04\n\n0305 Wind On Leaders\n\n             Between The Lines\n\nCh 03: Knots and Connections\n\n05: Wind-on Leaders\nby Top Shot Tackle\n\n0305_DiaWind-on leaders is a system where the leader is connected to the main line in a manner which allows the leader to be wound directly onto the reel spool. Using leaders of 100lb or less, knots such as the uni knot are adequate as are several other types. Leader sizes greater than this require other connection systems such as the Dacron or Spectra splice. The method of connection of the leader to the main line is a critical factor. There is a very high failure rate when this is done incorrectly.\n\nAn example of a 24kg outfit using a wind-on leader is a short double say, 3-feet, connected to a 19-foot-long 200lb wind-on leader, via a spliced Dacron loop. At the other end of the wind-on, a snap swivel with a breaking strain greater than 200lb, is crimped. The lure leader is 9-feet of 300lb. Note that under IGFA rules this is measured from the end of the loop that connects to the main line to the end of the lure skirt or trailing hook, whichever is the longer.\n\nOther factors should be taken into consideration when making the decision whether to use wind-on leaders or not, some of which are: \n\n- Wind-on leaders take up a significant amount of space on the spool which means you will not be using a full spool of line. This results in a loss of speed in recovering line and a greater variance in drag setting, as the line loss will diminish spool size, increasing drag setting quicker than if you use a full spool of line.\n\n- They are dangerous if they get jammed in the reel housing. To prevent this more space on the reel spool should be allowed for them.\n\n- The leader length and thickness should be considered. A wind-on leader in some areas is considered to be as long a length of 600 or 800lb leader as possible regardless of line class, bait or lure size. If they are considered more an extension of the main line with added strength then the system will work more effectively. There are several examples following.  \n\nLine Class Double Wind-on Leader\n12lb 4 feet 9 feet x 100 lbs 5 feet x 150lbs\n16lb 4 feet 9 feet x 100 lbs 5 feet x 150 lbs\n20lb 4 feet 9 feet x 150 lbs 5 feet x 200 lbs\n30lb 8 feet 20 feet x 150 lbs 8 feet x 200 lbs\n50lb 8 feet 20 feet x 250 lbs 8 feet x 300 lbs\n80lb 8 feet 20 feet x 300 lbs 8 feet x 400 lbs\n130lb 8 feet 20 feet x 400 lbs 8 feet x 500 lbs\n\nThe breaking strain of the wind-ons and leaders reflects how much abrasion one could expect during a prolonged fight with a marlin using the likely drag settings for each line class. There are situations where using heavier or lighter wind-ons and leader sizes may be an advantage. Note that in all situations the connection between the wind-on and leader should be at least the breaking strain of the wind-on leader.\n\nThe lengths of the double, wind-on and leader are based on the IGFA allowable lengths and also an allowance to take into consideration the lengths of the leader, which should be at least the length of the fish you expect to catch. This length allows the lure to slide away and not be used as a counterweight to help throw the lure when the fish shakes its head and/or jumps.\n\n - Wind-on leaders are economical as the short leaders use much less material.\n\n - Lures on shorter leaders are easier to store.\n\n - The extra leader length of the wind-on allows the traceman to get hold of the leader earlier in the fight than if using shorter leaders. They can also be used by the angler in the same manner as with taking a wrap on the double as shown in the advanced angling exercises.\n\nMaking a Wind-on Leader:\n\nThe following is the Top Shot Tackle method of preparing a wind-on leader. The methods and tools shown in use can also be incorporated into making topshots.\n\n1 - Cut 2-feet of Dacron. The Dacron should not be of a greater breaking strain than the nylon used as the system is based on the Dacron expanding to fit tightly over and securely grip the nylon leader.\n\n2 - With one end of the Dacron slightly shorter than the other, form a loop of around 1-inch using a loop needle by passing the Dacron back through itself at right angles.\n\n0305_Tana3 - Here we are showing how to make a Tanaka splice. The Tanaka loop holds the Dacron proud and stops the hinging that occurs without this addition. This is done by passing alternate ends of the Dacron through the other at right angles at least three times each end, that is, a total of six passes of the needle.\n\n4 - The shorter end of the Dacron is then threaded down the middle of the longer end. The longer end is then bunched up at the loop end and held in place by a needle or safety pin.\n\n5 - The end of the leader nylon that will be used as the wind-on is cut at an angle, also known as a rat tail, and inserted into the back of the appropriate-sized needle. The nylon is then threaded up the inside of the shorter end of the Dacron.\n\nThe needle is then removed from the wind-on. The nylon end is then superglued to hold it in place and pulled back into the Dacron.\n\n\n6 - The Dacron loop is then placed in the stretching jig and stretched down over the nylon by pulling with the fingers and rubbing it down, and then held in place with a drop of superglue. The longer Dacron end is now freed and also pushed and then stretched over the shorter end and the nylon is once again held place with a drop of superglue.\n\n7 - Prior to binding the join of the Dacron and nylon, the leader is again stretched in the jig. This stretching is very important in making a secure, reliable wind-on loop splice hold under the extreme pressure of a fish striking and fighting.\n\nAs with the top shot there are several possible methods. In this case the Top Shot Tackle bobbin is used with 80lb Spectra thread. A drop of superglue is once again put on the end of the Dacron and the splice is begun, ensuring the bobbin is pre-tensioned. Used in the method shown the bobbin will automatically track down the Dacron.\n\nThe Bobbin bind is then finished off with a variation of half hitches and rather than end it there, another bind is done back over the top and past the first one for extra security, and once again finished with a variation of half hitches.\n\nThe splice is now complete and can be coated as with the top shot with a flexible superglue or waterproof adhesive for added protection and security.\n\nAs with the previous top shot, half hitched wax thread is also a very secure method of securing the area of the Dacron to nylon join.\n\n0305_WOSnapThe snap is then attached to the leader using abrasion-resistant chafing gear such as a thimble or nylon tubing. It is also important to note that a crimp wound into a tip may well damage it, so something should be used to cushion this, such as wax thread bind or a small flexible bead glued into position.\n\nThe wind-on leader is connected to the main line double as follows:\n\n- Pass the double through the Dacron loop.\n\n- Pull the leader through the double out through the top and over the outside of the double.\n\n- Then back up through the middle and over the other side of the double.\n\n- Pass the leader back through the middle from underneath out to the top.\n\n- Snug up, moisturising the nylon as you pull the loops away from each other to tighten them.\n\n\nBetween The Lines", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7141526341438293}
{"content": "Conditions deep inside giant planets recreated in lab\n\nIn what could lead to better understanding of how giant planets form, researchers have experimentally recreated the conditions that exist deep inside giant planets, such as Jupiter, Uranus and many other planets recently discovered outside the solar system.\n\nNew breakthrough gets fusion fuel closer to reality\n\nScientists at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) have taken a step to bring fusion fuel closer to reality.\n\nMini `space cop` satellites to help control traffic in space\n\nA team of scientists from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory are using mini-satellites that work as \" space cops\" to help control traffic in space.\n\nWater vapour in exoplanet`s atmosphere hints at its formation\n\nA team of international scientists has made the most detailed examination yet of the atmosphere of a Jupiter-size like planet beyond our solar system.\n\nHow order emerges from chaos in cosmos\n\nAstronomers have reported surprising discovery of self-organized electromagnetic fields in counter-streaming ionized gases.\n\nHumans played dominant role in ocean warming\n\nMost of the observed global ocean warming over the past 50 years is attributable to human activities, according to a new study.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9935958981513977}
{"content": "Define the problem\n\nThe first step in problem-solving is to define precisely the problem that you want to solve.\n\nIn effective problem-solving, you need to set yourself to answer only one question: the key question. A key question isn’t an isolated element. Instead, it is part of an introductory flow, complementing a situation and a complication. This introductory flow also belongs to an environment, where you specify the key stakeholders for your problem and the elements out of scope, amongst other things. Therefore it is fundamental that you identify clearly which question you should solve and what its environment is.\n\n\nOf course, an essential part of defining your problem is to define if you want to understand the root cause(s) of a situation (i.e. solve a “why” problem) or if you want to identify how to solve it (as a general rule, only ask “how” if you know “why”).\n\n\nRemember that a solid problem definition is probably the most overlooked step in problem solving. Ironically, it is the step that has the greatest return on investment, because it is a leadership step, rather than a management one. Just like you can’t win a race—even if you are the fastest runner in the world—if you don’t set to run in the right direction to begin with, the success of your entire problem resolution process depends on your ability to identify the right problem. So don’t overlook this step. Resist the urge to jump into developping issue trees too early. Instead, invest enough time here; it will pay off later.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9999815821647644}
{"content": "\n\n\n\nHis long career at Vogue spanned a number of radical transformations in fashion and its depiction, but his style remained remarkably constant. Imbued with calm and decorum, his photographs often seemed intent on defying fashion. His models and portrait subjects were never seen leaping or running or turning themselves into blurs. Even the rough-and-ready members of the Hell's Angels motorcycle gang, photographed in San Francisco in 1967, were transformed within the quieting frame of his studio camera into the graphic equivalent of a Greek frieze.\n\nInstead of spontaneity, Mr. Penn provided the illusion of a seance, his gaze precisely describing the profile of a Balenciaga coat or of a Moroccan jalaba in a way that could almost mesmerize the viewer. Nothing escaped the edges of his photographs unless he commanded it. Except for a series of close-up portraits that cut his subjects' heads off at the forehead, and another, stranger suite of overripe nudes, his subjects were usually shown whole, apparently enjoying a splendid isolation from the real world.\n\nHe was probably most famous for photographing Parisian fashion models and the world's great cultural figures, but he seemed equally at home photographing Peruvian peasants or bunion pads. Merry Foresta, co-organizer of a 1990 retrospective of his work at the National Museum of American Art, wrote that his pictures exhibited ''the control of an art director fused with the process of an artist.''\n\nA courtly man whose gentle demeanor masked an intense perfectionism, Mr. Penn adopted the pose of a humble craftsman while helping to shape a field known for putting on airs. Although schooled in painting and design, he chose to define himself as a photographer, scraping his early canvases of paint so that they might serve a more useful life as backdrops to his pictures.\n\nHe was also a refined conversationalist and a devoted husband and friend. His marriage to Lisa Fonssagrives, a beautiful model, artist and his sometime collaborator, lasted 42 years, ending with her death at the age of 80 in 1992. Mr. Penn's photographs of Ms. Fonssagrives not only captured a slim woman of lofty sophistication and radiant good health; they also set the esthetic standard for the elegant fashion photography of the 1940s and '50s.\n\nMs. Fonssagrives became a sculptor after her modeling career ended. In 1994, Mr. Penn and their son, Tom, a metal designer, arranged the printing of a book that reproduced his wife's sculpture, prints and drawings. In addition to his son, Mr. Penn is survived by his stepdaughter, Mia Fonssagrives Solow, a sculptor and jewelry designer; his younger brother, Arthur, the well-known director of such films as ''Bonnie and Clyde,'' and eight grandchildren.\n\nMr. Penn had the good fortune of working for and collaborating with two of the 20th century's most inventive and influential magazine art directors, Alexey Brodovitch and Alexander Liberman. He studied with Mr. Brodovitch in Philadelphia as a young man and came to New York in 1937 as his unpaid design assistant at Harper's Bazaar, the most provocative fashion magazine of the day. But it was under Mr. Liberman, at Vogue, that Mr. Penn forged his career as a photographer.\n\nIn the book ''Irving Penn: Passage'' (1991), a compilation of the photographer's career, Mr. Liberman wrote of meeting Mr. Penn for the first time in 1941: ''Here was a young American who seemed unspoiled by European mannerisms or culture. I remember he wore sneakers and no tie. I was struck by his directness and a curious unworldliness, a clarity of purpose, and a freedom of decision. What I call Penn's American instincts made him go for the essentials.''\n\nIrving Penn was also a consummate technician, known equally for the immaculate descriptive quality of his still-life arrangements of cosmetics and other consumer goods and for his masterly exploration of photographic materials. Not content with the conventions of the darkroom or with the standard appearance of commercial prints, he was willing to experiment. He resorted to bleaching the prints of his nudes series, eliminating skin tones and making female flesh appear harsh and unforgiving but nonetheless sexually charged.\n\nAt the height of the cultural convulsions of the 1960s Mr. Penn taught himself to print his own pictures using a turn-of-the-century process that relies on platinum instead of more conventional silver. The process produces beautiful, velvety tones in the image and is among the most permanent of photographic processes, although it requires time-consuming preparation and precise control in the darkroom.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7048591375350952}
{"content": "ASU’s “Security & Defense Systems Initiative” (SDSI) addresses national and global security and defense challenges through an integrative, transdisciplinary, “whole system” approach that involves the following three key areas.\n\nIntegrative, transdisciplinary \"whole system\" approach\n\nTechnology Solutions\n\nPrograms supporting technology research and development to address current and emerging needs in security and defense.\n\nOur contributions to advancing technologies include basic and applied research efforts as well as advanced technology development programs. These are primarily organized around seven Research Thrust Areas that reflect some of the most urgent needs of the security and defense challenges being faced over the next decade and beyond. SDSI combines a traditional on-campus, unclassified, low-TRL research capability with an off-campus, higher-TRL research entity called ASURE that is able to conduct higher-TRL and specialized research extending to the highest levels. This allows SDSI to contribute to technology research and development efforts ranging from TRL0 to TRL7+ and to address programs extending across all security levels.\n\nLaw and Policy Issues\n\nPrograms supporting laws, polices, and regulations enabling greater protections of national and global security while ensuring the privacy, freedoms, and way of life that define our society.\n\nIn many cases the technologies available to address security and defense challenges exceed the legal and policy layers needed to make effective use of them. SDSI seeks to contribute to an informed, reasoned, and mature understanding of key issues at the intersection of science and technology with law and policy. Our goal is to contribute to the development of appropriate legal and policy enablements that address the security and defense challenges we face.  To do this, we bring together law and policy experts, military leaders, technologists, social scientists, and experts in human rights and the law of armed conflict to understand the wide range of viewpoints involved and develop a clearer assessment of potential solution approaches.\n\nRoot Social Causes\n\nPrograms that examine social, cultural, and economic causes of emerging security and defense challenges, to address these before they grow to become major threats that may require costly action.\n\nThese range from factors that can contribute to cross-border tensions, to cultural factors that can create potential for future security and defense issues, to the competition for natural resources and the networks needed to enable their equitable distribution. By better understanding these drivers of potential future conflicts, SDSI can help support the development of solutions to alleviate them.  We work with researchers across a wide range of fields, including the humanities and social sciences, to clarify the key issues involved and define innovative routes for addressing them in distinctly integrative and transdisciplinary ways.\n\nTogether these three components of the “Security & Defense Systems Initiative” (SDSI) allow ASU to bring the entire intellectual resources of the largest single university in the U.S. to bear on some of the greatest challenges being faced in the security and defense area.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9975303411483765}
{"content": "This Week at War: Playing Risk\n\nMy Foreign Policy column discusses some risky assumptions inside the Pentagon's new strategic guidance. I also discuss why Gulf Cooperation Council members are still failing to cooperate on Iran.\n\n\nThe Pentagon's risky new assumptions\n\nLast week, I discussed the release of the Pentagon's new strategic guidance, the document that attempts to explain how the U.S. military services and field commanders plan to cope with a $487 billion cut from their previous 10-year budget plan. Defense analysts now await the White House's detailed defense budget request, a document that is bound to contain a lot of unhappy news for Congress members and defense contractors. I noted last week that the strategic guidance implied substantial cuts to the Army and Marine Corps, implicitly accepting that the United States will no longer be able to send major deployments to two simultaneous crises. But that is just one of many risks the new guidance will force Pentagon planners to cope with.\n\nThe cuts to U.S. ground forces will necessarily increase the responsibilities borne by U.S. allies. The strategic guidance discusses the Pentagon's \"plan to operate whenever possible with allied and coalition forces.\" In addition, the document emphasizes the importance of providing security force assistance to build the capacity of partner forces. The authors of the new strategy are counting on this assistance to help fill in for reduced U.S. forces in the future. In reality, however, traditional allies in Europe and elsewhere continue to cut rather than increase their military capacities. Recent U.S. \"coalitions of the willing\" did produce contributions from many countries, but the majority of these contributions were militarily insignificant. Future U.S. security crises might matter even less to U.S. allies, which will be reluctant to provide significant troop contributions. Planning for allies to do the work previously done by now-furloughed U.S. soldiers is a risk.\n\nIn his rollout of the new strategy, Defense Secretary Leon Panetta called for U.S. forces to be \"more agile, flexible, [and] innovative\" as a way of compensating for reduced numbers. But what does it mean precisely to be more agile, flexible, and innovative? Can Panetta and his staff point to specific indicators of agility or flexibility that his forces cannot achieve now but could under different conditions? What training, leadership, or equipment is required to achieve these undefined higher levels of agility and flexibility? Without a more detailed description, it sounds more like sloganeering than a strategy. Panetta and others may express a desire to more rapidly shift forces around the globe in response to crises, but U.S. forces face an increasing challenge of denied access from adversary missiles, a fundamental threat the new strategy is supposed to address. Until the Pentagon resolves the anti-access challenge, improved strategic mobility is itself another problem, rather than a solution to a problem of reduced troop numbers.\n\nThe strategic guidance discusses the idea of \"reversibility,\" or retaining the military's ability to reconstitute forces in response to crises. The report describes plans to retain larger numbers of field-grade officers and sergeants in the Army and Marine Corps to accommodate rapid reconstitution of previously shuttered formations. The strategy also discusses an updated role for reserve forces to reconstitute needed combat units. Although these are sensible preparations, in the past it has usually taken two years or more for the U.S. military to fully adapt to major strategic shocks. This is the typical amount of time a large bureaucracy like the Pentagon needs to comprehend a new adversary and its tactics, accept that the new challenge differs significantly from those forecast in prewar plans, and then overcome the bureaucratic hurdles needed to design and implement effective responses. The new strategic guidance may hope to speed up this timeline, but simply assuming it will go faster next time is a risk.\n\nThe impending defense cuts increase stress for Pentagon planners because they reduce the margin of error they will have to work with. Possessing redundancy and safety margins of troops, equipment, and bases seems wasteful, even more so during a budget crisis. Getting the new strategic guidance to work during a future crisis will mean hoping that the new planning assumptions come true and that Murphy's Law doesn't strike too often. U.S. military history shows that \"planning for perfection\" rarely turns out well.\n\n\nWhen it comes to Iran, the United States could use a little more help from its Arab friends.\n\nIn a Jan. 8 interview, Gen. Martin Dempsey, the Joint Chiefs chairman, admitted that Iran did have the military capacity to block the Strait of Hormuz \"for a period of time.\" Dempsey went on to reassure his questioner that U.S. military forces around the Persian Gulf region could eventually reopen the strait to maritime traffic. After just completing one round of naval maneuvers, Iran promised an even bigger naval exercise in February. Over at least the medium term, the United States will have to bear the primary responsibility for guaranteeing access to this critical portion of the global commons. Over the long run, the United States would like its Arab allies to pick up a bigger share of the burden. Unfortunately, a recent conference sponsored by U.S. Central Command and the Rand Corp. seemed to throw a barrel of cold water on this prospect.\n\nA new publication from Rand discusses the results of this July 2011 conference, which was keynoted by Marine Gen. James Mattis, the head of Centcom, as well as Puneet Talwar, senior director for the Persian Gulf region for the National Security Council. Around 100 regional experts participated in various panel discussions under Chatham House rules, meaning their remarks were recorded but not attributed by name.\n\nThe United States has an interest in promoting a NATO-like political and military alliance among its Sunni Arab allies in the region as a balancing force to Iran. The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), composed of Saudi Arabia and the other smaller Sunni countries on the western side of the Persian Gulf, would ideally be the basis of this balancing force. Regrettably, the conference participants concluded that the GCC remains bogged down by mistrust and a lack of coordination. Even worse, just when rising tensions with Iran should be increasing cooperation with the United States, Washington's relations with most GCC countries, most notably Saudi Arabia, are worsening.\n\nEvents in 2011 afforded several GCC countries a chance to flex their military muscles and to do so in cooperation with other GCC members and the United States. For example, GCC member Qatar was a major player in the Libyan rebellion, supplying both fighter aircraft and a large contingent of special-forces advisors to the rebels, an action that was supported by other GCC members. Yet the conference concluded that GCC support for the Libyan rebels was motivated by animus toward Muammar al-Qaddafi and was therefore not a precursor for better military cooperation among members in the future. Similarly, the Saudi-led GCC intervention to prop up Bahrain's royal family is expected to do little to improve GCC military coordination against the Iranian threat. In fact, the conference suggested that the internal crackdown in Bahrain may have damaged the Bahrain royal family's credibility and may eventually place U.S. military bases in the country in jeopardy.\n\nAccording to the conference participants, the Arab Spring has created collateral damage to U.S. relations with key Gulf countries. Leaders in Saudi Arabia and elsewhere were not pleased with the Obama administration's abandonment of Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak. U.S. policymakers seem to make a clear distinction between external threats to the Sunni Arab countries, to which the United States has pledged to respond, and internal threats, which the United States sees as each country's responsibility. The Sunni monarchies, fearing Iran's covert and irregular-warfare capabilities, do not so neatly see the distinction between Iranian-sponsored external and internal threats. The conference reported that some GCC leaders, having lost some confidence in U.S. reliability, are now looking east to India and China to diversify their security relationships.\n\nU.S. diplomats and regional commanders such as Mattis are caught in several dilemmas. Over the long run, U.S. officials want to encourage more self-reliance and cooperation among GCC states. Yet they also want these countries to have enough confidence in U.S. guarantees that they won't wander off to establish alliances with the likes of China. Similarly, the Arab Spring seemed to bring about the possibility of greater self-government in the Arab world. But U.S. officials have also discovered that pushing this fundamental value might put at risk U.S. security relationships in the region and thus increase the burden on U.S. forces responsible for global commons like the Strait of Hormuz. Mattis's conference showed that solutions to these dilemmas are as far away as ever.\n\n\nYour rating: None\n\n\nI agree that reliance on security force assistance and the assumption that allies and partners will enable us to mitigate the risks associated with reduced defense funding is based more on hope than fact. Most of the foreign contributions to both Iraq and Afghanistan were/are militarily insignificant, but then on the other hand when it comes to dealing with globally networked threats such as terrorism, WMD proliferation, transnational criminal organizations, etc. relatively minor investments in security force assistance and procedures for sharing information and collaboration on areas that are common concerns is much more effective than trying to go solo.\n\nWhen it comes to being “more agile, flexible, [and] innovative,” why should Secretary Panetta point to specific indicators? It is a task to the JS and services to develop these innovative solutions, and I think there are several innovative approaches that can be developed to address a wide range of security challenges. If the SECDEF gave examples they would be interpreted as guidance and limit the creativity of the staff.\n\nMaybe I’m the last holdout, but it seems we’re making too much of the anti-access problem. Any State on State conflict has and will involve offense and defense. Defense has always included anti-access technologies and tactics, and if we were on the offense we had to develop the means to overcome them whether it was hitting the beaches in Normandy or storming Japanese islands, or the landing at Inchon, or the deep bombing raids into North Vietnam, and so forth. No doubt as our adversaries technologies evolve and tactics change, our technology and tactics must change also. Maybe excessive focus on irregular warfare over the last 10 years has created a deficit in that co-evolution, but it seems that could be addressed rather quickly.\n\nI don’t think reversibility is a greater risk than it has been historically, and actually it may reduce risk in some ways. If we have a standing force that is trained and equipped for the wrong fight, and its leaders are indoctrinated with inappropriate doctrine, forming a new force from scratch may be more effective. I realize this is a reach, but perhaps worth considering.\n\nYou made some interesting comments about the political dynamics in CENTCOM due to the Arab Spring I wasn’t aware of that support your arguments about over reliance on coalitions and SFA. However, since the new strategic guidance talks about the strategic shift to the Asia-Pacific region it would seem appropriate to address that also. I also think we may not be putting enough emphasis on our backyard in SOUTHCOM.\n\nLet's face it, Robert, the Saudis have been ticked off ever since the U.S. invaded Iraq in 2003, \"delivering\" Iraq into the hands of the Iranians. Ever since, one could even make the case for the Saudi's perceiving U.S. moves in the region as being incompetent. As it is, the Saudis are contending with Shia unrest in their own country and neighboring Bahrain. A war with Iran would likely be like pouring gasoline onto the flames of this unrest.\n\nAs for the GCC and a potential regional war, they actually live in the neighborhood and would be physically and materially impacted; where we Americans would likely only see a relative pinch to our pocketbooks in the form of $6 to $8 a gallon fuel, and associated price increases at the supermarket.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.6032970547676086}
{"content": "What Is Pain?\n\nUnderstanding Your Body\n\n\n\n\nSometimes pain may be just a nuisance, like a mild headache. At other times, such as after an operation, pain that doesn't go away—even after you take pain medicine—may be a signal that there is a problem. If you have an operation, your nurses and doctors will ask you about your pain because they want you to be comfortable, but also because they want to know if something is wrong.\n\nBe sure to tell your doctors and nurses when you have pain. They can help you to prevent or control pain so you can get well faster and improve your results after surgery.\n\nProceed to Next Section\n\nCurrent as of November 2007\nInternet Citation: What Is Pain?: Understanding Your Body. November 2007. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville, MD. http://www.ahrq.gov/patients-consumers/prevention/understanding/bodysys/edbody11.html", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8346545696258545}
{"content": "\n\nComic-Con has become more of a pop cultural festival, and to not be included feels like you're missing the biggest celebration of the year.\n\nFelicia Day", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5057644844055176}
{"content": "Like what you saw?\nStart your free trial and get immediate access to:\nWatch 1-minute preview of this video\n\n\nGet immediate access to:\nYour video will begin after this quick intro to Brightstorm.\n\nMore Roots of Complex Numbers - Problem 3 2,015 views\n\nTeacher/Instructor Norm Prokup\nNorm Prokup\n\nCornell University\nPhD. in Mathematics\n\n\nI want to talk about a special problem that involves the roots of a complex number. Finding the nth roots of unity.\n\nAn nth root of unity is a complex number z satisfying the equation; z to the n equals 1. For example, the fourth roots of unity would be numbers satisfying z to the 4 equals 1. Let's find the cube roots of unity. These are the third roots of unity. These would satisfy z cubed equals one.\n\nThe first thing we have to do is express 1 in trigonometric form. 1 is a complex number, so you can do this. The modulus is of course going to be 1, and the argument is going to be 0; Cosine 0 plus i sine 0. What's the first root of unity going to be? Well I need to take the modulus of the original number and take its third root. Now the third root of 1 is 1. The modulus of all the roots is going to be one.\n\nWhat's the argument of the first root? You take this number 0 and divide by 3. 0 divide by 3 is 0, so I get 0. Of course this is exactly the same number as I started with, so I get 1 and of course that makes sense. 1 cubed is 1. 1 should be one of the cube roots of unity.\n\nLet's look for the second one. Remember there are going to be 3 of them. z sub 2 is going to be; same modulus, 1. What do we add to 0 to get the next root? Well we have to add 2 Pi divided by, whatever the index of the root is, 3, well 2 Pi over 3. I'm going to add 2 Pi over 3 to this and I get cosine of 2 Pi over 3 plus i sine 2 Pi over 3.\n\nThe cosine of 2 Pi over 3 is -1/2. Sine of 2 Pi over 3 is root 3 over 2. -1/2 plus root 3 over 2i. That's going to be another cube root of unity.\n\nWhat about the third? 1, that's the modulus, cosine of; I add another 2 Pi over 3 to this. I get 4 Pi over 3 plus i sine 4 Pi over 3. Cosine of 4 Pi over 3, -1/2. Sine of 4 Pi over 3 is negative root 3 over 2. So I get negative one-half negative root 3 over 2 i.\n\nThe cube roots of unity are; 1, -1/2 plus root 3 over 2i and -1/2 minus root 3 over 2i. Any of these numbers if cubed gives 1.\n\nStuck on a Math Problem?\n\nAsk Genie for a step-by-step solution", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.6880286335945129}
{"content": "View the latest EBI news stories and important announcements...\n\nSearch The CSA\nEC Number\n\nCatalytic Site Atlas\n\nCSA LITERATURE entry for 1k4t\n\nE.C. nameDNA topoisomerase\nSpeciesHomo sapiens (Human)\nE.C. Number (IntEnz)\nCSA Homologues of 1k4tThere are 19 Homologs\nCSA Entries With UniProtID P11387\nCSA Entries With EC Number\nPDBe Entry 1k4t\nPDBSum Entry 1k4t\nMACiE Entry 1k4t\n\nLiterature Report\n\nIntroductionEukaryotic DNA topoisomerase I (topo I) is an enzyme that acts to relax supercoils generated during transcription and DNA replication. Due to of the size of the eukaryotic chromosome, removal of these supercoils can only be accomplished locally by introducing breaks into the DNA helix. Topo I mediates DNA relaxation by creating a transient single-strand break in the DNA duplex. This transient nick allows the broken strand to rotate around its intact complement, effectively removing local supercoils. Strand nicking results from the transesterification of an active-site tyrosine (Tyr-723) at a DNA phosphodiester bond forming a 3-phosphotyrosine covalent enzyme-DNA complex. After DNA relaxation, the covalent intermediate is reversed when the released 5-OH of the broken strand reattacks the phosphotyrosine intermediate in a second transesterification reaction. The rate of religation is normally much faster than the rate of cleavage, and this ensures that the steady-state concentration of the covalent 3-phosphotyrosyl topo I DNA complex remains low.\nHowever, a variety of DNA lesions and drugs have been shown to stabilize the covalent 3-phosphotyrosyl intermediate. For example, camptothecin (CPT) is a natural product that was originally discovered because of its antitumor activity and was later demonstrated to cause the accumulation of topo I DNA adducts in vitro and in vivo.CPTs bind the covalent 3-phosphotyrosyl intermediate and specifically block DNA religation, thus converting topo I into a DNA-damaging agent. Topo I is the sole intramolecular target of CPT, and the cytotoxic effects of CPT poisoning are S-phase specific. During DNA replication, the replication fork is thought to collide with the trapped topo I DNA complexes, resulting in double-strand breaks and ultimately cell death.\nMechansimThe nucleophilic Tyr723 attacks the backbone posphate group leading to cleavage, the leaving group 5'-oxygen is protonated by Lys532. Controlled rotation of the DNA helix then relaxes its supercoil, after which the nicked strand is re-ligated.\n\nCatalytic Sites for 1k4t\n\nResidueChainNumberUniProtKB NumberFunctional PartFunctionTargetDescription\nTyrA723723macie:sideChainTyr attacks the phosphate back bone to form a phosphotyrosine intermediate.\nArgA488488macie:sideChainStabilises transition state by hydrogen bonding to the non-bridging oxygen.\nArgA590590macie:sideChainStabilises transition state by hydrogen bonding to the non-bridging oxygen. Note could also contribute to lowering pKa of Tyr723 leading to its deprotonation for nucleophilic attack.\nHisA632632macie:sideChainStabilises transition state. Note was originally thought to eb the general acid.\nLysA532532macie:sideChainKnown to act as the general acid which protonates the leaving 5'-oxygen atom.\n\nLiterature References\n\nNotes:Note 2005 paper stating Lys532 is an essential catalytic residue.\nStewart L\nA model for the mechanism of human topoisomerase I.\nScience 1998 279 1534-1541\nPubMed: 9488652\nInterthal H\nThe role of lysine 532 in the catalytic mechanism of human topoisomerase I.\nJ Biol Chem 2004 279 2984-2992\nPubMed: 14594810", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7201838493347168}
{"content": "Student Is Sent $350,000 Government Drone\n\nPart of an unmanned aircraft used by the US government to monitor wildlife is wrongly delivered to a college student.\n\n\nThe NOAA says the device was \"misdelivered\"\n\nA college student was left baffled after he was accidentally sent part of a $350,000 (£206,000) government drone.\n\nHe received the environment and wildlife monitoring Puma drone pieces - owned by the US National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) – on Monday.\n\nPhotographs posted to reddit by the user - known as Seventy_Seven - showed a large box filled with neatly packaged drone pieces, including what looks like a control panel.\n\nThe student said he called delivery firm UPS, which said the package was his and it was up to him whether to keep it.\n\nSince then he has contacted the NOAA, who are now trying to organise a collection.\n\nHe wrote: \"They were happy I reached out to them, and now know where their missing shipment went.\n\n\"After describing what happened, he seemed pretty content about it.\"\n\n\n\nThe package was sent from MacDill Air Force Base in Florida in plain packaging, addressed to the student.\n\nThe drone has a range of around eight miles and can fly for about two hours at a time.\n\nThe completed drone will be used to monitor the sanctuary's environment.\n\nMr Miller added: \"We're just wanting to get that missing package to the sanctuary so we can start flying the mission.\"\n", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7711279988288879}
{"content": "Yes. Sorry to not specify that.\n\nHere's what Wall said in the 1912 Dictionary of Photography: \"Chrome Alum...soluble 1 part in 10 cold water...It is used for hardening gelatine, as, for example, in the preparation of emulsions for dry plates to prevent frilling... Potash Alum..It is used for rendering the films of gelatine less liable to mechanical injury, by hardening them, and also clears them from stains. Solubility: 9.5 in 100 of cold water, 10 in 8 of boiling water...\"\n\nI take this to mean that chrome alum was traditionally used as a final addition to the emulsion itself, and that potassium alum was used in hardening baths. If so, it still needs some investigation to see if that would work for us. \"Alum\" just went on my grocery list. I've never used chrome alum in any of my emulsions, so the issue about its availability has slipped under my radar. Thanks for bringing this up .", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9479488730430603}
{"content": "\n\n\n\nSource: The Verge\n\nComments     Threshold\n\n\nFrom my experience...\nBy Torgog on 3/20/2014 12:06:18 PM , Rating: 3\nAs a high school teacher and school administrator for the past 27 years I've seen the progression of distractions firsthand. Fads come and go, but the infiltration of electronic communication / entertainment / information is unlike anything I've seen. It is by no means a fad. Hence, accepting and utilizing the devices eliminates the predictable resistance that comes with forcing students to part with a device that has become an ingrained part of their daily existence.\n\nThere are two approaches to student cell phones that I have seen used successfully, more so when used in conjunction.\n\n1) Train the students. From the start of the school year I trained my students on appropriate use of their devices. There is a time and place each class period for their usage. Each period there is a set countdown to \"airplane mode\". Students respect my position in the classroom and, hence, respect my rules. Likewise, there are swift consequences for violations of the rule.\n\n2) Embrace the access. I've found ways for students to constructively use their devices as part of lessons, either as a research device or calculator. Students are notified prior to the lesson that devices will be allowed, but only on cue. This means it sits on the desk, but unused until that time.\n\nIt takes time to retrain the students on usage in my classroom. What makes it more difficult (but not impossible) are classrooms where there are no rules on the devices. But this is true for any teacher trying to overcome the shortcoming of those teachers with poor classroom management.\n\n", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.6505519151687622}
{"content": "My sister is looking for some guidance on how to style her locs. They are grazing shoulder length at this point. The only youtuber that I know of with a great loc channel is chescalocs, but a lot of her styles aren't really feasible for someone with sl hair.\n\nAny suggestions?", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.806263267993927}
{"content": "A note on the new, longer descriptions:\n\nKnowing that not everyone possesses a fluent skill set in Japanese, watching movies--although visually pleasing may at times incite mild levels of confusion due to language and cultural barriers. Titles and brief descriptions can only aid with comprehension to some extent even when supplied with a decent amount of still frames from the production.\n\nDue to this, since the beginning of 2012 and continuing indefinitely with every new movie update along with a complete rewrite of the majority of prior updates are the additions of fully fleshed out descriptions that satisfy three criteria: 1. Summarize the movie, 2. Provide background information about said movie and also include unique, cultural Japanese tidbits when applicable, and 3. Commentary.\n\nIn other words, the new, expanded descriptions accompanying most movies are there to serve as a 'naughty' Wikipedia-like entry. Read it while viewing the movie rather than attempting to digest it all at once as a sumptuous pre-show snack. It will surely help you understand what is happening in each scene with a greater, enhanced level of appreciation and keep you in the know during instances with heavy dialogue.\n\nThe Zenra Movie Annex has always been about quality over quantity. Rather than flooding each weekly update (without fail for over ten years) with a smorgasbord of movies of varying quality with little to no back-story and a few hastily created still frames, the best, the most bizarre, and of course, the most alternative movies from Japanese AV are chosen to represent their at-times average kindred along with full, lush, and at times, gargantuanly detailed descriptions to further enhance your viewing pleasure.\n\nAlso, please take note that the descriptions that appear on this site are 100% exclusive and written entirely in-house. There is no borrowing from other sources. Each movie description is a multi-hour (and at times, multi-day) affair consisting of an initial draft plus several rewrite sessions along with fact-finding to enhance the cultural aspect from Criteria #2. If you ever have any questions or comments about the movies and their write-ups, please do not hesitate to use the Contact Form.\n\n\nContinued below...\n\n\nWhat makes weird and bizarre Japanese AV movies so special is just how strange they truly are especially when compared with their western counterparts. Watching some of the crazy happenings of unorthodox Japan AV can be quite a thrilling experience but if you are not a skilled user of Japanese, there may be times when what's being said is considerably more important than what's on the screen.\n\nAs noted above, all entries on the Zenra Movie Annex have been given lush new descriptions that give deep insight into what is really going on during those times when comprehension becomes challenging. Along with these descriptions, various Japanese cultural nuances and tidbits in concert with commentary have also fleshed out the movie viewing experience to an unrivaled level.\n\nBut more can be done.\n\n\nJapanese AV subtitles\n\nAlong with extended descriptions, beginning late September 2012 and continuing indefinitely, *all* new updates will feature exclusive full English subtitles. In concert with this, all previous updates will gradually be re-released with English subtitles. If you are an active subscriber, feel free to use the contact form located on the subtitle request page to submit movie requests as they will be given priority for archival subtitling.\n\nWith the addition of English subtitles, the Zenra mission statement of promoting the best of the most bizarre and strange Japanese AV movies with an emphasis on universal understanding has been saliently fortified. Being that all the Japanese AV subtitles are exclusive, created in-house, and most important, grammatically sound native English (rather than \"Engrish\"), the Zenra Movie Annex is the only source of bizarre yet erotic Japanese movies shown in a language everyone can understand.\n\n\n\n\nFrequently Asked Questions at Zenra\n(Updated August 31st, 2014)\n\nI use ____. How can I view the movies?\nWindows, Mac, and Linux: The easiest way to view movies using these operating systems is by installing the free VLC Media Player from www.videolan.org. It uses few computer resources and plays nearly any media format without issue. It's also the third most used video player worldwide after Quicktime and Windows Media Player. Also, provided you have VLC Media Player installed and use a modern web browser on a broadband connection, it is possible to stream the movies as they download.\n\nAndroid: MX Player.\n\niOS (iPhone and iPad): playable (Free) or CineXPlayer HD (Paid).\n\nStreaming on mobile devices: For mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets, streaming is also possible. Please install one of the apps listed above. After logging in, clicking on a download link should present you with a 'Complete action using...' prompt. Select MX Player (or playable or CineXPlayer HD) and streaming should automatically begin. If no prompt is shown, a possible workaround is to copy the address of the movie by long-pressing on the download link and select copy. Paste this into MX Player (Menu (the three dots) -> Network stream) and streaming should begin.\n\nWhere are the movies?\nOn each movie page there are download links near the bottom (SUBTITLED DOWNLOAD - 1 2 3 etc.). Try right-clicking on one of the numbered links (each number contains a scene) and select 'Save File As' (or Save Location As, Save Target As, etc.). Select somewhere on your computer to save the file and ensure the download totally completes at 100%. Locate the file on your computer and double-click to open. Ensure that VLC is the program that opens the movie. If Quicktime or Windows Media Player opens instead, right click the file and select a prompt that says something similar to 'Open With' and select VLC. Alternately, first open VLC and then select 'Media' from the top drop-down box and select 'Open File' and then locate the fully downloaded movie on your computer.\n\nIs it possible to preview future movies?\nSubscribers and non-subscribers alike can download sample clips from upcoming new releases via the Coming Soon page.\n\nCan I test out video playback before I subscribe?\nYes, it is possible to download movies from Zenra in order to see if your device—be it a computer, smartphone, tablet, etc.--can play them without any issue. Please visit the Coming Soon page and click on any of the screenshots to download free sample previews of upcoming releases. The short clips are encoded and stored in the exact same fashion as full-length movies. Thus, if they play without issue, you should be able to also play any full-length movie in the private area. However, if you do experience playback issues, please either read and apply the first portion of the FAQ dealing with how to remedy video playback issues and/or contact support for technical assistance. You do not need to be a subscriber to receive assistance from support.\n\nSubtitled Japanese AV Movies?\nZenra is the only site on the internet featuring full-length Japanese AV movies with full and accurate English subtitles. Every scene and every snippet of audible dialog—even on-screen captions often used during game-themed productions—is given English captioning. For a complete list of all the subtitled movies on Zenra, please visit the Subtitles Status page which is updated approximately twice a week.\n\nWhy are most movies censored?\nDue to Japanese obscenity laws passed many, many years ago, this type of mosaic--or blur--is legally necessary as the films are all made in Japan. However, since March of 2014, uncensored movies are being added on a regular basis.\n\nI'm an active subscriber and I'm unable to log in.\nPlease confirm that you are correctly entering your username and password along with clicking on the four images of female faces before clicking the login button. If you are sure you are entering the correct username and password along with clicking on the four images of female faces (the Human Test), please try reloading the login page and ensure that the nine images of human faces changes before attempting to login again. For a simple, visual login help guide, please click here.\n\nOn top of that, there is a chance that Strongbox, the security software protecting the members area, temporarily blocked your account for too many logins attempts within a short time period. If you believe this is the case, please wait several hours before trying to login again OR contact support to have your account manually unblocked.\n\nWhy do I have to log in so many times?\nGenerally, an active subscriber only needs to login once every few hours. However, if you find yourself having to login multiple times per session, please confirm that you are not accessing the site using a private browser tab (also known as 'incognito mode'). Strongbox, the security software protecting the private area, must be able to accurately identify each valid user and accessing Zenra using a private tab (or any type of anonymizing software including computer firewalls with 'stealth' mode-type security settings enabled) may require multiple login attempts throughout one's visit since Strongbox cannot figure out who you are. Please also be aware that too many login attempts with invalid credentials in a short time period may lead to a temporary lock on your subscription lasting several hours (if you find yourself locked out, please contact support for faster turn around in most situations).\n\nWill I have issues logging in if I use a VPN/Tor/Proxy?\nThe security system protecting the members area of Zenra is very sensitive to the geolocations and IP addresses of users. If your IP changes often, but remains in one country, you will probably not have issues logging in. However, if you use any type of internet service that results in the region you are connecting from to change very often, your username may be temporary blocked. Although using privacy-enhancing internet services such as VPNs, Tor (which is not recommended at all for large downloads), and proxy servers is nowadays warranted, so is the need to ensure that usernames are not shared. Unfortunately, if your geolocation changes too often, the security software in place may think there is foul play at hand since it cannot differentiate between someone simply using a privacy-enhancing internet connection and a shared (be it accidental or with intent) username. If you believe you are locked out because of this, please contact support.\n\nCan I use download management software?\nAlthough third party download management clients are not officially proscribed, you may encounter issues using them since Zenra is designed for human use. Technical support from this end is not provided and an improperly configured client may result in incorrect bandwidth counting and invalid login attempts ultimately resulting in a temporary lock on your subscription lasting several hours (if you find yourself locked out, please contact support for faster turn around in most situations).\n\nCan I download as much as I want?\nTo prevent site 'leeching', all subscribers are limited to downloading no more than 15GB an hour not to exceed 25GB a day. Please note that the way the download script functions is by limiting *heavy* download use in short time periods. A user should have no issues downloading a few full movies an hour for several hours a day if it's spaced throughout the day. The hourly/daily download limit is not only hard to reach, but is very friendly to the subscriber compared to hard-coded limits such as the ones that many ISPs worldwide are starting to employ. If you surpass the hourly limit, you will not be locked out for a whole hour, but just for for a few minutes as your available data usage starts 'refilling' immediately. However, continually reaching the cap may result in longer lock-out periods.\n\nWhy is there no trial subscription option?\nMany adult sites offer trial subscriptions by credit card, but not Zenra. Almost all of these trial subscriptions are configured in a way to automatically convert a trial subscription into a full-time one—often at a higher monthly price than what a subscriber would pay if he/she initially opted for a 30-day subscription. A subscriber must manually cancel their subscription to avoid being charged the full price before their trial period runs out. Since adult sites are frequently impulse purchases, this sets up a recipe for angry and overcharged customers which is a lose-lose situation for everyone.\n\nDo you take custom subtitling requests?\nYes, custom subtitled requests for movies not found on the site are accepted. Please be aware that this is a supplementary service with its own set of fees. Both non-subscribers and subscribers can make custom requests. Turn-around time is usually one to two weeks after payment is received. Please contact support for more information.\n\nHow can I become an AV actor/actress?\nIf you do not possess either a Japanese spouse visa, Japanese permanent residency, or are a Japanese citizen, your chances of being in an adult video production are nil. However, if you do possess one of these statuses and live in the Tokyo area (or can make your way to the Tokyo area on your own dime), we at Zenra may be able to help you take part in a shoot. If you are interested, contact us and we can provide some guidance as to your options.\n\nDo you buy movies?\nZENRA.net is always looking to buy new movies. Be it professional or amateur quality, so long as your offerings are mainly in Japanese and all participants are over 18 years old, feel free to use the contact form to discuss licensing terms. Movies do not need to star only cast members of Japanese descent. Interracial movies are also welcome so long as the main dialog spoken is Japanese. Since ZENRA.net creates subtitles in-house, subtitling beforehand is not required.\nご用件がある方、Contact Form を使い下さい。\n\nDo you have an affiliate program?\nYes, please use the contact form for more information.\n\n\n\n\nTerms of Service and Privacy Policy\n(Updated July 17th, 2014)\n\nNo private information of any kind is stored at Zenra.net. The only information stored is one's username and password in an encrypted form. Billing information is stored on the encrypted servers owned and operated by trusted internet payment gateways. Your contact information will never be used in any type of unsolicited email and/or snail mail campaign nor will it be given to any unaffiliated third party. Outside of support requests and subscription confirmation emails, you will never receive any type of unsolicited communication from Zenra.net.\n\nAdult Material and Age Agreement\nZenra.net features visual material created by and for adults. You agree that at the time of purchase that you are of legal adult age (18 or 21 in certain jurisdictions) and it is legal in your place of residence to view such material. You agree not to distribute and/or show in any way said material to anyone under the legal adult age (18 or 21 in certain jurisdictions).\n\nZenra.net offers recurring subscriptions and one-time subscriptions. A monthly subscription is $29.95USD which is automatically rebilled until canceled. Three month subscriptions—both recurring until canceled and non-recurring are offered at the rate of $85USD and $99USD respectively. Subscription prices are shown in USD and may slightly differ with local exchange rates. Short-term 'trial' memberships are offered via phone through GxBill. Short-term memberships do not automatically renew. Costs for short-term memberships are the cost of an international phone call for x amount of minutes (length of minutes determines length of membership).\n\nAll subscribers are limited to downloading no more than 15GB an hour not to exceed 25GB a day. If you surpass the hourly limit, you will not be locked out for a whole hour, but just for a few minutes as your available data usage starts 'refilling' immediately. However, continually reaching the cap may result in longer lock-out periods. For more information about downloading limits, please visit the FAQ.\n\nA subscription is for one individual. You agree not to share your login information nor distribute downloaded and streamed media on any type of online or offline distribution channels. Sharing your login credentials or distributing media will result in a cancellation of your account without a refund and your billing information will be added to a permanent blacklist.\n\nZenra is designed to be accessed by human visitors. Download management clients are not officially proscribed, but you may encounter issues using them. Technical support from this end is not provided and an improperly configured client may result in incorrect bandwidth counting and invalid login attempts ultimately resulting in a temporary lock on your subscription lasting several hours (if you find yourself locked out, please contact support for faster turn around in most situations). Refund requests due to accounts being temporarily locked out for usage of improperly configured download managers will not be provided.\n\nRefunds for subscription orders (either 30 day or 90 day subscriptions both recurring and non-recurring) may be given on a case by case basis provided no more than thirty calendar days have passed since initial purchase. If you wish to request a refund, please contact support. All subscriptions made through short-term phone transactions via GxBill and Bitcoin transactions asssited by Bitpay are final and no refunds can be given. Subscribers who chargeback transactions without first contacting support will have their IP addresses permanently blocked.\n\nLoading preview ...", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.6874852776527405}
{"content": "Automated Text Analysis\n\n\nContent Analysis\n\nGeneral Purpose Computer-Assisted Clustering and Conceptualization\nGrimmer, Justin, and Gary King. 2011. General Purpose Computer-Assisted Clustering and Conceptualization. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. WebsiteAbstract\nWe develop a computer-assisted method for the discovery of insightful conceptualizations, in the form of clusterings (i.e., partitions) of input objects. Each of the numerous fully automated methods of cluster analysis proposed in statistics, computer science, and biology optimize a different objective function. Almost all are well defined, but how to determine before the fact which one, if any, will partition a given set of objects in an \"insightful\" or \"useful\" way for a given user is unknown and difficult, if not logically impossible. We develop a metric space of partitions from all existing cluster analysis methods applied to a given data set (along with millions of other solutions we add based on combinations of existing clusterings), and enable a user to explore and interact with it, and quickly reveal or prompt useful or insightful conceptualizations. In addition, although uncommon in unsupervised learning problems, we offer and implement evaluation designs that make our computer-assisted approach vulnerable to being proven suboptimal in specific data types. We demonstrate that our approach facilitates more efficient and insightful discovery of useful information than either expert human coders or many existing fully automated methods.\nMethods to evaluate automated information extraction systems when coding rare events, the success of one such system, along with considerable data. King, Gary, and Will Lowe. 2003. An Automated Information Extraction Tool For International Conflict Data with Performance as Good as Human Coders: A Rare Events Evaluation Design. International Organization 57: 617-642.Abstract\nHow Censorship in China Allows Government Criticism but Silences Collective Expression\nKing, Gary, Jennifer Pan, and Margaret E Roberts. 2013. How Censorship in China Allows Government Criticism but Silences Collective Expression. American Political Science Review 107, no. 2 (May): 1-18.Abstract\nWe offer the first large scale, multiple source analysis of the outcome of what may be the most extensive effort to selectively censor human expression ever implemented. To do this, we have devised a system to locate, download, and analyze the content of millions of social media posts originating from nearly 1,400 different social media services all over China before the Chinese government is able to find, evaluate, and censor (i.e., remove from the Internet) the large subset they deem objectionable. Using modern computer-assisted text analytic methods that we adapt to and validate in the Chinese language, we compare the substantive content of posts censored to those not censored over time in each of 85 topic areas. Contrary to previous understandings, posts with negative, even vitriolic, criticism of the state, its leaders, and its policies are not more likely to be censored. Instead, we show that the censorship program is aimed at curtailing collective action by silencing comments that represent, reinforce, or spur social mobilization, regardless of content. Censorship is oriented toward attempting to forestall collective activities that are occurring now or may occur in the future --- and, as such, seem to clearly expose government intent.\nHopkins, Daniel, Gary King, and Ying Lu. System for Estimating a Distribution of Message Content Categories in Source Data. U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. US Patent 8180717, filed 2012.Abstract\nA method of computerized content analysis that gives “approximately unbiased and statistically consistent estimates” of a distribution of elements of structured, unstructured, and partially structured source data among a set of categories. In one embodiment, this is done by analyzing a distribution of small set of individually-classified elements in a plurality of categories and then using the information determined from the analysis to extrapolate a distribution in a larger population set. This extrapolation is performed without constraining the distribution of the unlabeled elements to be equal to the distribution of labeled elements, nor constraining a content distribution of content of elements in the labeled set (e.g., a distribution of words used by elements in the labeled set) to be equal to a content distribution of elements in the unlabeled set. Not being constrained in these ways allows the estimation techniques described herein to provide distinct advantages over conventional aggregation techniques.\n\nComputer-Assisted Keyword and Document Set Discovery from Unstructured Text\n\nKing, Gary, and Justin Grimmer. Method and Apparatus for Selecting Clusterings to Classify A Predetermined Data Set. U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. US Patent 8,438,162, filed 2013.Abstract\nA method for selecting clusterings to classify a predetermined data set of numerical data comprises five steps. First, a plurality of known clustering methods are applied, one at a time, to the data set to generate clusterings for each method. Second, a metric space of clusterings is generated using a metric that measures the similarity between two clusterings. Third, the metric space is projected to a lower dimensional representation useful for visualization. Fourth, a “local cluster ensemble” method generates a clustering for each point in the lower dimensional space. Fifth, an animated visualization method uses the output of the local cluster ensemble method to display the lower dimensional space and to allow a user to move around and explore the space of clustering.\n<p>Reverse-engineering censorship in China: Randomized experimentation and participant observation</p>\nKing, Gary, Jennifer Pan, and Margaret E Roberts. 2014.\n\nReverse-engineering censorship in China: Randomized experimentation and participant observation\n\n. Science 345, no. 6199: 1-10. Publisher's VersionAbstract\nExisting research on the extensive Chinese censorship organization uses observational methods with well-known limitations. We conducted the first large-scale experimental study of censorship by creating accounts on numerous social media sites, randomly submitting different texts, and observing from a worldwide network of computers which texts were censored and which were not. We also supplemented interviews with confidential sources by creating our own social media site, contracting with Chinese firms to install the same censoring technologies as existing sites, and—with their software, documentation, and even customer support—reverse-engineering how it all works. Our results offer rigorous support for the recent hypothesis that criticisms of the state, its leaders, and their policies are published, whereas posts about real-world events with collective action potential are censored.\n<p>A Method of Automated Nonparametric Content Analysis for Social Science</p>\nA method that gives unbiased estimates of the proportion of text documents in investigator-chosen categories, given only a small subset of hand-coded documents. Also includes the first correction for the far less-than-perfect levels of inter-coder reliability that typically characterize hand coding. Applications to sentiment detection about politicians in blog posts. Hopkins, Daniel, and Gary King. 2010.\n\nA Method of Automated Nonparametric Content Analysis for Social Science\n\n. American Journal of Political Science 54, no. 1: 229–247.Abstract\nThe increasing availability of digitized text presents enormous opportunities for social scientists. Yet hand coding many blogs, speeches, government records, newspapers, or other sources of unstructured text is infeasible. Although computer scientists have methods for automated content analysis, most are optimized to classify individual documents, whereas social scientists instead want generalizations about the population of documents, such as the proportion in a given category. Unfortunately, even a method with a high percent of individual documents correctly classified can be hugely biased when estimating category proportions. By directly optimizing for this social science goal, we develop a method that gives approximately unbiased estimates of category proportions even when the optimal classifier performs poorly. We illustrate with diverse data sets, including the daily expressed opinions of thousands of people about the U.S. presidency. We also make available software that implements our methods and large corpora of text for further analysis. This article led to the formation of Crimson Hexagon\n\n\n. In Society for Political Methodology. Athens, GA.Abstract", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9199569821357727}
{"content": "Home      Discussion      Topics      Dictionary      Almanac\nSignup       Login\nHenry VI, part 1\n\nHenry VI, part 1\n\nAsk a question about 'Henry VI, part 1'\nStart a new discussion about 'Henry VI, part 1'\nAnswer questions from other users\nFull Discussion Forum\n\nShakespearean history\nIn the First Folio, the plays of William Shakespeare were grouped into three categories: comedies, histories, and tragedies. This categorisation has become established, although some critics have argued for other categories such as romances and problem plays. The histories were those plays based on...\n\n by William Shakespeare\nWilliam Shakespeare\n\n, and possibly Thomas Nashe\nThomas Nashe\nThomas Nashe was an English Elizabethan pamphleteer, playwright, poet and satirist. He was the son of the minister William Nashe and his wife Margaret .-Early life:...\n\nHenry VI of England\nHenry VI was King of England from 1422 to 1461 and again from 1470 to 1471, and disputed King of France from 1422 to 1453. Until 1437, his realm was governed by regents. Contemporaneous accounts described him as peaceful and pious, not suited for the violent dynastic civil wars, known as the Wars...\n\n. Whereas 2 Henry VI\nHenry VI, part 2\nHenry VI, Part 2 or The Second Part of Henry the Sixt is a history play by William Shakespeare believed to have been written in 1591, and set during the lifetime of King Henry VI of England...\n\n deals with the King's inability to quell the bickering of his nobles, and the inevitability of armed conflict, and 3 Henry VI\nHenry VI, part 3\nHenry VI, Part 3 or The Third Part of Henry the Sixt is a history play by William Shakespeare believed to have been written in 1591, and set during the lifetime of King Henry VI of England...\n\n deals with the horrors of that conflict, 1 Henry VI deals with the loss of England's French territories and the political machinations leading up to the Wars of the Roses\nWars of the Roses\n\n, as the English political system\nPolitical system\nA political system is a system of politics and government. It is usually compared to the legal system, economic system, cultural system, and other social systems...\n\n is torn apart by personal squabbles and petty jealousy.\n\nRichard III (play)\nRichard III is a history play by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written in approximately 1591. It depicts the Machiavellian rise to power and subsequent short reign of Richard III of England. The play is grouped among the histories in the First Folio and is most often classified...\n\nHenry V of England\nHenry V was King of England from 1413 until his death at the age of 35 in 1422. He was the second monarch belonging to the House of Lancaster....\n\n in 1422 to the rise to power of Henry VII\nHenry VII of England\n\n in 1485. It was the success of this sequence of plays which firmly established Shakespeare's reputation as a playwright.\n\nHenry VI, Part 1 is regarded by some as the weakest play in Shakespeare's oeuvre\nShakespeare's plays\nWilliam Shakespeare's plays have the reputation of being among the greatest in the English language and in Western literature. Traditionally, the 37 plays are divided into the genres of tragedy, history, and comedy; they have been translated into every major living language, in addition to being...\n\n and, along with Titus Andronicus\nTitus Andronicus\n\n\n\nThe English\n  • King Henry VI – King of England\n  • Duke of Bedford\n    John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford\n    John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford, KG , also known as John Plantagenet, was the third surviving son of King Henry IV of England by Mary de Bohun, and acted as Regent of France for his nephew, King Henry VI....\n\n     – Henry VI's uncle and Regent\n    A regent, from the Latin regens \"one who reigns\", is a person selected to act as head of state because the ruler is a minor, not present, or debilitated. Currently there are only two ruling Regencies in the world, sovereign Liechtenstein and the Malaysian constitutive state of Terengganu...\n\n     of France\n  • Duke Humphrey of Gloucester – Henry VI's uncle and Lord Protector\n    Lord Protector\n    Lord Protector is a title used in British constitutional law for certain heads of state at different periods of history. It is also a particular title for the British Heads of State in respect to the established church...\n\n     of England\n  • Duke of Exeter\n    Thomas Beaufort, Duke of Exeter\n    Thomas Beaufort, 1st Duke of Exeter, KG was an English military commander during the Hundred Years' War, and briefly Chancellor of England. He was the third of four children; the son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, and his mistress Katherine Swynford...\n\n     – Henry VI's great-uncle\n  • Henry Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester – Exeter's younger brother and Henry VI's great-uncle\n  • Duke of Somerset (a conflation of John Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset\n    John Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset\n    John Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset, KG was an English noble and military commander.-Family:Baptised on 25 March 1404, he was the second son of John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset and Margaret Holland, and succeeded his elder brother Henry Beaufort, 2nd Earl of Somerset to become the 3rd Earl of...\n\n     and his younger brother Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset\n    Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset\n    Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, KG , sometimes styled 1st Duke of Somerset, was an English nobleman and an important figure in the Wars of the Roses and in the Hundred Years' War...\n\n  • Richard Plantagenet – later 3rd Duke of York\n    Duke of York\n    The Duke of York is a title of nobility in the British peerage. Since the 15th century, it has, when granted, usually been given to the second son of the British monarch. The title has been created a remarkable eleven times, eight as \"Duke of York\" and three as the double-barreled \"Duke of York and...\n\n  • Earl of Warwick\n    Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick\n    Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick, Count of Aumale, KG was an English medieval nobleman and military commander.-Early Life:...\n\n     (Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick; often mistakenly identified as Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick\n    Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick\n    Richard Neville KG, jure uxoris 16th Earl of Warwick and suo jure 6th Earl of Salisbury and 8th and 5th Baron Montacute , known as Warwick the Kingmaker, was an English nobleman, administrator, and military commander...\n\n    , a major character in 2 and 3 Henry VI)\n  • Earl of Salisbury\n    Thomas Montacute, 4th Earl of Salisbury\n    Thomas Montacute, 4th Earl of Salisbury, 6th and 3rd Baron Montacute, 5th Baron Monthermer, and Count of Perche, KG was an English nobleman...\n\n  • William de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk\n    William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk\n    William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk, KG , nicknamed Jack Napes , was an important English soldier and commander in the Hundred Years' War, and later Lord Chamberlain of England.He also appears prominently in William Shakespeare's Henry VI, part 1 and Henry VI, part 2 and other...\n\n  • Lord Talbot\n    John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury\n    John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury and 1st Earl of Waterford KG , known as \"Old Talbot\" was an important English military commander during the Hundred Years' War, as well as the only Lancastrian Constable of France.-Origins:He was descended from Richard Talbot, a tenant in 1086 of Walter Giffard...\n\n     – Constable of France\n    Constable of France\n    The Constable of France , as the First Officer of the Crown, was one of the original five Great Officers of the Crown of France and Commander in Chief of the army. He, theoretically, as Lieutenant-general of the King, outranked all the nobles and was second-in-command only to the King...\n\n  • John Talbot\n    John Talbot, 1st Viscount Lisle\n    John Talbot, 1st Baron Lisle and 1st Viscount Lisle , English nobleman and medieval soldier, was the son of John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury, and his second wife Margaret Beauchamp.-Titles:...\n\n     – his son\n  • Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March (a conflation of Sir Edmund de Mortimer\n    Edmund Mortimer, son of the 3rd Earl\n    Edmund Mortimer , was the second son of Edmund Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March by his wife Philippa Plantagenet, and is the best-known of the various Edmund Mortimers because of his role in the rebellion of Owain Glyndŵr...\n\n     and his nephew, Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March)\n  • Sir John Fastolf\n    John Fastolf\n    Sir John Fastolf KG was an English knight during the Hundred Years War, who has enjoyed a more lasting reputation as in some part being the prototype of Shakespeare's Sir John Falstaff...\n\n     – a cowardly soldier\n  • Sir William Glasdale\n  • Sir Thomas Gargrave\n    Thomas Gargrave\n    Sir Thomas Gargrave was a Yorkshire Knight who served as High Sheriff of Yorkshire in 1565 and 1569. His principal residence was at Nostell Priory, one of many grants of land that Gargrave secured during his lifetime...\n\n  • Sir William Lucy\n  • Woodville – Lieutenant of the Tower\n    Constable of the Tower\n    The Constable of the Tower is the most senior appointment at the Tower of London. In the middle ages a constable was the person in charge of a castle when the owner - the king or a nobleman - was not in residence...\n\n  • Mayor of London\n  • Vernon – of the White Rose (York\n    House of York\n    The House of York was a branch of the English royal House of Plantagenet, three members of which became English kings in the late 15th century. The House of York was descended in the paternal line from Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York, the fourth surviving son of Edward III, but also represented...\n\n    ) faction\n  • Basset – of the Red Rose (Lancaster\n    House of Lancaster\n    The House of Lancaster was a branch of the royal House of Plantagenet. It was one of the opposing factions involved in the Wars of the Roses, an intermittent civil war which affected England and Wales during the 15th century...\n\n    ) faction\n\n  • Lawyer\n  • Papal Legate\n    Papal legate\n    A papal legate – from the Latin, authentic Roman title Legatus – is a personal representative of the pope to foreign nations, or to some part of the Catholic Church. He is empowered on matters of Catholic Faith and for the settlement of ecclesiastical matters....\n\n  • Gaoler\n  • Officers, captains, soldiers, heralds, watch, warders etc.\n\nThe French\n  • Charles\n    Charles VII of France\n    Charles VII , called the Victorious or the Well-Served , was King of France from 1422 to his death, though he was initially opposed by Henry VI of England, whose Regent, the Duke of Bedford, ruled much of France including the capital, Paris...\n\n     – Dauphin of France\n  • Reignier, Duke of Anjou – titular King of Jerusalem\n  • Margaret\n    Margaret of Anjou\n    Margaret of Anjou was the wife of King Henry VI of England. As such, she was Queen consort of England from 1445 to 1461 and again from 1470 to 1471; and Queen consort of France from 1445 to 1453...\n\n     – Reignier's daughter; later betrothed to King Henry\n  • Duke of Alençon\n  • Bastard of Orléans\n    Jean de Dunois\n    John of Orléans, Count of Dunois was the illegitimate son of Louis d'Orléans by Mariette d'Enghien.The term \"Bastard of Orléans\" John of Orléans, Count of Dunois (French born \"Jean Levieux Valois des Orléans\" better known as Jean d'Orléans, comte de Dunois, also known as John of Orléans and...\n\n  • Duke of Burgundy\n  • General of the French forces at Bordeaux\n    Bordeaux is a port city on the Garonne River in the Gironde department in southwestern France.The Bordeaux-Arcachon-Libourne metropolitan area, has a population of 1,010,000 and constitutes the sixth-largest urban area in France. It is the capital of the Aquitaine region, as well as the prefecture...\n\n  • Countess of Auvergne\n    Auvergne (province)\n    Auvergne was a historic province in south central France. It was originally the feudal domain of the Counts of Auvergne. It is now the geographical and cultural area that corresponds to the former province....\n\n  • Master Gunner of Orléans\n    -Prehistory and Roman:Cenabum was a Gallic stronghold, one of the principal towns of the Carnutes tribe where the Druids held their annual assembly. It was conquered and destroyed by Julius Caesar in 52 BC, then rebuilt under the Roman Empire...\n\n  • Master Gunner's son\n  • Joan la Pucelle (Joan of Arc\n    Joan of Arc\n    Saint Joan of Arc, nicknamed \"The Maid of Orléans\" , is a national heroine of France and a Roman Catholic saint. A peasant girl born in eastern France who claimed divine guidance, she led the French army to several important victories during the Hundred Years' War, which paved the way for the...\n\n  • Shepherd\n    Jacques d'Arc\n    Jacques d'Arc was the father of Joan of Arc. He was a farmer in the village of Domrémy in Lorraine. He held the post of doyen, a local post that collected taxes and organized the village defense. He was born at Ceffonds. He married Isabelle de Vouthon , called Romée, in 1405...\n\n     – Joan's father\n  • Governor of Paris (non-speaking role)\n  • French Sergeant\n  • Sentinels\n  • Ambassador\n  • Porter\n  • Fiends\n  • Lords, attendants, warders, heralds, etc.\n\n\nDuke of Bedford\nthumb|right|240px|William Russell, 1st Duke of BedfordDuke of Bedford is a title that has been created five times in the Peerage of England. The first creation came in 1414 in favour of Henry IV's third son, John, who later served as regent of France. He was made Earl of Kendal at the same time...\n\n and Gloucester\nDuke of Gloucester\nDuke of Gloucester is a British royal title , often conferred on one of the sons of the reigning monarch. The first four creations were in the Peerage of England, the next in the Peerage of Great Britain, and the last in the Peerage of the United Kingdom; this current creation carries with it the...\n\n, and his uncle, the Duke of Exeter\nDuke of Exeter\n\nHeir apparent\nAn heir apparent or heiress apparent is a person who is first in line of succession and cannot be displaced from inheriting, except by a change in the rules of succession....\n\nRebellion, uprising or insurrection, is a refusal of obedience or order. It may, therefore, be seen as encompassing a range of behaviors aimed at destroying or replacing an established authority such as a government or a head of state...\n\nA coronation is a ceremony marking the formal investiture of a monarch and/or their consort with regal power, usually involving the placement of a crown upon their head and the presentation of other items of regalia...\n\n\nMeanwhile, in Orléans, the English army are laying siege\nA siege is a military blockade of a city or fortress with the intent of conquering by attrition or assault. The term derives from sedere, Latin for \"to sit\". Generally speaking, siege warfare is a form of constant, low intensity conflict characterized by one party holding a strong, static...\n\n to Charles' forces. Inside the city, the Bastard of Orléans approaches Charles and tells him of a young woman who claims to have seen visions and knows how to defeat the English. Charles summons the woman, Joan la Pucelle, who is better known to history as Joan of Arc\nJoan of Arc\n\n\nDuke of Somerset\nDuke of Somerset is a title in the peerage of England that has been created several times. Derived from Somerset, it is particularly associated with two families; the Beauforts who held the title from the creation of 1448 and the Seymours, from the creation of 1547 and in whose name the title is...\n\n\nTower of London\nHer Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress, more commonly known as the Tower of London, is a historic castle on the north bank of the River Thames in central London, England. It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, separated from the eastern edge of the City of London by the open space...\n\n. Mortimer tells Richard the history of their family's\nHouse of Plantagenet\nThe House of Plantagenet , a branch of the Angevins, was a royal house founded by Geoffrey V of Anjou, father of Henry II of England. Plantagenet kings first ruled the Kingdom of England in the 12th century. Their paternal ancestors originated in the French province of Gâtinais and gained the...\n\n conflict with the king's family; how they helped Henry Bolingbroke\nHenry IV of England\nHenry IV was King of England and Lord of Ireland . He was the ninth King of England of the House of Plantagenet and also asserted his grandfather's claim to the title King of France. He was born at Bolingbroke Castle in Lincolnshire, hence his other name, Henry Bolingbroke...\n\n seize power from Richard II\nRichard II of England\n\n, but were then shoved into the background; and how Henry V had Richard's father (Richard of Conisburgh\nRichard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge\nRichard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge was the younger son of Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York and Isabella of Castile....\n\n\n to the recently crowned Henry, who agrees to reinstate the Plantagenet's title, making Richard 3rd Duke of York\n\nRouen , in northern France on the River Seine, is the capital of the Haute-Normandie region and the historic capital city of Normandy. Once one of the largest and most prosperous cities of medieval Europe , it was the seat of the Exchequer of Normandy in the Middle Ages...\n\nInfantrymen are soldiers who are specifically trained for the role of fighting on foot to engage the enemy face to face and have historically borne the brunt of the casualties of combat in wars. As the oldest branch of combat arms, they are the backbone of armies...\n\n and Somerset in command of the cavalry\nCavalry or horsemen were soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback. Cavalry were historically the third oldest and the most mobile of the combat arms...\n\n. Meanwhile, Talbot approaches Bordeaux\n\n, but the French army swing around and trap him. Talbot sends word for reinforcements, but the conflict between Richard and Somerset lead them to second guess one another, and neither of them send any, both blaming the other for the mix-up. The English army are subsequently destroyed, and both Talbot and his son are killed.\n\nAfter the battle, Joan's visions desert her, and she is captured by Richard, and burned at the stake. At the same time, urged on by Pope Eugenius IV\nPope Eugene IV\nPope Eugene IV , born Gabriele Condulmer, was pope from March 3, 1431, to his death.-Biography:He was born in Venice to a rich merchant family, a Correr on his mother's side. Condulmer entered the Order of Saint Augustine at the monastery of St. George in his native city...\n\n and the Holy Roman Emperor, Sigismund\nSigismund, Holy Roman Emperor\nSigismund of Luxemburg KG was King of Hungary, of Croatia from 1387 to 1437, of Bohemia from 1419, and Holy Roman Emperor for four years from 1433 until 1437, the last Emperor of the House of Luxemburg. He was also King of Italy from 1431, and of Germany from 1411...\n\n, Henry sues for peace\nSuing for peace\nSuing for peace is an act by a warring nation to initiate a peace process in which the peace terms are more favorable than an unconditional surrender...\n\n. Meanwhile, the Earl of Suffolk\nEarl of Suffolk\nEarl of Suffolk is a title that has been created four times in the Peerage of England. The first creation, in tandem with the creation of the title of Earl of Norfolk, came before 1069 in favour of Ralph the Staller; but the title was forfeited by his heir, Ralph de Guader, in 1074...\n\n has captured a young French princess, Margaret of Anjou\nAnjou is a former county , duchy and province centred on the city of Angers in the lower Loire Valley of western France. It corresponds largely to the present-day département of Maine-et-Loire...\n\n, who he intends to marry to Henry and dominate the king through her. Meanwhile, the French listen to the English terms, under which Charles is to be a viceroy\nA viceroy is a royal official who runs a country, colony, or province in the name of and as representative of the monarch. The term derives from the Latin prefix vice-, meaning \"in the place of\" and the French word roi, meaning king. A viceroy's province or larger territory is called a viceroyalty...\n\n to Henry. The French agree, but only with the intention of breaking their oath at a later date and expelling the English from France. Suffolk then travels back to England to persuade Henry to marry Margaret. Gloucester urges Henry not to listen to Suffolk as Margaret's family are not rich, and the marriage is not advantageous to his position as king, but Henry is taken in by Suffolk's description of Margaret's beauty, and he agrees to the proposal. Suffolk then heads back to France to bring Margaret to England as Gloucester worryingly ponders what the future may hold.\n\n\nShakespeare's primary source for 1 Henry VI was Edward Hall\nEdward Hall\nEdward Hall , English chronicler and lawyer, was born about the end of the 15th century, being a son of John Hall of Northall, Shropshire....\n\n's The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Families of Lancaster and York (1548). Also, as with most of Shakespeare's chronicle histories, Raphael Holinshed\nRaphael Holinshed\nRaphael Holinshed was an English chronicler, whose work, commonly known as Holinshed's Chronicles, was one of the major sources used by William Shakespeare for a number of his plays....\n\n's Chronicles of England, Scotland and Ireland (1577; 2nd edition 1587) was also consulted. Holinshed based much of his Wars of the Roses information in the Chronicles on Hall's information in Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Families, even to the point of reproducing large portions of it verbatim. However, there are enough differences between Hall and Holinshed to establish that Shakespeare must have consulted both of them.\n\nA prelate is a high-ranking member of the clergy who is an ordinary or who ranks in precedence with ordinaries. The word derives from the Latin prælatus, the past participle of præferre, which means \"carry before\", \"be set above or over\" or \"prefer\"; hence, a prelate is one set over others.-Related...\n\n,/Whom Henry, our late sovereign, ne're could brook\" (1.3.23–24). Only in Hall is there any indication that Henry V had a problem with Winchester; in Holinshed, there is nothing to suggest any disagreement or conflict between them. Another example of Shakespeare's use of Hall is found when Sir Thomas Gargrave is injured by the artillery\n\nLe Mans\n\n in 1428, Hall writes, \"The French, suddenly taken, were so amazed in so much that some of them, being not out of their beds, got up in their shirts\". Another incident involving Gloucester and Winchester is also unique to Hall. During their debate in Act 3, Scene 1, Gloucester accuses Winchester of attempting to have him assassinated on London Bridge\nLondon Bridge\nLondon Bridge is a bridge over the River Thames, connecting the City of London and Southwark, in central London. Situated between Cannon Street Railway Bridge and Tower Bridge, it forms the western end of the Pool of London...\n\nSouthwark is a district of south London, England, and the administrative headquarters of the London Borough of Southwark. Situated east of Charing Cross, it forms one of the oldest parts of London and fronts the River Thames to the north...\n\nEltham Palace\nEltham Palace is a large house in Eltham, within the London Borough of Greenwich, South East London, England. It is an unoccupied royal residence and owned by the Crown Estate. In 1995 its management was handed over to English Heritage which restored the building in 1999 and opened it to the public...\n\n\ns and sneak into Rouen. This is not an historical event, and it is not recorded in either Hall or Holinshed. However a very similar such incident is recorded in Hall, where he reports of the capture of Cornhill Castle in Cornhill-on-Tweed\nCornhill-on-Tweed is a village and civil parish in Northumberland, in England about to the east of Coldstream.To the south and west of the village are the hamlets of West Learmouth and East Learmouth.- History :...\n\n by the English in 1441.\n\nOn the other hand, some aspects of the play are unique to Holinshed. For example, in the opening scene, as word arrives in England of the rebellion in France, Exeter says to his fellow peers, \"Remember, Lords, your oaths to Henry sworn:/Either to quell the Dauphin utterly,/Or bring him in obedience to your yoke\" (1.1.162–164). Only in Holinshed is it reported that on his deathbed, Henry V elicited vows from Bedford, Gloucester and Exeter that they would never willingly surrender France, and would never allow the Dauphin to become king. Another piece of information unique to Holinshed is seen when Charles compares Joan to the Old Testament\nOld Testament\nThe Old Testament, of which Christians hold different views, is a Christian term for the religious writings of ancient Israel held sacred and inspired by Christians which overlaps with the 24-book canon of the Masoretic Text of Judaism...\n\n prophetess Deborah\nDeborah was a prophetess of Yahweh the God of the Israelites, the fourth Judge of pre-monarchic Israel, counselor, warrior, and the wife of Lapidoth according to the Book of Judges chapters 4 and 5....\n\n (1.2.105). According to Judges\nBook of Judges\nThe Book of Judges is the seventh book of the Hebrew bible and the Christian Old Testament. Its title describes its contents: it contains the history of Biblical judges, divinely inspired prophets whose direct knowledge of Yahweh allows them to act as decision-makers for the Israelites, as...\n\n 4 and 5, Deborah masterminded Barak\nBarak , Al-Burāq the son of Abinoam from Kedesh in Naphtali, was a military general in the Book of Judges in the Bible. He was the commander of the army of Deborah, the prophetess and heroine of the Hebrew Bible...\n\n's surprise victory against the Canaan\nCanaan is a historical region roughly corresponding to modern-day Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, and the western parts of Jordan...\n\nite army led by Sisera\nSisera was commander of the Canaanite army of King Jabin of Hazor mentioned in the of the Hebrew Bible. After being defeated by Barak, Sisera was killed by Jael, who hammered a tent peg into his temple....\n\nLoire (river)\nThe Loire is the longest river in France. With a length of , it drains an area of , which represents more than a fifth of France's land area. It is the 170th longest river in the world...\n\n, something which is not to be found in Hall.\n\nDate and text\n\nPhilip Henslowe\n\n, which records a performance of a play by Lord Strange's Men\nLord Strange's Men\nLord Strange's Men was an Elizabethan playing company, comprising retainers of the household of Ferdinando Stanley, Lord Strange . They are best known in their final phase of activity in the late 1580s and early 1590s...\n\n called Harey Vj (i.e. Harry VI) on 3 March 1592 at the Rose Theatre\nThe Rose (theatre)\nThe Rose was an Elizabethan theatre. It was the fourth of the public theatres to be built, after The Theatre , the Curtain , and the theatre at Newington Butts The Rose was an Elizabethan theatre. It was the fourth of the public theatres to be built, after The Theatre (1576), the Curtain (1577),...\n\n in Southwark. Henslowe refers to the play as \"ne\" (which most critics take to mean \"new\", although it could be an abbreviation for the Newington Butts theatre, which Henslow may have owned) and mentions that it had fifteen performances and earned £3.16s.8d, meaning it was extremely successful. Harey Vj is usually accepted as being 1 Henry VI for a couple of reasons. Firstly, it is unlikely to have been either 2 Henry VI or 3 Henry VI, as they were published in 1594 and 1595 respectively with the titles under which they would have originally been performed, so as to ensure higher sales. As neither of them appear under the title Harey Vj, the play seen by Henslowe is unlikely to be either of them. Additionally, as Gary Taylor\nGary Taylor (English literature scholar)\nGary Taylor is George Matthew Edgar Professor of English at Florida State University, author of numerous books and articles, and joint editor of the Oxford Shakespeare and .-Life:...\n\n points out, Henslowe tended to identify sequels, but not first parts, to which he referred by the general title. As such, \"Harey Vj could not be a Part Two or Part Three, but could easily be a Part One.\" The only other option is that Harey Vj is a now lost play.\n\nThat Harey Vj is not a lost play however seems to be confirmed by a reference in Thomas Nashe's Piers Penniless his Supplication to the Devil (entered into the Stationers' Register\nStationers' Register\nThe Stationers' Register was a record book maintained by the Stationers' Company of London. The company is a trade guild given a royal charter in 1557 to regulate the various professions associated with the publishing industry, including printers, bookbinders, booksellers, and publishers in England...\n\n on 8 August 1592), which supports the theory that Harey Vj is 1 Henry VI. Nashe praises a play which features Lord Talbot; \"How would it have joyed brave Talbot (the terror of the French), to think that after he had lain two hundred years in his tomb, he should triumph again on the stage, and have his bones new embalmed with the tears of ten thousand spectators (at least), who in the tragedian that represents his person imagine they behold him fresh bleeding\". It is thought that Nashe is here referring to Harey Vj, i.e. 1 Henry VI, as there is no other candidate for a play featuring Talbot from this time period (although again, there is the slight possibility that both Henslowe and Nashe are referring to a now lost play).\n\n\nJohn Heminges\nJohn Heminges was an English Renaissance actor. Most noted now as one of the editors of William Shakespeare's 1623 First Folio, Heminges served in his time as an actor and financial manager for the King's Men.-Life:Heminges was born in Droitwich Spa, Worcestershire in 1556...\n\n and Henry Condell\nHenry Condell\nHenry Condell was an actor in the King's Men, the playing company for which William Shakespeare wrote. With John Heminges, he was instrumental in preparing the First Folio, the collected plays of Shakespeare, published in 1623....\n\n\n\n\nOctavo to is a technical term describing the format of a book.Octavo may also refer to:* Octavo is a grimoire in the Discworld series by Terry Pratchett...\n\n version of 3 Henry VI in 1595 (under the title The The True Tragedie of Richard Duke of Yorke, and the death of good King Henrie the Sixt, with the Whole Contention betweene the two Houses, Lancaster and Yorke), neither of which make any reference whatsoever to 1 Henry VI, some critics have argued that 2 Henry VI and 3 Henry VI were written prior to 1 Henry VI. This theory was first suggested by E.K. Chambers in 1923, and revised by John Dover Wilson\nJ. Dover Wilson\nJohn Dover Wilson CH was a professor and scholar of Renaissance drama, focusing particularly on the work of William Shakespeare...\n\nA prequel is a work that supplements a previously completed one, and has an earlier time setting.The widely recognized term was a 20th-century neologism, and a portmanteau from pre- and sequel...\n\n was created. Various critics have offered various pieces of evidence to attest to this fact, such as R.B. McKerrow\nRonald Brunlees McKerrow\nRonald Brunlees McKerrow was one of the leading bibliographers and Shakespeare scholars of the 20th century.-Life:R.B...\n\n, who argues that \"if 2 Henry VI was originally written to continue the first part, it seems utterly incomprehensible that it should contain no allusion to the prowess of Talbot.\" McKerrow also comments on the lack of reference to the symbolic use of roses in 2 Henry VI, whereas in 1 Henry VI and 3 Henry VI they are mentioned numerous times. McKerrow concludes that this suggests 1 Henry VI was written closer to 3 Henry VI, and as we know 3 Henry VI was definitely a sequel, it means that 1 Henry VI must have been written last; i.e. Shakespeare only conceived of the use of the roses whilst writing 3 Henry VI, and then incorporated the idea into his prequel. Eliot Slater comes to the same conclusion in his statistical examination of the vocabulary of all three Henry VI plays, where he argues that 1 Henry VI was written either immediately before or immediately after 3 Henry VI, hence it must have been written last. Likewise, Gary Taylor, in his analysis of the authorship of 1 Henry VI, argues that the many discrepancies between 1 Henry VI and 2 Henry VI (such as the lack of reference to Talbot) coupled with similarities in the vocabulary\nA person's vocabulary is the set of words within a language that are familiar to that person. A vocabulary usually develops with age, and serves as a useful and fundamental tool for communication and acquiring knowledge...\n\n, phraseology\nIn linguistics, phraseology is the study of set or fixed expressions, such as idioms, phrasal verbs, and other types of multi-word lexical units , in which the component parts of the expression take on a meaning more specific than or otherwise not predictable from the sum of their meanings when...\n\n and tropes\nTrope (literature)\nA literary trope is the usage of figurative language in literature, or a figure of speech in which words are used in a sense different from their literal meaning...\n\n\nOne argument against this theory is that 1 Henry VI is the weakest of the trilogy and therefore, logic would suggest it was written first. This argument suggests that Shakespeare could only have created such a weak play if it was his first attempt to turn his chronicle sources into drama; in essence, he was unsure of his way, and as such, 1 Henry VI was a trial-run of sorts, making way for the more accomplished 2 Henry VI and 3 Henry VI. Emrys Jones is one notable critic who supports this view. The standard rebuke to this theory, and the one used by Dover Wilson in 1952, is that 1 Henry VI is significantly weaker than the other two plays not because it was written first but because it was co-authored, and may have been Shakespeare's first attempt to collaborate with other writers. As such, all of the play's problems can be attributed to its co-authors rather than Shakespeare himself, who may have had a relatively limited hand its composition. In this sense, the fact that 1 Henry VI is the weakest of the trilogy has nothing to do with when it may have been written, but instead concerns only how it was written.\n\nSamuel Johnson\n\n, writing in his 1765 edition of The Plays of William Shakespeare\nThe Plays of William Shakespeare\nThe Plays of William Shakespeare was an 18th-century edition of the dramatic works of William Shakespeare, edited by Samuel Johnson and George Steevens. Johnson announced his intention to edit Shakespeare's plays in his Miscellaneous Observations on Macbeth , and a full Proposal for the edition was...\n\n, pre-empted the debate and argued that the plays were written in sequence; \"It is apparent that [2 Henry VI] begins where the former ends, and continues the series of transactions, of which it presupposes the first part already written. This is a sufficient proof that the second and third parts were not written without dependence on the first.\" Numerous more recent scholars continue to uphold Johnson's argument. E.M.W. Tillyard\nE. M. W. Tillyard\nEustace Mandeville Wetenhall Tillyard was a British classical scholar and literary scholar. He was a Fellow in English at Jesus College and later Master of Jesus College , Cambridge. He is known mainly for his book The Elizabethan World Picture, as background to Elizabethan Literature,...\n\nArden Shakespeare\nThe Arden Shakespeare is a long-running series of scholarly editions of the works of William Shakespeare. It presents fully edited modern-spelling editions of the plays and poems, with lengthy introductions and full commentaries...\n\n (1957, 1962 and 1964). E.A.J. Honigmann also agrees, in his 'early start' theory of 1982 (which argues that Shakespeare's first play was Titus Andronicus, which Honigmann posits was written in 1586). Likewise, Michael Hattaway, in both his 1990 New Cambridge Shakespeare edition of 1 Henry VI and his 1991 edition of 2 Henry VI argues that the evidence suggests 1 Henry VI was written first. In his 2001 introduction to Henry VI: Critical Essays, Thomas A. Pendleton makes a similar argument, as does Roger Warren in his 2003 edition of 2 Henry VI for the Oxford Shakespeare\nThe Oxford Shakespeare\nThe Oxford Shakespeare is a common term for the range of editions of William Shakespeare's works produced by Oxford University Press. The Oxford Shakespeare is produced under the general editorship of Stanley Wells and Gary Taylor.-The Complete Works:...\n\n\n\n\nCritical history\n\nSome critics argue that the Henry VI trilogy were the first ever plays to be based on recent English history, and as such, they deserve an elevated position in the canon\nWestern canon\nThe term Western canon denotes a canon of books and, more broadly, music and art that have been the most important and influential in shaping Western culture. As such, it includes the \"greatest works of artistic merit.\" Such a canon is important to the theory of educational perennialism and the...\n\n, and a more central role in Shakespearean criticism. According to F.P. Wilson for example, \"There is no certain evidence that any dramatist before the defeat of the Spanish Armada\nSpanish Armada\nThis article refers to the Battle of Gravelines, for the modern navy of Spain, see Spanish NavyThe Spanish Armada was the Spanish fleet that sailed against England under the command of the Duke of Medina Sidonia in 1588, with the intention of overthrowing Elizabeth I of England to stop English...\n\n in 1588 dared to put upon the public stage a play based upon English history [...] so far as we know, Shakespeare was the first.\" However, not all critics agree with Wilson here. For example, Michael Taylor argues that there were at least thirty-nine history plays prior to 1592, including the two-part Christopher Marlowe\nChristopher Marlowe\nChristopher Marlowe was an English dramatist, poet and translator of the Elizabethan era. As the foremost Elizabethan tragedian, next to William Shakespeare, he is known for his blank verse, his overreaching protagonists, and his mysterious death.A warrant was issued for Marlowe's arrest on 18 May...\n\n play Tamburlaine\nTamburlaine (play)\n\n (1587), Thomas Lodge\nThomas Lodge\nThomas Lodge was an English dramatist and writer of the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods.-Early life and education:...\n\n's The Wounds of Civil War\nThe Wounds of Civil War\nThe Wounds of Civil War is an Elizabethan era stage play, written by Thomas Lodge. A dramatization of the ancient Roman conflict between Marius and Sulla, the play is generally considered Lodge's only extant solo drama.-Publication:...\n\n (1588), the anonymous The Troublesome Reign of King John\nThe Troublesome Reign of King John\nThe Troublesome Reign of King John is an Elizabethan history play, generally accepted by scholars as the source and model that William Shakespeare employed for his own King John ....\n\n (1588), Edmund Ironside\nEdmund Ironside (play)\nEdmund Ironside, or War Hath Made All Friends is an anonymous Elizabethan play that depicts the life of Edmund II of England. At least three critics have suggested that it is an early work by William Shakespeare.-Text:...\n\n (1590 – also anonymous ), Robert Green's Selimus\nSelimus (play)\nSelimus, Emperor of the Turks is a tragedy attributed to Robert Greene. It was published in 1594 and is loosely based on a historical figure named Selimus who was ruler of the Ottoman Empire....\n\nThe True Tragedy of Richard III\nThe True Tragedy of Richard III is an anonymous Elizabethan history play on the subject of Richard III of England. It has attracted the attention of scholars of English Renaissance drama principally for the question of its relationship with Shakespeare's Richard III.The True Tragedy of Richard III...\n\n (1591). Paola Pugliatti however argues that the case may be somewhere between Wilson and Taylor's argument; \"Shakespeare may not have been the first to bring English history before the audience of a public playhouse, but he was certainly the first to treat it in the manner of a mature historian rather than in the manner of a worshipper of historical, political and religious myth.\"\n\nAnother issue often discussed amongst critics is the quality of the play. Along with 3 Henry VI, 1 Henry VI has traditionally been seen as one of Shakespeare's weakest works, with critics often citing the amount of violence as indicative of Shakespeare's artistic immaturity and inability to handle his chronicle sources, especially when compared to the more nuanced and far less violent second historical tetralogy\nHenriad is a common title used by scholars for Shakespeare's second historical tetralogy, comprising Richard II; Henry IV, Part 1; Henry IV, Part 2; and Henry V....\n\n (Richard II\nRichard II (play)\nKing Richard the Second is a history play by William Shakespeare believed to be written in approximately 1595. It is based on the life of King Richard II of England and is the first part of a tetralogy, referred to by some scholars as the Henriad, followed by three plays concerning Richard's...\n\n, 1 Henry IV\nHenry IV, Part 1\nHenry IV, Part 1 is a history play by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written no later than 1597. It is the second play in Shakespeare's tetralogy dealing with the successive reigns of Richard II, Henry IV , and Henry V...\n\n, 2 Henry IV\nHenry IV, Part 2\n\n and Henry V\nHenry V (play)\nHenry V is a history play by William Shakespeare, believed to be written in approximately 1599. Its full titles are The Cronicle History of Henry the Fifth and The Life of Henry the Fifth...\n\n). For example, critics such as E.M.W. Tillyard, Irving Ribner and A.P. Rossiter have all claimed that the play violates neoclassical\nNeoclassicism is the name given to Western movements in the decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that draw inspiration from the \"classical\" art and culture of Ancient Greece or Ancient Rome...\n\n precepts of drama\nDrama is the specific mode of fiction represented in performance. The term comes from a Greek word meaning \"action\" , which is derived from \"to do\",\"to act\" . The enactment of drama in theatre, performed by actors on a stage before an audience, presupposes collaborative modes of production and a...\n\n, which dictate that violence and battle should never be shown mimetically\nMimesis , from μιμεῖσθαι , \"to imitate,\" from μῖμος , \"imitator, actor\") is a critical and philosophical term that carries a wide range of meanings, which include imitation, representation, mimicry, imitatio, receptivity, nonsensuous similarity, the act of resembling, the act of expression, and the...\n\n on stage, but should always be reported digetically\nDiegesis is a style of representation in fiction and is:# the world in which the situations and events narrated occur; and# telling, recounting, as opposed to showing, enacting.In diegesis the narrator tells the story...\n\n in dialogue. This view was based on traditional notions of the distinction between high and low art, a distinction which was itself based partly upon Philip Sidney\nPhilip Sidney\nSir Philip Sidney was an English poet, courtier and soldier, and is remembered as one of the most prominent figures of the Elizabethan Age...\n\n's An Apology for Poetry\nAn Apology for Poetry\nSir Philip Sidney wrote An Apology for Poetry in approximately 1579, and it was published in 1595, after his death....\n\n (1579). Based on the work of Horace\n\n, Sidney criticised Thomas Norton\nThomas Norton\nThomas Norton was an English lawyer, politician, writer of verse — but not, as has been claimed, the chief interrogator of Queen Elizabeth I.-Official career:...\n\n and Thomas Sackville\nThomas Sackville, 1st Earl of Dorset\n\n's Gorboduc\nGorboduc (play)\nGorboduc, also titled Ferrex and Porrex, is an English play from 1561. It was performed before Queen Elizabeth I on 18 January 1562, by the Gentlemen of the Inner Temple...\n\n (1561) for showing too many battles and being too violent when it would have been more artistic to verbally represent such scenes. The belief was that any play which actually showed violence was crude, appealing only to the ignorant masses, and was therefore low art. On the other hand, any play which elevated itself above such direct representation of violence and instead relied on the writer's ability to verbalise and his skill for diegesis, was considered artistically superior and therefore, high art. Writing in 1605, Ben Jonson\nBen Jonson\n\n commented in The Masque of Blackness\nThe Masque of Blackness\nThe Masque of Blackness was an early Jacobean era masque, first performed at the Stuart Court in the Banqueting Hall of Whitehall Palace on Twelfth Night, January 6, 1605. The masque was written by Ben Jonson at the request of Anne of Denmark, the queen consort of King James I, who wished the...\n\n that showing battles on stage was only \"for the vulgar, who are better delighted with that which pleaseth the eye, than contenteth the ear.\" Based upon these theories, 1 Henry VI, with its numerous on-stage skirmishes and multiple scenes of violence and murder, was considered a coarse play with little to recommend it to the intelligentsia\nThe intelligentsia is a social class of people engaged in complex, mental and creative labor directed to the development and dissemination of culture, encompassing intellectuals and social groups close to them...\n\n\nOn the other hand however, writers like Thomas Heywood\nThomas Heywood\nThomas Heywood was a prominent English playwright, actor, and author whose peak period of activity falls between late Elizabethan and early Jacobean theatre.-Early years:...\n\nDidacticism is an artistic philosophy that emphasizes instructional and informative qualities in literature and other types of art. The term has its origin in the Ancient Greek word διδακτικός , \"related to education/teaching.\" Originally, signifying learning in a fascinating and intriguing...\n\n element of drama which depicted battle and martial action, arguing that such plays were a good way of teaching both history and military tactics\nMilitary tactics\n\n to the masses; in such plays \"our forefather's valiant acts (that have lain long buried in rusty brass and worm-eaten books) are revived.\" Nashe also argued that plays which depict glorious national causes from the past rekindle a patriotic\nPatriotism is a devotion to one's country, excluding differences caused by the dependencies of the term's meaning upon context, geography and philosophy...\n\n fervour which has been lost in \"the puerility of an insipid present,\" and that such plays \"provide a rare exercise of virtue in reproof to these degenerate effeminate\nEffeminacy describes traits in a human male, that are more often associated with traditional feminine nature, behaviour, mannerisms, style or gender roles rather than masculine nature, behaviour, mannerisms, style or roles....\n\n days of ours.\" Similarly, in An Apology for Actors (1612), Heywood writes, \"So bewitching a thing is lively and well-spirited action, that it hath power to new mould the hearts of the spectators, and fashion them to the shape of any noble and notable attempt.\" More recently, Michael Goldman has argued that battle scenes are vital to the overall movement and purpose of the play; \"the sweep of athletic bodies across the stage is used not only to provide an exciting spectacle but to focus and clarify, to render dramatic, the entire unwieldy chronicle.\"\n\nQuestions of originality and quality, however, are not the only critical disagreement which 1 Henry VI has provoked. There are numerous other issues upon which critics are divided, not the least of which concerns the authorship of the play.\n\nAttribution Studies\n\nA number of Shakespeare's early plays have been examined for signs of co-authorship (The Taming of the Shrew\nThe Taming of the Shrew\nThe Taming of the Shrew is a comedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written between 1590 and 1591.The play begins with a framing device, often referred to as the Induction, in which a mischievous nobleman tricks a drunken tinker named Sly into believing he is actually a nobleman himself...\n\n, The Contention (i.e. 2 Henry VI), and True Tragedy (i.e. 3 Henry VI) for example), but along with Titus Andronicus, 1 Henry VI stands as the most likely to have have been a collaboration between Shakespeare and at least one, but possibly more, other dramatists whose identities remain unknown, although Thomas Nashe, Robert Greene, George Peele\nGeorge Peele\nGeorge Peele , was an English dramatist.-Life:Peele was christened on 25 July 1556. His father, who appears to have belonged to a Devonshire family, was clerk of Christ's Hospital, and wrote two treatises on bookkeeping...\n\n and Christopher Marlowe are common proposals.\n\nEdmond Malone\n\n in his 1790 edition of Shakespeare's plays, which included \"A Dissertation on the Three Parts of King Henry VI\", wherein he argued that the large number of classical allusions found within the play was much more characteristic of Nash, Peele or Greene than it was of early Shakespeare. Malone also argued that the language itself was indicative of someone other than Shakespeare. This view remained the predominate one until 1929, when it was challenged by Peter Alexander. From that time forward, scholars have remained divided on the issue. In 1944, for example, E.M.W Tillyard argued that Shakespeare most likely wrote the entire play, whereas in 1952, John Dover Wilson passionately argued that Shakespeare wrote hardly any of it.\n\nIn perhaps the most exhaustive analysis of the debate, the 1995 article, \"Shakespeare and Others: The Authorship of Henry the Sixth, Part One\", Gary Taylor asserts that only 20% of the play was definitely written by Shakespeare. More specifically, Taylor argues that Nashe almost certainly wrote all of Act 1, with the only scene that Shakespeare definitely wrote being the Temple Garden scene (2.4), although he also probably wrote Richard's visit to Mortimer (2.5) and the introduction of Margaret (5.4). Taylor also concludes that even if his 20% theory is rejected by some scholars, there can be little doubt that Shakespeare almost certainly did not write the protracted farewell involving Talbot and his son, which runs from 4.5.15 to 4.7.50, and is written almost entirely in rhyming couplets\nA couplet is a pair of lines of meter in poetry. It usually consists of two lines that rhyme and have the same meter.While traditionally couplets rhyme, not all do. A poem may use white space to mark out couplets if they do not rhyme. Couplets with a meter of iambic pentameter are called heroic...\n\n. Many critics agree with Taylor on this particular point, arguing that these passages are so simplistic and poorly constructed that there is no possibility that a writer as skilled as Shakespeare, even at this early stage in his career, could have written them. Roger Warren, summates this view when he argues that these scenes are written in a language \"so banal they must be non-Shakespearean\". Taylor further points out that at no other point in his career did Shakespeare use rhyming couplets in a tragic scene, instead reserving them for usage only in scenes of frivolous romantic courtship in his comedies\nShakespearean comedy\nIn the First Folio, the plays of William Shakespeare were grouped into three categories: comedies, histories, and tragedies.\"Comedy\", in its Elizabethan usage, had a very different meaning from modern comedy...\n\n, thus suggesting that this part of the play must have been written by someone other than Shakespeare, someone prone to using couplets in tragic passages.\n\nOn the other hand, some critics, such as Michael Hattaway and Andrew S. Cairncross, argue that the fact Shakespeare never used couplets in tragic passages elsewhere is not categorical evidence that he didn't use them here. Certain critics also disagree with Taylor and Warren's assessment of the quality of the language, arguing that the passages are more complex and accomplished than has hitherto been allowed for. Michael Taylor, for example, argues that \"the rhyming\nA rhyme is a repetition of similar sounds in two or more words and is most often used in poetry and songs. The word \"rhyme\" may also refer to a short poem, such as a rhyming couplet or other brief rhyming poem such as nursery rhymes.-Etymology:...\n\n dialogue between the Talbots – often stichomythic\nStichomythia is a technique in verse drama in which single alternating lines, or half-lines, are given to alternating characters. It typically features repetition and antithesis. The term originated in the theatre of Ancient Greece, though many dramatists since have used the technique...\n\n – shapes a kind of noble flyting\nFlyting or fliting is a contest consisting of the exchange of insults, often conducted in verse, between two parties.-Description:Flyting is a ritual, poetic exchange of insults practiced mainly between the 5th and 16th centuries. The root is the Old English word flītan meaning quarrel...\n\n match, a competition as to who can out-oblige the other.\" Similarly, Alexander Leggatt argues that the passages are a perfect blend of form and content\nForm and content\nIn art and art criticism, form and content are considered distinct aspects of a work of art. The term form refers to the work's style, techniques and media used, and how the elements of design are implemented. Content, on the other hand, refers to a work's essence, or what is being depicted....\n\n; \"The relentless click-click of the rhymes reinforces the point that for John Talbot, all arguments are arguments for death; as every other line ending is countered by a rhyme, so every argument Talbot gives John to flee becomes an argument for staying.\" Taylor and Leggatt are here arguing that the passages are more accomplished than most critics tend to give them credit for, thus offering a counter-argument to the theory that they are so poorly written, they couldn't possibly be by Shakespeare. In this sense then, his failure to use couplets elsewhere in his tragedies\nShakespearean tragedy\nShakespeare wrote tragedies from the beginning of his career. One of his earliest plays was the Roman tragedy Titus Andronicus, which he followed a few years later with Romeo and Juliet. However, his most admired tragedies were written in a seven-year period between 1601 and 1608...\n\n or histories can thus be attributed to an aesthetic\nAesthetics is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of beauty, art, and taste, and with the creation and appreciation of beauty. It is more scientifically defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste...\n\n\nOther scenes in the play have also been pinpointed as offering possible evidence of co-authorship. Tucker Brooke, for example, argues that the opening lines of Act 2, Scene 1 show clear evidence of Nashe's hand. The scene begins with Charles proclaiming, \"Mars\n\n his true moving – even as in the heavens/So in the earth – to this day is not known\" (ll.1–2). Brooke believes that this statement is paraphrased in Nashe's later pamphlet Have with You to Saffron-Walden\nHave with You to Saffron-Walden\nHave With You To Saffron-Walden, Or, Gabriell Harveys hunt is up is the title of a pamphlet written by Thomas Nashe and published in London in late 1596 by John Danter. The work is Nashe's final shot in his four-year literary feud with Dr. Gabriel Harvey...\n\n (1596), which contains the line, \"You are as ignorant as the astronomer\n\ns are in the true movings of Mars, which to this day, they never could attain to.\" The problem with Brooke's theory however, as Michael Hattaway has pointed out, is that there is no reason as to why Nashe couldn't simply be paraphrasing a play with which he had no involvement, a common practice in Elizabethan literature\nElizabethan literature\nThe term Elizabethan literature refers to the English literature produced during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I .The Elizabethan era saw a great flourishing of literature, especially in the field of drama...\n\n (for example, Shakespeare and Marlowe often referenced one another's plays by means of paraphrasing).\n\nMore evidence is identified by Nasheeb Sheehan, again suggestive of Nashe, when Alençon compares the English to \"Samson\nSamson, Shimshon ; Shamshoun or Sampson is the third to last of the Judges of the ancient Israelites mentioned in the Tanakh ....\n\ns and Goliases\" (2.1.33). The word 'Golias', Sheehan argues is unusual insofar as all bibles in Shakespeare's day spelt the name 'Goliath', it was only in much older editions of the bible that it was spelt 'Golias'. Sheehan concludes that the use of the arcane spelling is more indicative of Nashe, who was prone to using older spellings of certain words, than Shakespeare, who was less likely to do so.\n\nHowever, evidence of Shakespeare's authorship has also been found within the play. For example, Samuel Johnson argued that the play was more competently written than King John, Richard II, 1 Henry IV, 2 Henry IV and Henry V, and therefore, not attributing it to Shakespeare based on quality made little sense. A similar point is made by Lawrence V. Ryan, who suggests that the play fits so well into Shakespeare's overall style, with an intricate integration of form and content, that it was most likely written by him alone. More recently, and more specifically, Gary Taylor has claimed that Shakespeare wrote all of the Temple Garden scene (2.4) and most likely also wrote the Mortimer scene (2.5) and the Margaret/Suffolk scene (5.4). Less certainly, Taylor also suggests that Shakespeare wrote either all or some of the scene where Talbot is ambushed by the French and vows to fight (4.2). Taylor suggests that Talbot's reference to himself as \"Servant in arms to Harry, King of England\" (l.4) is evidence of Shakespeare's hand. This is one of only two occurrences of the word 'Harry' in the entire tetralogy (the other is in 3 Henry VI; 3 March 2015). In 1 Henry IV, 2 Henry IV and Henry V however, the word is used on multiple occasions, and as there is no doubt that Shakespeare did write those plays, Taylor argues that the occurrence of the word in 1 Henry VI suggests Shakespeare also wrote the scene in which it is found.\n\nAnother aspect of the debate is the actual likelihood of Shakespeare collaborating at all. Some critics, such as Hattaway and Cairncross, argue that it is unlikely that a young, up-and-coming dramatist trying to make a name for himself would have collaborated with other authors so early in his career. On the other hand, Michael Taylor suggests, \"it is not difficult to construct an imaginary scenario that has a harassed author calling on friends and colleagues to help him construct an unexpectedly commissioned piece in a hurry\" (obviously, this suggestion is based on the theory that The Contention and True Tragedy formed a two-part sequence which was then extended into a trilogy due to its popularity). Another argument which challenges the likelihood of co-authorship is that the basic theory of co-authorship itself was originally hypothesised in the 18th and 19th century due to a distaste for the treatment of Joan; i.e. critics were uncomfortable attributing such a harsh depiction to Shakespeare, so they embraced the co-authorship theory in an effort to 'clear his name', suggesting that he couldn't have been responsible for the merciless characterisation of Joan, and as such, someone else must have written her scenes.\n\nAs with the question of the order in which the trilogy was written, twentieth century editors and scholars remain staunchly divided on the question of authorship. Well known scholars such as Peter Alexander and E.M.W. Tillyard have argued against the co-authorship theory, but nevertheless, the issue continues to be debated. Edward Burns, for example, in his 2000 edition of the play for the Arden Shakespeare 3rd series, suggests that it is highly unlikely that Shakespeare wrote alone, and throughout his introduction and commentary, he refers to the writer not as Shakespeare but as 'the dramatists'. He also suggests that the play should be more properly called Harry VI, by Shakespeare, Nashe and others. Burns' predecessor however, Andrew S. Cairncross, editor of the play for the Arden Shakespeare 2nd series in 1962, ascribes the entire play to Shakespeare, as does Lawrence V. Ryan in his 1967 Signet Classic Shakespeare edition, and Michael Hattaway in his New Cambridge Shakespeare\nNew Cambridge Shakespeare\nThe New Cambridge Shakespeare is a series of scholarly editions of the plays of William Shakespeare published by Cambridge University Press. The series began in 1984, publishing several new editions each year. To date, the majority of Shakespeare's plays and poems have been published in the series...\n\n edition of 1990. In his 1952 edition of the play, Dover Wilson on the other hand, argued that the play was almost entirely written by others, and that Shakespeare actually had little to do with its composition. Speaking during a 1952 radio presentation of The Contention and True Tragedy which he produced, Dover Wilson argued that he had not included 1 Henry VI because it is a \"patchwork in which Shakespeare collaborated with inferior dramatists.\" On the other hand, Michael Taylor believes that Shakespeare almost certainly wrote the entire play, as does J.J.M Tobin, who, in his essay in Henry VI: Critical Essays (2001), argues the similarities to Nashe do not reveal the hand of Nashe at work in the composition of the play, but instead reveal Shakespeare imitating Nashe. More recently, in 2005, Paul J. Vincent has re-examined the question in light of recent research into the Elizabethan theatre, concluding that 1 Henry VI is Shakespeare's partial revision of a play by Nashe (Act 1) and an unknown playwright (Acts 2–5) and that it was the original, non-Shakespearean, play that was first performed on 3 March 1592. Shakespeare's work in the play, which was mostly likely composed in 1594, can be found in Act 2 (scene 4) and Act 4 (scenes 2–5 and the first 32 lines of scene 7). In 2007, Vincent's authorship findings, especially with regard to Nashe's authorship of Act 1, were supported overall by Brian Vickers, who agrees with the theory of co-authorship and differs only slightly over the extent of Shakespeare's contribution to the play.\n\n\n\nThe very functioning of Language\nLanguage may refer either to the specifically human capacity for acquiring and using complex systems of communication, or to a specific instance of such a system of complex communication...\n\nRepresentation (arts)\nRepresentation is the use of signs that stand in for and take the place of something else. It is through representation that people organize the world and reality through the act of naming its elements...\n\n by means of signs\nSign (semiotics)\nA sign is understood as a discrete unit of meaning in semiotics. It is defined as \"something that stands for something, to someone in some capacity\" It includes words, images, gestures, scents, tastes, textures, sounds – essentially all of the ways in which information can be...\n\nSemiosis is any form of activity, conduct, or process that involves signs, including the production of meaning. Briefly – semiosis is sign process...\n\nSemantics is the study of meaning. It focuses on the relation between signifiers, such as words, phrases, signs and symbols, and what they stand for, their denotata....\n\n and the manipulation of language so as to hide the truth.\n\nThe persuasive power of language is first alluded to by Charles, who tells Joan after she has assured him she can end the siege of Orléans, \"Thou hast astonished me with thy high terms\" (1.2.93). This sense is repeated when the Countess of Auvergne is wondering about Talbot and says to her servant, \"Great is the rumour of this dreadful knight\n\n,/And his achievements of no less account./Fain would mine eyes be witness with mine ears,/To give their censure of these rare reports\" (2.3.7–10). Like Charles, Auvergne has been astonished with the 'high terms' bestowed on Talbot, and now she wishes to see if the image and the reality conflate, if the reality can actually live up to the image. Later in the play, language becomes even more important for Joan, as she uses it as a subterfuge to sneak into Rouen, telling her men, \"Be wary how you place your words;/Talk like the vulgar sort of market men/That come to gather money for their corn\" ( Later, she uses language to persuade Burgundy to join with the Dauphin against the English. As Burgundy realises he is succumbing to her rhetoric\nRhetoric is the art of discourse, an art that aims to improve the facility of speakers or writers who attempt to inform, persuade, or motivate particular audiences in specific situations. As a subject of formal study and a productive civic practice, rhetoric has played a central role in the Western...\n\n, he muses to himself, \"Either she hath bewitched me with her words,/Or nature\n\n makes me suddenly relent\" (3.3.58–59). Here, language is shown to be so powerful as to act on Burgundy the same way Nature itself would act, to the point where he is unsure if he has been persuaded by a natural occurrence or by Joan's words. Language is thus presented as capable of transforming ideology\nAn ideology is a set of ideas that constitutes one's goals, expectations, and actions. An ideology can be thought of as a comprehensive vision, as a way of looking at things , as in common sense and several philosophical tendencies , or a set of ideas proposed by the dominant class of a society to...\n\n. As Joan finishes her speech, Burgundy again attests to the power of her language, \"I am vanquish'd. These haughty words of hers/Have battered me like roaring canon-shot,/And made me almost yield upon my knees\" (3.3.78–80). Later, something similar happens with Henry, who agrees to marry Margaret merely because of Suffolk's description of her. In a line which echoes Burgundy's, Henry queries what it is that has prompted him to agree to Suffolk's suggestion; \"Whether it be through force of your report,/My noble lord of Suffolk, or for that/My tender youth was never yet attaint/With any passion of inflaming love, I cannot tell\" (5.6.79–83). Here, again, the power of language is shown to be so strong as to be confused with a natural phenomenon.\nLanguage can also be employed aggressively. For example, after the death of Salisbury, when Talbot first hears about Joan, he contemptuously refers to her and Charles as \"Puzel or pussel, dolphin or dogfish\nSqualiformes is an order of sharks that includes about 97 species in seven families.Members of the order have two dorsal fins, which usually possess spines, no anal fin or nictitating membrane, and five gill slits. In most other respects, however, they are quite variable in form and size...\n\n\" (1.5.85). In French, 'puzel' means slut\nSlut or slattern is a pejorative term applied to an individual who is considered to have loose sexual morals or who is sexually promiscuous...\n\n, and 'pussel' is a variation of 'pucelle' (meaning virgin\nVirginity refers to the state of a person who has never engaged in sexual intercourse. There are cultural and religious traditions which place special value and significance on this state, especially in the case of unmarried females, associated with notions of personal purity, honor and worth...\n\n), but with an added negative connotation. These two words, 'puzel' and 'pussel', are both pun\n\ns on Joan's name (Pucelle), thus showing Talbot's utter contempt for her. Similarly, the use of the word 'dolphin' to describe the Dauphin carries negative and mocking connotations, as does the use of the word 'dogfish', a member of the shark\nSharks are a type of fish with a full cartilaginous skeleton and a highly streamlined body. The earliest known sharks date from more than 420 million years ago....\n\n family considered to be dishonourable scavengers, preying on anything and anyone. Again, Talbot is showing his contempt for Charles' position by exposing it to mockery with some simple word play. Other examples of words employed aggressively are seen when the English reclaim Orléans, and a soldier chases the half-dressed French leaders from the city, declaring \"The cry of 'Talbot' serves me for a sword,/For I have loaden me with many spoils,/Using no other weapon but his name\" (2.1.81–83). A similar notion is found when the Countess of Auvergne meets Talbot, and muses, \"Is this the Talbot so much feared abroad/That with his name the mothers still their babes\" (2.3.15–16). Here words (specifically Talbot's name) literally become weapons, and are used directly to strike fear into the enemy.\n\nHowever although words are occasionally shown to be powerful and deeply persuasive, they are also shown to oftentimes fail in their signifying role, exposed as being incapable of adequately representing reality. This idea is introduced by Gloucester at Henry V's funeral, where he laments that words cannot encompass the life of such a great king; \"What should I say? His deeds exceed all speech\" (1 January 2015). Later, when Gloucester and Winchester confront one another outside the Tower of London, Gloucester champions the power of real action over the power of threatening words; \"I will not answer thee with words but blows\" (1.3.69). Similarly, after the French capture Rouen and refuse to meet the English army in the battlefield, Bedford asserts, \"O let no words, but deeds, revenge this treason\n\n\" (3.2.48). Another example of the failure of language is found when Suffolk finds himself lost for words whilst attempting to woo Margaret; \"Fain would I woo her, yet I dare not speak./I'll call for pen and ink and write my mind./Fie, de la Pole, disable not thyself!/Hast not a tongue?\" (5.4.21–24). Later, Joan's words, so successful during the play in convincing others to support her, explicitly fail to save her life, as she is told by Warwick, \"Strumpet, thy words condemn thy brat and thee./Use no entreaty, for it is in vain\" (5.5.84–85).\n\nLanguage as a system is also shown to be open to manipulation. Words can be employed for deceptive purposes, and the representative function of language gives way to deceit. For example, shortly after Charles has accepted Joan as his new commander, Alençon calls into question her sincerity, thus suggesting a possible discrepancy between her words and her actions; \"These women are shrewd tempters with their tongues\" (1.2.123). Another example occurs when Henry forces Winchester and Gloucester to put aside their animosity and shake hands. Their public words here stand in diametric opposition to their private intentions;\n\n\nWell, Duke of Gloucester, I will yield to thee\n\nLove for thy love, and hand for hand I give.\n\nHe takes Gloucester's hand\n\n\n\n\nThis token serveth for a flag of truce\n\nBetwixt ourselves and all our followers.\n\nSo help me God as I dissemble not.\n\n\n\nAct 2, Scene 4 is perhaps the most important scene in the play in terms of language, as it is in this scene where Richard introduces the notion of what he calls \"dumb significants\", something which will carry resonance throughout the trilogy. During his debate with Somerset, Richard points out to the lords who are unwilling to openly support either of them, \"Since you are tongue tied and loath to speak,/In dumb significants proclaim your thoughts\" (ll.25–26). The dumb significants to which he refers are roses; a red rose to join Somerset, a white rose to join Richard. As such, the roses essentially function as symbol\n\ns, replacing the very need for language. Once all the lords have selected their rose, the roses then come to symbolise the House they represent. When Henry chooses a red rose, he is totally unaware of the implications of his actions, as he doesn't understand the power the dumb significants have. He places all his trust in a more literal type of language, and thus selects a rose in what he thinks is a meaningless gesture, but which does in fact have profound implications. Henry's mistake results directly from his failure to grasp the importance of silent actions and symbolic decisions; \"a gesture – especially such an ill-considered one – is worth and makes worthless, a thousand pretty words.\"\n\nDeath of chivalry\n\nA fundamental theme in the play is the death of chivalry\nChivalry is a term related to the medieval institution of knighthood which has an aristocratic military origin of individual training and service to others. Chivalry was also the term used to refer to a group of mounted men-at-arms as well as to martial valour...\n\n, \"the decline of England's empire\nBritish Empire\n\n over France and the accompanying decay of the ideas of feudalism\nFeudalism was a set of legal and military customs in medieval Europe that flourished between the 9th and 15th centuries, which, broadly defined, was a system for ordering society around relationships derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labour.Although derived from the...\n\n that had sustained the order of the realm\nA realm is a dominion of a monarch or other sovereign ruler.The Old French word reaume, modern French royaume, was the word first adopted in English; the fixed modern spelling does not appear until the beginning of the 17th century...\n\n.\" This is specifically manifested in the character of Talbot, a symbol of a dying breed of men honourably and selflessly devoted to the good of England. His methods and style of leadership represent the last dying remnants of a now outmoded, feudal gallantry. As such, Michael Taylor refers to him as \"the representative of a chivalry that was fast decaying,\" whilst Michael Hattaway sees him as \"a figure for the nostalgia that suffuses the play, a dream of simple chivalric virtus\nVirtus (virtue)\nVirtus was a specific virtue in Ancient Rome. It carries connotations of valor, manliness, excellence, courage, character, and worth, perceived as masculine strengths...\n\n like that enacted every year at Elizabeth\nElizabeth I of England\n\n's Accession Day tilt\nAccession Day tilt\nThe Accession Day tilts were a series of elaborate festivities held annually at the court of Elizabeth I of England to celebrate her Accession Day, 17 November, also known as Queen's Day...\n\n\nOne of the clearest examples of Talbot's adherence to the codes of chivalry is seen in his response to Fastolf's desertion from the battlefield. As far as Talbot is concerned, Fastolf's actions show him to be a dishonourable coward, who places self-preservation above self-sacrifice, and thus he represents everything that is wrong with the modern knight. This is in direct contrast to the chivalry that Talbot himself represents, a chivalry he remembers fondly from days gone by;\n\n\n\nTo tear the garter\nGarter (stockings)\nGarters are articles of clothing: narrow bands of fabric fastened about the leg, used to keep up stockings, and sometimes socks. Normally just a few inches in width, they are usually made of leather or heavy cloth, and adorned with small bells and/or ribbons...\n\n from thy craven's leg,\n\nWhich I have done because unworthily\n\nThou wast install'd in that high degree. –\n\nPardon me, princely Henry, and the rest.\n\nThis dastard, at the Battle of Patay\nBattle of Patay\nThe Battle of Patay was the culminating engagement of the Loire Campaign of the Hundred Years' War between the French and English in north-central France. It was a decisive victory for the French and turned the tide of the war. This victory was to the French what Agincourt was to the English...\n\n\nWhen but in all I was six thousand strong,\n\nAnd that the French were almost ten to one,\n\nBefore we met, or that a stroke was given,\n\nLike to a trusty squire\nThe English word squire is a shortened version of the word Esquire, from the Old French , itself derived from the Late Latin , in medieval or Old English a scutifer. The Classical Latin equivalent was , \"arms bearer\"...\n\n did run away;\n\nIn which assault we lost twelve hundred men.\n\nMyself and divers gentlemen beside\n\nWere there surprised and taken prisoners.\n\nThen judge, great lords, if I have done amiss,\n\nOr whether that such cowards ought to wear\n\nThis ornament of knighthood: yea or no?\n\n\nTo say the truth, this fact was infamous\n\nAnd ill beseeming any common man,\n\nMuch more a knight, a captain, and a leader.\n\n\nWhen first this order\nOrder of the Garter\nThe Most Noble Order of the Garter, founded in 1348, is the highest order of chivalry, or knighthood, existing in England. The order is dedicated to the image and arms of St...\n\n was ordained, my lords,\n\nKnights of the garter were of noble birth,\n\nValiant and virtuous, full of haughty courage,\n\nSuch as were grown to credit by the wars;\n\nNot fearing death nor shrinking for distress,\n\nBut always resolute in most extremes.\n\nHe then that is not furnished in this sort\n\nDoth but usurp the sacred name of knight,\n\nProfaning this most honourable order,\n\nAnd should – if I were worthy to be judge –\n\nBe quite degraded, like a hedge-born swain\n\nThat doth presume to boast of gentle blood.\n\n\n\nEngland ne're had a king until his time.\n\nVirtue he had, deserving to command;\n\nHis brandished sword did bind men with his beams,\n\nHis arms spread wider than a dragon\nA dragon is a legendary creature, typically with serpentine or reptilian traits, that feature in the myths of many cultures. There are two distinct cultural traditions of dragons: the European dragon, derived from European folk traditions and ultimately related to Greek and Middle Eastern...\n\n's wings,\n\nHis sparkling eyes, replete with wrathful fire,\n\nMore dazzled and drove back his enemies\n\nThan midday sun fierce bent against their faces.\n\nHenry V has this function throughout much of the play; \"he is presented not as a man but as a rhetoric\n\nal construct fashioned out of hyperbole\n\n, as a heroic image or heraldic icon.\" He is seen as a representative of a celebrated past which can never be recaptured; \"there is in the play a dominant, nostalgic, celebratory reminiscence of Henry V who lives on in the immortality of preternatural\nThe preternatural or praeternatural is that which appears outside or beyond the natural. In contrast to the supernatural, preternatural phenomena are presumed to have rational explanations that are, as of yet, unknown....\n\nThe play, however, doesn’t simply depict the fall of one order, it also depicts the rise of another; \"How the nation might have remained true to itself is signified by the words and deeds of Talbot. What she is in danger of becoming is signified by the shortcomings of the French, failings that crop up increasingly amongst Englishman [...] also manifest are an English decline towards French effeminacy and the beginnings of reliance upon fraud and cunning rather than manly courage and straightforward manly virtue.\" If the old mode of honourable conduct is specifically represented by Talbot and Henry V, the new mode of duplicity and Machiavellianism\nMachiavellianism is, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, \"the employment of cunning and duplicity in statecraft or in general conduct\", deriving from the Italian Renaissance diplomat and writer Niccolò Machiavelli, who wrote Il Principe and other works...\n\n is represented by Joan, who employs a type of warfare with which Talbot is simply unable to cope. This is seen most clearly when she sneaks into Rouen and subsequently refuses to face Talbot in a battle. Talbot finds this kind of behaviour incomprehensible and utterly dishonourable. As such, he finds himself fighting an enemy who are using tactics he is incapable of understanding; with the French using what he sees as unconventional methods, he proves unable to adapt. This represents one of the ironies in the play's depiction of chivalry; it is the very resoluteness of Talbot's honour and integrity, his insistence in preserving an old code abandoned by all others, which ultimately defeats him; his inability to adjust means he becomes unable to function in the newly established 'dishonourable' context. As such, the play is not entirely nostalgic about chivalry; \"so often the tenets of chivalry are mocked by word and action. The play is full of moments of punctured aristocratic hauteur.\"\n\nNarcissism is a term with a wide range of meanings, depending on whether it is used to describe a central concept of psychoanalytic theory, a mental illness, a social or cultural problem, or simply a personality trait...\n\n political infighting has supplanted self-sacrificing patriotism and chivalry; \"the play charts the disastrous breakdown of civility among the English nobility.\" Nobles concerned with personal power above all else have replaced knights concerned only with the empire. As such, by the end of the play, both Talbot and his son lay dead, as does the notion of English chivalry. In this sense then, the play \"depicts the deaths of the titanic survivors of an ancien régime\nAncien Régime in France\nThe Ancien Régime refers primarily to the aristocratic, social and political system established in France from the 15th century to the 18th century under the late Valois and Bourbon dynasties...\n\n\n\nSpanish Armada\n\n in 1588, leading to a short-lived period of international confidence and patriotic pride, the national mood by 1590 was one of despondency, and as such, 1 Henry VI may have been commissioned to help dispel this mood; \"the patriotic emotions to which this play shamelessly appeals resonate at an especially fragile time politically speaking. Frightening memories of the 1588 Spanish Armada, or of the Babington Plot\nBabington Plot\nThe Babington Plot was a Catholic plot in 1586 to assassinate Queen Elizabeth, a Protestant, and put Mary, Queen of Scots, a Catholic, on the English throne. It led to the execution of Mary. The long-term goal was an invasion by the Spanish forces of King Philip II and the Catholic league in...\n\nIn the history of England and Wales, the recusancy was the state of those who refused to attend Anglican services. The individuals were known as \"recusants\"...\n\n\nEvidence of this is seen throughout. For example, the English seem to be vastly outnumbered in every battle, yet they never give up, and oftentimes they actually prove victorious. Indeed, even when they do lose, the suggestion is often made that it was because of treachery, as only by duplicitous means could their hardiness be overcome. For example, during the battle where Talbot is captured, the messenger reports,\n\n\nRetiring from the siege of Orléans,\n\nHaving full scarce six thousand in his troop,\n\nBy three-and-twenty thousand of the French\n\nWas round encompass'd and set upon:\n\nNo leisure had he to enrank\nMilitary deployment\nMilitary deployment is the movement of armed forces and their logistical support infrastructure around the world.-United States:The United States Military defines the term as follows:...\n\n his men.\n\nHe wanted pikes to set before his archer\nArchery is the art, practice, or skill of propelling arrows with the use of a bow, from Latin arcus. Archery has historically been used for hunting and combat; in modern times, however, its main use is that of a recreational activity...\n\n\nInstead whereof sharp stakes plucked out of hedges\n\nThey pitch'd in the ground confusedly\n\nTo keep the horsemen off from breaking in.\n\nMore than three hours the fight continu'd,\n\nWhere valiant Talbot, above human thought,\n\nEnacted wonders with his sword and lance\nA Lance is a pole weapon or spear designed to be used by a mounted warrior. The lance is longer, stout and heavier than an infantry spear, and unsuited for throwing, or for rapid thrusting. Lances did not have tips designed to intentionally break off or bend, unlike many throwing weapons of the...\n\n\nHundreds he sent to hell\nIn many religious traditions, a hell is a place of suffering and punishment in the afterlife. Religions with a linear divine history often depict hells as endless. Religions with a cyclic history often depict a hell as an intermediary period between incarnations...\n\n, and none durst stand him;\n\nHere, there, and everywhere, enraged he slew.\n\nThe French exclaimed the devil\n\n was in arms:\n\nAll the whole army stood agazed on him.\n\nHis soldiers, spying his undaunted spirit,\n\n'À Talbot! À Talbot!' cried out amain,\n\nAnd rushed into the bowels of the battle.\n\nHere had the conquest fully been sealed up\n\nIf Sir John Fastolf had not played the coward.\n\nHe, being in the vanguard\nTactical formation\nA tactical formation is the arrangement or deployment of moving military forces such as infantry, cavalry, AFVs, military aircraft, or naval vessels...\n\n placed behind,\n\nWith purpose to relieve and follow them,\n\nCowardly fled, not having struck one stroke.\n\nHence flew the general wrack and massacre;\n\nEnclos'd were they with their enemies.\n\nA base Walloon\nWalloons are a French-speaking people who live in Belgium, principally in Wallonia. Walloons are a distinctive community within Belgium, important historical and anthropological criteria bind Walloons to the French people. More generally, the term also refers to the inhabitants of the Walloon...\n\n, to win the Dauphin's grace,\n\nThrust Talbot with a spear into the back –\n\nWhom all France, with their chief assembled strength,\n\nDurst not presume to look once in the face.\n\nHere Fastolf's betrayal is the direct cause of the English defeat, not the fact that they were outnumbered ten-to-one, that they were hit by a surprise attack or that they were surrounded. This notion is returned to several times, with the implication each time that only treachery can account for an English defeat. For example, upon hearing of the first loss of towns in France, Exeter immediately asks, \"How were they lost? What treachery was used?\" (1.1.68). Upon losing Rouen, Talbot exclaims, \"France, thou shalt rue this treason with thy tears/If Talbot but survive thy treachery\" (3.2.35–36). Later, when thinking back on the French campaign, Richard asks Henry, \"Have we not lost most part of all the towns/By treason, falsehood and by treachery\" (5.5.108–109).\n\n\nJean Froissart\nJean Froissart , often referred to in English as John Froissart, was one of the most important chroniclers of medieval France. For centuries, Froissart's Chronicles have been recognized as the chief expression of the chivalric revival of the 14th century Kingdom of England and France...\n\n, a countryman of ours, records\n\nEngland all Olivers and Roland\nRoland was a Frankish military leader under Charlemagne who became one of the principal figures in the literary cycle known as the Matter of France. Historically, Roland was military governor of the Breton March, with responsibility for defending the frontier of Francia against the Bretons...\n\ns bred\n\nDuring the time Edward the Third\nEdward III of England\nEdward III was King of England from 1327 until his death and is noted for his military success. Restoring royal authority after the disastrous reign of his father, Edward II, Edward III went on to transform the Kingdom of England into one of the most formidable military powers in Europe...\n\n did reign.\n\nMore truly now may this be verified,\n\nFor none but Samsons and Goliases\n\nIt sendeth forth to skirmish. One to ten?\n\nLean raw-boned rascals – who would e'er suppose\n\nThey had such courage and audacity.\n\n\nLet's leave this town, for they are hare-brained slaves,\n\nAnd hunger will enforce them to be more eager.\n\nOf old I know them; rather with their teeth\n\nThe walls they'll tear down than forsake the siege.\n\n\nI think by some odd gimmers or device\n\n\nElse n'er could they hold out as they do.\n\n\n\n is represented as good; \"the play's popularity [in 1592] has to be seen against the backdrop of an extraordinary efflorescence\nIn chemistry, efflorescence is the loss of water of crystallization from a hydrated or solvated salt to the atmosphere on exposure to air.-Examples:...\n\n of interest in political history\nPolitical history\nPolitical history is the narrative and analysis of political events, ideas, movements, and leaders. It is distinct from, but related to, other fields of history such as Diplomatic history, social history, economic history, and military history, as well as constitutional history and public...\n\n\nTalbot himself is an element of this, insofar as his \"rhetoric is correspondingly Protestant. His biblical references are all from the Old Testament (a source less fully used by Catholics) and speak of stoicism\nStoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early . The Stoics taught that destructive emotions resulted from errors in judgment, and that a sage, or person of \"moral and intellectual perfection,\" would not suffer such emotions.Stoics were concerned...\n\n and individual faith.\" Henry V is also cited as an example of Protestant purity; \"He was a king blest of the King of Kings\nKing of Kings\nKing of Kings is a title that has been used by several monarchies and empires throughout history. The title originates in the Ancient Near East. It is broadly the equivalent of the later title Emperor....\n\n./Unto the French the dreadful judgement day\nLast Judgment\nThe Last Judgment, Final Judgment, Day of Judgment, Judgment Day, or The Day of the Lord in Christian theology, is the final and eternal judgment by God of every nation. The concept is found in all the Canonical gospels, particularly the Gospel of Matthew. It will purportedly take place after the...\n\nHeavenly host\nHeavenly host refers to an army of good angels mentioned in the Bible. It is led either by the Archangel Michael, Jesus, or by God himself. Most descriptions of angels in the Bible describe them in military terms, such as encampment , command structure , and combat...\n\n he fought\" (1.1.28–31). \"King of kings\" is a phrase used in 1 Timothy\nFirst Epistle to Timothy\nThe First Epistle of Paul to Timothy, usually referred to simply as First Timothy and often written 1 Timothy, is one of three letters in the New Testament of the Bible often grouped together as the Pastoral Epistles, the others being Second Timothy and Titus...\n\n, 6:15. \"Lords of Hosts\" is used throughout the Old Testament, and to say Henry fought for the Lord of Hosts is to compare him to the Christian\nA Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament...\n\n warrior king, David\nDavid was the second king of the united Kingdom of Israel according to the Hebrew Bible and, according to the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, an ancestor of Jesus Christ through both Saint Joseph and Mary...\n\n, who also fought for the Lords of Hosts in 1 Samuel\nBooks of Samuel\nThe Books of Samuel in the Jewish bible are part of the Former Prophets, , a theological history of the Israelites affirming and explaining the Torah under the guidance of the prophets.Samuel begins by telling how the prophet Samuel is chosen by...\n\n, 25:28.\n\nHowever, despite the obvious celebratory patriotic tone and sense of Protestant/English religio-political identity, as with the lamentation for the death of chivalry, the play is somewhat ambiguous in its overall depiction of patriotism. Ultimately, the play depicts how the English lost France, a seemingly strange subject matter if Shakespeare was attempting to instil a sense of national pride in the people. This is rendered even more so when one considers that Shakespeare could have written about how England won France in the first place; \"the popularity of \"Armada rhetoric\" during the time of 1 Henry VIs composition would have seemed to ask for a play about Henry V, not one which begins with his death and proceeds to dramatise English loses.\" In this sense then, the depiction of patriotism, although undoubtedly strong, is not without ambiguity; the very story told by the play renders any patriotic sentiment found within to be something of a hollow victory.\n\nSaintly vs. demonic\n\ncall - 1347 531 7769 for more infoIn Ancient Near Eastern religions as well as in the Abrahamic traditions, including ancient and medieval Christian demonology, a demon is considered an \"unclean spirit\" which may cause demonic possession, to be addressed with an act of exorcism...\n\ns, spirit\nThe English word spirit has many differing meanings and connotations, most of them relating to a non-corporeal substance contrasted with the material body.The spirit of a living thing usually refers to or explains its consciousness.The notions of a person's \"spirit\" and \"soul\" often also overlap,...\n\ns, witches\nWitchcraft, in historical, anthropological, religious, and mythological contexts, is the alleged use of supernatural or magical powers. A witch is a practitioner of witchcraft...\n\n, saint\nA saint is a holy person. In various religions, saints are people who are believed to have exceptional holiness.In Christian usage, \"saint\" refers to any believer who is \"in Christ\", and in whom Christ dwells, whether in heaven or in earth...\n\ns and God are all mentioned on numerous occasions within the play, oftentimes relating directly to Joan, who is presented as \"a fascinating mixture of saint, witch, naïve girl, clever woman, audacious warrior and sensual tart.\" The English continually refer to her as a witch and a whore, the French as a saint and a saviour\nWithin religion salvation is the phenomenon of being saved from the undesirable condition of bondage or suffering experienced by the psyche or soul that has arisen as a result of unskillful or immoral actions generically referred to as sins. Salvation may also be called \"deliverance\" or...\n\n, and the play itself seems to waver between these two poles; \"Joan first appears in a state of beatitude\nIn Christianity, the Beatitudes are a set of teachings by Jesus that appear in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke. The term Beatitude comes from the Latin adjective beatus which means happy, fortunate, or blissful....\n\n, patient, serene, the \"Divinest creature\" of Charles' adoration, the object of the Virgin Mary\nMary (mother of Jesus)\nMary , commonly referred to as \"Saint Mary\", \"Mother Mary\", the \"Virgin Mary\", the \"Blessed Virgin Mary\", or \"Mary, Mother of God\", was a Jewish woman of Nazareth in Galilee...\n\n's miraculous intercession, chosen by her to rescue France, and so made beautiful, courageous and wise [...] on the other hand, and virtually at the same time, she's clearly an early combination of the demonic, the Machiavellian, and the Marlovian.\"\n\nJoan is introduced into the play by the Bastard, who, even before anyone has seen or met her, says, \"A holy maid hither with me I bring\" (1.2.51). Later, after Joan has helped the French lift the siege of Orléans, Charles declares, \"No longer on Saint Denis\n\n will we cry, but Joan la Pucelle shall be France's saint\" (1.7.28–30). Similarly, when Joan reveals her plan to turn Burgundy against the English, Alençon declares, \"We'll set thy statute in some holy place/And have thee reverenced like a blessed saint\" (3.3.14–15).\n\nOn the other hand however, the English see her as a demon. Prior to her combat with Talbot, he exclaims, \"Devil or devil's dam, I'll conjure thee./Blood will I draw on thee – thou art a witch –/And straightway give thy soul to him thou serv'st\" (1.6.5–7). Then, after the fight, he says, \"My thoughts are whirl'd like a potter's wheel./I know not where I am nor what I do./A witch, by fear, not force, like Hannibal,/Drives back our troops and conquers as she lists\" (1.6.19–22). Upon arriving in France, Bedford condemns Charles for aligning himself with Joan; \"How much he wrongs his fame,/Despairing of his own arms' fortitude,/To join with witches and the help of hell\" (2.1.16–18). Talbot responds to this with, \"Well, let them practice and converse with spirits./God is our fortress\" (2.1.25–26). Later, Talbot refers to her as \"Pucelle, that witch, that damn'd sorceress\" (3.2.37) and \"Foul fiend of France, and hag of all despite\" (3.2.51), declaring \"I speak not to that railing Hecate\nHecate or Hekate is a chthonic Greco-Roman goddess associated with magic, witchcraft, necromancy, and crossroads.She is attested in poetry as early as Hesiod's Theogony...\n\n\" (3.2.64). Prior to executing her, York also calls her a \"Fell banning hag\" (5.2.42).\n\nJoan herself addresses this issue as she is about to be executed;\n\nFirst let me tell you whom you have condemned:\n\nNot me begotten of a shepherd swain,\n\nBut issued from the progeny of kings;\n\nVirtuous and holy, chosen from above\n\nBy inspiration of celestial grace\n\nTo work exceeding miracle\nA miracle often denotes an event attributed to divine intervention. Alternatively, it may be an event attributed to a miracle worker, saint, or religious leader. A miracle is sometimes thought of as a perceptible interruption of the laws of nature. Others suggest that a god may work with the laws...\n\ns on earth.\n\nI never had to do with wicked spirits;\n\nBut you, that are polluted with your lusts,\n\nStained with the guiltless blood of innocents,\n\nCorrupt and tainted with a thousand vices –\n\nBecause you want the grace that others have,\n\nYou judge it straight a thing impossible\n\nTo compass wonders but by help of devils.\n\nNo, misconceiv'd, Joan of Arc hath been\n\nA virgin from her tender infancy,\n\nChaste and immaculate in very thought,\n\nWhose maiden blood, thus rigorously effused,\n\nWill cry for vengeance at the gates of heaven.\n\nHaving failed in her efforts to convince the English she is a holy virgin, and that killing her will invoke the wrath of heaven, she alters her story and claims to be pregnant, hoping they will spare her for the sake of the child. She then lists off various French nobles who could be her child's father in an effort to find one who the English respect. In this sense then, Joan leaves the play as neither saintly nor demonic, but as a frightened woman pleading fruitlessly for her life.\n\nAn important question in any examination of Joan is the question of whether or not she is a unified, stable character who vacillates from saintly to demonic, or a poorly constructed character, now one thing, now the other. According to Edward Burns, \"Joan cannot be read as a substantive realist character, a unified subject with a coherent singly identity.\" An alternate, sympathetic view of Joan, one which argues that the character's movement from saintly to demonic is justified within the text, is Michael Hattaway's, who argues that \"Joan is the play's tragic figure, comparable with Faulconbridge in King John. She turns to witchcraft only in despair; it cannot be taken as an unequivocal manifestation of diabolic power.\"\n\nAnother theory is that Joan is actually a comic character, and the huge alterations in her character are supposed to evoke laughter. Michael Taylor, for example, argues, \"a fiendish provenance\nProvenance, from the French provenir, \"to come from\", refers to the chronology of the ownership or location of an historical object. The term was originally mostly used for works of art, but is now used in similar senses in a wide range of fields, including science and computing...\n\n replaces a divine one in [Act 5, Scene 5], a scene that reduces Joan to a comic, bathetic dependency on shifty representatives of the underworld.\" In line with this thinking, it is worth pointing out that in the 1981 BBC Television Shakespeare\nBBC Television Shakespeare\nThe BBC Television Shakespeare was a set of television adaptations of the plays of William Shakespeare, produced by the BBC between 1978 and 1985.-Origins:...\n\n adaptation, Joan, and the French in general, are treated predominately as comic figures. Joan, Alençon (Michael Byrne\nMichael Byrne (actor)\nMichael Byrne is an English actor noted for his roles on film and television. He has often been cast in Nazi military roles such as Colonel Vogel in Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade and Obergruppenführer Odilo Globocnik in the BBC radio dramatisation of the novel Fatherland by Robert Harris...\n\n), the Bastard (Brian Protheroe\nBrian Protheroe\nBrian Protheroe , of a Welsh father and English mother, is a musician and actor.-Career:Protheroe joined a local church choir when he was twelve years old, and started piano lessons at about the same time. The music of Cliff Richard and The Shadows inspired him to start learning the guitar...\n\n), Reignier (David Daker\nDavid Daker\nDavid Daker is an English actor.His is best known for his role as Harry Crawford in the hit series Boon. He also played PC Owen Culshaw in Z-Cars, Jarvis in Porridge, Captain Nathan Spiker in Dick Turpin....\n\n) and Charles (Ian Saynor) are treated as buffoons for the most part, and there is no indication of any malevolence (significantly, when Joan’s fiends abandon her, we never see them, we simply see her talking to empty air). Examples of the comic treatment of the characters are found during the battle of Orléans, where Joan is ludicrously depicted as defending the city from the entire English army single-handed, whilst Talbot stands by amazed watching his soldiers flee one after another. Another example is found in Act 2, Scene 1, as the five of them blame one another for the breach in the watch at Orléans which has allowed the English to get back into the city. Their role as comic figures is also shown in Act 2, Scene 1. After Joan has entered Rouen and the others stand outside waiting for her signal, Charles is shown sneaking through a field holding a helmet with a large plume\nPlumage refers both to the layer of feathers that cover a bird and the pattern, colour, and arrangement of those feathers. The pattern and colours of plumage vary between species and subspecies and can also vary between different age classes, sexes, and season. Within species there can also be a...\n\n up in front of his face in an effort to hide.\n\nThe notion of demonic agency and saintly power, however, is not confined to Joan. The French make similar claims about the English as the English make about her. During the battle when Talbot is captured for example, according to the messenger, \"The French exclaimed the devil was in arms\" (1.1.125). Later, as the English attack Orléans,\n\n\nI think this Talbot be a fiend of hell.\n\n\nIf not of hell, the heavens sure favour him.\n\n\n\nAfter the original 1592 performances, the complete text of 1 Henry VI seems to have been rarely acted. The first definite performance after Shakespeare's day was on 13 March 1738 at Covent Garden\nRoyal Opera House\n\n, in what seems to have been a stand-alone performance, as there is no record of a performance of either 2 Henry VI or 3 Henry VI. The next certain performance in England didn't occur until 1906, when F.R. Benson presented the play at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre\nRoyal Shakespeare Theatre\n\n in a production of Shakespeare's two tetralogies, performed over eight nights. As far as can be ascertained, this was not only the first performance of the octology, but was also the first performance of both the tetralogy and the trilogy. Benson himself played Henry and his wife, Constance Benson\nConstance Benson\nConstance Benson was a British stage and film actress.Born Gertrude Constance Samwell in London, England, Benson was the wife of Australian actor Frank Benson. She worked in theater for most of her career, but did appear in lead roles in four silent films, all of which were early film adaptations...\n\n, played Margaret.\n\nIn 1953, Douglas Seale\nDouglas Seale\nDouglas Seale was a British stage and film actor.He provided the voice of Krebbs in The Rescuers Down Under . Two years later, Seale voiced the Sultan in Aladdin. He also appeared in several movies including Amadeus and Ernest Saves Christmas...\n\n directed a production of 1 Henry VI at the Birmingham Repertory Theatre\nBirmingham Repertory Theatre\nBirmingham Repertory Theatre is a theatre and theatre company based on Centenary Square in Birmingham, England...\n\nPaul Daneman\nPaul Daneman was an English film, television, theatre and voice actor.Paul Frederick Daneman was born in Islington, London. He attended the Haberdashers' Aske's School and Sir William Borlase's Grammar School in Marlow and studied stage design at Reading University where he joined the dramatic...\n\nDerek Godfrey\nDerek Godfrey was a British actor who appeared in several films and BBC television dramatizations during the 1960s and 1970s....\n\n as Talbot and Judi Dench\nJudi Dench\nDame Judith Olivia \"Judi\" Dench, CH, DBE, FRSA is an English film, stage and television actress.Dench made her professional debut in 1957 with the Old Vic Company. Over the following few years she played in several of William Shakespeare's plays in such roles as Ophelia in Hamlet, Juliet in Romeo...\n\n as Joan.\n\nTerry Hands\nTerence David Hands is an English theatre director. He ran the Royal Shakespeare Company for 20 years during one of its most successful periods.-Early years:...\n\n presented all three Henry VI plays with Alan Howard\nAlan Howard\nAlan MacKenzie Howard, CBE, is an English actor known for his roles on stage, television and film.He was a member of the Royal Shakespeare Company from 1966 to 1983, and played leading roles at the Royal National Theatre between 1992 and 2000.-Personal life:Howard is the only son of the actor...\n\n as Henry and Helen Mirren\nHelen Mirren\nDame Helen Mirren, DBE is an English actor. She has won an Academy Award for Best Actress, four SAG Awards, four BAFTAs, three Golden Globes, four Emmy Awards, and two Cannes Film Festival Best Actress Awards.-Early life and family:...\n\n as Margaret. Although the production was only moderately successful at the box office, it was critically lauded at the time for Alan Howard's unique portrayal of Henry. Howard adopted historical details concerning the real Henry's madness\n\n into his performance, presenting the character as constantly on the brink of a mental and emotional breakdown. Possibly as a reaction to a recent adaptation of the trilogy under the general title Wars of the Roses, which was strongly political, Hands attempted to ensure his own production was entirely apolitical; \"Wars of the Roses was a study in power politics: its central image was the conference table, and Warwick, the scheming king-maker, was the central figure. But that's not Shakespeare. Shakespeare goes far beyond politics. Politics is a very shallow science.\" Aside from Howard and Mirren, the production starred David Swift as Talbot and Charlotte Cornwell\nCharlotte Cornwell\n-Life and career:Cornwell was born in Marylebone, London, England, the daughter of Ronald Cornwell. She is the half-sister of spy novelist John le Carré . She describes him as \"the best brother a girl could have\"...\n\n as Joan.\n\nSwan Theatre (Stratford)\n\n in Stratford in 2000, with David Oyelowo\nDavid Oyelowo\n- Background :Oyelowo was born in Oxford, England of Nigerian descent. He is married to actress Jessica Oyelowo and they have three sons.Oyelowo first attended a youth theatre after being invited by a girl to whom he was attracted. He then studied Theatre Studies for A level and his teacher...\n\nThis England: The Histories\nThis England: The Histories was a season of Shakespeare's history plays staged by the Royal Shakespeare Company in 2000-2001. The company staged both of Shakespeare's tetralogies of history plays so that audiences could see all eight plays over several days...\n\n (the first time the Royal Shakespeare Company\nRoyal Shakespeare Company\nThe Royal Shakespeare Company is a major British theatre company, based in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England. The company employs 700 staff and produces around 20 productions a year from its home in Stratford-upon-Avon and plays regularly in London, Newcastle-upon-Tyne and on tour across...\n\nComplete Works (RSC festival)\nThe Complete Works is a festival set up by the Royal Shakespeare Company, running between April 2006 and March 2007 at Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England. The festival aims to perform all of Shakespeare's works, including his sonnets, poems and all 37 plays...\n\n festival at the Courtyard Theatre\nCourtyard Theatre\nThe Courtyard Theatre is a temporary 1,048 seat thrust stage theatre building in Stratford-upon-Avon, England. Designed by Ian Ritchie Architects and built in 11 months, it opened in August 2006 to host performances by the Royal Shakespeare Company while its Royal Shakespeare and Swan Theatres...\n\nChuk Iwuji\nChukwudi Iwuji , usually shortened to Chuk Iwuji or Chuck Iwuji, is a Nigerian-born actor, active in the United Kingdom.-Life:...\n\nEnsemble cast\nAn ensemble cast is made up of cast members in which the principal actors and performers are assigned roughly equal amounts of importance and screen time in a dramatic production. This kind of casting became more popular in television series because it allows flexibility for writers to focus on...\n\n\nDaily Express\n\n, in his review of the original 2000 production, \"blood from a severed arm sprayed over my lap. A human liver slopped to the floor by my feet. An eyeball scudded past, then a tongue.\"\n\nPasadena Playhouse\nThe Pasadena Playhouse is a historic performing arts venue located 39 S El Molino Avenue in Pasadena, California. The 686-seat auditorium produces a variety of cultural and artistic events, professional shows, and community engagements each year.-History:...\n\nHenry VIII (play)\nThe Famous History of the Life of King Henry the Eight is a history play by William Shakespeare and John Fletcher, based on the life of Henry VIII of England. An alternative title, All is True, is recorded in contemporary documents, the title Henry VIII not appearing until the play's publication...\n\n\nFranz von Dingelstedt\nFranz von Dingelstedt was a German poet, dramatist and theatre administrator.-Biography:Dingestedt was born at Halsdorf, Hesse-Kassel , Germany, and later studied at the University of Marburg nearby. In 1836 he became a master at the Lyceum in Kassel, from where he was transferred to Fulda in 1838...\n\nThe Burgtheater , originally known as K.K. Theater an der Burg, then until 1918 as the K.K. Hofburgtheater, is the Austrian National Theatre in Vienna and one of the most important German language theatres in the world.The Burgtheater was created in 1741 and has become known as \"die Burg\" by the...\n\nBavarian State Opera\nThe Bavarian State Opera is an opera company based in Munich, Germany.Its orchestra is the Bavarian State Orchestra.- History:The opera company which was founded under Princess Henriette Adelaide of Savoy has been in existence since 1653...\n\nBochum is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, western Germany. It is located in the Ruhr area and is surrounded by the cities of Essen, Gelsenkirchen, Herne, Castrop-Rauxel, Dortmund, Witten and Hattingen.-History:...\n\n. The next major German production was Peter Palitzsch's presentation of the tetralogy as Der krieg der rosen in 1967 at the Stuttgart State Theatre\nStaatstheater Stuttgart\nThe Staatstheater Stuttgart ' is an opera house in Stuttgart, Germany. It is also known locally as the Grosses Haus, having been the larger of two theatres of the former Königliche Hoftheater....\n\nCarcassonne is a fortified French town in the Aude department, of which it is the prefecture, in the former province of Languedoc.It is divided into the fortified Cité de Carcassonne and the more expansive lower city, the ville basse. Carcassone was founded by the Visigoths in the fifth century,...\n\n in 1978 and in Créteil\n-Health:As of 1 January 2006, 27 pharmacies, about 60 dentists, about 60 general practitioners, 10 pediatricians, and a half-dozen ophthalmologists and dermatologists constitute the general medical staff of the city.Health facilities include:...\n\n in 1979.\n\nKatie Mitchell\nKatrina Jane Mitchell OBE is an English theatre director. She is an Associate of the Royal National Theatre.-Life and career:Mitchell was raised in Hermitage, Berkshire and educated at Oakham School. Upon leaving Oakham she went up to Magdalen College, Oxford to read English...\n\n in 1994).\n\n\nEdmund Kean\nEdmund Kean was an English actor, regarded in his time as the greatest ever.-Early life:Kean was born in London. His father was probably Edmund Kean, an architect’s clerk, and his mother was an actress, Anne Carey, daughter of the 18th century composer and playwright Henry Carey...\n\n appeared in J.H. Merivale\nJohn Herman Merivale\nJohn Herman Merivale was an English barrister and man of letters.-Life:He was the only son of John Merivale of Barton Place, Exeter, and Bedford Square, London, by Ann Katencamp or Katenkamp, daughter of a German merchant settled in Exeter, and was born in that city on 5 August 1779...\n\n's Richard Duke of York; or the Contention of York and Lancaster at Drury Lane\nTheatre Royal, Drury Lane\nThe Theatre Royal, Drury Lane is a West End theatre in Covent Garden, in the City of Westminster, a borough of London. The building faces Catherine Street and backs onto Drury Lane. The building standing today is the most recent in a line of four theatres at the same location dating back to 1663,...\n\n\nFollowing Merivale's example, Robert Atkins\nRobert Atkins (actor)\nSir Robert Atkins, CBE was an English actor, producer and director.Born in Dulwich, London, England, Atkins was most famous for his participation in the theatre. An early graduate of the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art, he also appeared many times on film and in television, though not with the...\n\nBarbara Jefford\nBarbara Jefford, OBE is a British Shakespearean actress best known for her theatrical performances with the Royal Shakespeare Company, the Old Vic and the National Theatre, and her role as Molly Bloom in the 1967 film of James Joyce's Ulysses.-Early life:Jefford was born Mary Barbara Jefford in...\n\n\nThe production which is usually credited with establishing the reputation of the play in the modern theatre is John Barton\nJohn Barton (director)\nJohn Bernard Adie Barton CBE is a theatrical director. He is the son of Sir Harold Montagu and Lady Joyce Barton. He married Anne Righter, a university lecturer, in 1968....\n\nDavid Warner (actor)\nDavid Warner is an English actor who is known for playing both romantic leads and sinister or villainous characters, both in film and animation...\n\n as Henry, Peggy Ashcroft\nPeggy Ashcroft\nDame Peggy Ashcroft, DBE was an English actress.-Early years:Born as Edith Margaret Emily Ashcroft in Croydon, Ashcroft attended the Woodford School, Croydon and the Central School of Speech and Drama...\n\n as Margaret, Derek Smith (later replaced by Clive Swift\nClive Swift\nClive Walter Swift is an English character comedy actor and songwriter. He is best known for his role as character Richard Bucket in the British television series Keeping Up Appearances. He is less known for his role as character Roy in the British television series The Old Guys...\n\n) as Talbot and Janet Suzman\nJanet Suzman\nDame Janet Suzman, DBE is a South African-born-British actress and director.-Early life:Janet Suzman was born in Johannesburg to a Jewish family, the daughter of Betty and Saul Suzman, a wealthy importer of tobacco....\n\nBerlin Wall\n\n in 1961, the Cuban Missile Crisis\nCuban Missile Crisis\nThe Cuban Missile Crisis was a confrontation among the Soviet Union, Cuba and the United States in October 1962, during the Cold War...\n\n in 1962 and the assassination of John F. Kennedy\nAssassination of John F. Kennedy\nJohn Fitzgerald Kennedy, the thirty-fifth President of the United States, was assassinated at 12:30 p.m. Central Standard Time on Friday, November 22, 1963, in Dealey Plaza, Dallas, Texas...\n\n in 1963. Hall allowed these events to reflect themselves in the production, arguing that \"we live among war, race riots, revolutions, assassinations, and the imminent threat of extinction. The theatre is, therefore, examining fundamentals in staging the Henry VI plays.\"\n\nAnother major adaptation was staged in 1987 by the English Shakespeare Company\nEnglish Shakespeare Company\nThe English Shakespeare Company was an English theatre company founded in 1986 by Michael Bogdanov and Michael Pennington to present and promote the works of William Shakespeare on both a national and an international level....\n\n, under the direction of Michael Bogdanov\nMichael Bogdanov\nMichael Bogdanov , is a British theatre director known for his work with new plays, modern reinterpretations of Shakespeare, musicals and work for Young People.-Early years:...\n\n. This touring production opened at the Old Vic, and subsequently toured for two years, performing at, amongst others, the Panasonic Globe Theatre\nPanasonic Globe Theatre\nThe Panasonic Globe Theatre in Tokyo, Japan, was designed by Isozaki Arata and opened in 1988 to showcase local and international productions of Shakespeare's plays...\n\nFestival dei Due Mondi\nThe Festival dei Due Mondi ' is an annual summer music and opera festival held each June to early July in Spoleto, Italy, since its founding by composer Gian Carlo Menotti in 1958...\n\n in Spoleto\nSpoleto is an ancient city in the Italian province of Perugia in east central Umbria on a foothill of the Apennines. It is S. of Trevi, N. of Terni, SE of Perugia; SE of Florence; and N of Rome.-History:...\n\n, Italy and at the Adelaide Festival of Arts\nAdelaide Festival of Arts\nThe Adelaide Festival of Arts is an arts festival held biennially in the South Australian capital of Adelaide. Although locally considered to be one of the world's greatest celebrations of the arts, that is internationally renowned and the pre-eminent cultural event in Australia, it is actually...\n\n in Australia. Following the structure established by Barton, Bogdanov combined a heavily edited 1 Henry VI and the first half of 2 Henry VI into one play (Henry VI), and the second half of 2 Henry VI and 3 Henry VI into another (Edward IV), and followed them with an edited Richard III. Also like Barton, Bogdanov concentrated on political issues, although he made them far more overt than had Barton. For example, played by June Watson, Margaret was closely modelled after the British Prime Minister\nPrime Minister of the United Kingdom\nThe Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the Head of Her Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom. The Prime Minister and Cabinet are collectively accountable for their policies and actions to the Sovereign, to Parliament, to their political party and...\n\n at the time, Margaret Thatcher\nMargaret Thatcher\nMargaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990...\n\n, even to the point of having similar clothes and hair. Similarly, Paul Brennan\nPaul Brennan\nThe Irish artist is a teacher at Willow Tree Primary School located in West LondonPaul Brennan is a traditional musician from County Down, Northern Ireland who has lived in London for a number of years.Brennan co-founded the Belfast School of Piping...\n\n's Henry was modelled after the King Edward, prior to his abdication\nAbdication occurs when a monarch, such as a king or emperor, renounces his office.-Terminology:The word abdication comes derives from the Latin abdicatio. meaning to disown or renounce...\n\n. Bogdanov also employed frequent anachronisms and contemporary visual registers, in an effort to show the relevance of the politics in the fifteenth century to the contemporary period. The production was noted for its pessimism as regards British politics, with some critics feeling the political resonances were too heavy handed. However, the series was a huge box office success. Alongside Watson and Brennan, the play starred Michael Fenner as Talbot and Mary Rutherford as Joan.\n\nBarbican Centre\n\n. Adapted by Charles Wood\nCharles Wood (playwright)\nCharles Wood is a playwright and scriptwriter for radio, television, and film. He lives in England....\n\n and directed by Adrian Noble\nAdrian Noble\nAdrian Keith Noble is a theatre director, and was also the artistic director and chief executive of the Royal Shakespeare Company from 1990 to 2003.-Education and career:...\n\nRalph Fiennes\nRalph Nathaniel Twisleton-Wykeham-Fiennes is an English actor and film director. He has appeared in such films as The English Patient, In Bruges, The Constant Gardener, Strange Days, The Duchess and Schindler's List....\n\n as Henry, Penny Downie\nPenny Downie\nPenny Downie is an Australian actress, noted for her appearances on British television.She began her career in Australia, initially in Brisbane at Twelfth Night Theatre and Brisbane Arts Theatre. She trained at the National Institute of Dramatic Art , Sydney...\n\n as Margaret, Mark Hadfield\nMark Hadfield\nMark Hadfield is an English actor.Before starting his professional career, Hadfield trained at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art .-Theatre:...\n\n as Talbot and Julia Ford\nJulia Ford\nJulia Ford is a British actress who has appeared in a variety of theatre, film, radio and television productions, including Waking the Dead, Silent Witness, Midsomer Murders and All About George, The Street, Red Riding, Coming Down The Mountain, In A Land of Plenty, Insiders, Island at War...\n\n\n\nIn 2000, Edward Hall\nEdward Hall (director)\nEdward Hall is an English theatre director and an associate director at The National Theatre. Hall is known for directing Rose Rage, a stage adaptation of Shakespeare's three Henry VI plays. He also runs an all-male Shakespeare company, Propeller...\n\nWatermill Theatre\nThe Watermill Theatre is an award -winning, professional repertory theatre with charitable status. It is a converted watermill with gardens beside the River Lambourn, in Bagnor, near Newbury, Berkshire, England...\n\n in Newbury\nNewbury, Berkshire\n\n. Hall followed the Jackson/Seale adaptation, combining 1 Henry VI and 2 Henry VI into one play which all but eliminated 1 Henry VI and following this with an edited version of 3 Henry VI. This production was noted for how it handled the violence of the play. The set was designed to look like an abattoir\nA slaughterhouse or abattoir is a facility where animals are killed for consumption as food products.Approximately 45-50% of the animal can be turned into edible products...\n\n, but rather than attempt to present the violence realistically (as most productions do), Hall went in the other direction; presenting the violence symbolically. Whenever a character was decapitated or killed, a red cabbage was sliced up whilst the actor mimed the death beside it.\n\nColorado Shakespeare Festival\nThe Colorado Shakespeare Festival is a Shakespeare Festival each summer at the University of Colorado at Boulder in the outdoor Mary Rippon Theater and indoor University Theatre. The Mary Rippon Theater hosted an annual summer Shakespeare play starting in 1944. The Colorado Shakespeare Festival...\n\nAnother unusual 2001 adaptation of the tetralogy was entitled Shakespeare's Rugby Wars. Written by Matt Toner and Chris Coculuzzi, and directed by Coculuzzi, the play was acted by the Upstart Crow Theatre Group and staged outdoors at the Robert Street Playing Field as part of the Toronto Fringe Festival\nToronto Fringe Festival\nThe Toronto Fringe Festival is an annual theatre festival, featuring uncensored plays by unknown or well-known artists, taking place in the theatres of Toronto. Several productions originally mounted at the Fringe have later been remounted for larger audiences, including the Tony Award-winning...\n\n. Presented as if it were a live rugby match between York and Lancaster, the 'play' featured commentary from Falstaff\nSir John Falstaff is a fictional character who appears in three plays by William Shakespeare. In the two Henry IV plays, he is a companion to Prince Hal, the future King Henry V. A fat, vain, boastful, and cowardly knight, Falstaff leads the apparently wayward Prince Hal into trouble, and is...\n\n (Stephen Flett), which was broadcast live for the audience. The 'match' itself was refereed by 'Bill Shakespeare' (played by Coculuzzi), and the actors (whose characters names all appeared on their jerseys) had microphones attached and would recite dialogue from all four plays at key moments.\n\nSeana McKenna\nSeana McKenna is a Canadian actress primarily associated with stage roles at the Stratford Shakespeare Festival.-Background:Seana Mckenna was raised in Etobicoke, west of Toronto, Ontario...\n\n played Margaret, Brad Ruby played Talbot and Michelle Giroux\nMichelle Giroux\nMichelle Giroux is a Canadian stage actress whose credits include numerous productions at the Stratford Shakespeare Festival over nine seasons....\n\n played Joan.\n\nRobert Hands\nRobert Hands is a British actor based in London. He trained at the prestigious Bristol Old Vic theatre school. His career has spanned over twenty years during which time he has played leading roles in film, television, and both classical and musical theatre in London’s West End...\n\nChicago Shakespeare Theater\nChicago Shakespeare Theater is a non-profit, professional theater company located at Navy Pier in Chicago, Illinois. Its more than six hundred annual performances performed 48 weeks of the year include its critically acclaimed Shakespeare series, its World's Stage touring productions, and youth...\n\n\nGiorgio Strehler\nGiorgio Strehler was an Italian opera and theatre director.-Biography:Strehler was born in Barcola, Trieste to an Austrian father and a Franco-Slovene mother; he grew up speaking Italian but spoke French well and his German was passable. He became suddenly fatherless at the age of three, his...\n\n it went under the title Il gioco del potenti (The Play of the Mighty). Using Barton's structure, Strehler also added several characters, including a Chorus, who used monologues from Richard II, both parts of Henry IV, Henry V, Macbeth\nThe Tragedy of Macbeth is a play by William Shakespeare about a regicide and its aftermath. It is Shakespeare's shortest tragedy and is believed to have been written sometime between 1603 and 1607...\n\n and Timon of Athens\nTimon of Athens\nThe Life of Timon of Athens is a play by William Shakespeare about the fortunes of an Athenian named Timon , generally regarded as one of his most obscure and difficult works...\n\n, and two gravediggers called Bevis and Holland (after the names of two of Cade's rebels in the Folio text of 2 Henry VI), who commented (with dialogue written by Strehler himself) on each of the major characters as they set about burying them.\n\n\n\n produced a serial entitled An Age of Kings. The show comprised fifteen one-hour episodes which adapted all eight of Shakespeare's sequential history plays. Directed by Michael Hayes and produced by Peter Dews\nPeter Dews (director)\nPeter Dews was an English stage director.Born and educated in Wakefield, Yorkshire he then took an M.A. at University College, Oxford...\n\n, with a script by Eric Crozier\nEric Crozier\nEric Crozier was a British theatrical director and opera librettist, long associated with Benjamin Britten....\n\n, the production featured Terry Scully\nTerry Scully\nTerry Scully was a British theatre and television actor.After making his name in the theatre, from the 1960s onwards he became more known for TV work...\n\n as Henry, Mary Morris\nMary Morris\nMary Morris was a British actress.-Life and career:She was the daughter of Herbert Stanley Morris, the botanist, and his wife Sylvia Ena de Creft-Harford. She was educated at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art.She made her stage debut in Lysistrata at the Gate Theatre, London, in 1935...\n\n as Margaret and Eileen Atkins\nEileen Atkins\nDame Eileen June Atkins, DBE is an English actress and occasional screenwriter.- Early life :Atkins was born in the Mothers' Hospital in Clapton, a Salvation Army women's hostel in East London...\n\n as Joan. The character of Talbot was removed. The ninth episode, under the title 'The Red Rose and the White' presented an abridged version of 1 Henry VI.\n\nIn 1965, BBC 1\n\nBBC Television Shakespeare\n\n series, although the episode didn't air until 1983. Directed by Jane Howell, the play was presented as the first part of the tetralogy (all four adaptations directed by Howell) with linked casting; Henry was played by Peter Benson\nPeter Benson (actor)\nPeter Benson is a British actor probably best known as Bernie Scripps in the popular ITV1 TV-series Heartbeat, a drama about the police in Aidensfield in the 1960s. Benson has played Bernie Scripps in the series since 1995. In the TV-series 'Bernie' Scripps is running Aidensfield Garage, and the...\n\n, Margaret by Julia Foster\nJulia Foster\nJulia Foster is a British actress.Foster's credits include the films The Bargee with Harry H. Corbett, Alfie with Michael Caine, Half a Sixpence with Tommy Steele, and Percy with Hywel Bennett...\n\n, Talbot by Trevor Peacock\nTrevor Peacock\nTrevor Peacock is an English stage and television character actor. He was born in Tottenham, London, the son of Alexandria and Victor Edward Peacock.-Television and Film Career:...\n\n and Joan by Brenda Blethyn\nBrenda Blethyn\nBrenda Anne Blethyn, OBE is an English actress who has worked in theatre, television and film. Blethyn has received two Academy Award nominations, two SAG Award nominations, two Emmy Award nominations and three Golden Globe Award nominations, winning one...\n\n. All four plays were set in a children's playground area, which decayed and became more and more dilapidated as the plays went on and social order became more fractious.\n\nFor the most part, Howell's The First Part of Henry the Sixt is taken word-for-word from the First Folio, with only some relatively minor differences. For example, the adaptation opens differently to the play, with Henry VI singing a lament for his father. Another difference is that Fastolf's escape from Rouen is seen rather than merely mentioned. Also worth noting is that Act 5, Scene 1 and Act 5, Scene 2 are reversed so that Act 4, Scene 7 and Act 5, Scene 2 now form one continuous piece.\n\nAdditionally, numerous lines were cut from almost every scene. Some of the more notable omissions include; in Act 1, Scene 1, absent are Bedford's references to children crying and England becoming a marsh\n\n since Henry V died; \"Posterity await for wretched years/When, at their mothers' moistened eyes, babes shall suck,/Our isle be made a marish of salt tears,/And none but women left to wail the dead\" (ll.48–51). In Act 1, Scene 2, Alençon's praise of the resoluteness of the English army is absent; \"Froissart, a countryman of ours, records/England all Olivers and Rolands bred/During the time Edward the Third did reign./More truly now may this be verified,/For none by Samsons and Goliases/It sendeth forth to skirmish.\" (ll.29–34). In Act 1, Scene 3, some of the dialogue between Gloucester and Winchester outside the Tower is absent (ll.36–43), whilst in Act 1, Scene 5, so too is Talbot's complaint about the French wanting to ransom him for a prisoner of less worth; \"But with a baser man-of-arms by far,/Once in contempt they would have bartered me –/Which I, disdaining, scorned, and crav'd death/Rather than I would be so vile-esteemed\" (ll.8–11). In Act 1, Scene 7, some of Charles' praise of Joan is absent; \"A statelier pyramis\nA pyramid is a structure whose outer surfaces are triangular and converge at a single point. The base of a pyramid can be trilateral, quadrilateral, or any polygon shape, meaning that a pyramid has at least three triangular surfaces...\n\n to her I'll rear/Than Rhodope's\nQueen Rhodope\nIn Greek mythology, Queen Rhodope of Thrace was the wife of Haemus. Haemus was vain and haughty and compared himself and Rhodope to Zeus and Hera, who were offended and changed the couple into mountains . The story is mentioned by the Roman poet Ovid at Metamorphoses 6.87-89....\n\n of Memphis\nMemphis, Egypt\nMemphis was the ancient capital of Aneb-Hetch, the first nome of Lower Egypt. Its ruins are located near the town of Helwan, south of Cairo.According to legend related by Manetho, the city was founded by the pharaoh Menes around 3000 BC. Capital of Egypt during the Old Kingdom, it remained an...\n\n ever was./In memory of her, when she is dead,/Her ashes, in an urn more precious/Than the rich-jewelled coffer of Darius,/Transported shall be at high festivals/Before the kings and queens of France\" (ll.21–27). In Act 3, Scene 1, some of Warwick’s attack on Winchester is absent; \"You see what mischief – and what murder too –/Hath been enacted through your enmity\" (ll.27–28). In Act 4, Scene 6, some of the dialogue between Talbot and John has been removed (ll.6–25). The most interesting omissions come in Act 4, Scene 7. In this scene, twelve of Joan's sixteen lines have been cut; the entire seven line speech where she says John Talbot refused to fight her because she is a woman (ll.37–43); the first three lines of her five line mockery of Lucy's listing of Talbot's titles, \"Here's a silly, stately style indeed./The Turk, that two-and-fifty kingdoms hath,/Writes not so tedious a style as this\" (ll.72–75); and the first two lines of her four line speech where she mocks Lucy, \"I think this upstart is old Talbot's ghost,/He speaks with such a proud commanding spirit\" (ll.86–88). These omissions reduce Joan's role in this scene to a virtual spectator, and coupled with this, Brenda Blethyn portrays the character as if deeply troubled by something.\n\nAnother notable stylistic technique used in the adaptation is the multiple addresses direct-to-camera. Much more so than in any of the sequels, the adaptation of 1 Henry VI has multiple characters addressing the camera continually throughout the play, oftentimes for comic effect. The most noticeable scene in this respect is Act 2, Scene 3, where Talbot meets the Countess of Auvergne. Almost all of her dialogue prior to line 32 (\"If thou be he, then thou art prisoner\") is delivered direct to camera, including her incredulous description of the difference between the real Talbot, and the reports she has heard of him. At one point during this speech, Auvergne exclaims \"Alas, this is a child, a silly dwarf\" (l.21), at which point Talbot himself looks at the camera in disbelief. The comedy of the scene is enhanced by having the 5 foot 10 actor Trevor Peacock playing Talbot, and the 6 foot 3 actress Joanna McCallum\nJoanna McCallum\nJoanna McCallum is a British theatre, film and television actress. She is the daughter of British actress Googie Withers and Australian actor John McCallum...\n\n playing Auvergne. Elsewhere, addresses to the camera are found throughout the play. For example, as Bedford, Gloucester, Exeter and Winchester leave in Act 1, Scene 1, each one reveals their intentions direct-to-camera (ll.166–177). Other examples are Joan's confession of where she got her sword (1.2.100–101); the Mayor's last two lines at the Tower (1.3.89–90); Talbot's \"My thoughts are whirl'd like a potter's wheel./I know not where I am nor what I do./A witch, by fear, not force, like Hannibal,/Drives back our troops and conquers as she lists\" (1.6.19–22); some of Mortimer's monologue prior to the arrival of Richard (2.5.22–32); Richard's \"Plantagenet, I see, must hold his tongue,/Lest it be said, 'Speak, sirrah, when you should:/Must your bold verdict enter talk with lords?'/Else would I have a fling at Winchester\" (3.1.61–64); Exeter's soliloquy at the end of Act 3, Scene 1 (ll.190–203); Exeter's soliloquy at the end of Act 4, Scene 1 (ll.182–194); most of the dialogue between Suffolk and Margaret as they ignore one another (5.4.16–64); and Suffolk's soliloquy which closes the play (5.6.102–109) Also to-camera is Joan's \"Poor market folks that come to sell their corn\" (3.2.14), which is delivered as if it were a translation of the preceding line for the benefit of the non-French speaking audience.\n\nIn 1964, Austrian channel ORF2\nORF2 is an Austrian television channel owned by ORF.ORF2 was launched on 11 September 1961 as a technical test programme. Since 1970, ORF2 broadcasts on seven days a week. Today it is one of the three public TV channels in Austria.Where as ORF1 focuses on tv series and movies, ORF2 broadcasts...\n\n presented an adaptation of the trilogy by Leopold Lindtberg\nLeopold Lindtberg\nLeopold Lindtberg was an Austrian Swiss film and theatre director...\n\n under the title Heinrich VI. The cast list from this production has been lost. In 2003, German channel ZDF\nZweites Deutsches Fernsehen , ZDF, is a public-service German television broadcaster based in Mainz . It is run as an independent non-profit institution, which was founded by the German federal states . The ZDF is financed by television licence fees called GEZ and advertising revenues...\n\n presented a filmed version of the 1967 Peter Palitzsch presentation of the tetralogy in Stuttgart\n\n\n\nBBC Radio\nBBC Radio is a service of the British Broadcasting Corporation which has operated in the United Kingdom under the terms of a Royal Charter since 1927. For a history of BBC radio prior to 1927 see British Broadcasting Company...\n\n, performed by the Cardiff Station Repertory Company as the third episode of a series of programs showcasing Shakespeare's plays, entitled Shakespeare Night. In 1947, BBC Third Programme\nBBC Third Programme\n\n aired a one hundred and fifty minute adaptation of the trilogy as part of their Shakespeare's Historical Plays series, a six-part adaptation of the eight sequential history plays, with linked casting. Adapted by Maurice Roy Ridley\nRoy Ridley\nMaurice Roy Ridley was a writer and poet, Fellow and Chaplain of Balliol College, Oxford. He was a model for the fictional character Lord Peter Wimsey.-Life:...\n\nValentine Dyall\nValentine Dyall was an English character actor, the son of veteran actor Franklin Dyall. Dyall was especially popular as a voice actor, due to his very distinctive sepulchral voice, he was known for many years as \"The Man in Black\", narrator of the BBC Radio horror series Appointment With Fear.In...\n\n as Henry and Sonia Dresdel\nSonia Dresdel\nSonia Dresdel was an English actress, whose career ran between the 1940s and 1970s.She was born Lois Obee in Hornsea, East Riding of Yorkshire, England and was educated at Aberdeen High School for Girls....\n\n as Margaret. In 1971, BBC Radio 3\nBBC Radio 3\n\nNigel Lambert\nNigel Lambert is best known for his role as the narrator of the first series of the BBC comedy series Look Around You.He is the voice of Mr Curry in The Adventures of Paddington Bear television series and also \"Papa\" in the Dolmio pasta sauce puppet commercials.He also contributed extensively to...\n\n played Henry, Barbara Jefford played Margaret, Francis de Wolff\nFrancis de Wolff\nFrancis de Wolff was an English character actor. Large, bearded, and beetle-browed, he was often cast as villains in both film and television....\n\n played Talbot and Elizabeth Morgan\nElizabeth Morgan (actor)\nElizabeth Morgan is a British actress, primarily in supporting roles, in films, television, and onstage. She was often credited as \"Liz Morgan\".-External links:...\n\n played Joan. In 1977, BBC Radio 4\nBBC Radio 4\nBBC Radio 4 is a British domestic radio station, operated and owned by the BBC, that broadcasts a wide variety of spoken-word programmes, including news, drama, comedy, science and history. It replaced the BBC Home Service in 1967. The station controller is currently Gwyneth Williams, and the...\n\nMartin Jenkins\nMartin J. Jenkins is a justice of the California Court of Appeal for the First District, located in San Francisco, and a former federal judge in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California.-Early life:...\n\n as part of the celebration of the Silver Jubilee\nSilver Jubilee\nA Silver Jubilee is a celebration held to mark a 25th anniversary. The anniversary celebrations can be of a wedding anniversary, ruling anniversary or anything that has completed a 25 year mark...\n\n of Elizabeth II, 1 Henry VI comprised episodes 15 (\"Joan of Arc\") and 16 (\"The White Rose and the Red\"). James Laurenson\nJames Laurenson\nJames Laurenson is a New Zealand actor, who has performed many classical roles on stage and television.Laurenson was born in Marton, New Zealand...\n\nHannah Gordon\nHannah Cambell Grant Gordon is a Scottish actress who is well known in the United Kingdom for her television work, including Upstairs, Downstairs, Telford's Change, My Wife Next Door, Joint Account and an appearance in the final episode of One Foot in the Grave.-Early life:Gordon was born in...\n\n played Joan, and Richard Burton\nRichard Burton\n\n\nBlue Network\nThe Blue Network, and its immediate predecessor, the NBC Blue Network, were the on-air names of an American radio production and distribution service from 1927 to 1945...\n\nHenry Herbert (actor)\nHenry Herbert was an English stage actor and producer, who became well known in the United States.He appears to have commenced his early career with Ben Greet's Company, and with Sir Frank Benson; for some years he managed Benson's No.2 Company on tour, as well as playing leading parts...\n\nCBC Radio\nCBC Radio generally refers to the English-language radio operations of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. The CBC operates a number of radio networks serving different audiences and programming niches, all of which are outlined below.-English:CBC Radio operates three English language...\n\n\nIn 1985, German radio channel Sender Freies Berlin\nSender Freies Berlin\nSender Freies Berlin was the ARD public radio and television service for West Berlin from 1 June 1954 until 1990 and for Berlin as a whole from German reunification until 30 April 2003...\n\n broadcast a heavily edited seventy-six minute two-part adaptation of the octology adapted by Rolf Schneider, under the title Shakespeare's Rosenkriege.\n\nExternal links", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7597013711929321}
{"content": "Travel PowersHome\n\n\nThe hero flies by means of a rocket-like exhaust that propels him at Power rank speed. The rocket blast is created by a thermo-chemical reaction generated by the hero's body. The Power converts whatever material is around him into fuel and oxidant, then it shapes the exhaust into a stream to propel him. If the hero is in a vacuum, the Power creates fuel out of virtual nothingness.\n\nThe Power is treated like Strength to determine the maximum thrust the Power can achieve. If the thrust is high enough, the hero can carry or push additional loads. For example, Cannonball's Rm(30) thrust can lift up to 1 ton.\n\nThe Nemesis is Gravity Manipulation.\n\nRange: See Above.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9962462186813354}
{"content": "Science Directorate Programs\n\nThe mission of the APA Science Directorate is to communicate, facilitate, promote and represent psychological science and scientists. These goals are achieved through programs that promote psychological science in academic and scientific arenas, address ongoing issues and opportunities, communicate activities, issues and opportunities to members and to the public, and advocate on behalf of scientific psychology.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 1.0000091791152954}
{"content": "Archive - Visualization RSS Feed\n\nLate Majority: How Smartphones Matured the Mobile Market\n\n\n\n\n\nHitchhiker’s Guide: Mapping the Consumer Media Universe\n\nMapping the Media Universe as a solar system of devices\n\n(click to enlarge the Media Universe infographic)\n\nThe media universe is constantly expanding, so as consumers adopt more devices and gadgets their usage of how they watch, shop, and connect continues to evolve; today the media universe revolves around the consumer.  As the media landscape changes, PRs, Advertisers, and Marketers must navigate this new media universe, understanding not just all the gadgets consumers own, but also how they use media across devices to form their own behaviors.\n\nWorking with Nielsen’s data to provide insights into cross-platform media usage, I helped design the 2012 Consumer Usage Report from concept through completion, including the above inforgraphic meant to help navigate the media universe just in time for CES in January 2013.  Using the common marketing metaphor of the “universe”, meaning all people in the target audience, this visualization provides a snapshot overview of the US media market.  Visualizing the media universe as a solar system of planets (devices) which revolve around the sun (consumers), this infographic maps consumer ownership of digital devices (computers, mobile, tablets, etc) and devices connected to the TV (cable/satellite, game consoles, etc).  Pulling these devices together is gravity, illustrated by how are consumers spending their media time, and some may be surprised that the overwhelming majority of time spent (150+ hours per month) is watching traditional and time-shifted TV.\n\nAt the same time consumers’ media habits are rapidly changing, and the media universe continues to expand to incorporare new devices akin to a technological big bang.  During 2012 smartphones became the majority of mobile users in the US for the first time, and nearly 1 in 5 households now owns a tablet computer.  Social media usage continues to grow, and while many more consumers are using it on the go most still connect to social networks using their home computers.  And for cord-cutters like me who get much of their viewing through online stream sites, it may be surprising to learn only 4% of households own IPTV sets, but with 56% of homes using video game consoles it seems likely at least a few are watching video on Netflix and Hulu on their TVs as well.\n\nTo learn more about the how consumers use tech and media in their daily lives, please download the full report from Nielsen’s website.  And to see more examples of infographics and data visualizations I’ve worked on, check out my portfolio on this site.\n\nUsing Timelines for Visual Storytelling\n\nBooks lined up on the library shelves\n\nAs a communications professional I see my work not just as copywriting, but ideally to tell stories through my writing. My storytelling can take many forms through the written word, including blog posts or social media, and even tactical media like press releases or fact sheets. But of course writing isn’t the only way to tell story, and as a visual storyteller I’ve created a number of infographics\nand visualizations that intergrate data with images and text to help make complex stories more accessible. Not to mention my work as a film student writing and editing short stories in video.\n\nAnother kind of visualization that is helpful for telling narrative stories is a timeline, which spacially represents key events over time. In a timeline events can be as significant as a milestone/landmark developments which culminate from continuous iterative progress which is illustrated over time, or as simple as a tweet/status update that shows a conflict’s initiation/resolution. And like all narrative storytelling there are key elements like context/setting and esclating conflict which should be resolved by the end.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8825982213020325}
{"content": "Black History Month\n\nThe time is always right to do what is right.\n-Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., activist\n\n-Rosa Parks, activist and \"the mother of the freedom movement\"\n\nHave a vision. Be demanding.\n-Colin Powell, the first African American appointed as the U.S. Secretary of State\n\n-Coretta Scott King, activist\n\nNever be limited by other people's limited imaginations.\n-Dr. Mae Jemison, first African American female astronaut\n\n-Jesse Owens, U.S. track and field athlete\n\nThe cost of liberty is less than the price of repression.\n-W.E.B. Du Bois, author and activist\n\n-Thurgood Marshall, first African American on the U.S. Supreme Court\n\n-Susan L. Taylor, journalist\n\n-Wilma Rudolph, U.S. track and field athlete\n\n-Dr. Bill Cosby, comedian and actor\n\n-Booker T. Washington, author and politician\n\n-Dr. Maya Angelou, author and poet\n\nGod gives nothing to those who keep their arms crossed.\n-African Proverb\n\nEach time a man stands up for an ideal, or acts to improve the lot of others, or strikes out against injustice, he sends forth a tiny ripple of hope... and crossing each other from a million different centers of energy and daring those ripples build a current that can sweep down the mightiest walls of oppression and resistance.\n-Robert F. Kennedy, politician\n\n-Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., activist\n\n-Carter Woodson, 1926, historian\n\nJust don?t give up what you?re trying to do. Where there is Love and inspiration, I don?t think you can go wrong.\n-Ella Fitzgerald, jazz vocalist\n\nI refuse to accept the view that mankind is so tragically bound to the starless midnight of racism and war that the bright daybreak of peace and brotherhood can never become a reality.... I believe that unarmed truth and unconditional love will have the final word.\n-Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., activist\n\n-Carol Moseley-Braun, politician and lawyer\n\n-Mary McLeod Bethune, educator\n\nLaundry is the only thing that should be separated by color.\n-Author Unknown\n\n-Booker T. Washington, author and politician\n\n-William Lloyd Garrison, abolitionist\n\n-Franklin Thomas\n\nWhen I dare to be powerful ? to use my strength in the service of my vision, then it becomes less and less important whether I am afraid.\n-Audre Lorde, poet and activist\n\n-Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., activist\n\n-Jesse Jackson, speech at Democratic National Convention, San Francisco, 17 July 1984\n\n-Oprah Winfrey, media proprietor\n\nA good head and a good heart are always a formidable combination. ? Nelson Mandela\n\nSurround yourself with people who take their work seriously, but not themselves, those who work hard and play hard. ? Colin Powell\n\nOne of the hardest things in life is having words in your heart that you can't utter. ? James Earl Jones\n\nHe who is not courageous enough to take risks will accomplish nothing in life. ? Muhammad Ali\n\n\nWe may encounter many defeats but we must not be defeated. ? Maya Angelou\n\nOne important key to success is self-confidence. An important key to self-confidence is preparation. ? Arthur Ashe\n\nGreatness can be captured in one word: lifestyle. Life is God's gift to you, style is what you make of it. ? Mae Jemison, 1st African American Woman Astronaut\n\nReal integrity is doing the right thing, knowing that nobody's going to know whether you did it or not. ? Oprah Winfrey\n\nHuman salvation lies in the hands of the creatively maladjusted. ? Martin Luther King Jr.\n\nNon-cooperation is a measure of discipline and sacrifice, and it demands respect for the opposite views. ? Mohandas Gandhi\n\nIn nature, nothing is perfect and everything is perfect. ? Alice Walker\n\nThere are two ways of exerting one's strength: one is pushing down, the other is pulling up. ? Booker T. Washington\n\nMy humanity is bound up in yours, for we can only be human together. ? Desmond Tutu\n\nSticks in a bundle are unbreakable. ? Kenyan Proverb\n\nNext to God we are indebted to women, first for life itself, and then for making it worth living. ? Mary McLeod Bethune\n\nIt is easy to be brave from a safe distance. ? Aesop\n\n\nWe are each other's harvest; we are each other's business; we are each other's magnitude and bond. ? Gwendolyn Brooks\n\nLove makes your soul crawl out from its hiding place. ? Zora Neale Hurston\n\nThe need for change bulldozed a road down the center of my mind. ? Maya Angelou\n\n\n\nThe price of hating other human beings is loving oneself less. ? Eldridge Cleaver\n\nWhere there is no vision, there is no hope. ? George Washington Carver\n\nHold fast to dreams, for if dreams die, life is a broken winged bird that cannot fly. ? Langston Hughes\n\nTruth is powerful and it prevails. ? Sojourner Truth\n\nSomebody once said we never know what is enough until we know what's more than enough. ? Billie Holiday\n\nEach person must live their life as a model for others. ? Rosa Parks\n\nAll I know is I've tried my best. ? Tiger Woods\n\nIf there is no struggle, there is no progress. ? Frederick Douglass\n\nYou really can change the world if you care enough. ? Marian Wright Edelman\n\nThere is nothing like returning to a place that remains unchanged to find the ways in which you yourself have altered. ? Nelson Mandela\n\n\n- Wilma Rudolph, \nfirst American woman to win three gold medals at a single Olympic Games\n\n\n\n- Maya Angelou, author and poet\n\n\n- Michael Jordan,\n Hall of Fame shooting guard\n\n\n\n- Venus Williams, Olympic gold medalist in tennis\n\n-  President Barack Obama\n\nFreedom is never given; it is won.\n-  A. Philip Randolph\n\n-  Ernest J. Gaines\n\n-  Michael Jordan\n\nWhen I found I had crossed that line, [on her first escape from slavery, 1845] I looked at my hands to see if I was the same person. There was such a glory over everything.\n-  Harriet Tubman", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9327741265296936}
{"content": "Worldwide Locations\n\nWorldwide Locations\n\nMicrofinance in China: Micro vs. Mandarin\n\nTo be successful, microfinance programs in China had to work within existing networks. (Deb Agrin)\n\n\nThe most famous microfinance institution, the Grameen Bank, grew strong in the unregulated markets of Bangladesh. Nimble and flexible, the model built by the Grameen Bank proved to be an effective agent against poverty. It cut its teeth around the world, flourishing in Egypt, Bolivia, Uganda, Pakistan, and East Timor. But China was a different matter entirely. Would microfinance achieve new heights, or perish in the seemingly inhospitable market climate of China?\n\nThe world’s most populous nation, China is home to 200 million people living in poverty. This is 17% of all the world’s poor. If people hope to solve global poverty, China cannot be ignored. However, the existing social organization in China posed steep challenges. Tight government regulations threatened to bog down microfinance’s trademark strategies. Moreover, microfinance was born entirely from a principle of capitalism: namely that wealth is grown, not distributed. This is at odds with China’s purported socialism. While China had some effective means of combating poverty, many of these strategies were not helping the poorest of the poor. How, then, did microfinance find its way through uncharted territory?\n\nIn a word, microfinance adapted. For instance, the proven practice of forming groups of five clients, a hallmark of the Grameen Bank’s strategy, was difficult in both rural and urban areas of China. In many cases, both rural and urban areas were already organized into hierarchical units under the central government. People were not used to working outside of these groups. Therefore, microfinance institutions had to create groups that more closely resembled existing organizations. In some villages for instance, there were compulsory weekly meetings for almost the entire populations. These replaced smaller leadership meetings that were seen as central to microfinance’s success elsewhere. Microfinance institutions also bent the rules and allowed relatives to be members of the same group. They also relaxed their policy of having all-male or all-female group members.\n\nPerhaps the greatest obstacle facing microfinance in China was and remains strict governmental regulations. China prohibits non-financial institutions from offering financial services to the public.To solve this problem, governments and microfinance donors are granted temporary legal exemption for their projects. There was a price, however: these organizations are not allowed to operate as independent institutions. They receive funding from the Chinese government and must accept the strings that are attached. For instance, if the government wants to target some people with loans and not others, the institutions must comply.\n\nDespite these obstacles, microfinance began to reach the people who needed help the most. The inconvenience of weekly meetings as well interest rates that exceed those of government loans dissuaded people who are better off from participating. Microfinance institutions could focus on their mission of improving the lives of the people who were the most poor.\n\nWith China creating a market-based economy since the 1980’s, its socialist economy, and the important safety nets that accompanied it, are disintegrating. Even as the economy has grown and many Chinese citizens have become wealthy, those in rural areas are left further behind. The government fears uprisings that threaten their power if the numbers of poor grow too large, or if their situation becomes too desperate.\n\nImpressed by microfinance’s success in alleviating poverty, the Chinese government began its own forays around the year 2000. The People’s Bank of China established Rural Credit Cooperatives (RCC), which today are the primary source of microfinance in China. Since these cooperatives were founded by the government, they are subject to its regulations. In 2005, the People’s Bank of China continued to expand its microfinance efforts. It initiated a pilot program in six provinces to establish microfinance companies run directly by the People’s Bank of China.\n\nWhile microfinance has left a successful footprint on China, microfinance practices worldwide may benefit from what was learned. For instance, while unregulated markets in Bangladesh gave microfinance room to grow, many groups are hoping that now rules and oversight can protect borrowers from practices such as high interest rates and inconsistent procedures. As microfinance in China has proven, the model is adaptable and can succeed in many climates.\n\nAuthors: Heather Clydesdale and Kajal Shah", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5297032594680786}
{"content": "Steven Newcomb\nIn Rudy Ryser’s recent article, “Governing and Demagogues,” (ICTMN, 11/10/14), Glenn Morris (Shawnee) and I are the ones being termed “demagogues.” Ryser, Executive Director for the Center for World Indigenous Studies, used that pejorative to...\nByron L. Dorgan and Joanne Shenandoah, Ph.D.\nJohn H. Horst\nOn the heels of an electoral drubbing, the President and Republican leaders of the new Congress remain at odds over immigration. The Republican meme of ‘securing the border’ is beginning to skip like a scratched record. But the President’s ‘phone...\nJulianne Jennings\nThe pursuit of family history (genealogy) and origins tends to be shaped by several motivations, including the desire to carve out a place for one's family in the larger historical picture, a sense of responsibility to preserve the past for future...\nMike Taylor\nI live and sleep in the mountains. Been living this way for a year now, so I guess that technically makes me homeless. I know an Indian who was similarly homeless, but she got a PhD and now does research at MIT. So there's always hope for Indians in...\nGarfield Steele\nThe greatest resource of a tribal nation is their people. Every elected tribal council has a responsibility to the membership that they serve but more importantly they have a sacred obligation to protect the welfare of their future generations. Over...\nPeter d'Errico\nA new historical and cultural novel by Larry Spotted Crow Mann (Nipmuc), The Mourning Road to Thanksgiving, challenges the stereotypical American holiday tradition. The story centers on the experiences of a 40-year-old Nipmuc man coming to terms...\nAndre Cramblit\nThe basis of the religion of the local people relies on individual effort through ritual cleanliness and ceremonies that include the entire tribe. The Tribes of this region practice the annual World Renewal Ceremonies, such as the Karuk Pikyavish,...\nJessica Carro\nIf you are an American, born and raised, reading this article, than you were most likely told the same Thanksgiving fairytale story growing up. We all went through a similar rude awakening later in life when we were retaught that the Natives of this...\nRudolph C. Ryser\nReading the Glenn Morris comment in “Invader-States Hijacked UN World Conference on Indigenous Peoples” and Steven Newcomb’s “A Response to Glenn Morris’s Column” alongside Vice President Will Micklen’s “World Conference Takes Concrete Action to...\nKevin Leecy\nIn Germany, students in grades K-12 receive mandatory instruction about the Holocaust. In South Africa, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission bore witness to the injustices of Apartheid. These countries took such public steps because they...\nMy alcohol and drug counselor asked me one simple question upon our first meeting. The answer would be the turning point in my life. I had become addicted to alcohol. I had just hit rock bottom. I was unsure, scared and lost. All I wanted was a...\nDina Gilio-Whitaker\nI never cease to be amazed at the intellectual brilliance that comes out of Indian country. Much of it graces the pages of this site; some of these people can be thought of Indian country’s top pundits. And just as you see in the mainstream media,...\nSami Jo Difuntorum\nThe cornerstone of healthy communities throughout the world is access to safe, culturally relevant and quality affordable housing. Nowhere is that more apparent than in Indian Country, where Indian housing has had a long history of challenges, from...", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8426188230514526}
{"content": "While not recognized as a diagnosable illness in the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Psychiatric Disorders (a professional reference used to make diagnoses), codependence generally refers to the way past events from childhood “unknowingly affect some of our attitudes, behaviors and feelings in the present, often with destructive consequences,” according to the National Council on Codependence. Certain signs can help us identify a tendency toward codependence.\n\nSelf-worth comes from external sources\n\nCodependent people need external sources?things or other people?to give them feelings of self-worth. Often, following destructive parental relationships, an abusive past and/or self-destructive partners, codependents learn to react to others, worry about others and depend on others to help them feel useful or alive. They put other people’s needs, wants and experiences above their own.\n\nIn fact, codependence is a relationship with one’s self that is so painful a person no longer trusts his or her own experiences. It perpetuates a continual cycle of shame, blame and self-abuse. Codependent people might feel brutally abused by the mildest criticism or suicidal when a relationship ends. In his 1999 book, Codependence: The Dance of Wounded Souls, author Robert Burney says the battle cry of codependence is: “I’ll show you! I’ll get me!”\n\nExamples of codependency\n\nHealth professionals first identified codependence in the wives of alcoholic men. Through family treatment, they discovered that spouses and family members were codependent, or also had addictive tendencies. Co-addiction occurs when more than one person, usually a couple, has a relationship that is responsible for maintaining addictive behavior in at least one of the persons.\n\nFor example, co-addicted people might believe that, at some level, getting a partner or family member to become sober or drug-free might seem like the one goal which, if achieved, would bring them happiness. But on another level, they might realize they are behaving in a way that enables the addict with whom they live to maintain their addictions.\n\nFor instance, they might never confront the addict about her behavior. Or they might become her caretaker, spending limitless time worrying about her. They might assume it’s their responsibility to clean up after and apologize for their loved one’s behavior. They might even help her continue to use alcohol or drugs by giving her money, food or even drugs and alcohol, for fear of what would happen to her if they did things differently. Many codependents come to believe they are so unlovable and unworthy that to stay in a dysfunctional, destructive relationship is the best and safest way to live.\n\nCodependent people who believe they can’t survive without their partners do anything they can to stay in their relationships, however painful. The fear of losing their partners and being abandoned overpowers any other feelings they might have. The thought of trying to address any of their partner’s dysfunctional behaviors makes them feel unsafe. Excusing or denying a problem like addiction means they avoid rejection by their partners.\n\nInstead, as in the example above, co-addicted people often will try to adapt themselves and their lives to their partners’ dysfunction. They might have abandoned hope that something better is possible, instead settling for the job of maintaining the status quo. The thought of change might cause them great pain and sadness.\n\nCodependence works the same way, whether the addiction is drugs, alcohol or something else, such as sex, gambling, verbal or physical abuse, work or a hobby. If the addicts’ behavior causes worry, forcing the partners to adjust to and deny the problem, they are at great risk of becoming codependent. Those who were abused as children face an even greater risk.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9663898944854736}
{"content": "Previous Page Table of Contents Next Page\n\n\n2.1 Defects due to presence of abnormal milks\n\nThese are colostral milks or pathological milks which normally should not be collected or marketed. These milks have an abnormal mineral and protein composition (high chloride content - low casein content) which gives them a characteristic salty taste. Their presence in low concentrations in the collected milk does not change the organoleptic characteristics of the mixture and therefore cannot be detected by sensory analysis. The adulteration can only be detected by specific instrument methods which are chemically or physically based.\n\n2.2 Defects due to changes in milk constituents\n\nThe main alterations in milk taste are due to bacteriological, chemical and physical changes in the milk constituents. These three aspects will be studied in this chapter.\n\n2.2.1 Defects of microbial origin\n\nMilk is a highly favourable culture medium for microbial life because of its chemical composition, which is rich in various nutrients, and because of its water content. Thus it is highly vulnerable to any contamination that can occur in production, processing and marketing.\n\nSerious taste and odour defects can appear due to an accumulation of products resulting either from cell metabolism or from the effect of complex enzyme systems on the milk constituents. Many undesirable changes in organoleptic quality are possible when environmental conditions are conducive to microbial proliferation and enzyme activity. The following list of adverse changes is not restrictive. Most frequently one speaks of milk that is sour, bitter, fruity, rancid, malty, with an off-flavour tast, and also of dirty milk, etc. These forms of spoilage are associated with the growth of yeasts, moulds and bacteria. In view of its ecological characteristics, bacterial contamination is the most frequent and the greatest, and its potential development should be feared most of all. This contamination is responsible for two main types of defects: souring and lipolysis.\n\nThe defects due to acidification are the most frequently encountered since lactic flora is one of the main natural contaminants of milk, being predominantly mesophilic in character. Presence of this flora is demonstrated by a greater or lesser rapidity of acidification depending on temperature conditions at the production, processing and distribution stages. This form of spoilage is apparent in the sour taste, due not to lactic acid (which is barely volatile because of its low vapour pressure), but to the presence in smaller quantities of organic acids (acetic acid, propionic acid, carbon dioxide).\n\nFurthermore, the heterofermentative character of lactic flora is demonstrated by a more or less marked release into the environment of numerous different volatile compounds (aldehydes, ketones and alcohols) besides the organic acids mentioned above. These compounds, when they develop in limited quantities, are sometimes sought after since they help to form the typical aroma of many milk products. On the other hand, when they are present in high concentrations they produce an unpleasant taste and odour. A classic example is diacetyl, which in a highly diluted state is responsible for a nutty taste and in a more concentrated state results in decided bitterness. Likewise, different tastes designated as malty, grape or caramel, have been attributed to the proliferation of Streptococcus lactis maltigenes.\n\nLactic bacteria generally are not heat resistant and most of them are destroyed by low temperature pasteurization. However, the survivors or recontaminating bacteria can be responsible for further souring if temperature conditions are favourable to their development. The predominant lactic flora in milk is mesophilic and the natural environmental conditions in warm and hot regions are often favourable to its proliferation. The use of cold treatment at different stages of production, processing and marketing makes it possible in practice to decrease considerably the dangers of spoilage due to uncontrolled proliferation of these lactic bacteria. However, it should be noted that in these conditions even with cold techniques the multiplication of microorganisms and enzyme changes are not wholly blocked and that irreversible changes in the organoleptic quality of the product can still occur.\n\nThe defects due to uncontrolled proteolysis have their origin in bacterial flora which contaminates milk on the farm and can induce proteolysis of varying intensity depending on the species concerned, time periods and temperatures. In practice, mesophiles in the case of chilled milk and psychrotrophic bacteria in the case of refrigerated milk can be the cause of milk protein solubility of varying intensity because of their extra-cellular proteases. The protein fractions released (peptides, aminoacids and amino-ammonia) can be responsible for the development of abnormal bitter, ammonia or putrid tastes. Moreover, although most proteases are heat-sensitive, some enzymes coming from psychrotrophic bacteria are thermostable and their harmful effects can appear even in standard sterilized products. Therefore milk products, although sterile, can spoil during storage due to residual enzymes that have not been rendered inactive.\n\nMany findings have shown that susceptibility to lipolysis is not the same for all milks. Two types of factors determine the frequency and intensity of defects, viz. enzyme activity as such and the condition of the fat substratum.\n\nThe enzymes responsible for lipolysis have two different origins. Fresh cow's milk contains several lipolytic enzymes, membrane lipase and plasma lipase. Although their isolation and characteristics have not yet been totally elucidated, it is generally recognized that these enzymes have little effect on raw milk when milk is in the resting stage and the fat globules are intact. In milk products which have been subjected to heat treatment for pasteurization (72°C for 15 seconds) or sterilization (classic or UHT), their activity is believed to be nil because they have been rendered inactive by heat treatment. However, recent studies have revealed cases of enzyme reactivation causing defects.\n\nThe second origin of lipases is associated with unsatisfactory hygienic conditions of the milk on the farm. Very many bacteria species can produce lipases. Psychrotrophic bacteria are the greatest threat because of their ability to develop at low temperature and their high extra-cellular activity.\n\nThe most active and most frequently encountered microorganisms and bacteria species have a relatively short multiplication period (4 to 24 h) at commonly applied temperatures (0 – 49C); when the temperature rises the growth rate is multiplied by 5.8 for every 10°C rise.\n\nCorrelations between bacterial density and the appearance of defects have been established. In milk, when germ concentration exceeds 106/ml off-tastes can be detected. When the fat content is partly concentrated (cream, butter, cheese and powders) defects can emerge at lower thresholds, especially during prolonged storage.\n\nMany extra-cellular lipases of psychrotrophic bacteria are also characterized by extremely high heat resistance; they are only partly inactivated by the heat treatment used in UHT pasteurization and sterilization, although the bacteria themselves may be destroyed. Organoleptic defects may therefore appear even in properly heat-treated microfree media.\n\nAs mentioned previously, the susceptibility of milk to lipolysis is dependent on lipolytic enzymes and also on fat condition.\n\nFrequency and intensity of lipolysis increase when the initial globular state of the fat is modified. The influence of endogenous factors traceable to the cow (effect of feeding - effect of lactation stage) which determine the synthesis of the globular membrane and the stage of lactation has been demonstrated. In most cases, however, factors extraneous to the animal have a dominant role in the development of lipolysis. Excessive shaking, addition of air, repeated thermal shocks, and homogenization, all of which can occur at different stages of production and processing adversely affect the integrity of the fat globule, modify the interfaces between the fat and non-fat phase and lead to an increase of lipolysis. In the light of many recent studies it appears that the development of milk production systems - characterized by the expansion of collection areas, increased mechanization of milking, collection and transport - leads to longer processing times. These factors have overall led to a more marked degree of spoilage of the raw material of milk than in the past and to an increase in organoleptic defects in the finished product.\n\nTo benefit fully from cold treatment, this must only be applied in environments where few psychrotrophic bacteria are present. Quality improvement of milk at the production stage, where the aim is to inhibit contaminant germs by observing strict rules of hygiene, is therefore inseparable from the rational utilization of cold treatment.\n\n2.2.2 Defects due to fat oxidation\n\nOxidized flavour is a result of the effect of oxygen on the milk phospho-lipids which causes the development of various flavours - cardboard, metallic, fish or oily.\n\nOxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids of the phosphatides of the globular membrane induces the formation of hydrogen-peroxide. The results of the reaction are the formation of alcohols, acids, aldehydes and ketones producing the above-mentioned defects.\n\nThe presence of contaminant metal traces (iron and copper) and also energy radiation exposure (light or radioactive) catalyzes oxidative reaction.\n\nIn practice, in order to reduce these oxidative defects it is advisable to decrease metal contamination by using appropriate materials made of stainless steel or glass and handling the milk in recipients providing effective protection against sunlight or artificial light. The replacement of trapped air in the product and in the space at the top of the container by an inert atmosphere (CO2 and nitrogen) or by a vacuum is also highly recommended in the case of food products with a high fat content which must be stored for lengthy periods at ambient temperatures.\n\nIn the specific case of recombination of milk products the use of iron- and coppercontaminated water should be forbidden and the addition of air during mixing and transfer operations should be prevented. Low pasteurization can intensify the emergence of defects, but stronger heat treatment has the opposite effect; it causes the release of sulfydryl (-SH) groups originating from lactoserum proteins which have an anti-oxidant effect and prevent the formation of off-taste. Chemical antioxidants have the same positive effect; however, their addition is generally forbidden by law. In some countries ascorbic acid can be added to supplement the milk which in low concentration and in the presence of copper stimulates oxidation, but at higher concentration prevents the development of oxide flavours.\n\nHomogenization provides effective protection against oxidation. Significant changes in the globule surface and in the composition and structure of membrane proteins are probably responsible for this improvement in flavour stability. In the specific case of milk products made with recombined milk, it is essential to obtain a stable emulsion of the fatty matter in order to prevent rapid spoilage. The observance of optimum homogenization conditions is of primary importance in this case.\n\nIt should also be noted that the defects resulting from oxidation of fatty acids can develop in non-fat products when they contain trace phospho-lipids.\n\nIn all cases low-temperature storage of products containing milk fat provides an additional guarantee against oxidation spoilage.\n\n2.2.3 Defects due to heat treatment\n\nMost milk constituents can be physically and chemically altered by heat treatment used for preservation. The extent of the resulting changes will increase with the duration and temperature of heat treatment, but it also depends on the specific sensitivity (which can vary) to heat of the respective milk components; these can be listed, in decreasing order of importance, as free enzymes, serum lactoproteins, linked enzymes, phospho- and caseinocalcium complexes, lactose and lipids.\n\nHeat treatment completely inactivates enzymes and destroys the most heat-resistant microorganisms but causes major changes in product characteristics, which generally decrease acceptability. For example, alteration will be slight for heat-treated and pasteurized products, slightly intensified for UHT sterilized products, and more marked for products that have been subjected to the conventional lengthy autoclave sterilization.\n\nAs a rule inactivation of most enzymes is obtained through normal heat treatment and pasteurization (60–100°C) which give a better stability to heat-treated products, and eliminate in particular organoleptic defects due to the development of uncontrolled proteolysis and lipolysis in UHT-treated long-life products. However, the inactivation of particularly heat-resistant enzymes may not be complete. This is the case, for example, of lipases and of thermolabile phosphatases when protected by the fat phase and/or the protein phase during heating which are later reactivated during storage. Freak organoleptic properties due to this type of lipolysis and proteolysis have been reported quite frequently, especially for milk products derived from milks that are initially highly contaminated with psychrotrophic bacteria.\n\nMany changes in heated milk characteristics are the result of direct spoilage of lactoserum proteins or interactions involving soluble milk proteins following heat treatment.\n\nDirect modifications are the development of sulfhydryl (-SH) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) groups from β - lactoglobulin, and also the formation of small quantities of free sulfides and mercaptans. These impart a burned taste, but it should be noted that these free groups also decrease the oxidation-reduction potential and give a better protection of lipids against oxidation.\n\nRecombined milk products frequently exhibit this burned taste, which is usually considered unpleasant. Its intensity increases with the heat-induced denaturation that the milk undergoes during its transformation into powder, and also with the additional heat treatment to preserve it following recombination. The development of this taste is therefore in direct ratio with the solubility value of the powder selected and the time-temperature relation of the heat treatment applied to the recombined product to ensure its stability for the desired length of time.\n\nThus the taste of a pasteurized product prepared from a “low temperature” powder will be little changed. On the other hand, the change will be more marked for a milk sterilized by the autoclave process and obtained through recombination with a “high temperature” powder.\n\nThe main interaction between lactoserum proteins and casein is the formation of a complex between the β -lactoglobulin and Kappa-casein. This occurs when more than 50 percent of the lactoserum proteins are denatured. It has many consequences, but where organoleptic quality is concerned, it retards the release of the R-SH and H2S groups when additional heat treatment is applied.\n\nHeating changes the salt balance toward insoluble forms. Changes in the composition of micella surfaces and phosphate precipitation decrease the stability of the colloidal phase but these consequences have little influence on organoleptic quality.\n\nLactose is generally not affected significantly by UHT pasteurization and sterilization, but the damage is greater when more drastic heat treatment is used. In this case a decomposition of the lactose occurs and acids form, in particular formic (50 to 75 percent of the newly formed acids), lactic, acetic, pyruvic, propionic and butyric acids; hydroxymethylfurfural and furfuraldehyde also develop. All these components help in forming the taste, odour and colour of milk but their respective roles have not been clearly determined.\n\nThe main change occurring from heating of milk products còntaining lactose corresponds to a non-enzymatic browning reaction or Maillard reaction. This reaction, which requires little activation energy, is self-catalyzing; in its initial phase condensation occurs between a free aminic group of the casein, especially the lysine group and the lactosereducing aldehyde functions. It leads to the formation of a Schiff base followed by the Amadori rearrangement and degradation into a brown pigment (melanoidins). The browning does not always appear during heat treatment since the Schiff bases so formed can become degraded slowly in dry, liquid or medium-moist milk products during storage. A caramel-like taste develops.\n\nIn practical terms, in order to minimize the browning reaction the amount of heat treatment must be limited and storage times and temperatures reduced. The use of certain additives like sodiumbisulfite, sulfur dioxide, and formaldehyde, or the presence of (-SH) groups in the environment can effectively help to prevent these defects.\n\nUnder the influence of intense heating the fat produces lactone and methylketone compounds which if highly concentrated can cause undesirable flavours (coconut flavour) in concentrated and dried milk. but at lower levels they are responsible for the characteristic and much sought-after flavour of food cooked in butter. In moderately heat-treated liquid milk products their contribution to the development of freak organoleptic effects appears to be less.\n\n2.3 Defects due to transmitted flavours\n\nBecause of its high water and liquid content, milk can be a major vector of fat-soluble and water-soluble foreign substances which cause off-tastes. These substances can come from the feed given to the cow, as well as from the environment before and after the milking process. They can be transmitted either indirectly in the full udder through the respiratory and/or digestive system, or directly by contact with the product after milking.\n\nTransmission through the respiratory system is due mainly to volatile compounds contained in the atmosphere of badly ventilated premises (gases from feed or manure; gases eructed by healthy or diseased animals and the presence of foreign chemical substances, e.g. fossil fuels, disinfectants). It has thus been possible to prove the origin of various odours or tastes of cabbage, ensilage, cow, and farm. When the source of the flavour disappears and the animals once again breathe wholesome air the foreign substances accumulated in the udder are rediffused in the bloodstream and are expelled via the lungs.\n\nThe feed consumed by the animal is another known cause of unpleasant tastes and odours. When the cow consumes fresh or preserved strongly flavoured forage (ensilage, cabbage, wild tuber plants, etc.) two to four hours before milking, their characteristic taste and odour appear in the milk and can persist until elimination or metabolization of the feed, or sometimes up to about 12 hours after ingestion. It should also be noted that the problem of undesirable flavours from feeding is often associated with sudden changes of diet -for example, the transition from dry winter feeds to rich green summer forage.\n\nDirect absorption of substances by the milk following milking is less than formerly believed since rather more volatile compounds pass through the animal. Recent studies have shown, however, that with whole milk highly volatile and fat-soluble organic solvents were directly and primarily retained by the fat phase, since skimmed milk does not show this defect. The presence of these substances in premises for the collection, processing and storage of milk or milk products has often been the source of this occurrence and therefore their presence should be prohibited.\n\nAnother class of defects designated as “chemical flavours” can be caused by the contamination of milk by chemical agents included in the formulation of detergents and disinfectants used for cleaning recipients and equipment. For instance, alterations due to the presence of chlorinated and iodized compounds have been the most frequently reported. Less frequently, phenol compounds from disinfectants and weed-killer have been considered responsible. This applies also to the development of foreign tastes and odours of the chlorophenol type transmitted by water disinfected with chlorine. It should also be mentioned that milk receptacles that have been used occasionally to contain or transfer other products (petroleum products, pesticides, non-food disinfectants and alcohol) can remain highly impregnated and, due to the residues present when reutilized normally, cause marked adverse changes in the flavour of the milk which can persist even after it has been greatly diluted.\n\nMost technical treatments have little effect on the elimination of transmitted tastes and odours. Only vacuum treatment (degasing and evaporation) can decrease the extent of these defects, but their effectiveness is closely linked to the type of volatility of the offending substances in the physical conditions of the treatment applied.\n\nPrevious Page Top of Page Next Page", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8807218074798584}
{"content": "Historic tree at Ide Adobe State Historic Park fails, causes significant damage to historic structures\n\nAt approximately 9:15 a.m., Sunday, July 13, the oak tree that shaded the adobe structure in the center of the historic area of the park lost a majority of its limbs, causing significant damage to the adobe and several of the other buildings in the park.\n\nIt was fortunate that no one was injured during the incident.\n\nThe 350 year-old oak tree has provided shade to visitors of the park for many generations and was around long before the adobe building was first built in the 1850's.\n\nThe state made several efforts throughout the years in an attempt to keep the tree as part of the park's history. It included regular inspections, cabling of the limbs, and trimming as needed. This morning, the tree faced catastrophic failure when it suddenly lost almost all of its branches.\n\n\nCurrently, park's staff are working on securing the site and removing the debris.\n\n\n\nPark staff will reevaluate the situations and determine what it will take to make the buildings serviceable again.\n\n\nThe visitor's center and day use picnic will remain open at normal hours, 10 a.m. to 4 p.m. Grounds, sunrise to sunset.Please call 530-529-8599 for updates.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9974432587623596}
{"content": "Anna Hazare's survival on water for the past 11 days might have won him the awe and admiration of the common man, but it has surprised those in the medical field. During his fast, the 74-year-old Gandhian, who is no stranger to fasting, has lost 7 kg while managing to remain conscious, receptive and alert.\n\n“It is remarkable that a man his age has been able to pull off this fast on just plain water. What is even more amazing is the fact that he is alert enough to think, read and speak coherently and intelligently. His body is certainly in distress as the level of ketones in the system is rising. It is probably because of his frugal eating habits and his internal adaptation that he is able to starve himself for such long periods,'' said Fortis Hospital's Director and Head of Department (Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases) Dr. Anoop Misra.\n\nDr. Misra said anyone 20 years younger to Mr. Hazare with an average lifestyle would not have been able to sustain such a fast. “If any average person was to undertake this fast, he would be listless within five-seven days, organ damage would have set in, blood pressure and blood sugar would have fallen and the brain would be experiencing confusion,” he added.\n\nDr. Naresh Trehan, who is heading the team of doctors looking after Mr. Hazare health, said: “Clearly what Mr. Hazare has been able to do is beyond the understanding and capacity of an average person. The only explanation to how he is able to sustain the fast could be because his body is used to starvation and has developed its own defence mechanism.”\n\nA senior physician at All-India Institute of Medical Sciences' Department of Gastroenterology and Human Nutrition said, “The fact that the level of ketones in Mr. Hazare's body is rising indicates that the kidney function may have already been compromised. If the trend continues, Mr. Hazare may need to be hospitalised soon. What is, however, clear is the fact that Mr. Hazare has moved into the very high risk zone for kidney damage. People can fast, but their bodies should be used to the fasting. A younger person may be able to carry on fasting for more than 11 days but the damage to his body maybe permanent.”\n\nRekha Sharma, who was the Chief Dietician at AIIMS for over two decades, said: “Mr. Hazare is drinking water and his body is not dehydrated, he is not taking in carbohydrates which means that the fats and proteins are being broken down to keep the body functioning. When the body goes into starvation mode, the metabolic rate falls and the requirement for food also goes down. The external manifestation of the starvation is weight loss. What Mr. Hazare has been able to do is difficult and not recommended for anyone.”\n\nMore In: Delhi", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8086861968040466}
{"content": "The transputer\nof occam\n\n\nINMOS Technical Note 21\n\nDavid May and Roger Shepherd\n\nJanuary 1988\n\n\n1 Introduction\n2 Architecture\n3 occam\n4 The transputer\n 4.1 Sequential processing\n 4.2 Instructions\n  4.2.1 Direct functions\n  4.2.2 Prefix functions\n  4.2.3 Indirect functions\n 4.3 Expression evaluation\n  4.3.1 Efficiency of encoding\n 4.4 Support for concurrency\n  4.4.1 Communications\n  4.4.2 Internal channel communication\n  4.4.3 External channel communication\n  4.4.4 Timer\n  4.4.5 Alternative\n 4.5 Inter-transputer links\n5 Summary\n\n1 Introduction\n\nVLSI technology allows a large number of identical devices to be manufactured cheaply. For this reason, it is attractive to implement an occam [1] program using a number of identical components, each programmed with the appropriate occam process. A transputer [2] is such a component.\n\nA transputer is a single VLSI device with memory, processor and communications links for direct connection to other transputers. Concurrent systems can be constructed from a collection of transputers which operate concurrently and communicate through links.\n\nThe transputer can therefore be used as a building block for concurrent processing systems, with occam as the associated design formalism.\n\n2 Architecture\n\nAn important property of VLSI technology is that communication between devices is very much slower than communication on the same device. In a computer, almost every operation that the processor performs involves the use of memory. A transputer therefore includes both processor and memory in the same integrated circuit device.\n\nIn any system constructed from integrated circuit devices, much of the physical bulk arises from connections between devices. The size of the package for an integrated circuit is determined more by the number of connection pins than by the size of the device itself. In addition, connections between devices provided by paths on a circuit board consume a considerable amount of space.\n\nThe speed of communication between electronic devices is optimised by the use of one-directional signal wires, each connecting two devices. If many devices are connected by a shared bus, electrical problems of driving the bus require that the speed is reduced. Also, additional control logic and wiring is required to control sharing of the bus.\n\nTo provide maximum speed with minimal wiring, the transputer uses point-to-point serial communication links for direct connection to other transputers.\n\n3 occam\n\noccam enables a system to be described as a collection of concurrent processes, which communicate with each other and with peripheral devices through channels. occam programs are built from three primitive processes:\n\nv := eassign expression e to variable v\nc ! e output expression e to channel c\nc ? v input from channel c to variable v\n\nThe primitive processes are combined to form constructs:\n\nSEQuential components executed one after another\nPARallel components executed together\nALTernativecomponent first ready is executed\n\n\nConventional sequential programs can be expressed with variables and assignments, combined in sequential constructs. IF and WHILE constructs are also provided.\n\nConcurrent programs can be expressed with channels, inputs and outputs, which are combined in parallel and alternative constructs.\n\nEach occam channel provides a communication path between two concurrent processes. Communication is synchronised and takes place when both the inputting process and the outputting process are ready. The data to be output is then copied from the outputting process to the inputting process, and both processes continue.\n\nAn alternative process may be ready for input from any one of a number of channels. In this case, the input is taken from the channel which is first used for output by another process.\n\n4 The transputer\n\nA transputer system consists of a number of interconnected transputers, each executing an occam process and communicating with other transputers. As a process executed by a transputer may itself consist of a number of concurrent processes the transputer has to support the occam programming model internally. Within a transputer concurrent processing is implemented by sharing the processor time between the concurrent processes.\n\nThe most effective implementation of simple programs by a programmable computer is provided by a sequential processor. Consequently, the transputer processor is fairly conventional, except that additional hardware and microcode support the occam model of concurrent processing.\n\n4.1 Sequential processing\n\nThe design of the transputer processor exploits the availability of fast on-chip memory by having only a small number of registers; six registers are used in the execution of a sequential process. The small number of registers, together with the simplicity of the instruction set enables the processor to have relatively simple (and fast) data-paths and control logic.\n\nThe six registers are:\n\nExpressions are evaluated on the evaluation stack, and instructions refer to the stack implicitly. For example, the ’add’ instruction adds the top two values in the stack and places the result on the top of the stack. The use of a stack removes the need for instructions to respecify the location of their operands. Statistics gathered from a large number of programs show that three registers provide an effective balance between code compactness and implementation complexity.\n\nNo hardware mechanism is provided to detect that more than three values have been loaded onto the stack. It is easy for the compiler to ensure that this never happens.\n\n4.2 Instructions\n\nIt was a design decision that the transputer should be programmed in a high-level language. The instruction set has, therefore, been designed for simple and efficient compilation. It contains a relatively small number of instructions, all with the same format, chosen to give a compact representation of the operations most frequently occuring in programs. The instruction set is independant of the processor wordlength, allowing the same microcode to be used for transputers with different wordlengths. Each instruction consists of a single byte divided into two 4 bit parts. The four most significant bits of the byte are a function code, and the four least significant bits are a data value.\n\n4.2.1 Direct functions\n\nThe representation provides for sixteen functions, each with a data value ranging from 0 to 15. Thirteen of these are used to encode the most important functions performed by any computer. These include:\n\n  load constant         add constant  \n  load local            store local  \n  load local pointer  \n  load non-local        store non-local  \n  jump                  conditional jump  \n\nThe most common operations in a program are the loading of small literal values, and the loading and storing of one of a small number of variables. The ’load constant’ instruction enables values between 0 and 15 to be loaded with a single byte instruction. The ’load local’ and ’store local’ instructions access locations in memory relative to the workspace pointer. The first 16 locations can be accessed using a single byte instruction.\n\nThe ’load non-local’ and ’store non-local’ instructions behave similarly, except that they access locations in memory relative to the A register. Compact sequences of these instructions allow efficient access to data structures, and provide for simple implementations of the static links or displays used in the implementation of block structured programming languages such as occam.\n\n4.2.2 Prefix functions\n\nTwo more of the function codes are used to allow the operand of any instruction to be extended in length. These are:\n\n  negative prefix\n\nAll instructions are executed by loading the four data bits into the least significant four bits of the operand register, which is then used as the the instruction’s operand. All instructions except the prefix instructions end by clearing the operand register, ready for the next instruction.\n\nThe ’prefix’ instruction loads its four data bits into the operand register, and then shifts the operand register up four places. The ’negative prefix’ instruction is similar, except that it complements the operand register before shifting it up. Consequently operands can be extended to any length up to the length of the operand register by a sequence of prefix instructions. In particular, operands in the range -256 to 255 can be represented using one prefix instruction.\n\nThe use of prefix instructions has certain beneficial consequences. Firstly, they are decoded and executed in the same way as every other instruction, which simplifies and speeds instruction decoding. Secondly, they simplify language compilation, by providing a completely uniform way of allowing any instruction to take an operand of any size. Thirdly, they allow operands to be represented in a form independent of the processor wordlength.\n\n4.2.3 Indirect functions\n\nThe remaining function code, ’operate’, causes its operand to be interpreted as an operation on the values held in the evaluation stack. This allows up to 16 such operations to be encoded in a single byte instruction. However, the prefix instructions can be used to extend the operand of an ’operate’ instruction just like any other. The instruction representation therefore provides for an indefinite number of operations.\n\nThe encoding of the indirect functions is chosen so that the most frequently occuring operations are represented without the use of a prefix instruction. These include arithmetic, logical and comparison operations such as\n\n  exclusive or  \n  greater than\n\nLess frequently occuring operations have encodings which require a single prefix operation (the transputer instruction set is not large enough to require more than 512 operations to be encoded!).\n\n4.3 Expression evaluation\n\nEvaluation of expressions may require the use of temporary variables in the process workspace, but the number of these can be minimised by careful choice of the evaluation order.\n\nLet depth(e) be the number of stack locations needed for the evaluation of expression e, defined by:\n\n  depth(constant) = 1  \n  depth(variable) = 1  \n  depth(e1 op e2) = IF depth(e1) > depth(e2) THEN  \n                    ELSE IF depth(e1) < depth(e2) THEN  \n                    ELSE depth(e1) + 1\n\nLet commutes(operator) be true if the operator commutes, false otherwise.\n\nLet e1 and e2 be expressions. The expression of (e1 op e2) is compiled for the 3 register stack by:\n\n  compile(e1 op e2) =  \n     IF depth(e2) > depth(e1)  \n        IF depth(el) > 2  \n        THEN (compile(e2); store temp; compile(e1); load temp; op)  \n        ELSE IF commutes(op)  \n           THEN (compile(e2); compile(e1); op)  \n           ELSE (compile(e2); compile(e1); reverse; op)  \n        IF depth(e2) < 3  \n        THEN (compile(e1); compile(e2); op)  \n\nwhere (I1;I2; ... In) represents a sequence of instructions.\n\n4.3.1 Efficiency of encoding\n\nMeasurements show that about 80% of executed instructions are encoded in a single byte (i.e. without the use of prefix instructions). Many of these instructions, such as ’load constant’ and ’add’ require just one processor cycle.\n\nThe instruction representation gives a more compact representation of high level language programs than more conventional instruction sets. Since a program requires less store to represent it, less of the memory bandwidth is taken up with fetching instructions. Furthermore, as memory is word accessed the processor will receive several instructions for every fetch.\n\nShort instructions also improve the effectiveness of instruction prefetch, which in turn improves processor performance. There is an extra word of prefetch buffer so that the processor rarely has to wait for an instruction fetch before proceeding. Since the buffer is short, there is little time penalty when a jump instruction causes the buffer contents to be discarded.\n\n4.4 Support for concurrency\n\nThe processor provides efficient support for the occam model of concurrency and communication. It has a microcoded scheduler which enables any number of concurrent processes to be executed together, sharing the processor time. This removes the need for a software kernel. The processor does not need to support the dynamic allocation of storage as the occam compiler is able to perform the allocation of space to concurrent processes.\n\nAt any time, a concurrent process may be\n\nactive -being executed\n-on a list waiting to be executed\ninactive-ready to input\n-ready to output\n-waiting until a specified time\n\nThe scheduler operates in such a way that inactive processes do not consume any processor time.\n\nThe active processes waiting to be executed are held on a list. This is a linked list of process workspaces, implemented using two registers, one of which points to the first process on the list, the other to the last.\n\nIn this illustration, S is executing, and P, Q and R are active, awaiting execution:\n\nA process is executed until it is unable to proceed because it is waiting to input or output, or waiting for the timer. Whenever a process is unable to proceed, its instruction pointer is saved in its workspace and the next process is taken from the list. Actual process switch times are very small as little state needs to be saved; it is not necessary to save the evaluation stack on rescheduling.\n\nThe processor provides a number of special operations to support the process model. These include\n\n  start process  \n  end process\n\nWhen a parallel construct is executed, ’start process’ instructions are used to create the necessary concurrent processes. A ’start process’ instruction creates a new process by adding a new workspace to the end of the scheduling list, enabling the new concurrent process to be executed together with the ones already being executed. The correct termination of a parallel construct is assured by use of the ’end process’ instruction. This uses a workspace location as a counter of the components of the parallel construct which have still to terminate. The counter is initialised to the number of components before the processes are ’started’. Each component ends with an ’end process’ instruction which decrements and tests the counter. For all but the last component, the counter is non zero and the component is descheduled. For the last component, the counter is zero and the component continues.\n\n4.4.1 Communications\n\nCommunication between processes is achieved by means of channels. occam communication is point-to-point, synchronised and unbuffered. As a result, a channel needs no process queue, no message queue and no message buffer.\n\nA channel between two processes executing on the same transputer is implemented by a single word in memory; a channel between processes executing on different transputers is implemented by point-to-point links. The processor provides a number of operations to support message passing, the most important being\n\n  input message  \n  output message\n\nThe ’input message’ and ’output message’ instructions use the address of the channel to determine whether the channel is internal or external. This means that the same instruction sequence can be used for both hard and soft channels, allowing a process to be written and compiled without knowledge of where its channels are connected.\n\nAs in the occam model, communication takes place when both the inputting and outputting processes are ready. Consequently, the process which first becomes ready must wait until the second one is also ready.\n\nA process performs an input or output by loading the evaluation stack with a pointer to a message, the address of a channel, and a count of the number of bytes to be transferred, and then executing an ’input message’ or an ’output message’ instruction.\n\n4.4.2 Internal channel communication\n\nAt any time, an internal channel (a single word in memory) either holds the identity of a process, or holds the special value ’empty’. The channel is initialised to ’empty’ before it is used.\n\nWhen a message is passed using the channel, the identity of the first process to become ready is stored in the channel, and the processor starts to execute the next process from the scheduling list. When the second process to use the channel becomes ready, the message is copied, the waiting process is added to the scheduling list, and the channel reset to its initial state. It does not matter whether the inputting or the outputting process becomes ready first. In the following illustration, a process P is about to execute an output instruction on an ’empty’ channel C. The evaluation stack holds a pointer to a message, the address of channel C, and a count of the number of bytes in the message.\n\nAfter executing the output instruction, the channel C holds the address of the workspace of P, and the address of the message to be transferred is stored in the workspace of P. P is descheduled, and the process starts to execute the next process from the scheduling list.\n\nThe channel C and the process P remain in this state until a second process, Q executes an input instruction on the channel.\n\nThe message is copied, the waiting process P is added to the scheduling list, and the channel C is reset to its initial ’empty’ state.\n\n4.4.3 External channel communication\n\nWhen a message is passed via an external channel the processor delegates to an autonomous link interface the job of transferring the message and deschedules the process. When the message has been transferred the link interface causes the processor to reschedule the waiting process. This allows the processor to continue the execution of other processes whilst the external message transfer is taking place.\n\nEach link interface uses three registers:\n\nIn the following illustration, processes P and Q executed by different transputers communicate using a channel C implemented by a link connecting two transputers. P outputs, and Q inputs.\n\nWhen P executes its output instruction, the registers in the link interface of the transputer executing P are initialised, and P is descheduled. Similarly, when Q executes its input instruction, the registers in the link interface of the process executing Q are initialised, and Q is descheduled.\n\nThe message is now copied through the link, after which the workspaces of P and Q are returned to the corresponding scheduling lists. The protocol used on P and Q ensures that it does not matter which of P and Q first becomes ready.\n\n4.4.4 Timer\n\nThe transputer has a clock which ’ticks’ every microsecond. The current value of the processor clock can be read by executing a ’Read timer’ instruction.\n\nA process can arrange to perform a ‘timer input’, in which case it will become ready to execute after a specified time has been reached.\n\nThe timer input instruction requires a time to be specified. If this time is in the ’past’ (i.e. ClockReg AFTER SpecifiedTime) then the instruction has no effect. If the time is in the ‘future’ (i.e. SpecifiedTime AFTER Clockreg or SpecifiedTime = ClockReg) then the process is descheduled. When the specified time is reached the process is scheduled again.\n\n4.4.5 Alternative\n\nThe occam alternative construct enables a process to wait for input from any one of a number of channels, or until a specific time occurs. This requires special instructions, as the normal ’input’ instruction deschedules a process until a specific channel becomes ready, or until a specific time is reached. The instructions used are:\n\n  enable  channel     enable  timer  \n  disable channel     disable timer  \n  alternative wait\n\nThe alternative is implemented by ’enabling’ the channel input or timer input specified in each of its components. The ’alternative wait’ is then used to deschedule the process if none of the channel or timer inputs is ready; the process will be re-scheduled when any one of them becomes ready. The channel and timer inputs are then ’disabled’. The ’disable’ instructions are also designed to select the component of the alternative to be executed; the first component found to be ready is executed.\n\n4.5 Inter-transputer links\n\nTo provide synchronised communication, each message must be acknowledged. Consequently, a link requires at least one signal wire in each direction.\n\nA link between two transputers is implemented by connecting a link interface on one transputer to a link interface on the other transputer by two one-directional signal lines, along which data is transmitted serially.\n\nThe two signal wires of the link can be used to provide two occam channels, one in each direction. This requires a simple protocol. Each signal line carries data and control information.\n\nThe link protocol provides the synchronised communication of occam. The use of a protocol providing for the transmission of an arbitrary sequence of bytes allows transputers of different wordlength to be connected. Each message is transmitted as a sequence of single byte communications, requiring only the presence of a single byte buffer in the receiving transputer to ensure that no information is lost. Each byte is transmitted as a start bit followed by a one bit followed by the eight data bits followed by a stop bit. After transmitting a data byte, the sender waits until an acknowledge is received; this consists of a start bit followed by a zero bit. The acknowledge signifies both that a process was able to receive the acknowledged byte, and that the receiving link is able to receive another byte. The sending link reschedules the sending process only after the acknowledge for the final byte of the message has been received.\n\nData bytes and acknowledges are multiplexed down each signal line. An acknowledge is transmitted as soon as reception of a data byte starts (if there is room to buffer another one). Consequently transmission may be continuous, with no delays between data bytes.\n\n5 Summary\n\nExperience with occam has shown that many applications naturally decompose into a large number of fairly simple processes. Once an application has been described in occam, a variety of implementations are possible. In particular, the use of occam together with the transputer enables the designer to exploit the performance and economics of VLSI technology. The concurrent processing features of occam can be efficiently implemented by a small, simple and fast processor.\n\nThe transputer therefore has two important uses. Firstly it provides a new system ’building block’ which enables occam to be used as a design formalism. In this role, occam serves both as a system description language and a programming language. Secondly, occam and the transputer can be used for prototyping highly concurrent systems in which the individual processes are ultimately intended to be implemented by dedicated hardware.\n\n\n[1]   occam Programming Manual, Prentice-Hall International, 1984\n\n[2]   IMS T414 reference manual, Inmos Limited 1985.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7437032461166382}
{"content": "My Account: Log In | Join | Renew\n1st Page\n\n\n\nThis article in JEQ\n\n  1. Vol. 14 No. 2, p. 164-168\n    Received: Nov 28, 1983\n    Published: Apr, 1985\n\n\n\nRelease of Nutrients and Metals Following Oxidation of Freshwater and Saline Sediment1\n\n  1. R. D. DeLaune and\n  2. C. J. Smith2\n\n\n\nMississippi River deltaic sediments were collected from freshwater and adjacent saline environments along Louisiana's Gulf Coast to evaluate chemical changes that may develop when bottom sediment from different salinity regimes with contrasting levels of reduced S are exposed to anoxic environment. Chemical transformations of the dredged sediments were influenced by changes in the sediment-water pH and oxidation-reduction status. Sediment pH decreased as the redox potential (Eh) was increased in both the freshwater and saline sediment. Both sediments had near-neutral pH when maintained under anoxic conditions and the minimum pH developed under oxic conditions was 5.1 and 3.0 for the freshwater and saline sediment, respectively. The acidity developed in the saline sediment resulted in the release of the potentially toxic metals Pb, Cu, Ni, Cr, Cd, and Sb into solution. There was also an increase in the solution concentration of Fe, Mn, Al, and Se. The solution concentration of these elements was inversely proportional Eh (P ≤ 0.05). The freshwater sediment when exposed to oxic conditions showed no increase in the solution concentrations of these elements. Results suggest that the concentration of reduced S in anoxic dredged sediment along other areas of the Gulf Coast should be closely evaluated in relation to potential acidity before subjected to upland disposal.\n\n\nCopyright © .", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5639447569847107}
{"content": "NCSU Libraries welcomes your feedback regarding our website. Please tell us what you think.\n\nDescribe your experiences with our site on your mobile device and/or desktop. What works well? What does not?\nIf you would like us to contact you, please provide information such as your name and email address.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9998714327812195}
{"content": "1 Timothy 3:1 NRS\n\n1 The saying is sure: a whoever aspires to the office of bishop b desires a noble task.\n\nReferences for 1 Timothy 3:1\n\n    • h 3:1 - Or [overseer]", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9982577562332153}
{"content": "Castleville Legends Walkthrough [Guide]\n\nCastleVille Legends\n\nThe kingdom has fallen into hard times since the evil wizard’s curse, and it’s up to you to help bring it back to its former glory with Castleville Legends, the latest game from Zynga. Here, players will have to go on quests and gather resources, and they can ally themselves with heroes that can help you out on your mission.\n\nCastleville Legends is a simulation building game where players must farm resources and explore the massive environment in order to rebuild the kingdom. There are various items that the player can interact with so that the required materials can be produced and crafted. These are then used to sell in the market or with friends, and can also be used for creating even more items for use.\n\nThe game also utilizes heroes which can be used to explore areas in exchange for items. Like most simulation building games, Castleville Legends happens in real time, and things can be sped up using premium currencies in order to circumvent wait times.\n\nCoins and crowns are the two currencies at play within Castleville Legends. Coins can be earned by selling items in the market or by trading with friends. Coins are also often awarded when quests have been completed or when levelling up. Coins are used to purchase regular items in the market as well as for acquiring certain items such as axes.\n\nCrowns, on the other hand, are the game’s premium currency. It can be used to purchase items that are not currently available to you, and can also be used to speed up tasks or skip certain parts of quests. Although crowns may be awarded from time to time, these are usually acquired via in-app purchases. Coins may also be bought using this method.\n\nLevelling Up\nMost actions such as selling to the market, exploring ruins, and completing quests will yield players experience. Levelling up is important as it will unlock more content within the game, and Castleville Legends may also reward players with additional resources whenever players reach a certain milestone.\n\nAt certain levels and once players have reached them, heroes can be freed from crystals and can then be used to explore ruins scattered all over the castle. Heroes are also the people who will be giving you some quests, so having them available will both give you access to more things to do as well as have more people to deploy when exploring.\n\nLatter in the game, players will be able to encounter ruins that they can send heroes to. Different ruins will require special items before they can be explored aside from the aforementioned hero. Exploration will yield different rewards, and as there are different chances as to whether you would acquire a specific item or not, players may have to explore multiple times in order to get the resource that they want.\n\nExploration takes time, and players will not be able to deploy heroes that are currently exploring. This process can be sped up using crowns, and the rewards will be instantly provided to you afterwards.\n\nThere are several buildings or items that can be constructed within the kingdom, each has different purposes but mainly fall under two categories, namely functional and aesthetic. Aesthetic items are nothing but decorations that you can add into the environment, while functional buildings are actually those that can help you create more items given the required raw materials.\n\nBuildings will take time to construct, but this can be sped up using coins. Examples of buildings that yield resources are farms, kitchens, mills, cow ranches, and many more. Also, should you run out of places to build, you can expand on the surrounding areas for as long as you meet the required criteria, such as being at a specific level or having the required amount of coins. This will allow you to place more buildings and discover more places to explore.\n\nResources are your lifeblood within the kingdom. These can be sold at the market, or can be used to craft even more items. Resources cannot be acquired without exchanging something for it, however. Different constructs within the game will require specific items before they can cough up resources. Examples of these are axes for wood, water for apples, wood for arrows, as well as different combinations of items for more elaborate recipes.\n\nAll resources are placed within the central storage. This area, however, has limited capacity, and players must either sell off or craft items to free up precious space. Players can also choose to upgrade the storage capacity by collecting the required items for this process.\n\nIt is also important to note that resources usually have wait times before they can be collected. These can range from a few minutes to several hours. Like most things within the game, players can speed up this process by spending crowns.\n\nSelling items is the main way to get coins, and this can be done in one of two ways. Myra’s Market is the place where players can sell off items in differing quantities, and the prices offered for them are fixed. Another option is to connect via Facebook, where players can set quantities and prices for the specific items that they want to sell. This is the easiest way for players to get items that do not have, provided that they have enough coins to complete the purchase.\n\nBuying and selling with Facebook friends, however, will require players to connect the game to their Facebook account, and will also require an Internet connection.\n\nQuests are the tasks or set of tasks that players must perform in order to push the story forward. Many quests can be done at the same time, and your progress can be checked by pulling up the Quest Logs screen. Quests will provide players with coins as well as experience, and this is arguably the easiest way to level up while utilizing all items currently available to you. Prioritize the completion of quests above all else to make the most out of the game.\n\n\nComments are closed.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7668551206588745}
{"content": "\n\n* This is a professional Version *\n\nAir Pollution–Related Illness\n\nby Lee S. Newman, MD, MA\n\nThe major components of air pollution in developed countries are nitrogen dioxide (from combustion of fossil fuels), ozone (from the effect of sunlight on nitrogen dioxide and hydrocarbons), and suspended solid or liquid particles. Indoors, passive smoking is an additional source, as is burning of biomass fuel (eg, wood, animal waste, crops) in developing countries (eg, for cooking and heating).\n\nHigh levels of air pollution can adversely affect lung function and trigger asthma and COPD exacerbations. Air pollution also increases risk of acute cardiovascular events (eg, MI) and development of coronary artery disease. People living in areas with a large amount of traffic, especially when stagnant air is created by thermal inversions, are at particular risk. All of the so-called criteria air pollutants (oxides of nitrogen, oxides of sulfur, ozone, carbon monoxide, lead, particulates), except carbon monoxide and lead, cause airway hyperreactivity. Long-term exposure may increase respiratory infections and symptoms in the general population, especially in children, and can decrease lung function in children.\n\n\n\n\nAir pollution data have raised concerns regarding the potential health effects of even smaller particles, so-called nanoparticles, but clinical evidence of disorders related to exposure to nanoparticles has yet to be reported.\n\n* This is a professional Version *", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9129489064216614}
{"content": "Rosalba Carriera\n\n\nOne of the most successful women artists of any era, the Venetian-born Rosalba Carriera spent most of her life fulfilling commissions for distinguished patrons at courts across 18th-century Europe.\n\nThe daughter of a clerk and a lace maker, Carriera began her career painting miniatures—mostly portraits and allegorical subjects. Such works quickly established her reputation within the Italian artistic establishment and gained her acceptance into Rome’s Accademia di San Luca in 1704.\n\nCarriera is best known for her innovative approach to pastels, which had previously been used for informal drawings and preparatory sketches. She is credited with popularizing their use as a medium for serious portraiture.\n\nIn 1720, Carriera spent a triumphant year in Paris, visiting art collections, meeting French artists, and creating portraits of prominent individuals, including the young Louis XV. She later worked in Modena and Austria, assisted by her sister Giovanna. Her greatest patron, Augustus III of Poland, sat for her in 1713 and amassed more than 150 of her pastels.\n\nCarriera’s last two decades were marred by the emotional and physical traumas of her sister Giovanna’s death in 1738 and the loss of her own sight eight years later, but her work continued to influence artists, such as French portraitists Adélaïde Labille-Guiard and Elisabeth Louise Vigée-LeBrun.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9997406601905823}
{"content": "Print|Email|Text Size: ||\nDo Animals Have Emotions?\n\n\n\nTo what degree various species share this capability remains to be seen, but there is compelling evidence that humans are not alone in possessing it. Diana monkeys and chimpanzees help one another acquire food, and elephants comfort others in distress. Mirror neurons also help explain observations of rhesus monkeys who won’t accept food if another monkey suffers when they do so, and empathic mice who react more strongly to painful stimuli after they observed other mice in pain.\n\nThe borders between “them” and “us” are murky and permeable, and the study of animal emotions helps inform the big question of just who we are. Another big question for which answers are revealed by studying animal passions is, “Can animals be moral beings?” In my development of the phenomenon that I call “wild justice,” I argue that they can. Many animals know right from wrong and live according to a moral code.\n\nWhen people tell me that they love animals because they’re feeling beings and then go on to abuse them, I tell them that I’m glad they don’t love me. I often ask researchers who conduct invasive work with animals or people who work on factory farms, “Would you do that to your dog?” Some are startled to hear this question, but if people won’t do something to their own dog that they do daily to other dogs or to mice, rats, cats, monkeys, pigs, cows, elephants or chimpanzees, we need to know why. There’s no doubt whatsoever that, when it comes to what we can and cannot do to other animals, it’s their emotions that should inform our discussions and our actions on their behalf.\n\nEmotions are the gifts of our ancestors. We have them, and so do other animals. We must never forget this. When it comes to animal welfare, we can always do better. Most of the time, “good welfare” is not good enough.\n\n\n\n", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8746628165245056}
{"content": "This Encyclopedia constitutes a preliminary source of information on various aspects of the transnational trade in cultural objects. It comprises an inter-linked collection of short entries, grouped together and organized according to the headings Case Studies, Law, Theory & Method and Terminology. They are further sorted by Place and by Subject.\n\n\n\nA figurine from the Cara Sucia region that is in the National Museum of El Salvador\n\nCara Sucia\n\nCara Sucia is a Salvadoran archaeological site which experienced several major episodes of looting. These inspired the United States to enter into both its first UNESCO Convention-based emergency import restrictions and its first UNESCO Convention-based cultural property bilateral agreement.\n\nSevso treasure return to Hungary\n\nHungarian claim on the Sevso Treasure\n\n\nMotunui panels\n\nMotunui Panels\n\nFive elaborately carved panels that were smuggled, sold, (almost) used to pay a kidnapping ransom, subject to a landmark court case, and were returned to New Zealand in 2014.\n\nPilling Collection figurines\n\nPilling Collection of Fremont Culture Figurines\n\nA Fremont Culture figurine stolen from the collection of a Utah museum and anonymously returned nearly four decades later.\n\n\nPlaceres Stucco Temple Facade\n\n\nAidonia 4 Anemon\n\nAidonia Treasure\n\n\n\nNovember Collection of Maya Pottery\n\n\nSeized antiquities from the Bulgerian Interior Ministry of Tourism\n\nIllicit Antiquities\n\nWhy the use of ‘illicit’ rather than ‘illegal’ or ‘criminal’ in the literature when talking about the international market in looted antiquities?\n\nUbina coin from Postimees.ee news article\n\nUbina Hoard\n\nDiscovery of Viking-age silver, looted from a site in northern Estonia, in a German auction house, and their subsequent return, led to the first ever instance of a successful prosecution against looting and trafficking of cultural objects in Estonia.\n\n\nHoi An Shipwreck\n", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9966292381286621}
{"content": "\n\n    ASTM Committee D02\n    Published: 1986\n\n      Format Pages Price  \n    PDF (2.2M) $55   ADD TO CART\n    Hardcopy (shipping and handling) $55   ADD TO CART\n    Hardcopy + PDF Bundle - Save 25%\n    (shipping and handling)\n    $82.50   ADD TO CART\n\n    Offers detailed procedures for performing the API GL-5 gear tests. The procedures are part of the technical language for describing the performance of automotive gear lubricants, which will satisfy manual transmission and axle requirements of modern passenger cars and trucks.\n\n    Committee: D02\n\n    DOI: 10.1520/STP512A-EB\n\n    ISBN-EB: 978-0-8031-4958-8\n\n    ISBN-13: 978-0-8031-0940-7\n\n    ASTM International is a member of CrossRef.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9890791177749634}
{"content": "DVD shows McCartney here, there, everywhere\n\nOf all the Beatles, Paul McCartney was the workaholic.\n\nHe usually was the first one to arrive at the studio for a session, and was the last one to leave.\n\nThat work ethic held true long after the Beatles' split in 1970, as Sir Paul continued recording and touring.\n\nComposing and performing have been instinctive for McCartney, who obviously is not content being the most commercially successful of his former band mates, but rather, as his impressive solo discography proves, he equally prides himself on being the most prolific.\n\n&quot;The McCartney Years&quot; (Rhino) is a sprawling three-DVD travelogue of the former Beatle's solo career that gathers all of his videos that begin with 1970's &quot;Maybe I'm Amazed&quot; through 1995's &quot;Fine Line.&quot;\n\nAdditionally, essential live performances from Wings' 1976 tour, MTV's Unplugged and the finale from Live Aid are among the 42 songs on this collection.\n\nMost of these clips previously were unavailable, and not only are they seldom-seen performances, but the box set also serves as an offhanded history of the video music genre itself. The set includes a basic promotional film disguised as a commercial (&quot;Band on the Run&quot;) and full-blown, near-embarrassing cinematic productions (&quot;Say Say Say&quot;).\n\nSome curious entries that may have escaped the notice of the most devoted fan: the somber &quot;Little Willow,&quot; the late-'80s Europop of &quot;Once Upon A Long Ago&quot; and the melodic punch of the gritty &quot;Off the Ground.&quot;\n\nAnd sure, some videos border on clich&#233; themes and effects, but the less dazzling visuals are more than salvaged by McCartney's magnetic melodies and ever-present charisma.\n\nStill, the kitschy &quot;Goodnight Tonight&quot; and the one-man-band-goof of &quot;Coming Up&quot; show that McCartney was adept at devising clever visuals to match his always impressive gift for ultra-catchy pop, and those moments are what make &quot;The McCartney Years&quot; worth reliving.\n\n\nThe McCartney Years (Rhino), Paul McCartney\n\n", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.51740562915802}
{"content": "Citizen Reporting of DUI- Extra Eyes to Identify Impaired Driving\n\n\n\nThis report summarizes the evaluation by the Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation (PIRE) of Montgomery County, Maryland’s citizen reporting program Operation Extra Eyes, under the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Task Order “Citizen Reporting of DUI—Extra Eyes to Identify Impaired Driving,” under Contract DTNH22-02-D-95121.\n\nDriving Under the Influence and General Deterrence\n\nDespite the reduction in alcohol-related traffic fatalities over the past two decades, driving under the influence (DUI) and driving while intoxicated (DWI) remain a significant problem in the United States. In 2004, 16,694 people died in alcohol-related crashes (NHTSA, 2006a), and an estimated 248,000 people were injured in crashes where police reported that alcohol was present (NHTSA, 2004). According to the Household Survey on Drug Abuse (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services, 2002), 1 in 10 Americans report driving while under the influence of alcohol.\n\nThe reduction in alcohol-related fatalities over time (from 60% of all crash fatalities in 1982 to 40% in 2004) can largely be attributed to the passage of several significant legislative pieces. These include lower per se blood alcohol concentration (BAC) laws (e.g., Hingson, Heeren, and Winter, 1994, 1996; Voas, Johnson, and Fell, 1995; Wagenaar, Zobeck, Hingson, and Williams, 1995; Shults et al., 2001), administrative license revocation (ALR) laws (Beirness, Simpson, Mayhew, and Jonah, 1997; Klein, 1989; Voas, Tippetts, and Taylor, 1999; Zador, Lund, Field, and Weinberg, 1988), minimum legal drinking age laws (U.S. General Accounting Office, 1987; Toomey, Rosenfeld, and Wagenaar, 1996), and zero-tolerance laws (Blomberg, 1992; Hingson, Heeren, and Winter 1994; Zwerling and Jones, 1999).\n\nThe arrests resulting from enforcement of these impaired driving laws do not necessarily account directly for the reduction in alcohol-related injuries. Rather, publicity and media coverage regarding enforcement, raising public awareness of the risks associated with DUI, and high-visibility enforcement (such as sobriety checkpoints) have affected alcohol- and drug-impaired driving by increasing the sense of risk among prospective impaired drivers. Much of the effectiveness of impaired driving enforcement activity is attributed to general deterrence (Ross, 1984). The awareness that quick, certain, and severe punishments result from DWI events also has contributed to the reduction in impaired driving fatalities (Edwards et al., 1994; Hingson, 1996). The most significant of these factors is the public’s perception of the risk of apprehension (Ross and Voas, 1989).\n\nCitizen Reporting Programs\n\nThe concept of citizen reporting of impaired driving has been in place for decades in the United States but has not been carefully evaluated as a separate countermeasure. In its simplest form, citizen reporting has been merely an encouragement to citizens to report suspected impaired driving so that police may be dispatched to look for, evaluate the driving of, and apprehend suspected impaired drivers. For example, in the early 1980s, as a part of a test combining enforcement and public information to deter impaired driving, the Boise Police Department enhanced and publicized the Idaho “Report Every Drunk Driver Immediately” (REDDI) program. This program encouraged citizen reporting using a hotline to the Idaho State Police dispatcher. The\n\nBoise program used press releases, radio public service advertisements (PSAs), and billboards to publicize the program both to encourage citizen reporting and to raise the perceived risk of detection and apprehension by potential impaired drivers. Additionally, the Boise Police Department implemented a procedure in which letters were sent to the registered owners of vehicles reported by citizens to be operated by suspected, but not apprehended, impaired drivers. These letters reported the event and urged responsible behavior in the future (Lacey et al., 1990).\n\nThe National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) included the adoption of the citizen reporting program among its recommendations to State governors in the early 1980s; consequently, 12 additional States adopted REDDI programs, bringing the total to 18 by August 1983. These programs reported 49,719 citizen calls, resulting in 12,070 police contacts and 7,662 DWI arrests. The board said that with such programs, “the detection capabilities of the police have been expanded and the deterrent effect of DUI enforcement programs has been increased” (NTSB, 1984).\n\nREDDI programs still exist and provide variants of the NHTSA DUI detection cues and public reporting procedures. Typically, press releases are issued during the holiday season to remind the public to be on the look out for alcohol-impaired drivers.\n\nMontgomery County, Maryland has adopted an additional, more focused variant of the citizen reporting concept in which private citizens are trained in detection cues and equipped with communication devices so they can report suspected impaired drivers more directly and quickly to the police on scheduled nights. They often are deployed during times of intensified enforcement, such as saturation patrols, allowing police to respond more quickly to potential violations. This activity is often supplemented by student volunteers who are stationed in police vehicles or in arrest processing areas and assist police officers in fulfilling DUI paperwork requirements.\n\nStudy Significance and Objectives\n\n\nResources for impaired driving law enforcement are diminishing, mainly due to State budget adjustments as well as officer burnout. To supplement traditional enforcement resources, the Montgomery County Police developed the Operation Extra Eyes program. This innovative program uses community volunteers, not only to provide assistance for impaired driving efforts, but also to demonstrate support to law enforcement.\nAlthough citizen reporting programs are fairly widespread and are thought to be a “good thing,” there is little objective information to justify that opinion. NHTSA initiated a review of citizen reporting programs such as Extra Eyes to assess whether such programs are potentially effective in helping to reduce impaired driving.\n\n\nThis study has two main objectives: (1) document the citizen anti-impaired driving activities conducted by law enforcement agencies in Montgomery County, Maryland, and (2) assess the program’s possible effect on impaired driving.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9804530143737793}
{"content": "Health knowledge made personal\nJoin this community!\n› Share page:\nSearch posts:\n\nKidney stones – an overview\n\nPosted Mar 14 2012 4:30am\n\nThis article, by a Consultant Urological Surgeon, discusses the problem of kidneyOne of two bean-shaped organs that are located on either side of the body, below the ribcage. The main role of the kidneys is to filter out waste products from the blood. stones. This is an increasingly common condition and this article outlines what kidney stones are and how they can be prevented.\n\nKidney stones, one of the most painful of the urologic disorders, have beset humans for centuries. Scientists have found evidence of kidney stones in a 7,000-year-old Egyptian mummy. Unfortunately, kidney stones are one of the most common disorders of the urinary tractThe channels that carry urine from the kidneys to the outside of the body..\n\nA selection of kidney stones from the same patient but removed at different times\n\nA kidney stone is a hard mass developed from crystals that separate from the urine within the urinary tract. Normally, urine contains chemicals that prevent or inhibit these crystals from forming. These inhibitors do not seem to work for everyone, so some people form stones. If the crystals remain tiny enough, they will travel through the urinary tract and pass out of the body in the urine without being noticed.\n\n\nA less common type of stone is caused by an infectionInvasion by organisms that may be harmful, for example bacteria or parasites. in the urinary tract. This type of stone is called a struvite infection or triple phosphate stones as they are made up of magnesium, ammonium and phosphate. Another type of stone, uric acidA waste product of the breakdown of nucleic acids in body cells. stones, are a bit less common, and cystine stones are rare.\nUrolithiasis is the medical term used to describe stones occurring in the urinary tract. Other frequently used terms are urinary tract stone disease and nephrolithiasis. Urologists may also use terms that describe the location of the stone in the urinary tract.\n\n\nFor unknown reasons, the number of people in the United Kingdom with kidney stones has been increasing over the past 30 years. In the late 1970s, less than four per cent of the population had stone-forming disease. By the early 1990s, the portion of the population with the disease had increased to more than five per cent.\n\n  • Caucasians are more proneLying face-downwards. to develop kidney stones than Africans.\n  • Stones occur more frequently in men.\n  • Women most often develop kidney stones in their fifties.\n\nThe prevalence of kidney stones rises dramatically as men enter their 40s and continues to rise into their 70s. For women, the prevalence of kidney stones peaks in their 50s, however, in recent times, the peak age of stone formation in female appears to be falling. Now 13.1% of all male and 19.6% of all female stone-formers form their first stone before the age of 20 compared with 4.7% and 4.0% respectively in 1975. Once a person gets more than one stone, other stones are likely to develop.\n\n\nA person with a family history of kidney stones may be more likely to develop stones. Urinary tract infections, kidney disorders such as cystic kidney diseases, and certain metabolic disordersA group of disorders in which some aspect of body chemistry is disturbed. such as hyperparathyroidismExcessive secretion of parathyroid hormone from the parathyroid glands. are also linked to stone formation.\n\nIn addition, more than 70 per cent of people with a rare hereditary disease called renalRelating to the kidney. tubular acidosis develop kidney stones.\n\nCystinuria and hyperoxaluria are two other rare, inherited metabolic disorders that often cause kidney stones. In cystinuria, too much of the amino acidAn organic compound that is the basic building block of all proteins. cystine, which does not dissolve in urine, is excreted, leading to the formation of stones made of cystine. In patients with hyperoxaluria, the body produces too much oxalate, a salt. When the urine contains more oxalate than can be dissolved, the crystals settle out and form stones.\n\nHypercalciuria is inherited, and it may be the cause of stones in more than half of patients. In this condition, calcium is absorbed from food in excess and is lost into the urine. This high level of calcium in the urine causes crystals of calcium oxalate or calcium phosphate to form in the kidneys or elsewhere in the urinary tract.\n\nOther causes of kidney stones are hyperuricosuriaA medical condition whereby there are excessive amounts of uric acid present in the urine., which is a disorder of uric acid metabolismThe chemical reactions necessary to sustain life.; goutA common metabolic disorder that causes attacks of arthritis, usually in a single joint. Gout is due to high levels of uric acid in the blood.; excess intake of vitaminEssential substances that cannot be produced by the body and so must be acquired from the diet. D; urinary tract infections; and blockage of the urinary tract. Certain diureticsDrugs that help to remove excess water from the body by increasing the amount lost in urine., commonly called water pills, and calcium-based antacids may increase the risk of forming kidney stones by increasing the amount of calcium in the urine.\n\nA calcium oxalate stone\n\nCalcium oxalate stones may also form in people who have chronicA disease of long duration generally involving slow changes. inflammationThe body’s response to injury. of the bowelA common name for the large and/or small intestines. or who have had an intestinalrelating to the intestines, the digestive tract between the stomach and the anus bypass operation, or stoma surgery. As mentioned earlier, struvite stones can form in people who have had a urinary tract infection. People who take the protease inhibitor indinavir, a medicine used to treat HIVThe abbreviation for human immunodeficiency virus, which is the cause of AIDS. infection, may also be at an increased risk of developing kidney stones.\n\n\nHigh-oxalate foods (from highest to lowest)\n\n  • Rhubarb, spinach, wheat germ, soybean crackers, peanuts, okra, chocolate, black Indian tea, sweet potatoes, strawberries.\n\nOrange juice is the most effective way to keep stones from forming. This is because it increases the alkalinity, and thus increases the potassiumAn element that is one of the main ions, or charged atoms, of intracellular fluid, and is also important in nerve and muscle function. and citrate content of the urine which helps prevent stone formation. Grapefruit, pineapple, and apple juice also help, but not quite as much as orange juice. Cranberry and lemon juice do not increase the citrate content, although they may reduce the rate at which stones form. High levels of citrate in urine helps prevent stone formation.\n\n\nTypically, a person feels a sharp, cramping pain in the back and side in the area of the kidney or in the lower abdomenThe part of the body that contains the stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder and other organs. which is called renal colic Spasms of severe pain in one side of the back usually caused by a kidney stone passing down the ureter. . Sometimes nausea and vomitingExpusion of the contents of the stomach through the mouth. occur. Later, pain may spread to the groin.\n\nIf the stone is too large to pass easily, pain continues as the muscles in the wall of the narrow ureterA tube that carries urine from the kidneys to the bladder. try to squeeze the stone into the bladderThe organ that stores urine.. As the stone moves and the body tries to push it out, bloodA fluid that transports oxygen and other substances through the body, made up of blood cells suspended in a liquid. may appear in the urine, making the urine pink. As the stone moves down the ureter, closer to the bladder, a person may feel the need to urinate more often or feel a burning sensation during urinationThe passing of urine from the body..\n\nIf feverThe raising of the body temperature above norma, which may be accompanied by symptoms such as shivering, headache and sweating. and chills accompany any of these symptoms, an infection may be present. In this case, a person should contact a doctor immediately or see a urologistA specialist in the treatment of diseases of the urinary tract, the channels that carry urine from the kidneys to the outside of the body..\n\nKidney stones – an overview\n\nSometimes “silent” stones those that do not cause symptoms are found on radiological imaging taken during a general health exam. If the stones are small, they will often pass out of the body un-noticed. Often, kidney stones are found on an x-ray, ultrasoundA diagnostic method in which very high frequency sound waves are passed into the body and the reflective echoes analysed to build a picture of the internal organs – or of the foetus in the uterus. or computerized tomography (CTThe abbreviation for computed tomography, a scan that generates a series of cross-sectional x-ray images) scan taken of someone who complains of blood in the urine or sudden pain. These diagnostic images give the doctor valuable information about the stone’s size and location. Blood and urine tests help detect any abnormal substance that might promote stone formation.\n\n\nThe doctor may ask the patient to collect urine for 24 hours after a stone has passed or been removed. For a 24-hour urine collection, the patient is given a large container, which is to be refrigerated between trips to the bathroom. The collection is used to measure urine volume and levels of acidity, calcium, sodiumOne of the chemical components of salt (sodium chloride) and an important blood chemical., uric acid, oxalate, citrate, and creatinineA product of the breakdown of creatine in muscle (creatine itself is fromed from the breakdown of protein).a product of muscle metabolism. The doctor will use this information to determine the cause of the stone. A second 24-hour urine collection may be needed to determine whether the prescribed treatment is working.\n\nPost a comment\nWrite a comment:\n\nRelated Searches", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9149743914604187}
{"content": "Browse Dictionary by Letter\n\nDictionary Suite\nactivate to initiate action in; make active. [5 definitions]\nactivated carbon a form of very porous and thus very absorbent carbon, produced by heating charcoal so as to empty out contained gases, and used to absorb other gases, recover solvents, deodorize, and the like; activated charcoal.\nactivated charcoal see activated carbon.\nactive constantly doing something; busy; energetic. [6 definitions]\nactive duty the status of full-time service or work, esp. in the military.\nactively in a way that involves making an effort, taking action, or participating; not passively.\nactivism the belief in or practice of trying to make social or political changes through active, militant, or demonstrative involvement, esp. in particular issues.\nactivist one who advocates a cause with vigor or militance.\nactivity the condition or state of being active. [4 definitions]\nactor one who plays roles in dramatic productions on stage, in films, or on radio and television. [2 definitions]\nactress a woman or girl who plays roles in dramatic productions.\nActs see Acts of the Apostles.\nactual truly existing or happening, not just potentially or in the imagination. [3 definitions]\nactuality the state or fact of truly or currently existing; reality. [2 definitions]\nactualize to make real; to give substance to.\nactually as a matter of fact; really. [2 definitions]\nactuary a person who calculates insurance rates, risks, and dividends on the basis of statistical probabilities.\nactuate to put into action or set in motion; cause to operate. [2 definitions]", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5466368198394775}
{"content": "Carol B. Lynch\nProfessor Emeritus\n\nPh.D., University of Iowa, 1971\n\nCarol B.  Lynch\nResearch Interests The genetic basis of evolutionary adaptation, and brain mechanisms underlying adaptive behaviors. A model system has been the study of cold adaptation in mice, with emphasis on nest-building. We have available replicated genetic lines in mice that have been selectively bred for over 60 generations for differences in nest-building. These lines also differ in genetically correlated traits, such as body weight and litter size, as well as circadian rhythms and brain (hypothalmus) neurochemistry and neuroanatomy. These lines facilitate studies of both constraints on adaptive evolution, and the path from genes to behavior.\nSelected Publications\n\nBult, A. and C.B. Lynch . 1996. Multiple selection responses in house mice bedirectionally selected for thermoregulatory nest-building behavior: crosses of replicate lines. Behav. Genet. 26 (in press).\n\nBult, A., L. Hiestand, E.A. van der Zee, and C.B. Lynch . 1993. Circadian rhythms differ between selected mouse lines: a model to study the role of vasopressin neurons in the suprachiasmatic nuclei. Brain Res. Bull. 32:623-627.\n\nLynch , C.B. 1994. Evolutionary inferences from genetic analyses of cold adaptation in laboratory and wild populations of the house mouse, pp. 278-301, in C.R.B. Boake (ed.) Quantitative genetic studies of behavioral evolution. University of Chicago Press.\n\nLynch , C.B. 1992. Clinal variation in cold adaptation in Mus domesticus: verification of predictions from laboratory populations. Am. Nat. 139:1219-1236.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9834566116333008}
{"content": "Open Access Highly Accessed Research\n\n\n\nAuthor Affiliations\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFor all author emails, please log on.\n\nGenome Biology 2011, 12:R81  doi:10.1186/gb-2011-12-8-r81\n\nPublished: 19 August 2011\n\n\n\nWe present the genome sequence of the tammar wallaby, Macropus eugenii, which is a member of the kangaroo family and the first representative of the iconic hopping mammals that symbolize Australia to be sequenced. The tammar has many unusual biological characteristics, including the longest period of embryonic diapause of any mammal, extremely synchronized seasonal breeding and prolonged and sophisticated lactation within a well-defined pouch. Like other marsupials, it gives birth to highly altricial young, and has a small number of very large chromosomes, making it a valuable model for genomics, reproduction and development.\n\n\nThe genome has been sequenced to 2 × coverage using Sanger sequencing, enhanced with additional next generation sequencing and the integration of extensive physical and linkage maps to build the genome assembly. We also sequenced the tammar transcriptome across many tissues and developmental time points. Our analyses of these data shed light on mammalian reproduction, development and genome evolution: there is innovation in reproductive and lactational genes, rapid evolution of germ cell genes, and incomplete, locus-specific X inactivation. We also observe novel retrotransposons and a highly rearranged major histocompatibility complex, with many class I genes located outside the complex. Novel microRNAs in the tammar HOX clusters uncover new potential mammalian HOX regulatory elements.\n\n\nAnalyses of these resources enhance our understanding of marsupial gene evolution, identify marsupial-specific conserved non-coding elements and critical genes across a range of biological systems, including reproduction, development and immunity, and provide new insight into marsupial and mammalian biology and genome evolution.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.800437867641449}
{"content": "Archive for the 'monetary policy' Category\n\nForget the Monetary Base and Just Pay Attention to the Price Level\n\n\n\nHere is how Hirshleifer concludes his discussion:\n\n\nAnother passage from Hirshleifer is also worth quoting:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nJohn Cochrane Explains Neo-Fisherism\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nAgain, we don’t have to be that pure.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nJust How Infamous Was that Infamous Open Letter to Bernanke?\n\nThere’s been a lot of comment recently about the infamous 2010 open letter to Ben Bernanke penned by an assorted group of economists, journalists, and financiers warning that the Fed’s quantitative easing policy would cause inflation and currency debasement.\n\nCritics of that letter (e.g., Paul Krugman and Brad Delong) have been having fun with the signatories, ridiculing them for what now seems like a chicken-little forecast of disaster. Those signatories who have responded to inquiries about how they now feel about that letter, notably Cliff Asness and Nial Ferguson, have made two arguments: 1) the letter was just a warning that QE was creating a risk of inflation, and 2) despite the historically low levels of inflation since the letter was written, the risk that inflation could increase as a result of QE still exists.\n\nFor the most part, critics of the open letter have focused on the absence of inflation since the Fed adopted QE, the critics characterizing the absence of inflation despite QE as an easily predictable outcome, a straightforward implication of basic macroeconomics, which it was ignorant or foolish of the signatories to have ignored. In particular, the signatories should have known that, once interest rates fall to the zero lower bound, the demand for money becoming highly elastic so that the public willingly holds any amount of money that is created, monetary policy is rendered ineffective. Just as a semantic point, I would observe that the term “liquidity trap” used to describe such a situation is actually a slight misnomer inasmuch as the term was coined to describe a situation posited by Keynes in which the demand for money becomes elastic above the zero lower bound. So the assertion that monetary policy is ineffective at the zero lower bound is actually a weaker claim than the one Keynes made about the liquidity trap. As I have suggested previously, the current zero-lower-bound argument is better described as a Hawtreyan credit deadlock than a Keynesian liquidity trap.\n\nSorry, but I couldn’t resist the parenthetical history-of-thought digression; let’s get back to that infamous open letter.\n\nThose now heaping scorn on signatories to the open letter are claiming that it was obvious that quantitative easing would not increase inflation. I must confess that I did not think that that was the case; I believed that quantitative easing by the Fed could indeed produce inflation. And that’s why I was in favor of quantitative easing. I was hoping for a repeat of what I have called the short but sweat recovery of 1933, when, in the depths of the Great Depression, almost immediately following the worst financial crisis in American history capped by a one-week bank holiday announced by FDR upon being inaugurated President in March 1933, the US economy, propelled by a 14% rise in wholesale prices in the aftermath of FDR’s suspension of the gold standard and 40% devaluation of the dollar, began the fastest expansion it ever had, industrial production leaping by 70% from April to July, and the Dow Jones average more than doubling. Unfortunately, FDR spoiled it all by getting Congress to pass the monumentally stupid National Industrial Recovery Act, thereby strangling the recovery with mandatory wage increases, cost increases, and regulatory ceilings on output as a way to raise prices. Talk about snatching defeat from the jaws of victory!\n\nInflation having worked splendidly as a recovery strategy during the Great Depression, I have believed all along that we could quickly recover from the Little Depression if only we would give inflation a chance. In the Great Depression, too, there were those that argued either that monetary policy is ineffective – “you can’t push on a string” — or that it would be calamitous — causing inflation and currency debasement – or, even both. But the undeniable fact is that inflation worked; countries that left the gold standard recovered, because once currencies were detached from gold, prices could rise sufficiently to make production profitable again, thereby stimulating multiplier effects (aka supply-side increases in resource utilization) that fueled further economic expansion. And oh yes, don’t forget providing badly needed relief to debtors, relief that actually served the interests of creditors as well.\n\nSo my problem with the open letter to Bernanke is not that the letter failed to recognize the existence of a Keynesian liquidity trap or a Hawtreyan credit deadlock, but that the open letter viewed inflation as the problem when, in my estimation at any rate, inflation is the solution.\n\nNow, it is certainly possible that, as critics of the open letter maintain, monetary policy at the zero lower bound is ineffective. However, there is evidence that QE announcements, at least initially, did raise inflation expectations as reflected in TIPS spreads. And we also know (see my paper) that for a considerable period of time (from 2008 through at least 2012) stock prices were positively correlated with inflation expectations, a correlation that one would not expect to observe under normal circumstances.\n\nSo why did the huge increase in the monetary base during the Little Depression not cause significant inflation even though monetary policy during the Great Depression clearly did raise the price level in the US and in the other countries that left the gold standard? Well, perhaps the success of monetary policy in ending the Great Depression could not be repeated under modern conditions when all currencies are already fiat currencies. It may be that, starting from an interwar gold standard inherently biased toward deflation, abandoning the gold standard created, more or less automatically, inflationary expectations that allowed prices to rise rapidly toward levels consistent with a restoration of macroeconomic equilibrium. However, in the current fiat money system in which inflation expectations have become anchored to an inflation target of 2 percent or less, no amount of money creation can budge inflation off its expected path, especially at the zero lower bound, and especially when the Fed is paying higher interest on reserves than yielded by short-term Treasuries.\n\nUnder our current inflation-targeting monetary regime, the expectation of low inflation seems to have become self-fulfilling. Without an explicit increase in the inflation target or the price-level target (or the NGDP target), the Fed cannot deliver the inflation that could provide a significant economic stimulus. So the problem, it seems to me, is not that we are stuck in a liquidity trap; the problem is that we are stuck in an inflation-targeting monetary regime.\n\n\nMisunderstanding (Totally!) Competitive Currency Devaluations\n\nBefore becoming Governor of the Resesrve Bank of India, Raghuram Rajan professor was Professor of Finance at the University of Chicago Business School. Winner of the Fischer Black Prize in 2003, he is the author numerous articles in leading academic journals in economics and finance, and co-author (with Luigi Zingales) of a well-regarded book Saving Capitalism from the Capitalists that had some valuable insights about financial-market dysfunction. He is obviously no slouch.\n\nUnfortunately, based on recent reports, Goverenor Rajan is, despite his impressive resume and academic credentials, as Marcus Nunes pointed out on his blog, totally clueless about the role of monetary policy and the art of central banking in combating depressions. Here is the evidence provided by none other than the Wall Street Journal, a newspaper whose editorial page espouses roughly the same view as Rajan, summarizing Rajan’s remarks.\n\nReserve Bank of India Governor Raghuram Rajan warned Wednesday that the global economy bears an increasing resemblance to its condition in the 1930s, with advanced economies trying to pull out of the Great Recession at each other’s expense.\n\n\nA clear symptom of the major imbalances crippling the world’s financial market is the over valuation of the euro, Mr. Rajan said.\n\nThe euro-zone economy faces problems similar to those faced by developing economies, with the European Central Bank’s “very, very accommodative stance” having a reduced impact due to the ultra-loose monetary policies being pursued by other central banks, including the Federal Reserve, the Bank of Japan and the Bank of England.\n\nThe notion that competitive currency devaluations in the Great Depression were a zero-sum game is fallacy, an influential fallacy to be sure, but a fallacy nonetheless. And because it is – and was — so influential, it is a highly dangerous fallacy. There is indeed a similarity between the current situation and the 1930s, but the similarity is not that monetary ease is a zero-sum game that merely “shifts,” but does not “create,” demand; the similarity is that the fallacious notion that monetary ease does not create demand is still so prevalent.\n\nThe classic refutation of the fallacy that monetary ease only shifts, but does not create, demand was provided on numerous occasions by R. G. Hawtrey. Almost two and a half years ago, I quoted a particularly cogent passage from Hawtrey’s Trade Depression and the Way Out (2nd edition, 1933) in which he addressed the demand-shift fallacy. Hawtrey refuted the fallacy in responding to those who were arguing that Britain’s abandonment of the gold standard in September 1931 had failed to stimulate the British economy, and had damaged the world economy, because prices continued falling after Britain left the gold standard. Hawtrey first discussed the reasons for the drop in the world price level after Britain gave up the gold standard.\n\nWhen Great Britain left the gold standard, deflationary measures were everywhere resorted to. Not only did the Bank of England raise its rate, but the tremendous withdrawals of gold from the United States involved an increase of rediscounts and a rise of rates there, and the gold that reached Europe was immobilized or hoarded. . . .\n\nIn other words, Britain’s departure from the gold standard led to speculation that the US would follow Britain off the gold standard, implying an increase in the demand to hoard gold before the anticipated increase in its dollar price. That is a typical reaction under the gold standard when the probability of a devaluation is perceived to have risen. By leaving gold, Britain increased the perceived probability that other countries, and especially the US, would also leave the gold standard.\n\nThe consequence was that the fall in the price level continued [because an increase in the demand to hold gold (for any reason including speculation on a future increase in the nominal price of gold) must raise the current value of gold relative to all other commodities which means that the price of other commodities in terms of gold must fall — DG]. The British price level rose in the first few weeks after the suspension of the gold standard [because the value of the pound was falling relative to gold, implying that prices in terms of pounds rose immediately after Britain left gold — DG], but then accompanied the gold price level in its downward trend [because after the initial fall in the value of the pound relative to gold, the pound stabilized while the real value of gold continued to rise — DG]. This fall of prices calls for no other explanation than the deflationary measures which had been imposed [alarmed at the rapid fall in the value of gold, the Bank of England raised interest rates to prevent further depreciation in sterling — DG]. Indeed what does demand explanation is the moderation of the fall, which was on the whole not so steep after September 1931 as before.\n\nYet when the commercial and financial world saw that gold prices were falling rather than sterling prices rising, they evolved the purely empirical conclusion that a depreciation of the pound had no effect in raising the price level, but that it caused the price level in terms of gold and of those currencies in relation to which the pound depreciated to fall.\n\nHere Hawtrey identified precisely the demand-shift fallacy evidently now subscribed to by Governor Rajan. In other words, when Britain left the gold standard, Britain did nothing to raise the international level of prices, which, under the gold standard, is the level of prices measured in terms of gold. Britain may have achieved a slight increase in its own domestic price level, but only by imposing a corresponding reduction in the price level measured in terms of gold. Let’s see how Hawtrey demolishes the fallacy.\n\nFor any such conclusion there was no foundation. Whenever the gold price level tended to fall, the tendency would make itself felt in a fall in the pound concurrently with the fall in commodities. [Hawtrey is saying that if the gold price level fell, while the sterling price level remained constant, the value of sterling would also fall in terms of gold.DG] But it would be quite unwarrantable to infer that the fall in the pound was the cause of the fall in commodities.\n\nOn the other hand, there is no doubt that the depreciation of any currency, by reducing the cost of manufacture in the country concerned in terms of gold, tends to lower the gold prices of manufactured goods. . . . [In other words, the cost of production of manufactured goods, which include both raw materials – raw materials often being imported — and capital equipment and labor, which generally are not mobile, is unlikely to rise as much in percentage terms as the percentage depreciation in the currency. — DG]\n\nBut that is quite a different thing from lowering the price level. For the fall in manufacturing costs results in a greater demand for manufactured goods, and therefore the derivative demand for primary products is increased. [That is to say, if manufactured products become relatively cheaper as the currency depreciates, the real quantity of manufactured goods demanded will increase, and the real quantity of inputs used to produce the increased quantity of manufactured goods must also increase. — DG] While the prices of finished goods fall, the prices of primary products rise. Whether the price level as a whole would rise or fall it is not possible to say a priori, but the tendency is toward correcting the disparity between the price levels of finished products and primary products. That is a step towards equilibrium. And there is on the whole an increase of productive activity. The competition of the country which depreciates its currency will result in some reduction of output from the manufacturing industry of other countries. But this reduction will be less than the increase in the country’s output, for if there were no net increase in the world’s output there would be no fall of prices. [Thus, even though there is some demand shifting toward the country that depreciates its currency because its products become relatively cheaper than the products of non-depreciating currencies, the cost reduction favoring the output of the country with a depreciating currency could not cause an overall reduction in prices elsewhere if total output had not increased. — DG]\n\nHawtrey then articulates the policy implication of the demand-shift fallacy.\n\n\nThis competitive depreciation is an entirely imaginary danger. The benefit that a country derives from the depreciation of its currency is in the rise of its price level relative to its wage level, and does not depend on its competitive advantage. [There is a slight ambiguity here, because Hawtrey admitted above that there is a demand shift. But there is also an increase in demand, and it is the increase in demand, associated with a rise of its price level relative to its wage level, which does not depend on a competitive advantage associated with a demand shift. — DG] If other countries depreciate their currencies, its competitive advantage is destroyed, but the advantage of the price level remains both to it and to them. They in turn may carry the depreciation further, and gain a competitive advantage. But this race in depreciation reaches a natural limit when the fall in wages and in the prices of manufactured goods in terms of gold has gone so far in all the countries concerned as to regain the normal relation with the prices of primary products. When that occurs, the depression is over, and industry is everywhere remunerative and fully employed. Any countries that lag behind in the race will suffer from unemployment in their manufacturing industry. But the remedy lies in their own hands; all they have to do is to depreciate their currencies to the extent necessary to make the price level remunerative to their industry. Their tardiness does not benefit their competitors, once these latter are employed up to capacity. Indeed, if the countries that hang back are an important part of the world’s economic system, the result must be to leave the disparity of price levels partly uncorrected, with undesirable consequences to everybody. . . .\n\nThe picture of an endless competition in currency depreciation is completely misleading. The race of depreciation is towards a definite goal; it is a competitive return to equilibrium. The situation is like that of a fishing fleet threatened with a storm; no harm is done if their return to a harbor of refuge is “competitive.” Let them race; the sooner they get there the better. (pp. 154-57)\n\nHawtrey’s analysis of competitive depreciation can be further elucidated by reconsidering it in the light of Max Corden’s classic analysis of exchange-rate protection, which I have discussed several times on this blog (here, here, and here). Corden provided a deep analysis of the conditions under which exchange-rate depreciation confers a competitive advantage. For internationally traded commodities, it is hard to see how any advantage can be derived from currency manipulation. A change in the exchange rate would be rapidly offset by corresponding changes in the prices of the relevant products. However, factors of production like labor, land, and capital equipment, tend to be immobile so their prices in the local currency don’t necessarily adjust immediately to changes in exchange rate of the local currency. Hawtrey was clearly assuming that labor and capital are not tradable so that international arbitrage does not induce immediate adjusments in their prices. Also, Hawtrey’s analysis begins from a state of disequilibrirum, while Corden’s starts from equilibrium, a very important difference.\n\nHowever, even if prices of non-tradable commodities and factors of production don’t immediately adjust to exchange-rate changes, there is another mechanism operating to eliminate any competitive advantage, which is that the inflow of foreign-exchange reserves into a country with an undervalued currency (and, thus, a competitive advantage) will normally induce monetary expansion in that country, thereby raising the prices of non-tradables and factors of production. What Corden showed was that a central bank willing to tolerate a sufficiently large expansion in its foreign-reserve holdings could keep its currency undervalued, thereby maintaining a competitive advantage for its country in world markets.\n\nBut the corollary to Corden’s analysis is that to gain competitive advantage from currency depreciation requires the central bank to maintain monetary stringency (a chronic excess demand for money thus requiring a corresponding export surplus) and a continuing accumulation of foreign exchange reserves. If central banks are pursuing competitive monetary easing, which Governor Rajan likens to competitive exchange-rate depreciation aimed at shifting, not expanding, total demand, he is obviously getting worked up over nothing, because Corden demonstrated 30 years ago that a necessary condition for competitive exchange-rate depreciation is monetary tightness, not monetary ease.\n\nMonetary Theory on the Neo-Fisherite Edge\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThe Irrelevance of QE as Explained by Three Bank of England Economists\n\nAn article by Michael McLeay, Amara Radia and Ryland Thomas (“Money Creation in the Modern Economy”) published in the Bank of England Quarterly Bulletin has gotten a lot of attention recently. JKH, who liked it a lot, highlighting it on his blog, and prompting critical responses from, among others, Nick Rowe and Scott Sumner.\n\nLet’s look at the overview of the article provided by the authors.\n\n\n\n\n\nI start with a small point. What the authors mean by a “modern economy” is unclear, but presumably when they speak about the money created in a modern economy they are referring to the fact that the money held by the non-bank public has increasingly been held in the form of deposits rather than currency or coins (either tokens or precious metals). Thus, Scott Sumner’s complaint that the authors’ usage of “modern” flies in the face of the huge increase in the ratio of base money to broad money is off-target. The relevant ratio is that between currency and the stock of some measure of broad money held by the public, which is not the same as the ratio of base money to the stock of broad money.\n\nI agree that the reality of how money is created differs from the textbook money-multiplier description. See my book on free banking and various posts I have written about the money multiplier and endogenous money. There is no meaningful distinction between “normal times” and “exceptional circumstances” for purposes of understanding how money is created.\n\n\nI agree that commercial banks cannot create money without limit. They are constrained by the willingness of the public to hold their liabilities. Not all monies are the same, despite being convertible into each other at par. The ability of a bank to lend is constrained by the willingness of the public to hold the deposits of that bank rather than currency or the deposits of another bank.\n\n\nMonetary policy is certainly a constraint on money creation, but I don’t understand why it is somehow more important (the constraint of last resort?) than the demand of the public to hold money. Monetary policy, in the framework suggested by this article, affects the costs borne by banks in creating deposits. Adopting Marshallian terminology, we could speak of the two blades of a scissors. Which bade is the ultimate blade? I don’t think there is an ultimate blade. In this context, the term “normal times” refers to periods in which interest rates are above the effective zero lower bound (see the following paragraph). But the underlying confusion here is that the authors seem to think that the amount of money created by the banking system actually matters. In fact, it doesn’t matter, because (at least in the theoretical framework being described) the banks create no more and no less money that the amount that the public willingly holds. Thus the amount of bank money created has zero macroeconomic significance.\n\n\nAgain the underlying problem with this argument is the presumption that the amount of money created by banks – money convertible into the base money created by the central bank – is a magnitude with macroeconomic significance. In the framework being described, there is no macroeconomic significance to that magnitude, because the value of bank money is determined by its convertibility into central bank money and the banking system creates exactly as much money as is willingly held. If the central bank wants to affect the price level, it has to do so by creating an excess demand or excess supply of the money that it — the central bank — creates, not the money created by the banking system.\n\nQE initially increases the amount of bank deposits those companies hold (in place of the assets they sell). Those companies will then wish to rebalance their portfolios of assets by buying higher-yielding assets, raising the price of those assets and stimulating spending in the economy.\n\nIf the amount of bank deposits in the economy is the amount that the public wants to hold, QE cannot affect anything by increasing the amount of bank deposits; any unwanted bank deposits are returned to the banking system. It is only an excess of central-bank money that can possibly affect spending.\n\nAs a by-product of QE, new central bank reserves are created. But these are not an important part of the transmission mechanism. This article explains how, just as in normal times, these reserves cannot be multiplied into more loans and deposits and how these reserves do not represent ‘free money’ for banks.\n\nThe problem with the creation of new central-bank reserves by QE at the zero lower bound is that, central-bank reserves earn a higher return than alternative assets that might be held by banks, so any and all reserves created by the central bank are held willingly by the banking system. The demand of the banking for central bank reserves is unbounded at the zero-lower bound when the central bank pays a higher rate of interest than the yield on the next best alternative asset the bank could hold. If the central bank wants to increase spending, it can only do so by creating reserves that are not willingly held. Thus, in the theortetical framework described by the authors, QE cannot possibly have any effect on any macroeconomic variable. Now that’s a problem.\n\nAbout Me\n\nDavid Glasner\nWashington, DC\n\n\n\nJoin 326 other followers\n\n\nGet every new post delivered to your Inbox.\n\nJoin 326 other followers", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7298303246498108}
{"content": "In September 2008, MSF began an emergency intervention in the civilian prison of Guéckédou in southeastern Republic of Guinea.\n\nWhile gains made in the fight against HIV/AIDS in the past decade are encouraging, countries most affected by the pandemic continue to struggle to place enough people on treatment and implement the best science and strategies to fight the disease.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9892354011535645}
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{"content": "Hannah Arendt Center for Politics and Humanities\n\nAmor Mundi 8/3/14\n\nAmor Mundi\n\n\n\nThe Conservative Spirit\n\n\nIs Liberal Zionism at an End?\n\n\nThe Ivory Tower\n\n\nThe Crisis in Culture\n\n\n\"I'd Prefer To...\"\n\n\nAmerica Drops a Nuclear Bomb\n\n\n\nFeatured Events\n\n\n\n\n\n\nOctober 9-10\n\n\nRegistration is now OPEN! You can register here!\n\n\nLearn more about the conference here.\n\n\n\n\nFrom the Arendt Center Blog\n\n\nThe Hannah Arendt Center\n\nNational Security and the End of American Exceptionalism\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSo shall our nation, formed on Virtue’s plan,\nRemain the guardian of the Rights of Man,\nA vast republic, famed through every clime,\nWithout a kind, to see the end of time.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nRoger Berkowitz\n\nArnold Gehlen on Arendt’s The Human Condition\n\n\nArnold Gehlen,\"Vom tätigen Leben (Hannah Arendt)\", Merkur Vol. 159 (1961) 482-6.\n\nThe conservative anthropologist Arnold Gehlen fell out of favor in post WWII Germany largely due to his support of the Nazis: he joined the party in 1933 but continued to teach after the war following a “denazification” process. However, with the recent rediscovery of thinking influenced by philosophical anthropology in Germany, his work is again becoming important. Gehlen can be seen as one pole of a broader debate about the relationship between the abstract qualities of humans and their environment. Gehlen’s signature idea describes man as a \"deficient being\" (Mängelwesen) who develops culture, including technology in the broader and narrower senses, as a kind of armor for survival. Man’s physical weakness ultimately forces him to create his own environment, but this is more a sign of the constant threat he is under rather than an opportunity for great progressive changes.\n\nPeter Sloterdijk, a major figure in the re-emergence of philosophical anthropology has pressed the issue with his recent description of culture as “human zoo” that houses mankind. For Sloterdijk, man is a beastly creature, one who has over centuries struggled to tame himself with cultural ideals and the brute force of laws. As mass society has dissolved the cultural bonds of humanism, Sloterdijk writes, man is increasingly forced into the cages of a human zoo.\n\n\nGehlen was likely drawn to Arendt’s work by the broad scope of her history of civilization. He was interested in where humanity came from and where it is going. Some of these aspects might seem speculative, and indeed Arendt’s celebration of the Greeks and criticism of modern life continue to be fiercely criticized while her more technical innovations in terms of action and judgment garner broader acclaim (even if they still lead to debates over specifics). From a certain point of view, Gehlen’s Arendt is an thinker of a grand narrative and his review makes us ask about the value of such stories even when we are skeptical of their ultimate validity.\n\nGehlen’s forgotten but broadly positive review of The Human Condition offers a balanced evaluation of the book and a snapshot of it long before scholars built up the Arendt we know today of “action,” “natality,” and “judgment.” In terms of method, Gehlen praises Arendt's \"ideological abstinence.\" Her sobriety in relation to established political frames of reference tended to get her in trouble during her lifetime, especially from her Left- leaning friends for her critique of Marx (despite her explicit remarks on her appreciation of his work). While Gehlen’s phrasing may have something of the coy conservative in it, I think is it a fitting way to describe her point of view. The independence of her work can be seen as a commitment to analysis that resists getting carried away by the overblown and often underdefined notions of the day.\n\nPositively, Gehlen refers to Arendt’s \"magnificent and dire analysis of contemporary scientific-technological culture and its massive biological repercussions.\" If philosophical anthropology inquires into the connection between the human environment and life, Arendt offers an update by specifying the technological dimension of culture. Saying she connects it to biology per se is a provocation on Gehlen’s part though it is one worth considering. Much work remains to be done on Arendt’s use of philosophers of science and her critical contribution to this field. Her engagement goes well beyond the better known references to Heisenberg and Whitehead in the Human Condition, as her references to such thinkers as Adolf Portmann in the Denktagebuch shows.\n\n\nTowards the end of his review, Gehlen criticizes Arendt for placing too much emphasis on the power of philosophy to influence history (at the expense of social forces). Here I do not think he makes a fair criticism and suspect that his reading was unduly influenced by Arendt’s association with Heidegger. It’s interesting though that Gehlen’s conservatism also puts emphasis on the social, though without the progressive hopes of the Enlightenment tradition from Hegel to Marx and Habermas.\n\nIn a footnote to Chapter 5 of The Human Condition, Arendt appeals to Gehlen's major work Man: His Nature and Place in the World as the source of the scientific work that grounds her argument. There she directly engages essentialist anthropology and rejects it, but does not give way to mere metaphor. Instead, I argue that she develops natality as a concept that works from within rather above: it cannot do without real birth but isn’t limited or determined by this empirical reference.\n\n-Jeff Champlin\n\nSee: Jeffrey Champlin, “Born Again: Arendt's \"Natality\" as Figure and Concept,” The Germanic Review 88(02), May 2012.\n\n\nThe Hannah Arendt Center\n\nFor the Sake of What is New\n\n\n-Hannah Arendt, The Crisis in Education\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n—Thomas Wild, with Anne Posten\n\nThe Hannah Arendt Center\n\nLeading Students Into the World\n\n“The teacher's qualification consists in knowing the world and being able to instruct others about it, but his authority rests on his assumption of responsibility for that world.  Vis-à-vis the child, it is as though he were a representative of all adult inhabitants, pointing out the details and saying to the child:  This is our world.\"\n\n-Hannah Arendt, \"A Crisis in Education\"\n\nTeachers must lead their students into the world. They are qualified to do so because of their knowledge of the world as well as their ability to teach others that knowledge.  There is an inherent conservatism enmeshed in the activity of teaching.  That conservatism comes from simultaneously needing to protect children who are learning care for the world from being damaged by it and from needing to protect the world from representation by the child who does not yet understand it.\n\nThe culture wars have resulted from the loss of a unitary cultural world that serves as an authority for tradition.  This loss of authority is often taken for an inability to teach now that (in the case of The United States) the western tradition is not seen as the only measure of educational truth.  Nonetheless, we can still know a world that is, for lack of a better word, post-modern, and teachers can still represent that world to students.  The complexity of our world is that it does not share a single culture or tradition and that the authority of the public realm, which rested on these things, is gone.  But simply because our world is not tethered to a single idea (such as the polis of Ancient Greece) or to the cultural authority of one city (such as the Roman Empire’s ties to Rome), does not mean we are unable to represent it to students.\n\nTo represent the world, though, we have to understand it, in the old sense of standing in for the world—of being its representative.  If the world is the world of things, then the teacher who understands the world is the one who can bring it before students for them to learn it.  This process of understanding is “loving the world” according to Arendt.\n\nA few weeks ago, Roger Berkowitz discussed another Arendt quote from “A Crisis in Education” in which Arendt equates the process of education to loving the world. In that post, Roger wrote that as teachers we must exclude our judgments of non-reconciliation (e.g. Arendt’s choice to condemn Eichmann to death so that the world no longer contains something that we cannot love) in the process of education because those moments are not about loving the world, but about shaping it or acting in it.  The process of education must be protected from these kinds of judgments because they are different modes of being human.  In the same way that we cannot think and will at the same time, we cannot divide ourselves from the world while trying to represent it to students.  Judging is a different task from understanding.\n\nThe authority of teachers lies, at least in part, in their ability to understand and to set aside judging. That is, teachers have a special authorial role in presenting the world to students.\n\nWe may have lost the permanence and reliability of the world as a singular, recognizable culture, but this is not the same thing as the loss of the world.  We still have the “human capacity for building, preserving, and caring for a world that can survive us and remain a place fit to live in for those who come after us,” as Arendt writes in “What is Authority?”  Teachers, qualified teachers, use this human capacity for preserving the world to show students how the world works, so that students may graduate and take their place in the world.\n\nTaking up the activity of caring for the world belongs to all adults, but the task of representing the world belongs uniquely to teachers as a kind of authorship.  Authority here has two senses, the first underwritten by the second:  First, the teacher’s authority comes from the sense of a right conferred by their recognized social position. Second, this social authority is underwritten by the teacher’s authority as a qualified author:  Teachers create a work or a set of plans that is then read or built by others.  This combined educational authority is the authority of the teacher.\n\nBy representing the world to students in its richness (that of all adult inhabitants) the teacher preserves the world for its future adults by showing it to students as it is. The key is to present the world in such a way that it is both true to the teacher’s expertise and yet still recognizable to the students as having a place for them.  This requires a careful balance between the teacher’s expertise and the students’ newness.  This way of representing the world is a creative act that enables students to end their education and care for the world in the new ways that they create.\n\nNot all people can manage this balance.  Arendt acknowledges that teachers can teach without learning and students can learn without becoming educated.  The teacher must have expertise to offer and the student must be willing and able to learn.\n\nBut when it comes to reform, however, Arendt insists tha neither of these things can be judged well from outside of the educational process itself.  She suggests that subject experts and teaching experts can best judge the process of education.  This may sound self-serving as those with the most at stake in education are the ones who should monitor its progress.  But to think otherwise is to misunderstand Arendt’s feeling that decisions that stand outside of the realm of politics should be made by experts.\n\nFor Arendt, this is a conceptual distinction between the realm of democratic politics in which decisions about government are made by citizens and the realm of social policy in which non-political decisions are made by experts in their respective fields.  Teachers are the experts who know the world well enough to represent it to students.  Excellent teachers are the ones who need to monitor the process of education.  Nonetheless, expertise is not the same thing as authority in this case.\n\n-Ellen Rigsby\n\nThe Hannah Arendt Center", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8232746720314026}
{"content": "Holiday Weather\n\nPortugal: Weather Overview\n\nSaturday 25 April\n00:17 GMT | 01:17 WEST\nView by:\nView by:\nView by:\nPortugal Flag\n\nAbout Portugal\n\n  • Capital: Lisbon\n  • Area: 92,391km2\n  • Population: 10,676,000\n  • Currency: Euro (EUR)\n\nAbout Portugal\n\nPortugal is a small country, with a large range of weather conditions. The country can be climatically split up into 3 main regions: the north, the south and the islands. However, all coastal regions see a variation of the Mediterranean climate type.\n\nOn the whole the north has cooler temperatures than the south and sees significantly more rainfall. As you head east toward the Spanish border, winters become longer and summers hotter as the land as affected by the moderating Atlantic winds.\n\nThe climate along the 700km coast line is predominantly influenced by the currents and winds of the Atlantic Ocean, especially so in the northwest of the country where a mild, rainy climate is observed. As a rule, as you head south you will find temperatures and hours of sunshine tend to increase while precipitation declines. As in any coastal destination, the summer highs are tempered by the cooling sea breeze and the winters warmed by the ocean waters.\n\n\nNorthern Portugal\n\nNorthern Portugal is mountainous with central mountains and plateaus that rise over 6,000 ft in some places have a great affect on Portugal’s climate, as well as receiving varying climates themselves; the higher you are the cooler the temperature and the higher the rainfall. They create a barrier to the Atlantic winds, trapping cool air and rain on north side of the mountains. While temperatures near the coast are hot in the summer and mild in the winter, and rainfall follows the dry summer, wet winter pattern of a typical Mediterranean climate, coastal west Portugal sees much higher rainfall than true Mediterranean areas at all times of year. The high rainfall encourages greenery in abundance.\n\nStarting in the very northeast of Portugal you will find yourself in the Cantabrian Mountains, a mountain chain that stretches east - west. In this region you will find Bragança which is a small city 22km from the Spanish border at an elevation of 700m. The climate here is primarily influenced by its altitude and its 200km from the coast. The city and the surrounding region experiences long severe winters and shorter, hot summers. Due to its altitude, snow in the area is a regular occurrence. It often settles for a few days. January sees highs of 6ºC while the peak of summer sees temperatures of around 28ºC. The record high in the city was measured when the mercury topped a sweltering 40°C, which shows the temperature extremes that occur when a city is not moderated by coastal influences.\n\nWinters can often be so severe that the barometer dips to low of -15ºC. Total annual rainfall in the area averages 743 mm, and the area sees, on average of 123 rainy days per year and 20 days of snow. Although normally the area is relatively wet, the year of 2005 did see Portugal suffer a particularly dry year and Bragança suffered water shortages and devastating forest fires in the rural areas.\n\nAs you head further south, remaining inland, you will hit the Serra da Estrela which is the highest mountain range in Portugal. Its highest peak has an altitude of 1,993 m and is home to the Vodafone Ski Resort. Snow is frequent and heavy here in the throughout winter.\n\nMoving westward toward the Atlantic coast you will find Porto, Portugal’s second largest city. Porto’s temperature follows a typical Mediterranean trends with an extended, hot summer and a mild winter. Rainfall is low at the peak of summer but quite high at other times.\n\nJune to September sees average highs in the 20s with July and August being the warmest months reaching average highs of 25°C. Porto can experience occasional heat waves which see temperatures as high at 40°C; these heat waves generally last 5 to 10 days and humidity is fairly low throughout.\n\nWinter in Porto sees temperatures typically range between 5°C during morning and 16°C during the afternoon, though it is not entirely uncommon for the thermometer to hover just below freezing come night time. On average, the winter months from December to February see average maximums of 13°C to 14°C and an average minimum of 5°C.\n\n\nSouthern Portugal\n\nThe climate of Portugal heats up and dries out as you head further south. This is due partially to increasing proximity to the equator, but more significantly to the affect of the central mountains on northerly winds and to the influences of Africa and the Mediterranean. Higher temperatures are encouraged by weather systems coming over from the Mediterranean and up from Africa; the latter also brings aridity. With northerly winds trapped in the north, the south stays drier and temperatures are left largely un-moderated.\n\nOnce you hit Lisbon, the country’s capital, you see a fairly typical Mediterranean climate. Lisbon’s climate is mild, temperate and warm, consisting of sunny spring and summer months in which temperatures frequently reach over 30°C. Winters on the other hand are wet and windy with average temperatures of around 10ºC; the winter season is shorter than the summer season.\n\nLisbon Skyline Portugal\n\nLisbon City skyline, Portugal.\n\nTemperatures begin to drop around autumn, but even throughout the cooler months of October to April, vibrant sunshine is almost a constant feature. However, as a result of its proximity to the sea, the presence of mist and drizzly rain can sometimes make Lisbon feel cooler than its inland neighbours. It is rare for temperatures to fall below freezing and even December and January only see average minimums of 8°C and 9°C.\n\nSouthern-most Portugal is the country’s most prized tourist destination: the Algarve.  The Algarve is the sunniest, driest, and warmest part of the country. While this region is undoubtedly the hottest in the country, it doesn’t reach the uncomfortable sweltering highs that some parts of south-eastern Spain reach, such as Seville, due to the cooling Atlantic winds. The region receives minimal rain, averaging 500mm annually falling on 50 days of the year.\nHere you will find the popular destinations of Lagos, Praia da Luz , Sagres and Faro - the Algarve’s capital. There are many smaller towns which lie close to the Algarve’s famed beaches and are ideal for a less crowded summer getaway.\n\nLagos, Algarve Portugal\n\nIdyllic Lagos, Algarve Portugal.\n\nSagres is the most southern point of both Portugal and Europe. It lies inside the Southwest Alentejo and Costa Vicentina Natural Park and is known to enjoy its very own microclimate.  In Sagres there is very little vegetation, the ground is mainly rock with barely any soil. However, if you head north from the town, vegetation becomes more interesting and you will find varieties of wild orchids. Sagres’s microclimate means it sees on average 300 sunny days per year and very mild winters.\n\nAs you head  immediately north of the cape you will find areas that are more exposed to the winds and high tides of the Atlantic which plays host to quite dangerous offshore currents. Heading further east you will reach the vibrant coastal town of Lagos, which like most of southern Portugal is a popular year round destination. Winter months see the average lows ranging from 9°C to 11°C, with a low rainfall for a Mediterranean climate. The spring and autumn months see temperatures in the mid teens. The months either side of summer (May, September and October) see conditions that resemble summer conditions in the UK. Another attraction of the shoulder seasons is that beaches and accommodation won’t be as busy and the whole experience will be more tranquil.\n\nSummer in Lagos and neighbouring areas can be very hot. It is not uncommon for temperatures to reach in excess of 35°C, but generally they hover around the high 20s and low 30s. Days are somewhat cooled by sea breezes. If you are lucky, the wind will wash over the town and make sitting on the terraces and beaches more comfortable. If you can handle the crowds and love the heat than the peak season months from June to August will be your ideal time to visit.\n\n\nAzores and Madeira Islands\n\n\nThe Madeira Islands\n\nMadeira is an archipelago that is located in the Atlantic Ocean 860 km off the coast of mainland Portugal. The islands are much closer to Africa than to Europe.\nMadeira has a mild climate with a small temperature range. Because of the mountain range in the centre of the island, the north side of the island sees a slightly different climate to the south side. The mountain acts as a rain shield, stopping a lot of rain from drifting to the south from the north. As a result, the southern part of the island sees less precipitation than the north and on the mountains. The south side sees most of its rainfall in the winter months, whereas the north witnesses precipitation throughout the year.\nThe average high temperature throughout the summer months, June to September, sits around 19°C to 23°C. For the remainder of the year the temperature sits at about 15°C to 18°C, with October to February being the coldest and wettest months. The sufficient rainfall on the island has led to a verdant landscape and Madeira has been labelled the ‘floating garden'.\n\n\nMadeira archipelago.\n\n\nThe Azores are a Portuguese archipelago located about 1,500 km from Portugal’s capital of LisbonAzores witnesses a temperate, maritime climate which is characterized by agreeable temperatures with a small range. Due to its location in the North Atlantic the archipelago is in constant contact with the high pressure areas, polar and tropical air masses. \n\nThe average annual temperature sits at about 17ºC and varies between 13º and 14º C during the colder months of January and February and 22ºC - 23ºC during the summer months. Obviously as the region is an island and surrounded by water a high level of humidity (77% average/yr.) is therefore observed. Rainfall is well distributed throughout the year though the winter months see slightly more than the summer. The ocean temperature gets down to 15ºC in winter and up to 23ºC in summer.  The area is affected by the Gulf Stream, which is a Northern Atlantic current that brings warmer waters up into the region, this consequently warms the surrounding waters. The Gulf Stream affects all of Portugal.\n\n\nAzores, Portuguese archipelago.\n\n\n\n\nYour Holiday Weather Settings\n\nShow temperature in:\nShow distance in:\nSelect your weather icons:", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.6379450559616089}
{"content": "Your SlideShare is downloading. ×\nArcitectural Appraisal On The Taj Mahal\nUpcoming SlideShare\nLoading in...5\n\nThanks for flagging this SlideShare!\n\nOops! An error has occurred.\n\nText the download link to your phone\nStandard text messaging rates apply\n\nArcitectural Appraisal On The Taj Mahal\n\n\nPublished on\n\nThis is the architectral Appraisal Submitted By me In partial Requirement to Degree In Architecture from Indian Institute Of Architects\n\n\nPublished in: Technology\n\n1 Like\n  • Be the first to comment\n\nNo Downloads\nTotal Views\nOn Slideshare\nFrom Embeds\nNumber of Embeds\nEmbeds 0\nNo embeds\n\nReport content\nFlagged as inappropriate Flag as inappropriate\nFlag as inappropriate\n\nSelect your reason for flagging this presentation as inappropriate.\n\nNo notes for slide\n\n\n  • 3. 3\n  • 4. AcknowledgementsMy sincere thanks to my guide Ar. Sandeep Pandey With out whose guidance This appraisal Would Not have seen Light of the day. 4\n  • 5. ORIGINS AND ARCHITECTURE OF THE THE TAJMAHAL The Taj Mahal ( / tɑːʒməˈhɑːl/; Hindustani pronunciation: [taːdʑ mɛɦɛl]; Persian/Urdu: ‫ )ﻣﺤﻞ ﺗـﺎج‬is a mausoleum ‫ـ‬ located in Agra, India, built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal. The Taj Mahal (also \"the Taj\") is considered the finest example of Mughal architecture, a style that combines elements from Islamic, Indian and Persian architectural styles.[1] [2] In 1983, the Taj Mahal became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In a project that attempted to update the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, popularity poll was led by Canadian-Swiss Bernard Weber and The mausoleum of the Taj Mahal organized by the Swiss-based, government-controlled New7Wonders Foundation considered Taj Mahal to be one of the present new seven wonders of the world. While the white domed marble mausoleum is its most familiar component, the Taj Mahal is actually an integrated complex of structures. Building began around 1632 and was completed around 1653, and employed thousands of artisans and craftsmen.The construction of the Taj Mahal was entrusted to a board of architects under imperial supervision including Abd ul-Karim Mamur Khan, Makramat Khan, and Ustad Ahmad Lahauri. Lahauri is generally considered to be the principal designer. ORIGIN AND INSPIRATION Shah Jahan, who commissioned the Taj Mahal -\"Shah jahan on a globe\" Artistic depiction - Mumtaz Mahal 5\n  • 6. In 1631, Shah Jahan, emperor during the Mughal empires period of greatest prosperity, was grief-stricken when histhird wife, Mumtaz Mahal, died during the birth of their fourteenth child, Gauhara Begum. Construction of the TajMahal began in 1632, one year after her death.The court chronicles of Shah Jahans grief illustrate the love storytraditionally held as an inspiration for Taj Mahal. The principal mausoleum was completed in 1648 and thesurrounding buildings and garden were finished five years later. Emperor Shah Jahan himself described the Taj inthese words: Should guilty seek asylum here, Like one pardoned, He becomes free from sin. Should a sinner make his way to this mansion, All his past sins are to be washed away. The sight of this mansion creates sorrowing sighs; And the sun and the moon shed tears from their eyes. In this world this edifice has been made; To display thereby the creators glory. 6\n  • 7. The Taj Mahal incorporates and expands on design traditions of Persian architecture and earlier Mughal architecture.Specific inspiration came from successful Timurid and Mughal buildings including; the Gur-e Amir (the tomb ofTimur, progenitor of the Mughal dynasty, in Samarkand), Humayuns Tomb, Itmad-Ud-Daulahs Tomb(sometimes called the Baby Taj), and Shah Jahans own Jama Masjid in Delhi. While earlier Mughal buildings wereprimarily constructed of red sandstone, Shah Jahan promoted the use of white marble inlaid with semi-preciousstones, and buildings under his patronage reached new levels of refinement.ARCHITECTURETHE TOMBThe central focus of the complex is the tomb. This large, white marble structure stands on a square plinth andconsists of a symmetrical building with an iwan (an arch-shaped doorway) topped by a large dome and finial. Likemost Mughal tombs, the basic elements are Persian in origin.The base structure is essentially a large, multi-chambered cube withchamfered corners, forming an unequal octagon that is approximately55 metres (180 ft) on each of the four long sides. On each of thesesides, a huge pishtaq, or vaulted archway, frames the iwan with twosimilarly shaped, arched balconies stacked on either side. This motif ofstacked pishtaqs is replicated on the chamfered corner areas, makingthe design completely symmetrical on all sides of the building. Fourminarets frame the tomb, one at each corner of the plinth facing thechamfered corners. The main chamber houses the false sarcophagi of The Taj Mahal seen from the banks of riverMumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan; the actual graves are at a lower level. YamunaThe marble dome that surmounts the tomb is the most spectacular feature. Its height of around 35 metres (115 ft) isabout the same as the length of the base, and is accentuated as it sits on a cylindrical \"drum\" which is roughly7 metres (23 ft) high. Because of its shape, the dome is often called an onion dome or amrud (guava dome). The topis decorated with a lotus design, which also serves to accentuate its height. The shape of the dome is emphasised byfour smaller domed chattris (kiosks) placed at its corners, which replicate the onion shape of the main dome. Theircolumned bases open through the roof of the tomb and provide light to the interior. Tall decorative spires (guldastas)extend from edges of base walls, and provide visual emphasis to the height of the dome. The lotus motif is repeatedon both the chattris and guldastas. The dome and chattris are topped by a gilded finial, which mixes traditionalPersian and Hindu decorative elements.The main finial was originally made of gold but was replaced by a copy made of gilded bronze in the early 19thcentury. This feature provides a clear example of integration of traditional Persian and Hindu decorative elements.The finial is topped by a moon, a typical Islamic motif whose horns point heavenward. Because of its placement onthe main spire, the horns of the moon and the finial point combine to create a trident shape, reminiscent of traditionalHindu symbol of SHIVA. . 7\n  • 8. The minarets, which are each more than 40 metres (130 ft) tall, display the designers penchant for symmetry. They were designed as working minarets — a traditional element of mosques, used by the muezzin to call the Islamic faithful to prayer. Each minaret is effectively divided into three equal parts by two working balconies that ring thetower. At the top of the tower is a final balcony surmounted by a chattri that mirrors the design of those on the tomb.The chattris all share the same decorative elements of a lotus design topped by a gilded finial. The minarets wereconstructed slightly outside of the plinth so that, in the event of collapse, (a typical occurrence with many tallconstructions of the period) the material from the towers would tend to fall away from the tomb. Base, dome, Finial Main iwan and side pishtaqs Simplified diagram and minaret of the Taj Mahal floor planEXTERIOR DECORATIONThe exterior decorations of the Taj Mahal are among the finest to be found in Mughalarchitecture. As the surface area changes the decorations are refined proportionally. Thedecorative elements were created by applying paint, stucco, stone inlays, or carvings. Inline with the Islamic prohibition against the use of anthropomorphic forms, thedecorative elements can be grouped into either calligraphy, abstract forms or vegetativemotifs.Throughout the complex, passages from the Quran are used as decorative elements. Recentscholarship suggests that the passages were chosen by Amanat Khan. The texts refer to themes ofjudgment and include:Surah 91 - The Sun Calligraphy on largeSurah 112 - The Purity of Faith pishtaqSurah 89 - DaybreakSurah 93 - Morning LightSurah 95 - The FigSurah 94 - The SolaceSurah 36 - Ya SinSurah 81 - The Folding UpSurah 82 - The Cleaving AsunderSurah 84 - The Rending AsunderSurah 98 - The EvidenceSurah 67 - DominionSurah 48 - VictorySurah 77 - Those Sent ForthSurah 39 - The CrowdsThe calligraphy on the Great Gate reads \"O Soul, thou art at rest. Return to the Lord at peace with Him, and He at peace with you.\"The calligraphy was created by a calligrapher named Abd ul-Haq, in 1609. Shah Jahan conferred the title of \"AmanatKhan\" upon him as a reward for his \"dazzling virtuosity\".Near the lines from the Quran at the base of the interior 8\n  • 9. dome is the inscription, \"Written by the insignificant being, Amanat Khan Shirazi.\"Much of the calligraphy is composed of florid thuluth script, made of jasper or black marble inlaid in white marble panels. Higher panels are written in slightly larger script to reduce the skewing effect when viewed from below. The calligraphy found on the marble cenotaphs in the tomb is particularly detailed and delicate.Abstract forms are used throughout, especially in the plinth, minarets, gateway, mosque, jawab and, to a lesserextent, on the surfaces of the tomb. The domes and vaults of the sandstone buildings are worked with tracery ofincised painting to create elaborate geometric forms. Herringbone inlays define the space between many of theadjoining elements. White inlays are used in sandstone buildings, and dark or black inlays on the white marbles.Mortared areas of the marble buildings have been stained or painted in a contrasting colour, creating geometricpatterns of considerable complexity. Floors and walkways use contrasting tiles or blocks in tessellation patterns.On the lower walls of the tomb there are white marble dados that have been sculpted with realistic bas reliefdepictions of flowers and vines. The marble has been polished to emphasise the exquisite detailing of the carvingsand the dado frames and archway spandrels have been decorated with pietra dura inlays of highly stylised, almostgeometric vines, flowers and fruits. The inlay stones are of yellow marble, jasper and jade, polished and leveled tothe surface of the walls. Herringbone Plant Spandrel detail Incised painting motifsReflective tiles normal exposure Reflective tiles under exposedINTERIOR DECORATIONThe interior chamber of the Taj Mahal steps far beyond traditionaldecorative elements. Here, the inlay work is not pietra dura butlapidary of precious and semiprecious gemstones. The inner chamberis an octagon with the design allowing for entry from each face,although only the south garden-facing door is used. The interior wallsare about 25 metres (82 ft) high and topped by a \"false\" interior domedecorated with a sun motif. Eight pishtaq arches define the space atground level and, as with the exterior, each lower pishtaq is crownedby a second pishtaq about midway up the wall. The four central upperarches form balconies or viewing areas, and each balconys exteriorwindow has an intricate screen or jali cut from marble. In addition tothe light from the balcony screens, enters through roof openings. Jali screen surrounding the cenotaphs 9\n  • 10. which are covered by chattris at the corners. Each chamber wall hasbeen highly decorated with dado bas relief, intricate lapidary inlay andrefined calligraphy panels, reflecting in miniature detail the designelements seen throughout the exterior of the complex. The octagonalmarble screen or jali which borders the cenotaphs is made from eightmarble panels which have been carved through with intricate piercework. The remaining surfaces have been inlaid in extremely delicatedetail with semiprecious stones forming twining vines, fruits and flowers. Muslim tradition forbids elaborate decoration of graves and hence Tombs of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal Mumtaz and Shah Jahan are laid in a relatively plain crypt beneath the inner chamber with their faces turned right and towards Mecca. Mumtaz Mahals cenotaph is placed at the precise center of the inner chamber on a rectangular marble base of 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) by 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in). Both the base and casket are elaborately inlaid with precious and semiprecious gems. Calligraphic inscriptions on the casket identify and praise Mumtaz. On the lid of the casket is a raised rectangular lozenge meant to suggest a writing tablet. Shah Jahans cenotaph is beside Mumtazs to the western side and is the only visible asymmetric element in the entire complex. His cenotaph is bigger than his wifes, but reflects the same elements: a larger casket on slightly Cenotaphs, interior of Taj Mahal taller base, again decorated with astonishing precision with lapidary and calligraphy that identifies him. On the lid of this casket is a traditional sculpture of a small pen box. The pen box and writing tablet were traditional Mughal funerary icons decorating mens and womens caskets respectively. The Ninety Nine Names of God are to be found as calligraphic inscriptions on the sides of the actual tomb of Mumtaz Mahal, in the crypt including \"O Noble, O Magnificent, O Majestic, O Unique, O Eternal, O Glorious... \". The tomb of Shah Jahan bears a calligraphic inscription that reads; \"He traveled from this world to the banquet-hall of Eternity on the night of the twenty-sixth of the month of Rajab, in the year 1076 Hijri.\" Arch of Jali Delicate Inlay detail Detail of Jali pierce work 10\n  • 11. THE GARDENThe complex is set around a large 300-metre (980 ft) square charbaghor Mughal garden. The garden uses raised pathways that divide each ofthe four quarters of the garden into 16 sunken parterres or flowerbeds.A raised marble water tank at the center of the garden, halfwaybetween the tomb and gateway with a reflecting pool on a north-southaxis, reflects the image of the mausoleum. The raised marble watertank is called al Hawd al-Kawthar, in reference to the \"Tank ofAbundance\" promised to Muhammad.[18] Elsewhere, the garden is laidout with avenues of trees and fountains. The charbagh garden, a Walkways beside reflecting pooldesign inspired by Persian gardens, was introduced to India by the firstMughal emperor, Babur. It symbolizes the four flowing rivers of Jannah (Paradise) and reflects the Paradise gardenderived from the Persian paridaeza, meaning walled garden. In mystic Islamic texts of Mughal period, Paradise isdescribed as an ideal garden of abundance with four rivers flowing from a central spring or mountain, separating the garden into north, west,south and east.Most Mughal charbaghs are rectangular with a tomb or pavilion in the center. The Taj Mahal garden is unusual inthat the main element, the tomb, is located at the end of the garden. With the discovery of Mahtab Bagh or\"Moonlight Garden\" on the other side of the Yamuna, the interpretation of the Archaeological Survey of India is thatthe Yamuna river itself was incorporated into the gardens design and was meant to be seen as one of the rivers ofParadise.The similarity in layout of the garden and its architectural features with the Shalimar Gardens suggestthat they may have been designed by the same architect, Ali Mardan.Early accounts of the garden describe itsprofusion of vegetation, including abundant roses, daffodils, and fruit trees.As the Mughal Empire declined, thetending of the garden also declined, and when the British took over the management of Taj Mahal during the time ofthe British Empire, they changed the landscaping to resemble that of lawns of London.OUTLYING BUILDINGSThe Taj Mahal complex is bounded on three sides by crenellated redsandstone walls, with the river-facing side left open. Outside the wallsare several additional mausoleums, including those of Shah Jahansother wives, and a larger tomb for Mumtazs favorite servant. Thesestructures, composed primarily of red sandstone, are typical of thesmaller Mughal tombs of the era. The garden-facing inner sides of thewall are fronted by columned arcades, a feature typical of Hindutemples which was later incorporated into Mughal mosques. The wallis interspersed with domed chattris, and small buildings that may havebeen viewing areas or watch towers like the Music House, which is now used as The Great gate (Darwaza-i rauza)—gateway toa museum. the Taj Mahal 11\n  • 12. The main gateway (darwaza) is a monumental structure built primarily of marble which is reminiscent of Mughal architecture of earlier emperors. Its archways mirror the shape of tombs archways, and its pishtaq arches incorporate the calligraphy that decorates the tomb. It utilizes bas-relief and pietra dura inlaid decorations with floral motifs. The vaulted ceilings and walls have elaborate geometric designs, like those found in the other sandstone buildings of the complex. Arches in the Taj Mahal Mosque interior At the far end of the complex, there are two grand red sandstone buildings that are open to the sides of the tomb. Their backs parallel the western and eastern walls, and the two buildings are precise mirror images of each other. The western building is a mosque and the other is the jawab (answer), whose primary purpose was architectural balance, although it may have been used as a guesthouse. The distinctions between these two buildings include the lack of mihrab (a niche in a mosques wall facing Mecca) in the jawab and that the floors Taj Mahal mosque or masjid of jawab have a geometric design, while the mosque floor was laid with outlines of 569 prayer rugs in black marble. The mosques basic design of a long hall surmounted by three domes is similar to others built by Shah Jahan, particularly to his Masjid-Jahan Numa, or Jama Masjid, Delhi. The Mughal mosques of this period divide the sanctuary hall into three areas, with a main sanctuary and slightly smaller sanctuaries on either side. At the Taj Mahal, each sanctuary opens onto an enormous vaulting dome. These outlying buildings were completed in 1643. CONSTRUCTIONThe Taj Mahal was built on a parcel of land to the south of the walled city of Agra. Shah Jahan presented Maharajah Jai Singh with a largepalace in the center of Agra in exchange for the land. An area of roughly three acres was excavated, filled with dirt to reduce seepage,and leveled at 50 metres above riverbank. In the tomb area, wells were dug and filled with stone and ubble to form the footings of thetomb. Instead of lashed, bamboo workmen constructed a colossal brick scaffold that mirrored the tomb. The scaffold was so enormous thatforemen estimated it would take years to dismantle. According to the legend, Shah Jahan decreed that anyone could keep the bricks taken from thescaffold, and thus it was dismantled by peasants overnight. A fifteen kilometer (9.3 mi) tamped-earth ramp was built to transport marbleand materials to the construction site and teams of twenty or thirty oxen was used to pull specially constructed wagons. Anelaborate post and pully system was used to used to raise the blocks into desired position. Water was drawn from the river by a series of purs,an animal-powered rope and bucket mechanism, into a large storage tank and raised to a large distribution tank. It was passed into three subsidiarytanks, from which it was piped to the complex. 12\n  • 13. The plinth and tomb took roughly 12 years to complete. The remaining parts of the complex took an additional 10 years and werecompleted in order of minarets, mosque and jawab, and gateway. Since the complex was built in stages, discrepancies exist incompletion dates due to differing opinions on \"completion\". For example, the mausoleum itself was essentially complete by 1643,but work continued on the rest of the complex. Estimates of the cost of construction vary due to difficulties in estimating costs acrosstime. The total cost has been estimated to be about 32 million Rupees at that time.The Taj Mahal was constructed using materials from all over India and Asia and over 1,000 elephants were used totransport building materials. The translucent white marble was brought from Makrana, Rajasthan, the jasper fromPunjab, jade and crystal from China. The turquoise was from Tibet and the Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, while thesapphire came from Sri Lanka and the carnelian from Arabia. In all, twenty eight types of precious andsemi-precious stones were inlaid into the white marble.A labour force of twenty thousand workers was recruited across northern India.Sculptors from Bukhara, calligraphers from Syria and Persia, inlayers fromsouthern India, stonecutters from Baluchistan, a specialist in building turrets,another who carved only marble flowers were part of the thirty-seven men whoformed the creative unit. Some of the builders involved in construction of TajMahal are:• Ismail Afandi (a.ka. Ismail Khan) of the Ottoman Empire — designer of the main dome.[• Ustad Isa and Isa Muhammad Effendi of Persia — trained by Koca Mimar Sinan Agha of the Ottoman Empire and frequently credited with a key role in the architectural design.• Puru from Benarus, Persia — has been mentioned as a supervising architect• Qazim Khan, a native of Lahore - cast the solid gold finial.• Chiranjilal, a lapidary from Delhi — the chief sculptor and mosaicist.• Amanat Khan from Shiraz, Iran — the chief calligrapher.• Muhammad Hanif — a supervisor of masons. Artists impression of the Taj-Mahal,• Mir Abdul Karim and Mukkarimat Khan of Shiraz — handled finances and management of daily production.HISTORYSoon after the Taj Mahals completion, Shah Jahan was deposed by hisson Aurangzeb and put under house arrest at nearby Agra Fort. UponShah Jahans death, Aurangzeb buried him in the mausoluem next tohis wife.By the late 19th century, parts of the buildings had fallen badly intodisrepair. During the time of the Indian rebellion of 1857, the TajMahal was defaced by British soldiers and government officials, whochiseled out precious stones and lapis lazuli from its walls. At the endof the 19th century, British viceroy Lord Curzon ordered a sweeping Taj Mahal by Samuel Bourne, 1860. 13\n  • 14. Taj Mahal restoration project, which was completed in 1908. He also commissioned the large lamp in the interior chamber, modeled after one in a Cairo mosque. During this time the garden was remodeled with British-style lawns that are still in place today. DIMENSIONAL ORGANISATION The Taj complex is ordered by grids. The complex was originally surveyed by J.A. Hodgson in 1825 however the first detailed scholastic examination of how the various elements of the Taj might fit into a coordinating grid was not carried out until 1989 by Begley and Desai. Numerous 17th century accounts detail the precise measurements of the complex in terms of the gaz or zira, the Mughal linear yard, equivalent to approximately 80-92 cm. Begley and Desai concluded a 400-gaz grid was used and then subdivided and that the various discrepancies they discovered were due to errors in the contemporary descriptions. Research and measurement by Koch and Richard André Barraud in 2006 suggested a more complex method of ordering that relates better to the 17th century records. Whereas Begley and Desai had used a simple fixed grid on which the buildings are superimposed, Koch and Barraud found the layouts proportions were better explained by the use of a generated grid system in which specific lengths may be divided in a number of ways such as halving, dividing by three or using decimal systems. They suggest the 374-gaz width of the complex given by the contemporary historians was correct and the Taj is planned as a tripartite rectangle of three 374-gaz squares. Different modular divisions are then used to proportion the rest of the complex. A 17-gaz module is used in the jilaukhana, bazaar and caravanserais areas whereas a more detailed 23-gaz module is used in the garden and terrace areas (since their width is 368 gaz, a multiple of 23). The buildings were in turn proportioned using yet smaller grids superimposed on the larger organisational ones. The smaller grids were also used to establish elevational proportion throughout the complex. Koch and Barraud explain such apparently peculiar numbers as making more sense when seen as part of Mughal geometric understanding. Octagons and triangles, which feature extensively in the Taj, have particular properties in terms of the relationships of their sides. A right-handed triangle with two sides of 12 will have a hypotenuse of 17; similarly if it has two sides of 17 its hypotenuse will be 24. An octagon with a width of 17 will have sides of exactly 7, which is the basic grid upon which the mausoleum, mosque and Mihman Khana are planned. Discrepancies remain in Koch and Barrauds work which they attribute to numbers being rounded fractions, inaccuracies of reporting from third persons and errors in workmanship (most notable in the caravanserais areas further from the tomb itself) Element Metres Gaz length / width / breadth / depth / height length / width / breadth /depth / height diameter side/diameter sideOverall complex 896.1 300.841112.5 374Overall preserved 561.2 300.84 696 374complexTaj Ganji 334.9 300.84 416.5 374Jilaukhana 165.1-165.23 123.51 204 153Great gate 41.2 34 23.07 51 42Charbagh 296.31 296.31 368 368Riverfront terrace 300 111.89 8.7 373 138Mausoleum 56.9 56.9 67.97 70 70Minaret 5.65 43.02 7Mosque 56.6 23.38 20.3 70 29All dimensions from Koch, p. 258-259 credited to Richard André Barraud 14\n  • 15. ********************************************************************************************************************* Conclusion: The Taj Mahal is a massive project and Architectural master piece that stands tall among all the structures built in that period. In a nutshell we may conclude that Taj mahal Agra is a poetry in Architecture which is beholds the onlooker and takes him to a different world of architectural beauty and composition. ************************************************************************************** 15\n  • 16. REFERENCES  Great Ages Of World Architecture- By G.K Hiraskar.  Islamic Architecture In India-By Satish Grover  Indian Architecture(Islamic)-By Percy Brown  A History Of Architecture-By Banister FletchureExternal links• Archeological Survey of India description (• Government of India - Description (• Taj Mahal travel guide from Wikitravel  Geographical coordinates: 27°10′27″N 78°02′32″E 16\n  • 17. 17\n  • 18. 18", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9101710915565491}
{"content": "Fri, Apr 24, 2015 ●\nBathHarpswellTopshamBrunswickCumberlandNorth YarmouthFalmouthFreeportPortlandCape ElizabethScarboroughSouth PortlandChebeague IslandYarmouth\n\nShort Relief: Portland suffers leadership short-circuit on Tasers for police\n\n\n\nOne of the first things that Portland's new police chief, James Craig, wanted to do when he arrived was to equip his force with Tasers – stun guns that use an electric charge to temporarily disrupt a person's muscle control, typically causing them to collapse.\n\nOn the continuum of force available to law enforcement, Tasers are generally considered nonlethal. They don't have the deadly force of a firearm, but are more disabling than batons, pepper spray and bean bag projectiles. Chief Craig had experience with Tasers in Los Angeles and believes they are a valuable option for an officer to have available.\n\nA Taser provides an officer who encounters a dangerous situation with a means of incapacitating a person who presents a threat. Without that option, an officer may have to use some measure of force that is more than what is necessary to defuse the situation, or less than what is needed to be effective. Either way, a Taser can reduce the chance of injury to the officer and the other person.\n\nThis is not to say that Tasers can't be misused. Any tool can. But the response to that possibility should not be to ban Tasers. It should be to regulate them and hold accountable those who misuse them.\n\nIf Biddeford police had been equipped with Tasers in March, then they might have been able to avoid shooting Barbara Stewart when she confronted them with what appeared to be a firearm, but turned out to be a pellet gun. If South Portland police had used a Taser in August 2008, they might have been able to defuse a confrontation without shooting Michael Norton. (By then, that department had lost a lawsuit for using a Taser during a drunk driving arrest in 2005.)\nAnecdotal evidence suggests that once law enforcement has been using Tasers for a while, people are more likely to comply with police orders and submit without a struggle.\n\nSince Chief Craig asked for Tasers, the process in Portland has been anything but a model of clarity and decisiveness. City Manager Joe Gray seemed to authorize a trial period, but then stepped back from doing so when he realized that the City Council's Public Safety Committee had not taken a position on the matter. Tasers first appeared as an item on the Public Safety Committee's May agenda. Apparently, the matter is again on the Committee's July agenda.\nThe city's Web site features information about Tasers, including testimony from Amnesty International and the Maine Civil Liberties Union, as well as a Department of Justice study of fatalities associated with Taser use. The site features no favorable information about Tasers.\n\nThe chairman of the Public Safety Committee circulated a survey whose questions emphasized concerns about the health effects, human rights implications and cost effectiveness of Tasers. He has written that the most important factor in his mind is \"majority consensus.\" Meanwhile, the chief and his officers are left hanging.\n\nWhether the committee or the council as a whole has to approve Taser use is the source of debate that arises out of the current City Charter's allocation of authority among the various components of city government.\nUnder the charter, the manager proposes the budget, controls the departments – including the Police Department – and enforces laws and ordinances. That power would seem to include the power to authorize police use of Tasers. However, the council writes ordinances and orders and passes a budget. It could use that authority to refuse to fund Tasers, or to regulate or prohibit their use.\n\nSome situations require leadership. When time is of the essence, when lives are in danger, when opportunities will be lost by delay, a decision needs to be made. Unnecessary delay doesn't result in better decision making. It just wastes time.\n\nSomeone needs to authorize the Portland Police Department's use of Tasers. After a reasonable trial period, the city should evaluate the results. And do so in an evenhanded manner that accounts for the injuries avoided by Taser use as well as any misuses and injuries incurred.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7366200685501099}
{"content": "Singing Teacher / Songwriting Tutor (BA hons Music)\n\n1106 days ago\n\n\n\nI am a fully qualified singing teacher with a degree in popular music offering singing lessons in a relaxed environment at competitive prices.\n\nAll ages and abilities are welcome. I am PVG certified. I current;y work as a singing teacher and song writing tutor for various schools and charities as well as performing original material (I am signed to an independent record label) Styles covered are pop, indie, folk, soul, rock, funk, blues and jazz.\n\nLessons cover the following:\n\nVocal Technique\nStage Craft\nExpanding range and vocal dexterity\nMusic Theory\nLyric Writing\n\nIf you are looking to begin learning about singing or are a singer who wants to improve their skills, these lessons will allow you to do so.\n\nAs a professional singer / songwriter I also welcome songwriters and can offer advice and direction in honing your craft.\n\nLessons are charged at 25 pounds per hour\n\nPlease get in touch if you require any more information, I look forward to hearing from you!\n\n\nAd ID: 100313944", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8256701231002808}
{"content": "Hawaiian Monk Seals\n\nMCI-Hawaiian Monk Seals-Report-COVER-page-001.jpg Marine Conservation Institute's monk seal campaign focuses on working constructively with fisherman and other stakeholders to meet the seal's conservation needs, while also educating the public on how to co-exist with the growing number of seals in the main Hawaiian Islands. Our new report, Enhancing the Future of the Hawaiian Monk Seal: Recommendations for the NOAA Recovery Programtakes a detailed look at the seal recovery program and how it could be improved to achieve a self-sustaining population in the next several decades.\n\nAlthough seals in the Main Hawaiian Islands are increasing through natural reproduction, the high mortality of seals in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands is causing and an overall population decline of about 4% per year. If that trend continues, in less than 20 years, the population would be halved to 450-550 seals and the species would be in an extremely precarious position, leaving it vulnerable to a disease outbreak or environmental disruption events like hurricanes or ocean warming. \n\nWilliam Chandler, the report's author, said, “Recovering the monk seal is not rocket science; we can do this, but NOAA has to be serious about implementing its own plan. The agency also needs to be more transparent about its activities and needs so that other agencies and nonprofits can help. If we lose the battle to save the Hawaiian monk seal, we’ll have only ourselves to blame.” \n\n\n\nImage Gallery\n\nHawaiinMonkSealTernIslandSeawall.2011.jpg   RF58-Post-Mortem-Jamie-Thompton-NOAA-JPG.jpg   SE-14-07_P&H_K2 (12).JPG   Littnan_MMS_5x7Inch.jpg\n\nHMS and Honu - at FrenchFrigateShoals- by NOAA Mark Sullivan.jpg   mom pup.jpg   SE-14-07_P&H_K2 (13).JPG\n\nImage Credits: Tern Island Seawall - USFWS; all others - NOAA", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.529961347579956}
{"content": "Fast, Healthy, Gluten-Free Meals Under Pressure\n\nI conquered my fear of the pressure cooker two years ago. Since then I've used it to cook a lot of beans that I used in soups, stews and even baking. I asked Linda Etherton, The Gluten-Free Homemaker, to share some of her favorite recipes. Linda is one of my favorite gluten-free bloggers and her site is full of family-friendly, gluten-free recipes. Her Gluten-Free Wednesdays are a great place to find new gluten-free recipes from some of the best food blogs. Here's what Linda has to say:\n\nThese days every cook is interested in making a fast meal, at least at times.  We’re also interested in eating healthy food, but fast food is usually not healthy food.  Usually.  Using a pressure cooker is one exception.\n\nFast: Pressure cooking takes approximately 1/3 the amount of traditional cooking time, but it really varies according to the food you are cooking.  I cook quartered large potatoes for 10 minutes under pressure.  White rice only takes 5 minutes and brown rice takes 22 minutes.  Split pea soup also cooks in 22 minutes, and I can cook a roast in 45 minutes.  Compared to a conventional oven or normal stove top cooking, pressure cooking is always faster.\n\nHealthy: Pressure cooking uses only a small amount of water for foods that do not need to absorb water such as potatoes, meat, and vegetables.  Therefore, fewer nutrients are lost to cooking liquid.  The lid of a pressure cooker is well sealed which means nutrients are not lost to the air either.\n\nPressure Cookers: As with any cooking equipment, there are differences in the quality of pressure cookers.  I have only used Kuhn Rikon which is a high quality brand.  It has two pressure settings which allows me to cook things like rice that foam at a higher pressure.  You can view which Kuhn Rikon cooker I have at this pressure cooking post on my blog.\n\nYou can find pressure cookers at different places online, including Amazon.  I even bought a second Kuhn Rikon pressure cooker from eBay.  It was a slightly older model, but had not been used and the savings made buying a second one feasible.\n\nSplit Pea SoupHoneyed BeetsRice and Quinoa PilafRecipes:  I found that after following recipes for a while, I got the hang of how to cook with a pressure cooker and started adapting my own recipes.  A new pressure cooker should come with a small recipe book. There are also great cookbooks such as Lorna Sass’ Pressure Perfect, and there are recipes to be found online.  Here are a few of mine: \n\nSplit Pea SoupChicken, Vegetable, and Wild Rice SoupHoneyed BeetsRice and Quinoa Pilaf \n\nLinda Etherton began her gluten-free journey in 2000 when she was diagnosed with celiac disease. She shares recipes and information about living gluten free on her blog, The Gluten-Free Homemaker. Linda believes that gluten free can and should be delicious and never apologizes for serving gluten-free food. \n\nPhotos from", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.886222243309021}
{"content": "Online caption\n\nLingotto was made in the year that Merz began exhibiting with other artists associated with the Arte Povera movement. The bundles of brushwood create an imposing sculpture and are characteristic of the group’s employment of humble materials. Over the brushwood a block of beeswax rests on a steel framework, evoking a single gold bar – ‘lingotto’ means ‘ingot’ in Italian. Lingotto is also the district in the artist’s home city of Turin, famous for the Fiat factory, a modernist yellow building, where his father worked. Together these disparate references suggest the contrasts between poor and luxury and rural and modern, urban existence.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.6736421585083008}
{"content": "Medieval Writing\nInitials and Borders\nThe production of decorative initials and borders in manuscript books became steadily more prolific as the middle ages progressed. Such decorations undoubtedly added prestige to a volume and to some extent can be seen as simply having been done for swank. They also have a function in the reading of the text, just as a chapter heading does in a modern book.\n\nThere are many books illustrating the beautiful decorations in medieval manuscript books, For historical and analytical approaches see Pächt 1986 also Alexander 1992 also de Hamel 1986.\n\nThe simplest, earliest and most persistent form of differentiated heading was known as rubric, the name deriving from the fact that it was executed in red. Rubrics were used for headings for sections of text, serving as simple location markers. In books of ritual such as the missal, breviary or even the book of hours, rubrics were used to differentiate instructions, or markers of the progress of the ritual, from the actual text being read or performed.\n\nrubric heading Rubric indicating a chapter heading in an 8th century collection of patristic works (Cologne Cathedral Library, MS XCI). (From New Palaeographical Society 1905)\nrubric masarker In liturgical books, rubrics can indicate the stage of proceedings, as in these two examples from missals where the words post co, for post communio, indicate the words to be recited after the act of communion.\nThe example above left is from a 12th century missal (British Library, add ms 16949, f.iv), by permission of the British Library. And yes, the photograph is black and white, but it is a rubric. The living colour example below is from a a page from a 15th century missal, probably French, from a private collection.\nrubric marker A rubric indicates the stage of the ritual in a 15th century book of hours, by permission of the University of Tasmania Library.\nRubrics were not necessarily just brief headings. Books like the breviary contained complicated instructions for the conduct of the divine office on all the days, both ordinary and festive, of the year. These could be extensive. On the example at left, the rubric instructions take up the better part of the written area of the page, and they continue on the other side. Perhaps they are not really decorative at all, but should be considered as utility. However, every from of decorative writing in a medieval manuscript book performs some function, even when it is also designed to be very beautiful.\nLeaf from a late 15th century Augustinian breviary, use of Rome, from a private collection.\nIn the commercial production of books in the later middle ages, the rubricator was a specialised position. As well as adding headings, they also sometimes interpolated corrections to the text. In the later medieval period these small headings, such as the chapter headings of the Bible, were sometimes produced in other colours, notably blue.\nChapter heading in red and blue from a 13th century miniature Bible, from a private collection.\nDecorative initials and headings are regularly found in prestige works. As well as adding social value to the volume, they also serve as placemarkers for the text. Certain styles of decoration are diagnostic of time and place, so that examination of these details can be used for sourcing and provenancing works. Intricate swirling and interlacing designs with beasties swallowing each other, typical of Anglo-Saxon art, are found on this decorative initial.\nInitial in a 9th century copy of the works of Bede (British Library, Cotton Tiberius CII, f.94), by permission of the British Library.\ninitial At left, an initial is surrounded by spidery and intricate late Gothic decoration on a leaf from a late 15th century book of hours, by permission of the University of Tasmania Library. At right, a decorative Gothic initial from a 15th century Dutch book of hours, from a private collection.\nThe use of intricate coloured penwork around decorative initials is characteristic of the Gothic era. The multicoloured penwork on the example at right is evidently characteristic of certain workshops in Haarlem in the Netherlands; and yes, the text is in Dutch. Eras and geographical regions had their own recognisable particularities in the production of decorative initials. They are a study in their own right.\nThe Creating French Culture exhibition shows a simple but striking initial and heading in a late 13th century French Bible (Library of the Arsenal MS5211). The Bodleian Library shows a highly elaborate initial P with intricate penwork from a late 15th century English missal (Bodleian Library, MS Don b.6, f.19r)\nThe use of gold in initials and line fillers added to the prestige of a volume, although it was common in even modest books of hours in the late medieval period. Gold leaf was rolled out immensely thin. The area to which it was to be applied was built up with a layer of gesso, the gold leaf glued to it and carefully burnished (with a beaver's tooth according to some traditions). The appearance is of a thick, glowing mass of gold, but it is all an optical illusion. Strictly, the term illumination applies only to manuscripts decorated with gold in this way, as the pages were regarded as glowing with their own light.\nGold leaf applied to an initial and to a decorative line filler in a page from a late 15th century French book of hours, by permission of the University of Tasmania.\nLarge decorative headings might serve to introduce a section of text and act as a place marker, but sometimes it seems that the expectation was that the text itself was well known and remembered, as decorative effects could render legibility difficult. Some Anglo-Saxon and early Irish manuscripts displayed headings that were like a puzzle or anagram.\nThe heading for Psalm 26 in the 8th century Vespasian Psalter (British Library, Cotton Vespasian A1 f.31), by permission of the British Library.\nThe example above reads DNS (DOMINUS) INLUMINATIO MEA. The letters are entangled into a puzzle knot.\n\n\n", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8325470685958862}
{"content": "Facebook Twitter\n\nOc Language History Provence, - by Provence Beyond. Stroll: | History Index | Medieval | Oc Language | Pierre le berger |\n\nOc Language History Provence, - by Provence Beyond\n\nOld Frankish. Frankish or Old Franconian (or, less correctly, Old Frankish) was the language spoken by the Germanic Franks in the Low Countries and adjacent parts of contemporary France and Germany between the 4th and 8th century.\n\nOld Frankish\n\nIt belongs to the West Germanic language group and is thought to have given rise to the modern Franconian languages. The Franks descended from Germanic tribes that settled parts of the Netherlands and western Germany during the early Iron Age. From the 4th century, they are attested as extending into what is now the southern Netherlands and northern Belgium. In the 5th and 6th centuries, they expanded their realm and conquered Roman Gaul completely as well as client states such as Bavaria and Thuringia. Knowledge of Frankish is almost entirely reconstructed from Old Dutch and from etyma and loanwords from Old French. During this period, Frankish had a major influence on the lexicon, pronunciation and grammar of the Romance languages spoken in former Roman Gaul. French language.\n\n\nFrench language\n\nOther speakers of French, who often speak it as a second language,[3] are distributed throughout many parts of the world, the largest numbers of whom reside in Francophone Africa.[4] In Africa, French is most commonly spoken in Gabon (where 80% report fluency),[4] Mauritius (78%), Algeria (75%), Senegal and Côte d'Ivoire (70%). French is estimated as having 110 million[3] native speakers and 190 million more second language speakers.[5] Geographic distribution[edit] Europe[edit] Langues d'oïl.\n\nThe langues d'oïl [lɑ̃ɡᵊdɔjl][2] or langues d'oui [lɑ̃ɡᵊdwi], in English the Oïl /ˈwiːl/ or Oui /ˈwiː/ languages, are a dialect continuum that includes standard French and its closest autochthonous relatives spoken today in the northern half of France, southern Belgium, and the Channel Islands.\n\nLangues d'oïl\n\nThey belong to the larger Gallo-Romance group of languages, which also covers most of southern France (Occitania), northern Italy and eastern Spain (Catalan Countries) (some linguists place Catalan into the Ibero-Romance grouping instead). Linguists divide the Romance languages of France, and especially of Medieval France, into three geographical subgroups: Langues d'oïl and Langues d'oc, named after their words for 'yes', with Franco-Provençal (Arpitan) considered transitional. Old French. ( , , ; Modern French ) was the Romance dialect continuum spoken in territories that span roughly the northern half of modern France and parts of modern Belgium and Switzerland from the 9th century to the 14th century.\n\nIt was then known as the (oïl language) to distinguish it from the (Occitan language, also then called Provençal ), whose territory bordered that of Old French to the south. The Norman dialect was also spread to England , Ireland , the Kingdom of Sicily and the Principality of Antioch in the Levant . [ edit ] Etymology and phonology [ edit ] Historical influences [ edit ] Gaulish Gaulish , maybe the only survivor of the continental Celtic languages in Roman times, slowly became extinct during the long centuries of Roman dominion. Old French began when the Roman Empire conquered Gaul during the campaigns of Julius Caesar , which were almost complete by 51 BC. . [ edit ] Old Low Frankish Other Germanic words in Old French appeared as a result of Norman , i.e. Occitan language.\n\nOccitan (English pronunciation: /ˈɒksɪtæn/;[5] French: [ɔksitɑ̃]; Occitan: [utsiˈta]),[6] also known as lenga d'òc by its native speakers (Occitan: [ˈleŋɡɔ ˈðɔ(k)]; French: langue d'oc), is a Romance language derived macrolanguage.\n\nOccitan language\n\nIt is often described as being a single language to increase its weight in French politics, which leads speakers of its \"dialects\" to maintain that theirs are distinct languages.[7][8][9] It is spoken in southern France, Italy's Occitan Valleys, Monaco, and Spain's Val d'Aran: collectively, these regions are sometimes referred to unofficially as Occitania.\n\nIt is also spoken in the linguistic enclave of Guardia Piemontese (Calabria, Italy). Occitan is an official language in Catalonia (Aranese, closely related to Gascon spoken in the Val d'Aran).[10] Occitan's closest relative is Catalan.[11] Since September 2010, the Parliament of Catalonia has considered Aranese Occitan to be the officially preferred language for use in the Val d'Aran. Provençal. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Provençal may refer to:", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9090654850006104}
{"content": "Rinker Heritage\n\nAs the oldest American boat brand in continuous production, the Rinker Boat Company has quite a story to tell. From our humble beginnings out of Lossie Rinker's workshop on the White River in Indiana to today when we're exporting boats to more than 40 countries, we build with pride, craftsmanship and the desire to be the best value in the industry.\n\nIn the 1930s, dairy farmer Lossie \"L.E.\" Rinker starts building fishing ­- and, later, racing boats -out of his workshop on the White River in Indiana. His sons, Jan and John, soon joined their father to build and race their own boats. After serving their country during the Korean War, the boys returned to Indiana to resume their boat-building careers, eventually founding the company Rinkerbuilt in Syracuse, Indiana. Rinkers are still built in Syracuse today.\n\nIn 1945, the company's first racing brand called Famous Craft is born.\n\nIn 1958, Rinkerbuilt introduces fiberglass in the manufacturing process - long before most competitors - along with innovations such as multiple gel coat colors and back-to-back seating.\n\nIn 1968, Rinkerbuilt goes international, shipping 14 boats to Sweden.\n\n\n\nThe 1980s bring a new name (\"built\" is dropped as the suffix), new logo, and new designs, as the now-40-year old company continues to grow. The first Rinker Fiesta Vee 255 Cruiser is introduced in 1988, which establishes Rinker as a cruiser builder.\n\nRinker turns 50 years old in 1995, and the Rinker Fiesta Vee line includes some of the most popular express cruisers in the world. The Rinker Captiva line is expanded and some models, such as the Captiva 232 and 236 become popular \"go-fast\" boats with big-block motors and exhilarating performance.\n\n", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7401131391525269}
{"content": "How an Old Biosphere Project Could Help Build a Better Climate Model\n\nWe only have a fragmented understanding of the complex interactions that go on in the dirt as water flows past soil and microbes. To gain fresh insight into the hydrologic processes that make life on land possible, the University of Arizona has built a trio of massive, man-made hillside labs.\n\nJust recently, the $200 million Biosphere 2 project in Oracle, AZ, was on its last legs. Both of its high-profile habitation experiments in the 1990s had ended in failure, and the facility was slated for demolition to make way for a resort. Then, in 2011, the University of Arizona purchased it for use as a massive laboratory dedicated to studying climate change. As part of the project's decade-long plan to study how a warming atmosphere affects the movement of water, UA has constructed the world's largest (well, only) artificial water shed.\n\nDubbed the Landscape Evolution Observatory (LEO), this facility consists of three 100-foot long, 40-foot wide troughs tilted at a 10-degree angle, housed within a 53,000 square foot sealed greenhouse. This allows researchers to precisely control environmental variables in ways not possible in conventional large-scale observational studies.\n\nEach trough is filled with three feet of finely-crushed volcanic rock, a 600-ton layer that mimics Arizona's local geologic conditions in antiquity. As the crushed rock slowly converts into soil, more than 1,800 sensors in each slope accurately measure soil moisture, chemistry, temperature, and the types and quantities of gases emitted. Load cells have also been installed at the base of these 1,100-ton structures to monitor changes in their total weight.\n\n\"It's the first time anyone has built an instrument like that,\" Biosphere 2 Science Director Peter Troch said in a press statement. \"LEO provides the scientific community with a tool to learn about the landscape in ways we haven't been able to before. It will help us to really understand Earth's surface processes.\"\n\nThe first three years of this experiment will study abiotic processes—how rainfall and overland flows reshape the ground's surface, how long it takes water to flow through various soil densities, and how moisture is distributed through them. After the first 36 months, researchers plan to install heat- and drought-tolerant vascular plants into the landscapes and observe how they affect these abiotic processes along with the rest of the system.\n\n\"In a laboratory, you can really control an experiment and understand everything that goes in and out, but it doesn't really tell you much about how big systems interact,\" said Stephen DeLong, the project's lead scientist said. \"Here we can see how big systems interact.\"\n\n[PhysOrg - Wikipedia - Biosphere 2 - LEO - UA News - Arizona Star - Image: UA School of Architecture]", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.6954703330993652}
{"content": "The British Empire reference article from the English Wikipedia on 24-Jul-2004\n(provided by Fixed Reference: snapshots of Wikipedia from\n\nBritish Empire\n\nYou can make a difference by sponsoring a child\nThe British Empire, which in the early decades of the 20th century held sway over a population of 400-500 million people (roughly a quarter of the world's population), covered nearly 30 million square kilometres, or about two-fifths of the earth's dry surface.\n\nThe British Empire came together over 300 years through a succession of phases of expansion by trade, settlement or conquest, interspersed with intervals of pacific commercial and diplomatic activity or imperial contraction. Its territories were scattered across every continent and ocean, and it was described with some truth as \"the empire on which the sun never sets.\" It arguably reached its height in the 1890s and 1900s.\n\nThe Empire facilitated the spread of British technology, commerce, language, and government around much of the globe. Imperial hegemony contributed to Britain's extraordinary economic growth and greatly strengthened her voice in world affairs. Even as Britain extended its imperial reach overseas, it continued to develop and broaden democratic institutions at home.\n\nFrom the perspective of the colonies, the record of the British Empire is mixed. They received from Britain the English language, an administrative and legal framework on the British model, as well as technological and economic development. With varying degrees of success, in decolonisation Britain sought to pass on to her colonies governments based on parliamentary democracy and the rule of law. Some argue that those countries which were colonised by Britain were spared the incompetence and brutality of some other European empires, such as the Dutch, Belgian and Portuguese empires; and almost all have since chosen to join the Commonwealth of Nations, the association which replaced the Empire.\n\nNonetheless, British colonial policy was always driven to a large extent by Britain's trading interests. While settler economies developed the infrastructure to support balanced development, tropical African territories found themselves developed only as raw-material suppliers. British policies based on comparative advantage left many developing economies dangerously reliant on a single cash crop. A reliance upon the manipulation of conflict between ethnic and racial identities, in order to keep subject populations from uniting against the occupuying power -- the classic \"divide and rule\" strategy -- left a legacy of partition or inter-communal difficulties in areas as diverse as Ireland, India, Zimbabwe, Uganda, Iraq, Guyana and Fiji.\n\nThe credit for the first ever usage of the words \"British Empire\" is usually given to Doctor John Dee, Queen Elizabeth I's astrologer, alchemist and mathematician.\n\nTable of contents\n1 Background: English colonialism\n2 Colonisation of the Americas\n3 Free trade and \"informal empire\"\n4 The British Empire in Asia\n5 Breakdown of Pax Britannica\n6 Britain and the New Imperialism\n7 Britain and the Scramble for Africa\n8 Home Rule in white-settler colonies\n9 The impact of the First World War\n10 Decolonisation\n11 Extent\n12 Remaining Dependent Territories\n13 See also\n14 External links\n\nBackground: English colonialism\n\nQueen Elizabeth I enthroned, 1558Enlarge\n\nQueen Elizabeth I enthroned, 1558\n\nAfter her conquest by Normandy in 1066, England initially supported William the Conqueror's holdings in France. England's policy of active involvement in continental European affairs endured for several hundred years. By the end of the 14th century, foreign trade, originally based on wool exports to Europe, had emerged as a cornerstone of national policy.\n\nThese centuries saw the beginnings of England's political expansion with the conquest of Wales (to 1282) and Ireland (from 1169). A short-lived English triumph in Scotland in 1296 was crushingly reversed at Bannockburn in 1314, leaving the two crowns to be united by dynastic succession in 1603. Despite the loss of Normandy in 1204, fortuitous marriage and dynastic inheritance on the part of England's post-Norman rulers brought them large territories in western France, lost finally in 1453. England after this point clung on to the strategic port of Calais, until this too was lost for good in 1563.\n\nThe overseas British Empire-- in the sense of British oceanic exploration and settlement outside of Europe and the British and Irish Isles-- was rooted in the pioneering maritime policies of King Henry VII, who reigned 1485-1509. Himself building on commercial links in the wool trade promoted during the reign of his predecessor King Richard III, Henry established the modern English merchant marine system, which greatly expanded English shipbuilding and seafaring. The merchant marine also supplied the basis for the mercantile institutions which would play such a crucial role in later British imperial ventures, such as the Massachusetts Bay Company and the British East India Company. Henry also ordered construction of the first dry dock, at Portsmouth, and made improvements to England's small navy.\n\nOf perhaps even greater importance, Henry chartered the pioneering voyages of the Italian Giovanni Caboto (Anglicised as John Cabot) in 1496 and 1497 to North America. Following in the example of Christopher Columbus, who had reached landfall in the Caribbean in 1492, Cabot had been interested in westward routes to the trading posts of the East Indies. Cabot sailed to Newfoundland in modern Canada, explored the coastlines and islands, drew maps, and claimed the land for England on behalf of King Henry. Cabot also described in detail the teeming schools of cod that populated the Newfoundland coast, and his descriptions drew many English fishermen to the region. This resulted in a seasonal fishing colony in Newfoundland which was the first English settlement overseas, though the fishing grounds off the coast were plied by ships of many European nations.\n\nThe foundations of sea power, having been laid during Henry VII's reign, were gradually expanded to protect English trade and open up new routes. King Henry VIII founded the modern English navy, more than tripling the number of warships and constructing the first large vessels with heavy, long-range guns. He initiated the Navy's formal, centralised administrative apparatus, built new docks, and constructed the network of beacons and lighthouses that greatly facilitated coastal navigation for English and foreign merchant sailors. Henry thus established the munitions-based Royal Navy that was able to repulse the Spanish Armada in 1588, and his innovations provided the seed for the Imperial Navy of later centuries.\n\nDuring the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, from 1577 to 1590, Sir Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe, only the second to accomplish this feat after Ferdinand Magellan's expedition. In 1579, Drake landed somewhere in northern California and claimed for the Crown what he named Nova Albion (\"New England\"), though the claim was not followed by settlement. Subsequent maps spell out Nova Albion to the north of all New Spain. Thereafter, England's interests outside Europe grew steadily. Humphrey Gilbert followed on Cabot's original claim when he sailed to Newfoundland in 1583 and declared it an English colony on August 5 at St. John's. Sir Walter Raleigh organised the first colony in Virginia in 1587 at Roanoke. Both Gilbert's Newfoundland settlement and the Roanoke colony were short-lived, however, and had to be abandoned due to food shortages, severe weather, shipwrecks and hostile encounters with indigenous tribes on the American continent. The defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 firmly established England as a major naval power, though subsequent naval defeats at the hands of Spain in the 1590s thwarted additional settlement attempts. Finally in 1604, King James_I_of_England negotiated the Treaty of London which ceased hostilities with Spain, and the first permanent English settlement followed in 1607 at Jamestown. During the next three centuries, England extended her influence overseas and consolidated her political development at home. In 1707, the parliaments of England and Scotland were united in London as Great Britain.\n\nColonisation of the Americas\n\nThe British Empire first took shape from the early 17th century, with the English settlement of the eastern colonies of North America, which would later become the original United States as well as Canada's Maritime provinces, and the colonisation of the smaller islands of the Caribbean such as Jamaica and Barbados.\n\nThe period is sometimes referred to as the end of the \"first British Empire\", indicating the shift of British expansion from the Americas in the 17th and 18th centuries to the \"second British Empire\" in Asia and later also Africa from the 18th century.\n\nThe sugar-producing colonies of the Caribbean, where slavery became the basis of the economy, were at first England's most important and lucrative colonies. The American colonies providing tobacco, cotton, and rice in the south and naval materiel and furs in the north were less financially successful, but had large areas of good agricultural land and attracted far larger numbers of English immigrants.\n\nEngland's American empire was slowly expanded by war and colonisation, England gaining control of New Amsterdam (later New York) in the Anglo-Dutch Wars. The growing American colonies pressed ever westward in search of new agricultural lands. During the Seven Years War the British defeated the French at the Plains of Abraham and captured all of New France in 1760, giving Britain control over almost all of North America.\n\nLater, settlement of Australia (starting with penal colonies from 1788) and New Zealand (under the crown from 1840) created a major zone of British migration, although indigenous populations suffered terribly through war and particularly disease, reducing numbers by some 60-70% over a century. The colonies later became self-governing colonies and became profitable exporters of wool and gold.\n\nSee also British colonization of the Americas, Colonial history of America.\n\nFree trade and \"informal empire\"\n\nFor details, see the main article Pax Britannica.''\n\nThe old British colonial system began to decline in the 18th century. During the long period of unbroken Whig dominance of domestic political life (1714-62), the empire became less important and less well-regarded, until an ill-fated attempt to reverse the resulting \"salutary neglect\" (or \"benign neglect\") provoked the American War of Independence (1775-83), depriving Britain of her most populous colonies.\n\nThe period is sometimes referred to as the end of the \"first British Empire\", indicating the shift of British expansion from the Americas in the 17th and 18th centuries to the \"second British Empire\" in Asia and later also Africa from the 18th century. The loss of the United States showed that colonies were not necessarily particularly beneficial in economic terms, since Britain could still dominate trade with the ex-colonies without having to pay for their defence and administration.\n\nMercantilism, the economic doctrine of competition between nations for a finite amount of wealth which had characterised the first period of colonial expansion, now gave way in Britain and elsewhere to the laissez-faire economic liberalism of Adam Smith and successors like Richard Cobden.\n\nThe lesson of Britain's North American loss - that trade might continue to bring prosperity even in the absence of colonial rule - contributed to the extension in the 1840s and 1850s of self-governing colony status to white settler colonies in Canada and Australasia whose British or European inhabitants were seen as outposts of the \"mother country\".\n\nDuring this period, Britain also outlawed the slave trade (1807) and soon began enforcing this principle on other nations. By the mid-19th century Britain had largely eradicated the world slave trade. Slavery itself was abolished in the British colonies in 1834, though the phenomenon of indentured labour retained much of its oppressive character until 1920.\n\nThe end of the old colonial and slave systems were accompanied by the adoption of free trade, culminating in the repeal of the Corn Laws and Navigation Acts in the 1840s. Free trade opened the British market to unfettered competition, stimulating reciprocal action by other countries during the middle quarters of the 19th century.\n\nSome argue that the rise of free trade merely reflected Britain's economic position and was unconnected with any true philosophical conviction. Indeed, Britain has always been far more enthusiastic about urging the policy upon others, than she has been about practicing it herself. Despite the earlier loss of Britain's North American colonies, the final defeat in Europe of Napoleonic France in 1815 left Britain the most successful international power. While the Industrial Revolution at home gave her an unrivalled economic leadership, the Royal Navy dominated the seas. The distraction of rival powers by European matters enabled Britain to pursue a phase of expansion of her economic and political influence through \"informal empire\" underpinned by free trade and strategic pre-eminence.\n\nBetween the Congress of Vienna of 1815 and the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, Britain was the world's sole industrialised power. As the \"workshop of the world\", Britain could produce finished manufactures so efficiently and cheaply that they could undersell comparable locally produced goods in foreign markets. Given stable political conditions in particular overseas markets, Britain could prosper through free trade alone without having to resort to formal rule.\n\nThe British Empire in Asia\n\nFor details, see the main article Imperialism in Asia.\n\nThe victory of forces of the British East India Company at Plassey in 1757 opened the great Indian province of Bengal to British rule, though later famine (1770) exacerbated by massive expropriation of provincial government revenues aroused controversy at home. The 19th century saw Company rule extended across nearly the whole of India. Following the Indian Mutiny of 1857 the Company's territories were placed (1858) under the administration of the Crown. Queen Victoria (1837-1901) was proclaimed Empress of India in 1876.\n\nCeylon (now Sri Lanka) and Burma were added to Britain's Asian territories, which extended further east to Malaya and, from 1841, to Hong Kong following a successful war in defence of the Company's opium exports to China.\n\nBritish interest in China began in the late 18th century as Britain became a large importer of tea. This trade created a bilateral trade deficit which the British sought to resolve by exporting opium from India to China, despite opposition among Chinese officials to the trade. Conflict over the trade resulted in the Opium Wars in which Britain twice decisively defeated China.\n\nAfter the Opium Wars, Britain maintained a complex relationship with China. Although Britain annexed Hong Kong, most of its trade with China was regulated by treaties which allowed trade through a number of coastal ports. As a result, Britain was interested in maintaining an independent Chinese state since the collapse of China would open opportunities for territorial gains by other Western Powers.\n\nAt the same time, Britain was opposed to a Chinese state that was too strong, because this would allow China to cancel or renegotiate its treaties. These interests explain the apparent contradictions of British policy in China: Britain provided the Qing dynasty with aid during the Taiping rebellion, but at the same time, in alliance with France, engaged in the Second Opium War against the Qing court.\n\nBreakdown of Pax Britannica\n\nAs the first country to industrialise, Britain had been able to draw on most of the accessible world for raw materials and markets. But this situation gradually deteriorated during the 19th century as other powers began to industrialise and sought to use the state to guarantee their markets and sources of supply. By the 1870s, British manufactures in the staple industries of the Industrial Revolution were beginning to experience real competition abroad.\n\nIndustrialisation progressed rapidly in Germany and the United States, allowing them to clearly outstrip over the \"old\" British and French capitalisms. The German textile and metal industries, for example, had by 1870, surpassed those of Britain in organisation and technical efficiency and usurped British manufactures in the domestic market. By the turn of the century, the German metals and engineering industries would even be producing for the free trade market of the former \"workshop of the world\".\n\nWhile invisible exports (banking, insurance and shipping services) kept Britain \"out of the red,\" her share of world trade fell from a quarter in 1880 to a sixth in 1913. Britain was losing out not only in the markets of newly industrialising countries, but also against third-party competition in less-developed countries. Britain was even losing her former overwhelming dominance in trade with India, China, Latin America or the coasts of Africa.\n\nBritain's commercial difficulties deepened with the onset of the \"Long Depression\" of 1873-96, a prolonged period of price deflation punctuated by severe business downturns which added to pressure on governments to promote home industry, leading to the widespread abandonment of free trade among Europe's powers (in Germany from 1879 and in France from 1881).\n\nThe resulting limitation of both domestic markets and export opportunities led government and business leaders in Europe and later the U.S. to see the solution in sheltered overseas markets united to the home country behind imperial tariff barriers: new overseas subjects would provide export markets free of foreign competition, while supplying cheap raw materials. Although she continued to adhere to free trade until 1932, Britain joined the renewed scramble for formal empire rather than allow areas under her influence to be seized by rivals.\n\nBritain and the New Imperialism\n\nFor details see the main article New Imperialism.\nBenjamin Disraeli and Queen Victoria\n\nThe policy and ideology of European colonial expansion between the 1870s and the outbreak of World War I in 1914 are often characterised as the \"New Imperialism\". The period is distinguished by an unprecedented pursuit of what has been termed \"empire for empire's sake\", aggressive competition for overseas territorial acquisitions and the emergence in colonising countries of doctrines of racial superiority which denied the fitness of subjugated peoples for self-government.\n\nDuring this period, Europe's powers added nearly 23,000,000 kmò to their overseas colonial possessions. As it was mostly unoccupied by the Western powers as late as the 1880s, Africa became the primary target of the \"new\" imperialist expansion, although conquest took place also in other areas — notably south-east Asia and the East Asian seaboard, where the United States and Japan joined the European powers' scramble for territory.\n\nBritain's entry into the new imperial age is often dated to 1875, when the Conservative government of Benjamin Disraeli bought the indebted Egyptian ruler Ismail's shareholding in the Suez Canal to secure control of this strategic waterway, since its opening six years earlier a channel, under Emperor Napoleon III, for shipping between Britain and India. Joint Anglo-French financial control over Egypt ended in outright British occupation in 1882.\n\nFear of Russia's centuries-old southward expansion was a further factor in British policy: in 1878 Britain took control of Cyprus as a base for action against a Russian attack on the Ottoman Empire, after having taken part in the Crimean War 1854-56 and invading Afghanistan to forestall an increase in Russian influence there. Britain waged three bloody and unsuccessful wars in Afghanistan, as ferocious popular rebellions, invocations of jihad and inscrutable terrain frustrated British objectives. The First Anglo-Afghan War led to one of the most disastrous defeats of the Victorian military when an entire British army was wiped out by Russian-supplied Afghan Pashtun tribesman during the 1842 retreat from Kabul. The Second Anglo-Afghan War led to the British debacle at Maiwand in 1880, the siege of Kabul and British withdrawal into India. The Third Anglo-Afghan War of 1919 stoked a tribal uprising against the exhausted British military on the heels of World War I and expelled the British permanently from the new Afghan state. The \"Great Game\" in Inner Asia ended with a bloody and wholly unnecessary British expedition against Tibet in 1903-04.\n\nAt the same time, some powerful industrial lobbies and government leaders in Britain, later exemplified by Joseph Chamberlain, came to view formal empire as necessary to arrest Britain's relative decline in world markets. During the 1890s Britain adopted the new policy wholeheartedly, quickly emerging as the front-runner in the scramble for tropical African territories.\n\nBritain's adoption of the New Imperialism may be seen as a quest for captive markets or fields for investment of surplus capital, or as a primarily strategic or pre-emptive attempt to protect existing trade links and to prevent the absorption of overseas markets into the increasingly closed imperial trading blocs of rival powers. The failure in the 1900s of Chamberlain's Tariff Reform campaign for Imperial protection illustrates the strength of free trade feeling even in the face of loss of international market share. Historians have argued that Britain's adoption of the \"New imperialism\" was an effect of her relative decline in the world, rather of strength.\n\nThe evolution of colonialism in India should dissuade people sweeping generalisations and over-simplifications regarding the roles of inter-capitalist competition and accumulated surplus in precipitating the era of the New imperialism. Formal empire in India, beginning with the Government of India Act of 1858, was a means of consolidation, reacting to the abortive Indian Mutiny, which was in itself a conservative reaction among Indian traditionalists to British policy in the subcontinent.\n\nBritain and the Scramble for Africa\n\nFor details see the main article Scramble for Africa.\n\nIn 1875 the two most important European holdings in Africa were Algeria and the Cape Colony. By 1914 only Ethiopia and the republic of Liberia remained outside formal European control. The transition from an \"informal empire\" of control through economic dominance to direct control took the form of a \"scramble\" for territory in areas previously regarded as open to British trade and influence.\n\nAs French, Belgian and Portuguese activity in the lower Congo River region threatened to undermine orderly penetration of tropical Africa, the Berlin Conference of 1884-85 sought to regulate the competition between the powers by defining \"effective occupation\" as the criterion for international recognition of territorial claims, a formulation which necessitated routine recourse to armed force against indigenous states and peoples.\n\nBritain's 1882 military occupation of Egypt (itself triggered by concern over the Suez Canal) contributed to a preoccupation over securing control of the Nile valley, leading to the conquest of the neighbouring Sudan in 1896-98 and confrontation with a French military expedition at Fashoda (September 1898).\n\nIn 1899 Britain set out to complete her takeover of South Africa, begun with the annexation (1795) of the Cape, by invading the Afrikaner republics of the gold-rich Transvaal and the neighbouring Orange Free State. The chartered British South Africa Company had already seized the land to the north, renamed Rhodesia after its head, the Cape tycoon Cecil Rhodes. Criticism for this takeover led to Britan's Splendid Isolation.\n\nBritish gains in southern and East Africa prompted Rhodes and Alfred Milner, Britain's High Commissioner in South Africa, to urge a \"Cape to Cairo\" empire linking by rail the strategically important Canal to the mineral-rich South, though German occupation of Tanganyika prevented its realisation until the end of World War I.\n\nParadoxically Britain, the staunch advocate of free trade, emerged in 1914 with not only the largest overseas empire thanks to her long-standing presence in India, but also the greatest gains in the \"scramble for Africa\", reflecting her advantageous position at its inception. Between 1885 and 1914 Britain took nearly 30% of Africa's population under her control, compared to 15% for France, 9% for Germany, 7% for Belgium and only 1% for Italy: Nigeria alone contributed 15 million subjects, more than in the whole of French West Africa or the entire German colonial empire.\n\nHome Rule in white-settler colonies\n\nBritain's empire had already begun its transformation into the modern Commonwealth with the extension of Dominion status to the already self-governing colonies of Newfoundland (1855), Canada (1867), Australia (1901), New Zealand (1907), and the newly-created Union of South Africa (1910). Leaders of the new states joined with British statesmen in periodic Colonial (from 1907, Imperial) Conferences, the first of which was held in London in 1887.\n\nThe foreign relations of the Dominions were still conducted through the Foreign Office of the United Kingdom: Canada created a Department of External Affairs in 1909, but diplomatic relations with other governments continued to be channelled through the Governors-General, Dominion High Commissioners in London (first appointed by Canada in 1880 and by Australia in 1910) and British legations abroad. Britain's declaration of war in World War I applied to all the Dominions.\n\nBut the Dominions did enjoy a substantial freedom in their adoption of foreign policy where this did not explicitly conflict with British interests: Canada's Liberal government negotiated a bilateral free-trade Reciprocity Agreement with the United States in 1911, but went down to defeat by the Conservative opposition.\n\nIn defence, the Dominions' original treatment as part of a single Empire military and naval structure proved unsustainable as Britain faced new commitments in Europe and the challenge of an emerging German High Seas Fleet after 1900. In 1909 it was decided that the Dominions should have their own navies, reversing an 1887 agreement that the then Australasian colonies should contribute to the British navy in return for the permanent stationing of a squadron in the region.\n\nThe impact of the First World War\n\nBritish Empire memorial for the First World War in the Brussels cathedralEnlarge\n\nBritish Empire memorial for the First World War in the Brussels cathedral\n\nThe aftermath of World War I saw the last major extension of British rule, with Britain gaining control through League of Nations Mandates in Palestine and Iraq after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East, as well as in the former German colonies of Tanganyika, South-West Africa (now Namibia) and New Guinea (the last two actually under South African and Australian rule respectively).\n\nBut although Britain emerged among the war's victors, and although her rule expanded into new areas, the heavy costs of the war undermined her capacity to maintain the vast empire. The British had suffered millions of casualties and liquidated assets at an alarming rate, which led to debt accumulation, upending of capital markets and manpower deficiencies in the staffing of far-flung imperial posts in Asia and the African colonies. Nationalist sentiment grew in both old and new Imperial territories, fuelled by pride at Empire troops' participation in the war and the grievance felt by many non-white ex-servicemen at the racial discrimination they had encountered during their service to the Empire.\n\nThe 1920s saw a rapid transformation of Dominion status. Although the Dominions had had no formal voice in declaring war in 1914, each was included separately among the signatories of the 1919 peace Treaty of Versailles, which had been negotiated by a British-led united Empire delegation. In 1922 Dominion reluctance to support British military action against Turkey influenced Britain's decision to seek a compromise settlement.\n\nFull Dominion independence was formalised in the 1926 Balfour Declaration and the 1931 Statute of Westminster: each Dominion was henceforth to be equal in status to Britain herself, free of British legislative interference and autonomous in international relations. The Dominions section created within the Colonial Office in 1907 was upgraded in 1925 to a separate Dominions Office and given its own Secretary of State in 1930.\n\nCanada led the way, becoming the first Dominion to conclude an international treaty entirely independently (1923) and obtaining the appointment (1928) of a British High Commissioner in Ottawa, thereby separating the administrative and diplomatic functions of the Governor-General and ending the latter's anomalous role as the representative of the head of state and of the British Government. Canada's first permanent diplomatic mission to a foreign country opened in Washington in 1927: Australia followed in 1940.\n\nThe Irish Free State, accorded Dominion status in 1921 after a bitter war against British rule, ended its formal constitutional link with the crown in 1937 (renaming itself Éire), and became the Republic of Ireland outside the Commonwealth in 1949. Egypt, formally independent from 1922 but bound to Britain by treaty until 1936 (and under partial occupation until 1956) similarly severed all constitutional links with Britain.\n\n\nM.K. Gandhi was a leader of the Indian independence movement\n\nThe rise of anti-colonial nationalist movements in the subject territories in the first half of the 20th century challenged an imperial power now increasingly preoccupied with issues nearer home. First India, then other territories in Asia and Africa demanded independent statehood. After sometimes disastrous attempts to stem the tide, Britain's eventual acceptance of the new situation led to the Empire's transformation into today's Commonwealth.\n\nThe end of Empire gathered pace after Britain's efforts during World War II left the country all but exhausted and found its former allies disinclined to support the colonial status quo. Economic crisis in 1947 forced the Labour government of Clement Attlee to abandon Britain's attempt to remain a first-rank power, and to accept United States strategic pre-eminence. Britain entered a tortuous realignment with western Europe that remains unresolved to this day.\n\nBritain's declaration of hostilities against Germany in September 1939 did not commit the Dominions, other than Australia, which had not yet legally adopted the Statute of Westminster. The other Dominions issued their own declarations of war, except for Eire, which had negotiated the removal of British forces from its territory the year before, and which now chose to remain neutral throughout the war.\n\nWorld War II fatally undermined Britain's already weakened commercial and financial leadership and heightened the importance to the Dominions of the United States as a source of military assistance. Australian prime minister John Curtin's unprecedented action (1942) in successfully demanding the recall for home service of Australian troops earmarked for the defence of British-held Burma demonstrated that Dominion governments could no longer be expected to subordinate their own national interests to British strategic perspectives.\n\nAfter the war, Australia and New Zealand joined with the United States in the ANZUS regional security treaty in 1951 (although the U.S. repudiated its commitments to New Zealand following a 1985 dispute over port access for nuclear vessels). Britain's pursuit (from 1961) and attainment (1973) of European Community membership weakened the old commercial ties to the Dominions, ending their privileged access to the U.K. market.\n\nIn the Caribbean, Africa, Asia and the Pacific, post-war decolonisation was accomplished with almost unseemly haste in the face of increasingly powerful (and sometimes mutually conflicting) nationalist movements, with Britain rarely fighting to retain any territory. Britain's limitations were exposed to a humiliating degree by the Suez Crisis of 1956 in which the United States opposed Anglo-French intervention in Egypt, seeing it as a doomed adventure likely to jeopardise American interests in the Middle East.\n\nThe independence of India in 1947 ended a 40-year struggle by the Indian National Congress for first self-government and later full sovereignty, though the land's partition into India and Pakistan entailed violence costing hundreds of thousands of lives. The acceptance by Britain, and the other Dominions, of India's adoption of republican status (1949) is now taken as the start of the modern Commonwealth.\n\nBurma achieved independence (1948) outside the Commonwealth, Ceylon (1948) and Malaya (1957) within it. Britain's Palestine Mandate ended (1948) in withdrawal and open warfare between the territory's Jewish and Arab populations. In the Mediterranean, a guerrilla war waged by Greek Cypriot advocates of union with Greece ended (1960) in an independent Cyprus.\n\nThe reign of [[Queen Elizabeth IIEnlarge\n\nThe reign of [[Queen Elizabeth II\n\nsaw the gradual dismantling of the Empire.]]\n\nThe end of Britain's Empire in Africa came with exceptional rapidity, often leaving the newly-independent states ill-equipped to deal with the challenges of sovereignty: Ghana's independence (1957) after a ten-year nationalist political campaign was followed by that of Nigeria (1960), Sierra Leone and Tanganyika (1961), Uganda (1962), Kenya and Zanzibar (1963), The Gambia (1965), Botswana (formerly Bechuanaland) and Lesotho (formerly Basutoland) (1966), and Swaziland (1968).\n\nBritish withdrawal from the southern and eastern parts of Africa was complicated by the region's white settler populations: Kenya had already provided an example in the Mau Mau Uprising of violent conflict exacerbated by white landownership and reluctance to concede majority rule. White minority rule in South Africa remained a source of bitterness within the Commonwealth until the ending of apartheid policy in 1994.\n\nAlthough the white-dominated Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland ended in the independence of Malawi (formerly Nyasaland) and Zambia (the former Northern Rhodesia) in 1964, Southern Rhodesia's white minority (a self-governing colony since 1923) declared independence rather than submit to African government. The support of South Africa's apartheid government kept the Rhodesian regime in place until 1979, when agreement was reached on majority rule in an independent Zimbabwe.\n\nMost of Britain's Caribbean territories opted for eventual separate independence after the failure of the West Indies Federation (1958-62): Jamaica and Trinidad & Tobago (1962) were followed into statehood by Barbados (1966) and the smaller islands of the eastern Caribbean (1970s and 1980s). Britain's Pacific dependencies underwent a similar process of decolonisation in the latter decades. At the end of Britain's 99-year lease of the mainland New Territories, all of Hong Kong was returned to China in 1997.\n\n\nAt its height, the British Empire consisted of the following territories -\n\n\nThe Americas and Atlantic\n\n\n\n\n\nRemaining Dependent Territories\n\nNow only a few small territories remain under British administration, mostly for reasons of perceived insufficiency as sovereign states. The last remaining Dependent Territories are:\n\nTerritories possessing substantial self-government\n\nOther territories\n\nSee also\n\nExternal links", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.6098889112472534}
{"content": "User:Ileana del Carmen\n\nIleana del Carmen\n\n\nIf you have a website, please search for it above (like and promote it by editing its domain page.\n\n\nYou can leave me a message on my talk page.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9653911590576172}
{"content": "The Two Sources Of Belonging\n\nWe all want to belong to a group. Some of us less or more than others. But few of us want to be ostracized from it.\n\nWe can obtain that sense of belonging through empathy if we are similar, and duty if we are not. Empathy through shared interpretation. Duty through shared action in pursuit of mutually beneficial ends.\n\nWomen vary less. They sense more. At least, on average, they tend to belong through empathy. Men vary more. They sense less. They are action rather than perception oriented.\n\nDominance is the corollary of empathy. We must learn to use our dominance against the physical world, and in defense of life and property, and not as a means of self expression or control of others.\n\nMisused empathy is just as dangerous as misused dominance. The damage we have done to the world by our supposedly charitable activities is as great as the damage we have done by war.\n\nWe have lost the ancient understanding of our dual natures.\n\nTo cohabitate and to cooperate politically we must master both empathy and dominance in relation to how we possess them.\n\nAnd in doing so create belonging by both empathy and duty.\n\nRiffing On Scott Sumner: German Membership In The Euro Is Preventing The Advancement Of The Poorer Countries\n\nThe eurozone excludes Norway, Iceland, Sweden, Denmark, Britain and Switzerland.\n\n…Germany is one of the few northern countries that’s actually in the eurozone…\n\nAnd it seems to me that here you have a massive adverse selection problem. Because of Abraham Lincoln, affluent states like Massachusetts can’t suddenly decide they want no part of our fiscal union, and would rather just reap the benefits of our large single market. But Switzerland, Norway can and did make that choice. Britain almost certainly would, and both Sweden and Denmark might as well. In contrast, Bulgaria, Romania and Croatia would like nothing more than to join such a union. And all the likely future expansion of the EU is into areas further east, and much poorer than even Greece and Portugal. Places like Armenia, Georgia, Ukraine (a country nearly the size of France) Belarus, Serbia, Macedonia, Bosnia, Moldova (the saddest place on Earth—even the name is depressing.) And did I mention Turkey? Indeed why not Russia at some distant point in the future?\n\nPeople often compare Europe to the US. That’s wrong; the eurozone is sort of like the US, although a bit poorer. But Europe as a whole is far poorer than the US, far more corrupt, backward, inefficient, whatever other pejoratives you want to apply. Even America at its worst (say the treatment of ethnic minorities) isn’t as bad as the treatment of gypsies in Eastern Europe.\n\nMy point was not to predict the future, but rather to provide a warning. Once you start down that road [to creating a united states of europe], there will be constant pressure to go further. Quite likely at some point the northern European taxpayers will rebel, and we won’t end up with a United States of Europe. The policy will collapse.\n\nThe eurozone really only has two options; a more expansionary monetary policy or a breakup. There’s no point in looking for alternative solutions.\n\nThe argument I consistently make, is that of course Germanic Protestant northern tax payers will rebel. And likewise, so will germanic northern european americans rebel. Which is what they’re doing today. We call it polarization.\n\nGermany, Austria and the Netherlands, should leave the eurozone and germany should reissue the Mark. (Belgium is already divided between french and german cultures, and they despise each other as much as the french and english canadians do.)\n\nThe success of the euro then, will be as a vehicle for poor countries to unite, and possibly (I say with uncharacteristic hope) focus on group improvement, rather than transfers from the north to the south.\n\nIn fact, the most important and valuable strategy that the United States could adopt for the world today, is to dismantle the empire both domestically and internationally. The anglo people have succeeded in spreading consumer capitalism. We’ve modernized the planet. But it’s one thing to invent and evangelize a technology. It’s another to try to control it.\n\nEurope doesn’t need one federation. It needs two or three. Because germanic, latin, and byzantine europe are different cultures if not different civilizations. They always have been. They always will be.\n\nAnd multiculturalism is impossible.\n\n2000 Years Of Economic History In A Chart? What Would That Chart Tell Us?\n\nI don’t know what we’re supposed to learn from this chart from The Atlantic, but as others have already stated with passion, it’s pretty bad information design. And even without that criticism, almost every conclusion that one would draw from it certainly appears to be simply meaningless or false – at least without some sort of prevarication.\n\nIt reminds me of the biggest statistical sin in current economics: using ‘families’ rather than individuals. If someone uses that measure, then everything that follows is false. Families have changed too much. More so than the economy itself. The economy is noise by comparison. Likewise, for such gross categorization as this chart seeks to make use of, economic activity is meaningless without the sizes of the geography and the population. Boundaries are meaningless unless what happens within them is substantially different per person per square mile/km. Perhaps even, limited to per person per acre of arable land.\n\nOtherwise all the chart tells you is that big arbitrary geographic areas produce more income than small arbitrary geographic areas. Which tells us precisely nothing that isn’t absurdly obvious.\n\n\nWhat any such chart would allow us to draw the conclusion that:\n\n    i) navigable rivers or seas made a very big difference, and\n    ii) a hostile winter environment is beneficially eugenic for an agrarian population, but not for non-agrarians,\n    iii) An east-west geography transports knowledge and goods more easily than a north south geography,\n    iv) as of the industrial revolution, rivers are slightly less important, and populations with property rights and literacy matter increasingly instead.\n\nEconomic history is not complicated. People need:\n\n    a) an environment that is not overly hostile (such as subsaharan africa or siberia),\n    b) a means of transportation of goods (rivers),\n\nThey need institutional technologies which do not so much require the state as require the state not abuse:\n\n    c) a monopoly of control over that territory within which they feel able to allocate property, take risks, establish norms, and where necessary laws and from which they can prohibit others from establishing different allocations of property, different norms and laws.\n    d) property rights (law, contracts, courts), and\n    e) tools that allow them to calculate the future and to cooperate in increasing numbers (numbers, money, accounting, banking, credit).\n\nAnd, they need those institutions that *are* complicated: social aspects we too often ignore, and which appear to require intervention on the part of the state:\n\n    f) the change in mating patterns (outlawing inbreeding) and property rights that allow us to transform human relations from that of tribal familialism to that of commercial universalism; thereby allowing us to trust, risk, produce and trade in increasing complexity. And\n    g) the consequential prohibition on rent seeking and corruption that plagues humanity everywhere in the world except among the germanic protestants above the Hanjal line. And\n    h) the need for aristotelian reasoning (objective reasoning, debate, and science) as a compliment and competitor to the emotionally and socially binding mysticism that seems to be a required property of all social orders.\n\nA chart that is useful, will be the chart that illustrates that the only value of a state is in creating these institutions (a) thru (h).\n\nIs Islam A Political Ideology? (And Are Progressivism, Scientism, Democratic Secular Humanism Religions?)\n\nFrom The Global Secular Humanism Group:\n“Should ‘Islam’ be considered as a political ideology and a religion at the same time?”\n\nThe question should be restated in this fashion in order to illustrate Islam’s political content:\n\nA) Should Islam be considered a Religion? (Yes/No)\nYES: Religions consist of Myths and rituals. It does appear that religions require some form of magian reasoning. However, scientism, secular humanism, progressivism, all require ‘faith’ (in methodology, reason, or technology) that is expressly counter to the historical evidence. So, it is quite possible to create a personal philosophy that is the premise for a religion (scientism, secular humanism, progressivism) on faith. Scientism has myths, rituals and institutions. Progressivism has them too. Secular humanism is getting close, but I tend to treat secular humanists as simply anti-christian atheists and progressives as Democratic Secular Humanists. That means Secular Humanism is a minor ideology, and Democratic Secular Humanism as a major ideology. Both of which rely upon faith. But Democratic (Socialist) Secular Humanism, like islam, has both laws (human rights), institutions (academia, the press, the party structure, and it’s developed expressly for use in majority rule under parliamentarianism). So it appears to be both an ideology, a religion and a political system.\n\nB) Should Islam be considered a political Ideology? (Yes/No)\nYES: The purpose of an ideology is to obtain political power through excitation of the masses. Islam was invented to obtain political power. Islam was used as a means of conquest, and succeeded in obtaining political power. Islam is used to obtain, justify and use political power. Political power is the power to enforce the primacy of a set of laws. Islam contains a code of laws with explicit commandment to their primacy. Therefore islam is a political ideology.\n\nC) Should Islam be considered a political system? (Yes/No)\nYES: While a primitive political system only requires the ability to resolve disputes, A political system capable of coordinating investments (taxes and expenditures on infrastructure) requires at a minimum, laws, and an organization that mandates the exclusivity of those laws above all other laws, rules and norms. Islam has both a set of laws (Sharia) and a system of producing judges for those laws (Mullahs) and a system of intergenerational teaching for the purpose of propagating those laws (Religious Schools). In effect islam is a legal system with magian origins (instead of natural rights). That islam does not include other formal institutions (a parliament) is simply a function of it’s antiquity and tribal authoritarianism. Islam conquered a roman state (Byzantium) and assimilated it’s administrative structure. But did not include it on it’s own. In fact, much of islamic administration relied upon slaves and eunuchs because the byzantine administration could not adapt to Arab tribalism. (See Fukuyama’s recent book.)\n\nIslam is a religion, a political ideology, and a political system. If one argues that it is not, then one must define the terms religion, political ideology, and political system. And that exercise would lead to either confirmation of that it is a religion, ideology and political system, or one would define those terms using selection bias by sampling normative rather than structural rules.\n\nA Note To Jonathan Haidt: An Explanation Of Elite Conservative Strategy Since Reagan\n\nJonathan Haidt first attacks republicans then rescinds it. I try to put conservative strategy in context. And in that context it’s quite simple. It’s an extension of the tactic used against world communism: “Resist until they go bankrupt.” If you understand this strategy everything the conservatives and Republicans do makes complete sense. Everything.\n\n\nVery interesting post, and equally interesting comments.\n\nOne commenter above writes that you (Jonathan) should perhaps seek to understand conservative elite theory. (People like me.)\n\nThe conservative intellectuals succeeded in defeating world communism and socialism through a variety of military, political, economic, and intellectual tactics. But conservatives failed to come up with a strategy for defeating democratic redistributive socialism and the secular progressive attack on the meritocratic hierarchical conservative society. Due to this failure, the libertarians, who are explicitly economic in their strategy, took over leadership of the anti-collectivism, and whenever possible, the conservatives adopted the libertarian economic and political program.\n\nBut about the time of Reagan, conservative thought leaders looked at the demographic data and determined that the program of expanding statism would win out over time. So, the conservatives abandoned their belief that they could gain a majority and keep control of the state, or even defend themselves against it. And instead, they increased militarism, worked to increase home ownership, and tried to rekindle entrepreneurship rather than government as the central narrative behind western success. They then allied with the capitalist class to attempt to bankrupt the state before european style nanny state could develop. This was consistent with the approach to communism: “Just resist them and wear them out. They will eventually fail because their concept of an economy is unsustainable.” The conservative battle against the state is simply the conservative tactic against world communism replayed.\n\nIt is perhaps useful to note that the conservative argument against central planning, urban planning, welfare disincentives, laxity on crime and punishment, the social and economic impact of the dissolution of the institution of marriage, as well as the problem of the ponzi financing strategy of social programs (rather than the Singapore model of forced and subsidized savings) were all correct. The conservative vision of hubristic man and economic incentives is more accurate a world view than the liberal egalitarian ideal. And while it is not that we cannot use the ideas of both sides. It is that progressive desires must be accomplished through conservative means: retaining the relationship between cause, effect and incentives.\n\nThe USA, as a set of political institutions, faces the multicultural problem that faces all empires. It currently must cope with the combination of a)”The Demands Of Empire” that give the state greater scope than just the nation + b)”Nine Nations Of North America” which represent geographic differences in culture + c)”Racial Self-Preference in Association, and Differences In Ability” + d)”Gender Biases” + e) The class exaggerating effect of the extraordinary economic advantage of having an IQ greater than 105 in the information economy. All of these biases exist within a set of political institutions designed to resolve conflicts in priority between property owning males with homogenous norms. It is not possible to resolve conflicts over ends using decision making by majority rule. In the market we cooperate on means and are ignorant of one another’s ends. In majority rule government, there are winners and losers because we argue over ends. Majority rule must (as Federalist papers 10 stated) lead to extra-political resolution of conflict between groups with such mutually exclusive goals. Liberals slant toward the female reproductive strategy (the largest number of human births with the most equal experience) and the conservatives slant toward the male reproductive strategy (the most competitive tribe with the best people in charge of it.) This level of conflict over instinctual preference will not be resolved by the liberal desire to use our instituions of majority rule to suppress the instincts of the other side any more than conservatives would succeed in encouraging liberals to adopt conservative norms.\n\nFor this reason, something has to give. Either demographics have to play out (it’s possible), or the federal government has to devolve (unlikely without catastrophic military or economic causes) or we will have to develop new institutions that allow us to federate while pursuing opposing social ends (Just as unlikely). But it’s also just as likely that we will lose our high trust society as groups seek extra-political means of status seeking (like Mediterranean’s and Eastern Europeans, and Russians.) And if we lose that we will also lose our risk taking – which is why we’re a wealthy economy. Risk taking creates innovation.\n\nBut the USA is too big and too diverse ann empire to persist as we have known it. Classical liberalism is a means of governance for a small state or a small federation. Not an empire. And the USA is an empire. The Classical mutli-house model did not work for the british empire, and it will not work for the american empire.\n\nSo while I believe you have finally supplied the social sciences with the language by which to understand political conflcits I do not believe that the conflict is resolvable. People under Russian and Chinese socialism developed ‘black markets’ for everything. People under majority rule who have opposing interests will develop extra-political ‘black markets’ for power. They will circumvent the political institutions to achieve their desired ends. The state will attempt to preserve itself by increasing control, which will only expand the black markets. The liberals circumvented the constitution, and the conservatives circumvent the state apparatus.\n\nThere is no solution here without changes to our institutions. In government, big is bad and small is good. The city state and a mobile population allow the greatest diversity and freedom. So the problem we have is finding an institutional solution to that equilibrium: allowing federation of some things but not federation of norms.\n\nStiglitz Joins In On Keynesian Spending In Order To Expand The Oppressive State\n\nThe Keynesian debate promoted by such writers as Krugman, Delong, Thoma, Smith, and Stiglitz is misleading. Human beings are well aware that spending can increase demand, and that demand will improve the economy. The problem is, that we’re also aware of the externalities that are caused by that spending: the increase in government interference in our lives, the expansion of government’s size, the corruption created by the use of the funds, the use of the funds to support one’s opposition, the destruction of our savings, and the near prohibition on the institution of saving.\n\nThese negative consequences all support the secondary Keynesian objectives: the strong and increasingly egalitarian state. So Keynesians promote spending as much because of it’s externalities as for its impact on the economy. Just as we oppose those externalities because we desire freedom from an oppressive state, even if we must pay a high cost for doing so.\n\nThe germans resent supporting the greeks, italians and spanish just as much as americans resent supporting their liberal leaning underclasses. And while it may be true that the scale of our economy allows us to print money, that is not to say that each of us could not be more free, more prosperous, more secure and more competitive, as smaller collections of states rather than a continental federation of states oppressed by the coasts.\n\nThe Keynesian arguments are convincing on first blush. But they are only convincing because in their simplicity they ignore the true costs of government spending – the externalities that come from empowering the state: it is not debt alone that we face. It’s the destruction of meritocracy and the submission to the state.\n\nThe germans and the americans are right to oppose it.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.6395358443260193}
{"content": "V for Vendetta\n\nThis belongs to Gracee.\n\nI’ve always felt like I am compromising a lot of things I believe in to be more comfortable, and in the process I am being held hostage by my own wants. This sentence from Valerie’s letter reminds me that whatever happens, no matter how much we tend to lose ourselves by our own or others’ doing, there is always that inch — our integrity — where we can be completely free.\n\nFont used is called Porcelain, but my artist, Dyuntats of 55 Tinta in the Philippines, have made some adjustments due to the size and positioning of the tattoo.\n\nLiterary Tattoos: V for Vendetta Alan Moore\n\n\n- Valerie’s Letter, V for Vendetta by Alan Moore\n\n\nLiterary Tattoos: Watchmen Dave Gibbons Alan Moore\n\nThis image is from the comic Watchmen by Alan Moore and Dave Gibbons. It is the signature/calling card of the vigilante Rorschach.  It was submitted by ElleVee:\n\nYes, I love the comic. Yes, I love the character of Rorschach. But I got this tattoo more for what it (and Rorschach) stood for. Not the character’s opinions or quirks, (I’m not a homophobic/anti-woman hobo vigilante, to my knowledge, although I do eat sugar cubes) but for his ideals. He never compromised. He believed in something, and he fought for it, and never wavered in his belief, and was willing to do whatever it took to maintain those beliefs. Even when it would have been easier to give in and roll over, like everyone else, he stood fast, because it was right, and because sometimes that’s what you have to do. He never doubted himself, and he made his own morals. Then he stood by them, without fear or regret. And as someone who has, throughout their life, been wracked with self-doubt, anxiety, and the tendency to bend to others’ wills, I feel that this is something to remember. Not to be inflexible, but to be true to yourself and the things that are important to you, regardless of what others might say or think. Be who you are, without compromise or apology. Hold fast to your ideals (not politics or opinions, but ideals), and aspire for a better world.\n\nAlso, my friend pointed out the humor that the character of Rorschach would have enormous problems with my tattoo because, A) He doesn’t seem like a tattoo kind of guy, and B) It’s on a GIRL OH NOES. I too find this funny.\n\nWho Watches the Watchmen?\n\nLiterary Tattoos: Watchmen Dave Gibbons Alan Moore\n\nThis tattoo was submitted by w m r and reads “quis custodiet ipsos custodes”. From Wikipedia:\n\nQuis custodiet ipsos custodes? is a Latin phrase from the Roman poet Juvenal, which literally translates to “Who will guard the guards themselves,” and is variously translated in colloquial English as “Who watches the watchmen?”\n\nThe Watchmen movie is coming out tomorrow; have you read the graphic novelLiterary Tattoos: Watchmen Dave Gibbons Alan Moore by Alan Moore and Dave Gibbons yet?", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8152735829353333}
{"content": "Count On\n\n\n\nBack to number 29\n\n\nOn to number 31\n\n\nTo refresh her spirits,\nSee-Far Woman\nhas a cup of green tea\nevery thirty minutes.\n\nTwo cups to the hour,\nwith no milk or sugar,\ncertainly seems to increase\nher numbers-power.\n\nGrace Nichols\n\nOn their THIRTIETH wedding anniversary\nThe present he gave her was cursory\nJust one pearl, not a string\nWhat a miserly thing!\nOh well- it's for better or for worser, eh?\n\nA Stanton\n\nCleopatraMark Anthony and Cleopatra died in 30 AD.\n\nAt 30 kilograms the great bustard is the heaviest flighted bird.\n\nDancer and actor Fred Astaire appeared in 30 Hollywood films.\n\nIn the UK the speed limit in a built up area is 30 miles per hour.\n\nOil30% of the world's oil comes from the Persian Gulf region.\n\nEnglish theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking was honored for his theories by being made the youngest fellow of the Royal Society, at the age of 30\n\n30 days hath September, April, June and November (all the rest have 31 except February which has 28 and 29 in a leap year).\n\nThe maximum length for a water polo court is 30 metres. Goals must be 30 centimetres deep.\n\nLionLions cautiously stalk their prey but once within striking distance sprint at speeds of upto 30 miles per hour.\n\nA volleyball court is 30 feet wide and each side is 30 feet long.\n\nTokyo's population is about 30 million making it the most populated city in the world.\n\nThe 30 year's war lasted from 1618 to 1648. It involved most of the countries of western Europe, and was fought mainly in Germany.\n\nThe 30 years anniversary is a pearl anniversary.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8315548300743103}
{"content": "Optimization with EM and Expectation-Conjugate-Gradient by dfsiopmhy6\n\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t      Optimization with EM and Expectation-Conjugate-Gradient\n\nRuslan Salakhutdinov                                                              rsalakhu@cs.toronto.edu\nSam Roweis                                                                          roweis@cs.toronto.edu\nDepartment of Computer Science, University of Toronto\n6 King’s College Rd, M5S 3G4, Canada\nZoubin Ghahramani                                                                   zoubin@gatsby.ucl.ac.uk\nGatsby Computational Neuroscience Unit, University College London\n17 Queen Square, London WC1N 3AR, UK\n\n                     Abstract                             In spite of tremendous success of the EM algorithm in\n                                                          practice due to its simplicity and fast initial progress,\n    We show a close relationship between the\n                                                          some authors [8] have argued that the speed of EM\n    Expectation - Maximization (EM) algorithm\n                                                          convergence can be extremely slow, and that more\n    and direct optimization algorithms such as\n                                                          complicated second-order methods should generally be\n    gradient-based methods for parameter learn-\n                                                          favored to EM. Many methods have been proposed\n    ing. We identify analytic conditions under\n                                                          to enhance the convergence speed of the EM algo-\n    which EM exhibits Quasi-Newton behavior,\n                                                          rithm, mostly based on conventional optimization the-\n    and conditions under which it possesses poor,\n                                                          ory [6, 7]. Several authors [8, 1] have also proposed hy-\n    first-order convergence. Based on this analy-\n                                                          brid approaches for ML learning, advocating switching\n    sis, we propose two novel algorithms for max-\n                                                          to a Newton or Quasi-Newton method after perform-\n    imum likelihood estimation of latent variable\n                                                          ing several EM iterations. All of these approaches, al-\n    models, and report empirical results show-\n                                                          though sometimes successful in terms of convergence,\n    ing that, as predicted by the theory, the pro-\n                                                          are much more complex than EM, and difficult to an-\n    posed new algorithms can substantially out-\n                                                          alyze; thus they have not been popular in practice.\n    perform standard EM in terms of speed of\n    convergence in certain cases.                         Our goal in this paper is to contrast the EM algorithm\n                                                          with a direct gradient-based optimization approach.\n                                                          As a concrete alternative, we present an Expectation-\n                                                          Conjugate-Gradient (ECG) algorithm for maximum\n1. Introduction                                           likelihood estimation in latent variable models, and\nThe problem of Maximum Likelihood (ML) parameter\n                                                          show that it can outperform EM in terms of conver-\nestimation for latent variable models is an important\n                                                          gence in certain cases. However, in other cases the\nproblem in the area of machine learning and pattern\n                                                          performance of EM is superior. To understand these\nrecognition. ML learning with unobserved quantities\n                                                          behaviours, we study the convergence properties of the\narises in many probabilistic models such as density\n                                                          EM algorithm and identify analytic conditions under\nestimation, dimensionality reduction, or classification,\n                                                          which EM algorithm exhibits Quasi-Newton conver-\nand generally reduces to a relatively hard optimization\n                                                          gence behavior, and conditions under which it pos-\nproblem in terms of the model parameters after the\n                                                          sesses extremely poor, first-order convergence. Based\nhidden quantities have been integrated out.\n                                                          on this analysis, we introduce a simple hybrid EM-\nA common technique for ML estimation of model             ECG algorithm that switches between EM and ECG\nparameters in the presence of latent variables is         based on estimated quantities suggested by our anal-\nExpectation-Maximization (EM) algorithm [3]. The          ysis. We report empirical results on synthetic as well\nEM algorithm alternates between estimating the un-        as real-world data sets, showing that, as predicted by\nobserved variables given the current model and refit-      the theory, this simple algorithm almost never per-\nting the model given the estimated, complete data. As     forms worse than standard EM and can substantially\nsuch it takes discrete steps in parameter space similar   outperform EM’s convergence.\nto to first order method operating on the gradient of\na locally reshaped likelihood function.\n2. Linear and Newton Convergence of                                                 M-step has a single unique solution.2\n   Expectation Maximization                                                         The important consequence of the above analysis is\nWe first focus on the analysis of the convergence                                    that (when the expected complete log-likelihood func-\nproperties of the Expectation-Maximization (EM)                                     tion has a unique optimum), EM has the appealing\nalgorithm. Consider a probabilistic model of ob-                                    quality of always taking a step Θ(t+1) −Θt having pos-\nserved data x which uses latent variables y. The                                    itive projection onto the true gradient of the objective\nlog-likelihood (objective function) can be written as                               function L(Θt ). This makes EM similar to a first order\na difference between expected complete log-likelihood                                method operating on the gradient of a locally reshaped\nand negative entropy terms:                                                         likelihood function.\nL(Θ) = ln p(x|Θ) =                p(y|x, Ψ) ln p(x|Θ)dy =\n                                                                                    For maximum likelihood learning of a mixture of Gaus-\n  p(y|x, Ψ) ln p(x, y|Θ)dy −                 p(y|x, Ψ) ln p(y|x, Θ)dy               sians model using the EM-algorithm, this positive def-\n  = Q(Θ, Ψ) − H(Θ, Ψ)                                                               inite transformation matrix P (Θt ) was first described\n                                                                                    by Xu and Jordan[15]. We extended their results by\n The EM algorithm implicitly defines a mapping:                                      deriving the explicit form for the transformation ma-\nM : Θ → Θ from parameter space to itself, such that                                 trix for several other latent variables models such as\nΘt+1 = M (Θt ). If iterates of Θt converge to Θ∗ (and                               Factor Analysis (FA), Probabilistic Principal Compo-\nM (Θ) is continuous), then Θ∗ = M (Θ∗ ), and in the                                 nent Analysis (PPCA), mixture of PPCAs, mixture of\nneighbourhood of Θ∗ , by a Taylor series expansion:                                 FAs, and Hidden Markov Models [10].3\n             Θt+1 − Θ∗ = M (Θ∗ )(Θt − Θ∗ )                                    (1)   We can further study the structure of the transfor-\n                                                                                    mation matrix P (Θt ) and relate it to the convergence\nwhere M (Θ∗ ) = ∂M |Θ=Θ∗ . Therefore EM is essen-\n                     ∂Θ                                                             rate matrix M . Taking the negative derivatives of\ntially a linear iteration algorithm with a convergence                              both sides of (2) with respect to Θt , we have:\nrate matrix M (Θ∗ ) (which is typically nonzero).\n                                                                                      I − M (Θt ) = −P (Θt )      L (Θ\n                                                                                                                             ) − P (Θt )S(Θt )   (4)\nFor most objective functions, the EM step Θ(t+1) −Θ(t)\n                                                                                                        ∂ 2 L(Θ)\nin parameter space and true gradient can be related by                              where S(Θt ) =        ∂Θ2 |Θ=Θ is the Hessian\n                                                                                                                   t                         of the\na transformation matrix P (Θt ), that changes at each                                                            t    ∂Θt+1\n                                                                                    objective   function, Mij (Θ ) = ∂Θt is the\niteration:                                                                                                                j\n                                                                                    output derivative matrix for the EM mapping and\n               Θ(t+1) − Θ(t) = P (Θt )              L (Θ\n                                                               )              (2)   P (Θt ) = ∂P (Θ) |Θ=Θt is the tensor derivative of P (Θt )\n                                                                                    with respect to Θt . In ”flat” regions of L(Θ), where\n(We define L (Θt ) = ∂L(Θ) |Θ=Θt .) Under certain                                                                         t\n                           ∂Θ                                                         L (Θ) approaches zero (and P (Θ ) does not become\nconditions, the transformation matrix P (Θt ) is                                    infinite), the first term on the RHS of equation (4)\nguaranteed to be positive definite with respect to the                               becomes much smaller than the second term, and the\ngradient.1 In particular, if                                                        transformation matrix becomes a rescaled version of\n C1: Expected complete log-likelihood Q(Θ, Θt ) is well-                            the negative inverse Hessian:\n     defined, and differentiable everywhere in Θ. and\n                                                                                             P (Θt ) ≈ I − M (Θt )           − S(Θt )            (5)\n C2: For any fixed Θt = Θ(t+1) , Q(Θ, Θt ) has only a\n         single critical point along any direction in Θ, located\n                                                                                    In particular, if the EM algorithm iterates converge to\n         at the maximum Θ = Θt+1 ; then\n                                                                                    a local optima at Θ∗ , then near this point (i.e. for suffi-\n                L (Θ       )P (Θt )   L (Θ\n                                                 ) > 0 ∀Θt                    (3)   ciently large t) EM may exhibit Quasi-Newton conver-\n                                                                                    gence behavior. This is also true in “plateau” regions\nThe second condition C2 may seem very strong. How-                                  where the gradient is very small even if they are not\never, for the EM algorithm C2 is satisfied whenever the                              near a local optimum.\n       Note that    Q (Θ\n                                 )(Θ(t+1) − Θt ), where            Q (Θ\n                                                                              ) =   The nature of the Quasi-Newton behavior is controlled\n∂Q(Θ,Θ )\n         |Θ=Θt is the directional derivative of function                            by the eigenvalues of the matrix M (Θt ). If all eigen-\nQ(Θ, Θ ) in the direction of Θ(t+1) − Θt .\n                                                    C1 and                          values tend to zero, then EM becomes a true Newton\nC2 together imply that this quantity is positive, oth-                                 2\n                                                                                         In particular C2 holds for any exponential family\nerwise by the Mean Value Theorem (C1) Q(Θ, Θt )\n                                                                                    model, due to the well-known convexity property of\nwould have a critical point along some direction, lo-\n                                                                                    Q(Θ, Θt ) for these models.\ncated at a point other than Θt+1 (C2).               By us-                            3\n                         t       ∂Q(Θ,Θt )\n                                                                                         We also derived the general form of the transformation\ning the identity     L (Θ ) =        ∂Θ\n                                           |Θ=Θt , we have                          matrix for the exponential family models in term of their\n      t     t      t           t    (t+1)\n  L (Θ )P (Θ ) L (Θ ) =    Q (Θ )(Θ       − Θt ) > 0.                               natural parameters.\n                                                  10                                                                   6\n                                                                                                EM                     5\n            µ1                    µ2                                                                                   3\n\n                                                  −5                                                                   1\n\n                                                                                   7.7                                 0\n −9    −6    −3       0       3        6   9       −10                 −5                0        5               10         −6   −5   −4     −3   −2     −1       0\n                                                  10                                                                       1.5\n                                                                                     GRADIENT         9.0\n                                                                             EM                                             1\n\n                                                   0                                                                        0\n                  µ       µ\n                  1       2\n                                                  −5                                                        8.5\n\n                                                                       9.1         8.0\n                                                  −10                                                                  −1.5\n  −6        −3        0           3        6       −10                 −5                0        5               10    −1.5      −1   −0.5    0    0.5        1       1.5\n\nFigure 1. Contour plots of the likelihood function L(Θ) for MoG examples using well-separated (upper panels) and not-\nwell-separated (lower panels) one-dimensional data sets. Axes correspond to the two means. The dashdot line shows the\ndirection of the true gradient L (Θ), the solid line shows the direction of P (Θ) L (Θ) and the dashed line shows the\ndirection of (−S)−1 L (Θ). Right panels are blowups of dashed regions on the left. The numbers indicate the log of the\nl2 norm of the gradient. Note that for the ”well-separated” case, in the vicinity of the maximum, vectors P (Θ) L (Θ)\nand (−S)−1 L (Θ) become identical.\nmethod, rescaling the gradient by exactly the nega-                                                           case of fitting a mixture of Gaussians model to well-\ntive inverse Hessian. As the eigenvalues tend to unity,                                                       clustered data – for which EM exhibits Quasi-Newton\nEM takes smaller and smaller stepsizes, giving poor,                                                          convergence – and not-well-clustered data, for which\nfirst-order, convergence.                                                                                      EM is slow. As we will see from the empirical results\n                                                                                                              of the later sections, many other models also show this\nDempster, Laird, and Rubin [3] showed that if EM\n                                                                                                              same effect. For example, when Hidden Markov Mod-\niterates converge to Θ∗ , then\n                                                                                                              els or Aggregate Markov Models [11] are trained on\n∂M (Θ)                                 ∂ 2 H(Θ,Θ∗ )                  ∂ 2 Q(Θ,Θ∗ )                             very structured sequences, EM exhibits Quasi-Newton\n ∂Θ |Θ=Θ                  =                         |Θ=Θ∗                         |Θ=Θ∗\n                                            ∂Θ2                           ∂Θ2\n                                                                                                              behavior, in particular when the state transition ma-\nwhich can be interpreted as the ratio of missing                                                              trix is sparse and the output distributions are almost\ninformation to the complete information near the                                                              deterministic at each state.\nlocal optimum. Thus, in the neighbourhood of a                                                                The above analysis and experiments motivates the use\nsolution (for sufficiently large t):                                                                            of alternative optimization techniques in the regime\n                                                         −1                                     −1\n                                       ∂2H      ∂2Q                                                           where missing information is high and EM is likely\nP (Θt ) ≈ I −                                                   |Θ=Θt             − S(Θt )\n                                       ∂Θ2      ∂Θ2                                                           to perform poorly. In the following section, we an-\n                                                    (6)                                                       alyze exactly such an alternative, the Expectation-\nThis formulation of the EM algorithm has a very in-                                                           Conjugate Gradient (ECG) algorithm, a simple direct\nteresting interpretation which is applicable to any la-                                                       optimization method for learning the parameters of\ntent variable model: When the missing information is                                                          latent variables models.\nsmall compared to the complete information, EM ex-\nhibits Quasi-Newton behavior and enjoys fast, typically                                                       3. Expectation-Conjugate-Gradient\nsuperlinear convergence in the neighborhood of Θ∗ . If\n                                                                                                                 (ECG) Algorithm\nfraction of missing information approaches unity, the\neigenvalues of the first term (6) approach zero and EM                                                         The key idea of the ECG algorithm is to note\nwill exhibit extremely slow convergence.                                                                      that if we can easily compute the derivative\n                                                                                                              ∂Θ ln p(x, z|Θ) of the complete log likelihood,\nFigure 1 illustrates the above results in the simple\nthen knowing the posterior p(z|x, Θ) we can com-                                                                                                                         oped to escape from such configurations. It turns out\npute the exact gradient        L (Θ).   In particular:                                                                                                                   that direct optimization methods such as ECG may\n  L (Θ) = z p(z|x, Θ) ∂Θ log p(x, z|Θ)dz. This exact                                                                                                                     also avoid this problem because of the nonlocal nature\ngradient can then be utilized in any standard manner,                                                                                                                    of the line search. In many of our experiments, ECG\nfor example to do gradient (as)descent or to control                                                                                                                     actually converges to a better local optimum than EM;\na line search technique. (Note that if one can derive                                                                                                                    figure 2 illustrates exactly such case.\nexact EM for a latent variable model, then one can\nalways derive ECG by computing the above integral                                                                                                                        4. Hybrid EM-ECG Algorithm\nover hidden variables.) As an example, we describe a\nconjugate gradient algorithm:                                                                                                                                            As we have seen, the relative performance of EM ver-\n                                                                                                                                                                         sus direct optimization depends on the missing infor-\nExpectation-Conjugate-Gradient algorithm:                                                                                                                                mation ratio for the given model and data set. The key\nApply a conjugate gradient optimizer to L(Θ), perform-                                                                                                                   to practical speedups is the ability to design a hybrid\ning an “EG” step whenever the value or gradient of                                                                                                                       algorithm that can estimate the local missing informa-\nL(Θ) is requested (e.g. during a line search).                                                                                                                           tion ratio M (Θt ) to detect whether to use EM or a\nThe gradient computation is given by                                                                                                                                     direct approach such as ECG. Some authors have at-\n         • E-Step: Compute posterior p( | , Θt ) and log-                                                           \n\n\n                                                                                                                                                                         tacked this problem by finding the top eigenvector of\n           likelihood L(Θ) as normal.                                                                                                                                    ∂M (Θ)             t               ∗\n                                                                                                                                                                           ∂Θ |Θ=Θ as Θ approaches Θ using conventional\n         • G-Step:                      L (Θ        )=       p( | , Θt ) ∂Θ log p( , |Θ)d\n\n                                                                                              ¡                                         ¡\n\n                                                                                                                                                                         numerical methods, such as finite-difference approxi-\n                                                                                                                                                                         mations, or power methods [4]. These approaches are\nWhen certain parameters must obey positivity or lin-                                                                                                                     computationally intensive and difficult to implement,\near constraints, we can either modify our optimizer                                                                                                                      and thus they have not been popular in practice.\nto respect the constraints, or we can reparameterize\nto allow unconstrained optimization. In our exper-                                                                                                                       Here, we propose using the entropy of the posterior\niments, we use simple reparameterizations of model                                                                                                                       over hidden variables, which can be computed after\nparameters that allow our optimizers to work with ar-                                                                                                                    performing an E-step, as a crude estimate of the\nbitrary values. For example, in the MoG model we                                                                                                                         local missing information ratio. This entropy has\nuse a “softmax” parameterization of the mixing coef-                                                                                                                     a natural interpretation as the uncertainty about\nficients πi =     exp (γi )\n                           , for covariance matrices to                                                                                                                  missing information, and thus can serve as a guide\n                                              exp (γj )                                                                                                                  between switching regimes of EM and ECG. For many\nbe symmetric positive definite, we use the Choleski de-                                                                                                                   models with discrete hidden variables this quantity is\ncomposition (or log variances for diagonal covariance                                                                                                                    quite easy to compute. In particular, we define the\nmatrices). In HMMs, we reparameterize probabilities                                                                                                                      Normalized Entropy term:\nvia softmax functions as well.                                                                                                                                            ¯            N    M\n                                                                                                                                                                         Ht = N −1M n i p(z = i|xn , Θt ) ln p(z = i|xn , Θt )\n\n                                                                                                                                                                         with z being discrete hidden variable taking on\n\n                                                                                                                                                                         M values, and N observed data vectors xn . We\n                                                                   Log−Likelihood + Const\n\n 1.5                      ΘECG\n\n                                                                                                                                                                         now simply switch between EM and ECG based on\n               Line Search                                                                  −0.005\n                                                                                                                                                                         thresholding this quantity:\n\n                                                                                                                                                                          Hybrid EM-ECG algorithm:\n                                                                                                                           Gene Sequence:\n               EM                                                                            −0.02                              ATGCCGGAGGCCC ...\n  −1.5    −1    −0.5      0       0.5   1     1.5    2\n                                                         Θ                                               0   200            400             600       800         1000                                              ¯\n                                                                                                                                                                            • Perform EM iterations, evaluating Ht after each\n                                                         1                                                                        E−Steps\n                                                                                                                                                                            • If Ht ≥ τ Thena Switch to ECG\nFigure 2. Left panel illustrates why ECG may converge to\n                                                                                                                                                                            • Perform ECG, evaluating Ht at the end of each\na better local optimum. Right panel displays the learn-\ning curves for EM and ECG algorithms of training fully                                                                                                                        line search\n                                                                                                                                                                            • If Ht < τ Then Switch back to EM\nconnected 7-state HMM to model human DNA sequences.\n                                                                                                                                                                            • Exit at either phase IF:\nBoth algorithms started from the same initial parameter\nvalues, but converged to the different local optimum.                                                                                                                             1. (L(Θt ) − L(Θt−1 ))/abs(L(Θt )) < tol OR\n                                                                                                                                                                                 2. t > Tmax\nOf course, the choice of initial conditions is very im-                                                                                                                      a\n                                                                                                                                                                               We are near the optimum or in plateau region with\nportant for the EM algorithm or for ECG. Since EM                                                                                                                         high entropy\nis based on optimizing a convex lower bound on the\nlikelihood, once EM is trapped in a poor basin of at-                                                                                                                    As we will see from the experimental results, this sim-\ntraction, it can never find a better local optimum. Al-                                                                                                                   ple hybrid EM-ECG algorithm performs no worse, and\ngorithms such as split and merge EM [13] were devel-                                                                                                                     often far better than either EM or ECG.\n       x 10\n\n   0       EM−ECG                                                                                                                                                                             0                              EM−ECG\n                                                                             EM                                                                                                                                                          ECG\n                                                                                                                ECG                                               EM\n                 ECG                                                                       −0.02                                                                                −0.01\n\n −10                                    4\n\n\n                                        0                                                                             Unstructured\n                                        −5          −3             −1            1                                      Sequence: CEDBCEDDAC ...\n −20                                                                                                                                                                           −0.025\n       0          100        200        300              400             500         600              0         50         100        150        200           250       300                          0                20      40        60    80        100   120   140   160   180\n\n              EM−ECG / EM                                                                                 EM−ECG / EM                                                                                       0.05\n                                                                                                                                                                                                                            EM−ECG / EM\n                                                                   ECG                                                                                      ECG                                               0\n\n  −5                                                                                       −0.2\n\n                                                                                                                                                                                  Log−Likelihood + Const\n −10                                                                                       −0.4                                                                                                             −0.1\n\n −15                                                                                       −0.6                                                                                                                                               ECG\n\n                                        −2                                                 −1.2\n                                                                                                           Structured                                                                                      −0.35\n\n −30                                                                                                           Sequence: AEABCDEAEABCDE...\n                                              −2               0             2             −1.4\n −35                                                                                                                                                                                                       −0.45\n       0                10         20              30                   40            50          0         5         10         15         20         25           30   35                                        0                10              20          30         40          50\n\nFigure 3. Learning curves for ECG, EM-ECG, and EM algorithms, showing superior (upper panels) and inferior (lower\npanels) performance of ECG under different conditions for three models: MoG (left), HMM (middle), and Aggregate\nMarkov Models (right). The number of E-steps taken by either algorithm is shown on the horizontal axis, and log\nlikelihood is shown on the vertical axis. For ECG and EM-ECG, diamonds indicate the maximum of each line search,\nand the zero-level likelihood corresponds to the converging point of the EM algorithm. The bottom panels use “well-\nseparated”, or “structured” data for which EM possesses Quasi-Newton convergence behavior. All models in this case\nconverge in 10-15 iterations with stopping criterion: [L(Θt+1 ) − L(Θt )]/abs(L(Θt+1 )) < 10−15 . The upper panels use\n“overlapping”, “aliased”, or “unstructured” data for which proposed algorithms performs much better.\n5. Experimental Results                                                                                                                     the data is “well-separated” into distinct clusters and\nWe now present empirical results comparing the per-                                                                                         another “not-well-separated” case in which the data\nformance of EM, ECG, and hybrid EM-ECG for learn-                                                                                           overlaps in one contiguous region. Figure 3 shows that\ning the parameters of three latent variable models:                                                                                         ECG and Hybrid EM-ECG outperform standard EM\nMixtures of Gaussians (MoG), Hidden Markov Mod-                                                                                             in the poorly separated cases. For the well-separated\nels (HMM), and Aggregate Markov Models. In many                                                                                             case, the hybrid EM-ECG algorithm never switches to\nlatent variable models, performing inference (E-step)                                                                                       ECG due to the small normalized entropy term, and\nis significantly more expensive compared to either the                                                                                       EM converges very quickly. This is predicted by our\nparameter updates (M-step) or the line search over-                                                                                         analysis: in the vicinity of the local optima Θ∗ the di-\nhead in the CG step of ECG. To compare the perfor-                                                                                          rections of the vectors P (Θ) L (Θ) and (−S)−1 L (Θ)\nmance of the algorithms, we therefore simply compare                                                                                        become identical (fig. 1), suggesting that EM will have\nthe number of E-steps each algorithm executes until its                                                                                     Quasi-Newton convergence behavior.\nconvergence. We first show results on synthetic data\n                                                                                                                                            We then applied our algorithms to the training of Hid-\nsets, whose properties we can control to verify certain\n                                                                                                                                            den Markov Models (HMMs). Missing information in\naspects of our theoretical analysis. We also report em-\n                                                                                                                                            this model is high when the observed data do not well\npirical results on several real world data sets, showing\n                                                                                                                                            determine the underlying state sequence (given the pa-\nthat our algorithms do work well in practice. Though\n                                                                                                                                            rameters). We therefore generated two data sets from\nwe show examples of single runs, we have confirmed\n                                                                                                                                            a 5-state HMM, with an alphabet size of 5 characters.\nthat the convergence results presented in all our ex-\n                                                                                                                                            The first data set (“aliased” sequences) was generated\nperiments do not vary significantly for different initial\n                                                                                                                                            from a HMM where output parameters were set to uni-\nparameter conditions. For all of the reported experi-\n                                                                                                                                            form values plus some small noise. The second data\nments, we used tol = 10−8 and τ = 0.5.\n                                                                                                                                            set (“very structured sequences”) was generated from\n                                                                                                                                            a HMM with sparse transition and output matrices.\n5.1. Synthetic Data Sets                                                                                                                    For the ambiguous or aliased data, ECG and hybrid\nFirst, consider a mixture of Gaussians (MoG) model.                                                                                         EM-ECG outperform EM substantially. For the very\nWe considered two types of data sets, one in which                                                                                          structured data, EM performs well and exhibits second\n                                                                           x 10\n\n                                 5−Component MOG                       1                             50−Component MOG                                                                                 65−Component MOG\n                                                                                       EM−ECG                                                                                      EM−ECG\n                         EM−ECG / EM\n                                                                                              ECG                                EM            0.006\n\n\n                               ECG                                                                                                                                                            ECG\n\n −0.06                                                                                                                                                                                           EM\n\n\n  −0.1                                                                −5                                                                       −0.01\n              0           50          100    150    200         250        0                  200       400      600       800         1000                             0               100           200           300      400   500         600\n      x 10\n                                     5−State HMM                                                          8−State HMM                                                                                        10−State HMM\n  2                                                                                                                        EM−ECG               0.01\n\n  0       EM−ECG                                                                                                                                                                                  ECG\n                               ECG                        EM                                                   ECG                EM                                0\n\n\n\n                                 DNA Sequence:                                                         DNA Sequence:                                                                                    DNA Sequence:\n                                      ATGCCGGAGGCCC ...                                                     ATGCCGGAGGCCC ...                                                                                ATGCCGGAGGCCC ...\n −8                                                                   −0.03                                                                   −0.03\n      0                 200          400    600    800         1000                0           200       400         600   800         1000                             0                 200               400           600      800               1000\n\n  0.01                               3−Class AMM                       0.02                            6−Class AMM                                                          0.05\n                                                                                                                                                                                                                  9−Class AMM\n                       EM−ECG                                                               EM−ECG                               EM                                                    EM−ECG                                             EM\n\n                                                                                                                                               Log−Likelihood + Const\n                                                          EM          −0.02\n\n −0.01                                                                                                                                                                  −0.05\n\n −0.02                                                                                                                                                                      −0.1\n\n\n −0.03                                                                                                                                                                  −0.15\n\n −0.04                                                                −0.12                                                                                                 −0.2\n\n                       ECG                                            −0.14\n                                                                                            ECG                                                                                         ECG                                               E−Steps\n −0.05                                                                                                                                                                  −0.25\n\nFigure 4. Learning curves for ECG, EM-ECG, and EM algorithms, displaying convergence performance under different\nconditions for three models: MoG (upper), HMM (middle), and Aggregate Markov Models (bottom). The number of\nE-steps taken by either algorithm is shown on the horizontal axis, and log likelihood is shown on the vertical axis. For\nECG and EM-ECG, diamonds indicate the maximum of each line search, and the zero-level likelihood corresponds to the\nconverging point of the EM algorithm. The number of learned clusters for MoG model were 5 (left), 50 (middle), and 65\n(right). For HMM model, the number of states were 5 (left), 8 (middle), and 10 (right). The number of learned themes\nfor the AMM model were 3 (left), 6 (middle), and 9 (right).\norder convergence in the vicinity of the local optimum.                                                          determine class labels, and on more structured data,\n                                                                                                                 in which the proportion of missing information is very\nFinally, we experimented with Aggregate Markov\n                                                                                                                 small. ECG and hybrid EM-ECG are superior to EM\nModels (AMMs) [11]. AMMs model define a discrete\n                                                                                                                 by at least a factor of two for ambiguous data; for\nconditional probability table pij = p(y = j|x = i)\n                                                                                                                 structured data EM shows the expected Quasi-Newton\nusing a low rank approximation. In the context of\n                                                                                                                 convergence behavior.\nn-gram models for word sequences, AMMs are class-\nbased bigram models in which the mapping from\nwords to classes is probabilistic. In particular, the                                                            5.2. Real World Data Sets\nclass-based bigram model predicts that word w1 is                                                                In our first experiment, we cluster a set of 50,000\nfollowed by word w2 with probability: P (w2 |w1 ) =                                                              8 × 8 greyscale pixel image patches4 using a mixture\n   C                                                                                                             of Gaussians model. The patches were extracted from\n   c=1 P (w2 |c)P (c|w1 ) with C being the total number                                                          768×512 natural images, described in [14] (see fig 5 for\nof classes. Here, the concept of missing information\n                                                                                                                 an example of a natural image, and sample patches).\ncorresponds to how well or poor a set of words de-\n                                                                                                                 To speed-up the experiments, the patch data was pro-\ntermine the class labels C based on the observation\n                                                                                                                 jected with PCA down to a 10-dimensional linear sub-\nwords that follow them. The right panels of figure\n3 show training of a 2-class 50-state AMM model on                                                                    The data set used was the imlog data set publicly\nambiguous (aliased) data, in which words do not well                                                             available at ftp://hlab.phys.rug.nl/pub/samples/imlog\nspace and the mixing proportions and covariances of           ing a small number of “soft” classes (t): P (W |A) =\nthe model were held fixed. The means were initial-                t=1 P (W |t)P (t|A). Once again, we observe that for\nized by performing K-means. We experimented with              this simple model, this data set has a large fraction of\nmixtures having M=2 up to M=65 clusters.                      missing information. Figure 4 displays the convergence\n                                                              of EM, ECG, and EM-ECG algorithms for T=3,6,9.\n                                                              with hybrid EM-ECG and ECG having superior con-\n                                                              vergence over EM.\n\n                                                              6. Discussion and Conclusions\n                                                              Although we have focused here on discrete latent vari-\n                                                              ables, the ECG and hybrid algorithms can also be de-\n                                                              rived for latent variable models with continuous hidden\nFigure 5. An example of a natural image and some samples      variables. As an example figure 6 illustrates conver-\nof 8 × 8 grey pixel image patches, used in the clustering     gence behaviour of the Probabilistic Principal Com-\nexperiment.                                                   ponent Analysis (PPCA) latent variable model[9, 12],\n                                                              which has continuous rather than discrete hidden vari-\nFigure 4 displays the convergence of EM, ECG,                 ables. Here the concept of missing information is re-\nand Hybrid EM-EC algorithms for M=5, M=50 and                 lated to the ratios of the leading eigenvalues of the\nM=65. The experimental results show that with fewer           sample covariance, which corresponds to the elliptic-\nmixture components EM outperforms ECG, since the              ity of the distribution. For “low-rank” data with a\ncomponents generally model the data with fairly dis-          large ratio EM performs well; for nearly circular data\ntinct, non-contiguous clusters. As the number of              ECG converges faster.6\nmixtures components increases, clusters overlap in\ncontiguous regions and the normalized entropy term            In some degenerate cases, where the proportion of\ngrows, suggesting a relatively high proportion of the         missing information is very high, i.e. M (Θ∗ ) ap-\nmissing information. In this case ECG outperform EM           proaches identity, EM convergence can be exponen-\nby several orders of magnitude. Hybrid EM-ECG al-             tially slow. Figure 6 illustrates such example for the\ngorithm is never inferior to either EM or ECG (using          case of HMM training using almost random sequences.\nour untuned setting of switching threshold τ = 0.5).          It takes about 7,000 iterations for ECG and EM-ECG\n                                                              to converge to the ML estimate, whereas even after\nOur second experiment consisted of training a fully           250,000 iterations EM is still only approaching the lo-\nconnected HMM to model DNA sequences. For the                 cal optimum.\ntraining, we used publicly available ”GENIE gene\nfinding data set”, provided by UCSC and LBNL [5],              In this paper we have presented comparative analy-\nthat contains 793 unrelated human genomic DNA se-             sis of EM and direct optimization algorithms for la-\nquences. We applied our different algorithms on 66             tent variable models, and developed a theoretical con-\nDNA sequences with length varying anywhere between            nection between these two approaches. We have also\n200 to 3000 genes per sequence. The number of states          analyzed and determined conditions under which EM\nranged from M=5 to M=10 and all the parameter val-            algorithm can demonstrate local-gradient and Quasi-\nues were randomly initialized. Figure 4 shows the             Newton convergence behaviors. Our results extend\nconvergence of EM, ECG, and Hybrid EM-ECG algo-               those of Xu and Jordan[15] who analyzed the conver-\nrithms for M=5,8,10. This data set contains very com-         gence properties of the EM algorithm in the special\nplex structure which is not easily modeled by HMMs,           case of Gaussian mixtures, and apply to any exponen-\nresulting in a very high proportion of missing informa-       tial family model.\ntion. As a result, hybrid EM-ECG and ECG substan-             Motivated by these analyses, we have proposed an al-\ntially outperform EM in terms of convergence.                 ternative hybrid optimization method that can signif-\nIn our last experiment, we applied Aggregate Markov           icantly outperform EM in many cases and is almost\nModels to the data set consisting of 2,037 NIPS au-           never inferior. We tested the proposed algorithms by\nthors and corresponding counts of the top 1,000 most             6\n                                                                   The slow convergence of EM in PPCA is also true for\nfrequently used words of the NIPS conference proceed-         factor analysis and especially for linear dynamic systems.\nings, volumes 1 to 12.5 The goal was to model the             In these models, there is large amount of missing informa-\nprobability that an author A will use word W us-              tion due to the fact that latent variables are continuous\n                                                              and they can be rotated without affecting the likelihood as\n     NIPS corpus used in the experiments is publicly avail-   long as the parameters are rotated accordingly.\nable at http://www.cs.toronto.edu/∼roweis/data.html\n  0.1                                                                                                                                               x 10\n                    Probabilistic PCA                                          Probabilistic PCA                                                                          5−State HMM\n                                                                                                          EM                                    0\n\n                                               EM                                                                                                            EM−ECG /\n\n                                                                                                                     Log−Likelihood + Const\n         ECG                                                                                                                                                 ECG\n −0.1                                                                    ECG                                                                  −2\n                             10                                                          3\n                                                               −10                                                                            −4\n\n −0.3                                                          −15                                                                            −6\n                              0                                                          0\n\n                             −5                                                                                                               −8\n −0.4                                                          −20                      −2\n\n                             −10                                                        −3\n                              −10   −5   0      5   10                                         −2   0      2                                                                                       E−Steps\n                                                                                                                                                    0            50,000   100,000   150,000    200,000   250,000\n −0.5                                                          −25\n     0         50           100          150             200         0         50       100         150        200\n\nFigure 6. Learning curves for ECG (dots) and EM (solid lines) algorithms, showing superior (left) and inferior (middle)\nperformance of ECG. The left panel uses ”ill-conditioned” data for which ECG converges quickly; the middle panel uses\n“low-rank” data for which EM performs better. Right panel displays ”non-converging” case of the EM. Very unstructured\ndata (30 sequences, each of length 50) was generated from a full 5-state HMM with alphabet size of 5. Parameter values\nwere set to be uniform plus some small uniform noise. ECG and EM-ECG converge in about 7,000 iterations, whereas\nafter even 250,000 iterations, EM is only approaching to the ML estimate.\ntraining several basic latent variable models on sev-                                          [5] GENIE gene data set. LBNL and UC Santa Cruz,\neral synthetic as well as real world data sets, reporting                                          http://www.fruitfly.org/sequence.\nconvergence behavior and explaining the results with                                           [6] Mortaza Jamshidian and Robert I. Jennrich. Accel-\nreference to our analysis.                                                                         eration of the EM algorithm by using quasi-newton\n                                                                                                   methods. J. of the RS Society series B, 49, 1997.\nOur convergence analysis can also be extended to\na broader class of bound optimization techniques,                                              [7] Meng X. L. and van Dyk D. Fast EM-type imple-\n                                                                                                   mentations for mixed effects models. J. of the Royal\nsuch as iterative scaling (IS) algorithms for parameter\n                                                                                                   Statistical Society series B, 60:559–578, 1998.\nestimation in maximum entropy models[2] and the\nrecent CCCP algorithm for minimizing the Bethe free                                            [8] Richard A. Redner and Homer F. Walker. Mixture\nenergy in approximate inference problems[16]. These                                                densities, maximum likelihood and the EM algorithm.\n                                                                                                   SIAM Review, 26(2):195–239, April 1984.\nanalyses allow us to gain a deeper understanding of\nthe nature of these algorithms and the conditions                                              [9] S. T. Roweis. EM algorthms for PCA and SPCA.\nunder which certain optimization techniques can                                                    In Advances in neural information processing systems,\n                                                                                                   volume 10, pages 626–632, Cambridge, MA, 1998.\nbe expected to outperform others. Based on these\nextended analyses we are designing accelerated fitting                                         [10] Ruslan Salakhutdinov. Relationship between gra-\nalgorithms for these models as well.                                                               dient and EM steps in latent variable models.\nAcknowledgments                                                                               [11] Lawrence Saul and Fernando Pereira. Aggregate and\nWe would like to thank Yoshua Bengio and Drew Bag-                                                 mixed-order Markov models for statistical language\nnell for many useful comments and Carl Rasmussen for                                               processing. In Proceedings of the Second Conference\n                                                                                                   on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Process-\nproviding an initial version of conjugate gradient code.\n                                                                                                   ing, pages 81–89. 1997.\nReferences                                                                                    [12] M. E. Tipping and C. M. Bishop. Mixtures of prob-\n [1] S.E. Atkinson. The performance of standard and hy-                                            abilistic principal component analysers. Neural Com-\n     brid EM algorithms for ML estimates of the normal                                             putation, 11(2):443–482, 1999.\n     mixture model with censoring. J. of Stat. Computa-                                       [13] Naonori Ueda, Ryohei Nakano, Zoubin Ghabramani,\n     tion and Simulation, 44, 1992.                                                                and Geoffrey E. Hinton. SMEM algorithm for mixture\n                                                                                                   models. Neural Computation, 12(9):2109–2128, 2000.\n [2] Stephen Della Pietra, Vincent J. Della Pietra, and\n     John D. Lafferty. Inducing features of random fields.                                      [14] J. H. van Hateren and A. van der Schaaf. Independent\n     IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine                                             component filters of natural images compared with\n     Intelligence, 19(4):380–393, 1997.                                                            simple cells in primary visual cortex. In Proceedings\n                                                                                                   of the Royal Society of London, pages 359–366, 1998.\n [3] A. P. Dempster, N. M. Laird, and D. B. Rubin. Max-\n     imum likelihood from incomplete data via the EM al-                                      [15] L. Xu and M. I. Jordan. On convergence properties\n     gorithm. J. of the RS Society series B, 39:1–38, 1977.                                        of the EM algorithm for Gaussian mixtures. Neural\n                                                                                                   Computation, 8(1):129–151, 1996.\n [4] Chris Fraley. On computing the largest fraction of                                       [16] Alan Yuille and Anand Rangarajan. The convex-\n     missing information for the EM algorithm and the                                              concave computational procedure (CCCP). In Ad-\n     worst linear function for data augmentation. Tech-                                            vances in NIPS, volume 13, 2001.\n     nical report, University of Washington.\n\nTo top", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9116713404655457}
{"content": "Gotham Gazette\n\nThe Place for New York Policy and politics\n\nCitizens Union\n\n\nCourt Allows Man Who Falsely Confessed to Murder to Seek Money from the State\n\nby Emily Jane Goodman, Apr 15, 2011\ndouglas warney\nPhoto New York State courts\nOverturning lower courts, the state's highest bench issued a ruling that will allow Douglas Warney, who was convicted on the basis of what could have been a coerced confession, to seek financial compensation from the state.\n\nRecently Gotham Gazette reported on the confession of Douglas Warney, who was convicted for a 1996 murder in Rochester but was later exonerated when DNA determined he was actually innocent.\n\nNevertheless, two New York courts found that he should not receive a state settlement compensating him for his wrongful conviction and the subsequent nine years he spent in prison. The court said his false confession constituted misconduct and so barred him from receiving compensation.\n\nIn late March, though, the state's highest court ruled in Warney's favor, reversing the lower courts' dismissal of his claim.\n\nWarney's lawsuit seeking compensation had been brought in the Court of Claims, which hears cases against the state. In its ruling, the court is to rely on the Court of Claims Act and the Unjust Conviction and Imprisonment Act, which requires that a claimant seeking compensation had been convicted of a crime, sentenced to imprisonment and served at least part of the sentence. In addition, in order to receive a settlement, the claimant must have been pardoned on the ground of innocence or had a conviction that was reversed, vacated or dismissed.\n\nThe Court of Claims, however, rejected Warney's suit because language in the statute bars compensation for wrongful convictions that were caused by the defendant's own \"misconduct.\" In other words, although DNA unequivocally proved that Warney is innocent, the confession he gave the police, which was used to convict him, constituted \"misconduct\" in the view of the Court of Claims judge, Renee Forgensi Minarik.\n\nAllegations of Misconduct\n\nThe specific issue confronting the Court of Appeals was whether Minarik had improperly dismissed Warney's case without allowing the litigation to proceed further. The judge had decided that Warney's papers at the earliest stage of litigation should disclose in detail how his confession came about. The Court of Appeals opinion written by Judge Carmen Ciparick/a> agreed with Warney's counsel, Peter Neufeld, that Warney did not have to submit his evidentiary proof that early in the litigation proceedings.\n\nJudge Robert Smith, who appeared particularly concerned when the case was argued in Albany, had posed many questions to the state's attorney, Alison Nathan, who is expected to become a federal judge. Smith asked how Warney could have confessed to specific facts of the crime that he couldn't have known both because of his limited mental abilities and because there is no question that he is innocent. Smith questioned whether the police interrogators gave Warney information, known only to them and the real perpetrator, that Warney then parroted back when asked about the murder.\n\nAt oral arguments and in his concurring opinion, Smith referred to the meaning of \"coerced confession\" and defined it as the sort of \"calculated manipulation that appears present here.\" In general, though, Smith concurred with the majority opinion, which relied largely on procedural technicalities surrounding the dismissal. It did not give Warney's lawyers an opportunity to prove that it was not his acts that constituted misconduct. Smith feared that would lead to more general arguments against dismissal.\n\nCriminal Knowledge\n\nWarney, who had a history of making false police reports, has claimed that he had been denied access to a lawyer after police detained him for questioning in the murder. Warney eventually admitted to the murder in an unusually detailed confession -- one containing details that only the true perpetrator and the police could have known. But after he was convicted and sentenced to 25 years to life, Warney, who was then represented by the Innocence Project, claimed innocence. It was nine years later that DNA testing excluded him as a match. His conviction was reversed based on newly discovered evidence.\n\nIn ruling on Warney's request for compensation, lower courts said Warney had not offered convincing evidence that the police must have fed him detail of the crime. Ciparick's opinion reversed the lower courts , which had said that Warney would have had to present convincing evidence in the initial litigation on a possible settlement that the police fed him the details.\n\nThe appeals court determined that Warney did not have to prove his case in the lower courts but simply provide enough evidence to keep the case in court for trial. In other words, the Court of Appeals found it was premature for the Court of Claims judge to decide that she was not convinced by the facts Warney presented.\n\nIn his submission to the Court of Claims, Warney maintained that his conviction \"was the direct result of the intentional and malicious actions of members of the [police] who fabricated and coerced a false confession from ... a man whom they knew had a history of serious mental health problems.\"\n\nReferring in his opinion to some of the details in the confession, Smith asks, as the prosecutor had asked the trial jury, how a man whose innocence has been established could have known some of these facts he presented during police questioning.\n\n\"It is hard,\" Smith writes, \"to imagine an answer other than that he learned them from the police. ... The police took advantage of Warney's mental frailties to manipulate him into giving a confession that contained seemingly powerful evidence corroborating its truthfulness -- when, in fact, the police knew, the corroboration was worthless. ... This sort of police conduct, if proved at trial would be sufficient to show that Warney 'did not by has own conduct cause or bring about his conviction.'''\n\nAnswering a question asked at oral argument, Smith said a false confession that was not coerced could be a barrier to compensation from the state. But, he wrote, \"A confession cannot fairly be called 'uncoerced' that results from the sort of calculated manipulation that appears to be present here -- even if the police did not actually beat or torture the confessor, or threaten to do so. \"\n\nAs clear as he appears to be about Warney, Smith is at least equally concerned with discouraging \"frivolous claims.\" \"This case is easy, because this claimant appears ... to have an exceptionally strong case,\" Smith wrote. \"Our decision today should not be read as implying that any claimant can, by skillful pleading, get a significantly weaker case past a motion to dismiss.\"\n\nAccording to Neufeld approximately 25 percent of those individuals who have been exonerated had confessed to crimes they did not commit. This week, Jeffrey Deskovic, who spent 15 years in prison after being convicted of raping, beating and strangling a high school classmate, but was later exonerated by DNA testing, settled his federal civil rights case against Westchester County for $6.5 million.\n\nWhile it is not every day that cases such as Warney's and Deskovic's are brought, Neufeld hopes that the opinion in Warney's suit will have an effect on other local cases and in other states. That is, while false confessions are not uncommon, they should not generally prevent an exonerated individual from claiming compensation. Certainly as Smith wrote, the wrongfully convicted should have their day in court and an opportunity to establish their claim.\n\nOther claims, though, will wait for another day. The next question would involve whether there will be a trial in Warney v State of New York. According to Peter Neufeld, there have been no discussions with the state about how the case will proceed now that the Court of Appeals has reversed the dismissal. It is likely the two sides will reach a monetary settlement.\n\nEmily Jane Goodman is a New York State Supreme Court Justice\n\nEditor's Choice\n\n\n", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5787182450294495}
{"content": "Chilean student march ends in arrests\n\nIOL pic aug11 chile education protests Reuters Students throw stones at a riot police vehicle, which was set alight by a molotov cocktail, during an anti-government rally to demand changes in the public state education system, in Valparaiso, about 120km northwest of Santiago.\n\nSantiago - Mass student protests against the government of Chilean President Sebastian Pinera left 396 people arrested and injured 55 police officers and 23 civilians, the authorities said on Wednesday.\n\nTens of thousands of people gathered across the country on Tuesday to demand free, good-quality public education. This was the largest protest in Chile since the end in 1990 of the military dictatorship led by Augusto Pinochet.\n\nAround 100 000 people gathered in Santiago alone, where some masked people clashed with police and vandalised private property. The government complained that these were violent demonstrators, while student leaders denied any of their protesters had committed criminal acts.\n\nLast week a similar protest left 874 people arrested and 90 police officers injured.\n\nThe Chilean government planned to make an updated proposal to students on Wednesday, and called for negotiations.\n\nIn Chile, most school education and all universities require monthly fees. Student protests started three months ago and have already led to a change of minister.\n\nThe ongoing protests have eroded Pinera's approval rating, which sank to 26 per cent according to an opinion poll published last week, the worst of any Chilean president since 1990. - Sapa-dpa\n\nsign up", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5207215547561646}
{"content": "Mathematical and Computer Sciences Building\n\nNews & Announcements\n\nDr. Artem Zvavitch received his Ph.D. from Weizmann Institute of Science, Israel. Dr. Zvavitch is the current Graduate Coordinator. His primary research areas include Convex Geometry, Geometric Functional Analysis, and applications of Probability and Harmonic Analysis. Dr.\nZvavitch has been awarded almost $700,000 in NSF and other grants. Additionally, he has organized 20 various conferences and seminars, including the Informal Analysis Seminar, and is referee and/or reviewer for over 30 journals and publications.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9996439814567566}
{"content": "Frequently Asked Questions\n\nHow do I access the library databases from off campus?\n\nI was successfully logged into the databases but was suddenly blocked from continued use. What happened and what can I do to resume use?\n\nWhat are Discovery Tools?\n\nWhat is EBSCOhost Integrated Search?\n\nWhat is WorldCat Local?\n\nWhere can I find particular call numbers in the library?\n\nHow do I access a wireless network connection in the library?\n\nHow do I access the library databases from off campus?\n\nUsers will use a SCCC User ID Login and Password, in fact, the same ID as your Angel login. When you attempt to use a Begley Library database off-campus using the EBSCO Integrated Search box, or by clicking on the database links available under the \"Research\" box on the home page, a window will appear with instructions for inputting your User ID in order to gain access. If you still have questions, please call 518-381-1487, or click on the \"Troubleshooting\" link at the bottom of the login page, and please include in your email, your Student ID number, and a description of your question or problem.\n\n\nIf after successfully logging in to our databases with your SCCC User ID, you are blocked from continued access with the following, or similar message: \"File missing: - docs/suspended.htm.\" A transaction threshold has been reached by your account and any further use for the next six hours has been blocked. PLEASE CALL the Begley Library Reference Desk at 381-1239 during library hours, or note the problem with us via the Ask a Librarian service. After verifying that you are a legitimate SCCC patron, the librarian can request that the block be removed.\n\nWhat are Discovery Tools?\n\nThey are technologies or applications that provide a single point of access to a broad range of library materials. Instead of searching separate databases and online catalogs for books and articles, discovery tools try to simplify the search process and eliminate the need to repeat the same search over and over in multiple library resources. Some tools even integrate other library technologies that allow a user to link through and request and/or obtain materials in the same session. These tools also often allow librarians and users to make limited customizations to their interface. For individual descriptions of the Discovery Tools Begley Library is offering, please see below.\n\nEBSCOhost Integrated Search\n\nEBSCO Integrated search is a federated search tool that allows users to simultaneously search EBSCO databases as well as other electronic resources, including those from other database aggregators, OPACs, and publisher packages. EBSCO Integrated Search can be accessed using the search box at the top of the library's home page. To search across databases, choose to search by keyword, title, or author. You can also filter your results to resources with full text available, to peer reviewed sources, or to sources available only in Begley's catalog or database collection. Once you have entered your search term and the appropriate filters, click \"search\" and a new tab will open in your browser displaying the search results. Use the search tools on the left of the page to narrow or broaden your search results by subject, date of publication, publisher, or the many other filters available, and click \"update\" to see the changes in the results list.\n\nWorldCat Local\n\nprovides Web access to WorldCat, \"the world's richest database for discovery of materials held in libraries.\" This tools differs from federated search engines, because it is a portal that provides access to materials beyond Begley Library. Millions of books and articles held worldwide become available via resource sharing programs such as Illiad. There are also links to social networking tools like Twitter, RSS feeds and blogs. Users can customize their own account's interface.\n\nMap of Library Call Numbers\n", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9675993919372559}
{"content": "2029 A Near Miss Odyssey\n\nSurface of Eros\nImage Credit: NASA/Eros\n\nA University of Michigan-led research team has discovered that for the first time in history, scientists will be able to observe how the Earth’s gravity will disrupt a massive asteroid’s spin.\n\nScientists predict a near-miss when Asteroid 99942 Apophis passes Earth in 2029. An asteroid flies this close to the planet only once every 1,300 years. The chance to study it will help scientists deal with the object should it threaten collision with Earth.\n\nOnly about three Earth diameters will separate Apophis and Earth when the 400-meter asteroid hurtles by Earth’s gravity, which will twist the object into a complex wobbling rotation. Such an occurrence has never been witnessed but could yield important clues to the interior of the sphere, according to a paper entitled, \"Abrupt alteration of the spin state of asteroid 99942 Apophis (2004 MN4) during its 2029 Earth flyby,\" accepted for publication in the journal Icarus.\n\nThe team of scientists is led by U-M’s Daniel Scheeres, associate professor of aerospace engineering, and includes U-M’s Peter Washabaugh, associate professor of aerospace engineering.\n\nApophis is one of more than 600 known potentially hazardous asteroids and one of several that scientists hope to study more closely. In Apophis’ case, additional measurements are necessary because the 2029 flyby could be followed by frequent close approaches thereafter, or even a collision.\n\nScheeres said not only is it the closest asteroid flyby ever predicted in advance, but it could provide a birds-eye view of the asteroid’s \"belly.\"\n\n\"In some sense it’s like a space science mission ‘for free’ in that something scientifically interesting will happen, it will be observable from Earth, and it can be predicted far in advance,\" Scheeres said.\n\nIf NASA places measuring equipment on the asteroid’s surface, scientists could for the first time study an asteroid’s interior, similar to how geologists study earthquakes to gain understanding of the Earth’s core, Scheeres said. Because the torque caused by the Earth’s gravitational pull will cause surface and interior disruption to Apophis, scientists have a unique opportunity to observe its otherwise inaccessible mechanical properties, Scheeres said. Throwing the asteroid off balance could also affect its orbit and how close it comes to Earth in future years.\n\nCredit: Donald E. Davis\n\n\"Monitoring of this event telescopically and with devices placed on the asteroid’s surface could reveal the nature of its interior, and provide us insight into how to deal with it should it ever threaten collision,\" Scheeres said.\n\nThe asteroid will be visible in the night sky of Europe, Africa and Western Asia.\n\nThe asteroid was discovered late last year and initially scientists gave it a 1-in-300 chance of hitting the Earth on April 13, 2029. Subsequent analysis of new and archived pre-discovery images showed that Apophis won’t collide with Earth that day, but that later in 2035, 2036, and 2037 there remains a 1-in-6,250 chance that the asteroid could hit Earth, Scheeres said. Conversely, that’s a 99.98 percent chance that the asteroid will miss Earth.\n\nThe asteroid is relatively small, about the length of three football fields. If it hit it wouldn’t create wide-scale damage to the Earth, but would cause major damage at the impact site, Scheeres said.\n\nThe team of scientists also includes Lance Benner and Steve Ostro of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Alessandro Rossi of ISTI-CNR, Italy, and Francesco Marzari of the University of Padova, Italy.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7749056816101074}
{"content": "Skip to main content\nReport this ad\n\nSee also:\n\nHow To Kick Your Business Legacy Up A Notch\n\nEvery entrepreneur and business leader waits too long before really working on the legacy that he wants to leave to society and his family. They realize too late that they don’t really want to be remembered for how many hours they spent on airplanes, how many emails they produced, or even how much money they made for the business.\n\nIf you disappeared today, what would your legacy show? What have you done for others? If you are not thinking in these terms, you may be making a mistake as a leader. Bill Gates will probably be more remembered in fifty years for the his efforts and Foundation to save lives in developing countries, than Steve Jobs for his “insanely great” consumer technology advances.\n\nI just finished a new book on this subject “Leading with Your Legacy In Mind,” by Andrew Thorn, PhD, business coach, and psychologist, who has worked on leadership strategies with business leaders at all levels. I espouse the “legacy continuum” that he outlines for every leader to reframe over time how their efforts should be spent, for purposes of kicking their legacy up a notch or two:\n\n  1. From passion to purpose. “Just follow your passion” only takes us so far. Passion can ultimately blind us, while purpose reminds us of how we can connect our strengths with the people and environments that will most appreciate and benefit from our skills and abilities. It focuses us on what we can give instead of what we can get.\n\n  2. From change to growth. Leaders often forget that change is hard for anyone. The only time we really like change if when we are acting as the change agents and inviting others to change. Growth, on the other hand, is most simply defined as change by natural development. Growth is natural for everyone, as a symbol of individual maturity.\n\n  3. From goals to aspirations. Goals are generally connected to the near-term boundaries or limits that we wish to overcome and the actions that we must take to overcome them. Aspirations are more intensely connected to our deeper yearnings. When we factor in our aspirations to guide us, we begin to connect to what really gives us value in life.\n\n  4. From balance to focus. Work/life balance is not a natural business goal. In fact, finding more balance may be impossible, due to the many daily emergencies and problems, but we can all find the time to fine-tune our focus. Focus gives us a sharpness of vision, and improves our understanding, to create a legacy that will endure the chaos of our busy life.\n\n  5. From accepting to understanding. Acceptance embodies the idea that we must get to a place where we approve of something that we disagree with. Understanding is a higher attribute, because it allows us to hold on to what we value most, while at the same time showing a sympathetic and even an positive attitude toward another point of view.\n\n  6. From discussion to dialogue. A discussion is a conversation that involves holding onto and defending our differences, seeking a winner. A dialogue provides an opportunity to explore the uncertainties that exist and the questions that are yet to be answered, with the potential of improving our relationships and benefiting from the collective wisdom.\n\n  7. From listening to hearing. Listening skills are important, to focus first on noticing what is being said and what is not being said. To hear, we must actively and anxiously be willing to take action on what is being requested of us. Our legacy is strengthened when we demonstrate an ability to take action to make things better for all parties.\n\n  8. From success to significance. Success is a count of favorable outcomes, which may or may not be significant. Significance will always be around longer than you will be around. It has a life of its own, inspiring someone else to make an impact, and nothing can stop it once it starts rolling. Finally, significance satisfies our deepest aspirations.\n\n  9. From ambition to meaning. Ambition is our early career drive to prove our worth to others, to achieve recognition, often without regard for the sacrifices we are making. When we make the shift from ambition to meaning, we let our authentic self be our guide. Meaning is the personal fulfillment we enjoy as we grow through our own experiences.\n\n  10. From growing older to growing whole. Growing older concerns most of us because it fills our mind with visions of what we are going to lose. Growing whole, on the other hand, is working aligned with purpose, less stress and anguish, and more time living than working. Growing whole involves celebrating by giving back and enjoying a real legacy.\n\nIt’s never too early to start working on the image you want to be remembered by, rather than the opportunistic default driven by short-term objectives and challenges. Legacy planning is nothing more than an exercise in using your time wisely. The average career is 117,000 hours of work. How many have you spent so far moving your own legacy up a few notches?\n\nReport this ad", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7270971536636353}
{"content": "Visual Magnetics\n\nVisual Magnetics Added to Material ConneXion’s Library of Innovation\n\nVisual Magnetics has announced that its MagnaMedia has been selected by Material ConneXion to include in its library in New York City. Material ConneXion is made up of an international team of multidisciplinary experts that bridge the gap between science and design to create practical manufacturing solutions.\n\nMaterial ConneXion’s subscription-based materials library is the world’s largest library of advanced, innovative, sustainable materials and processes in the world, with ever-growing physical libraries around the globe and an online database that provides immediate access to over 7,000 materials. Material ConneXion uses its materials intelligence to help companies innovate. Materials are chosen through a strict review process where between 30 and 40 new materials are independently juried into the library every month.\n\n\n\n“Designers look to the Material ConneXion library for inspiration and to explore the most innovative, sustainable and exciting products that exist for a wide variety of applications,” said Joe Deetz, CEO of Visual Magnetics. “We are excited to be represented there, with 18 samples of Visual Magnetics MagnaMedia currently on display. Our products allow the creation of truly customizable, versatile wallcoverings and graphics, while simultaneously reducing the negative environmental impact commonly associated with these applications.”\n\nVisual Magnetics creates 100% recyclable products, sources PVC-free base materials, and manufactures select media from 20-50% post-consumer plastics. The company has implemented a complete end-of-life process which encourages customers to return all retired MagnaMedia to Visual Magnetics to be recycled for use in steel and electricity production. Furthermore, Visual Magnetics significantly reduces the amount of material that end-users need to use and greatly increases the ability to reuse products instead of discarding them by enabling graphics to be easily layered and repositioned.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9992081522941589}
{"content": "Why Read the Mystics?\n\nWhy should anyone bother reading the mystics?\n\nOkay, some people would rather spend their lives reading People magazine or playing with their Xbox or simply trolling Ebay for that amazing find. So be it. One of the qualities of lavish grace is that it doesn’t force itself on anyone. So the first and perhaps most important answer to my question is simply, “Because you want to.” But having once established that interest (or desire) is present, still, why bother? Why not just read the Bible (or sacred texts from around the world), or sample the best of contemporary religious writing, or (actually a very worthy goal) moderate our religious study with exploration of science, technology, literature, philosophy, literature and the arts?\n\nOkay, so it makes sense to incorporate the reading of mystical writings with an overall balanced intellectual and spiritual life. Fair enough. But mysticism still can be a wonderful focus for anyone interested in a deepening inner/spiritual life. Meanwhile, in the first sentence of this paragraph I’ve given you a clue to what I see as the two-fold reason why anyone can profit from getting to know the great works of the Christian mystics (or of the mystics of any contemplative tradition, for that matter).\n\nSo here’s the two-fold reason why we should read the mystics:\n\n  1. For intellectual formation — to increase knowledge in terms of theology, history, or literature.\n  2. For spiritual formation — to nurture one’s own faith and to aid in the process of cultivating an on-going sense of Divine love and presence in your life.\n\nBoth of these reading strategies are important, but for different reasons. For the sake of this discussion, I’m going to call the academic study of mysticism the critical approach, and the spiritual study of mysticism the devotional approach.\n\nCritical reading of the mystics involves reading the text for the purpose of increasing knowledge. This may involve either the pursuit of personal intellectual development, or original research for the purpose of making a contribution to the ongoing expansion of human knowlege. When we study the mystics, we study a singular phenomenon in the history of human experience, a phenomenon with religious, social, political, and even evolutionary implications. But whether undertaken for one’s personal pleasure or to support a social or professional goal, critical reading always requires maintaining a distance from the text. The critical reader interrogates the text he or she is studying. Why does the writer say this? What does the writer mean? What does this text reveal about the writer, about the historical context, or about any other issue being researched? Critical reading treats the text as an object, and approaches it in terms of its usefulness. Does reading the text bring enjoyment, or insight, or understanding, or helps to solve a larger puzzle that is being researched? If the answer to any of these questions is yes, then the text passes the usefulness test. But if the answer is no, then frankly reading such a text would be a waste of time.\n\nWe can discover much through critical reading of the writings of the mystics. Again and again, the mystics testify to the possibility of believing deeply in the reality and accessibility of Divine love — and, perhaps more dramatically, in experiencing that very love. Mystics provide an optimistic approach to theology — a healthy corrective to the way that popular religion all too often ends up focusing on the negatives (the “thou shalt nots”). By stressing Divine love over the wrath of God, the testimony of the great contemplatives can help readers to discover spiritual possibilities that take us far beyond the “get saved and live a good life” theology that characterizes the contemporary religious mainstream (and that so many ex-Christians and non-Christians have so sensibly rejected). Of course, mystics have throughout Christian history spoken in accordance with the dominant religious language of their time — which is why mystics like Walter Hilton or Teresa of Avila often sound harsh and overly penitential to a third millennium reader. When we read the mystics with a critical distance, we can more easily avoid being ensnared by such language, remembering that the voice of any given mystic will necessarily reflect the cutural milieu of their day, thereby freeing us to discern what is truly universal in the literature of mysticism.\n\nDevotional reading of the mystics takes us beyond the mere accumulation of knowledge. This method involves reading a text for the purpose of spiritual growth, of deepening our relationship with God and our life in Christ. To read a mystical work this way means to actually enter into the text as a meditative discipline, looking for ways to encounter the Divine Presence within the reading experience. Rather than reading from a critical distance, a devotional reader seeks to be as engaged with the text, as involved with it, as possible. Just a critical reading seeks distance from the text, so a devotional reading seeks intimacy within it. In devotional reading, the text asks questions of the reader. What does reading this book reveal about your beliefs? About your conscious or subconscious assumptions about the nature and character of God? How does this text challenge you as a spiritual person? What gift does this text bring you in terms of your interior growth? Is God using this book to speak to you? If so, what is God saying? Devotional reading treats the text as an ikon — a window through which the the uncreated light of the Holy Spirit may shine.\n\nWhile any book with some measure of spiritual content can be read in either a critical or devotional manner, the writings of the great contemplatives are particularly rewarding to either reading strategy. Therefore, the richest way to unpack the treasures of the mystics is to practice both types of reading. The mystics certainly deserve to be questioned; their assumptions and unstated beliefs about God, the world, and spirituality ought to be examined critically, not only by scholars but by anyone seeking to understand how God has been experienced by people throughout history. For example, the harsh language of penitential theology needs to be clearly understood for what it is, not only for the pure acquisition of knowledge, but also to unlock the text for devotional purposes. In other words, the critical approach to mystical writings is never enough, since it fails to meet the writing in the way that the author originally intended it to be read. Mystics did not (and do not) write to keep graduate students busy — they wrote to help their readers to be transformed and renewed in the image and likeness of God, to prepare themselves for the miracle of the Beatific vision, whether in this life through supernatural intervention or more fully in the next.\n\nSo for any person interested in reading the great works of mysticism, the critical approach needs to be balanced by time spent reading in a contemplative way. The Benedictines call this method of reading lectio divina — literally, “divine reading.” Lectio divina involves not only reading a text prayerfully and slowly, allowing the text to speak to us and possibly reveal Divine love to us, it also fosters an environment where other forms of prayer may emerge. In fact, Benedictine spirituality suggests that lectio naturally leads to the spiritual practices of meditatio (meditation, or what we might call spiritual reflection), oratio (conversational prayer), and contemplatio (contemplative prayer).\n\nTo summarize my answer to the question, “why read the mystics?” For some, the sheer joy of learning about religious culture will be reason enough. However, to truly appreciate the gifts that the mystics have to give, we need to read in a spirit of openness and devotion. In that context, we read the mystics in order to deepen our relationship with the Divine.\n\nThis post is an expanded revision of an essay I wrote about ten years ago for the original “Website of Unknowing.”\n\nThe Feast of Saint Hildegard\nOne Great Mystic Speaks of Another\nA Mini-Sabbatical...\nJohn Cassian's Three Renunciations\n  • http://www.archive.typepad.com/brothertadhg/ Brother Tadhg\n\n    Great post and I concur. Thanks for writing it.\n\n    Humbly, might I suggest a third reason for reading the mystics, and that of ‘strangeness’! Their way of looking at the world was different(and therefore ‘strange) to twenty-first century man/woman, and it causes us to anyalyse more deeply what they’re saying. Jesus used that type of thinking when he said, youve heard it said, but I say…’, and in answer to where are you mother, brothers etc, he spoke of his followers as being member of his family, which would cause any Jew of that day to sit up and listen intently, because it’s using words, phrases and thoughts in ways different to what is considered the norm.\n\n    I can heartily recommend the works of Julian Of Norwich, the works of Meister Eckhart, and as regards lectio divina I can recommend a book, albeit 20 yrs old, called ‘Too Deep for Words: Rediscovering Lectio Divina’ by Thelma Hall (Author).\n\n    Brother Tadhg\n\n  • Peter\n\n    Thanks, Carl, for this clear distinction between the two types of reading. I especially appreciate the difference between questioning the text (in critical reading) and submitting to let the text question you (in devotional reading). This honors the various faculties (“agents” as per M. Eckhart) of the human soul, leaving us free (because grace does not force itself on us) but keeping us properly accountable to the potential of what is available to all in our mystical experience. It is this second form of reading that makes the Bible and all forms of true spiritual writing the most valuable it can be for us. I am greatly looking forward to the Beatific Vision, and I ask, “Why wait? Why not get started now?!”\n    Thanks again, Carl,", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9396535158157349}
{"content": "Proposed Legislation Targets Racial Profiling\n\nU.S. Rep. Steve Cohen on Friday proposed legislation aimed at addressing racial disparities in the criminal justice system, WREG reports. The new laws would identify cases of racial profiling and penalize those responsible for it. Cohen is asking U.S. Attorneys to examine racial profiling in their areas and engage their communities to find ways to eliminate it. A panel of prosecutors, defenders, civil rights, and faith-based leaders would be asked for input. “Law enforcement officers do a great service and we need them so much but they need to spend their time based on actual probable cause and not racial stereotypes,” Cohen said.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 1.0000100135803223}
{"content": "Laurel Westbrook\n\nAssistant Professor, Department of Sociology, Grand Valley State University\nPh.D., University of California, Berkeley (Sociology)\n\nContact: westbrol (at) gvsu (dot) edu OR LaurelWestbrook (at) gmail (dot) com\n\nCurriculum Vitae\n\nRecent Publications\n\nSyllabi for Courses I Teach\n\nResearch  and Teaching Interests:\nSocial Theory, Gender, Sexuality, Violence, Social Movements, and Media Studies\n\nAbout me\n\nMy research focuses on the inner workings of the sex/gender/sexuality system. I utilize a range of research methods, including interviews, statistical analysis, and textual analysis to examine how this system shapes and is shaped by understandings of violence, the practices of social movements, and the construction of sociological knowledge.\n\nMy interests have given rise to four research projects. The first examines violence against transgender people and social movement efforts to prevent such violence. The second theorizes everyday ways in which the sex/gender/sexuality system is reproduced and changed. The third explores the social scientific construction of ideas of sex, gender, race, and sexuality. Finally, my second book project looks at how the sex/gender/sexuality system harms men.\n\nIdentity-Based Anti-Violence Activism and Violence Experienced By Trans People\n\nThe coupling of anti-violence activism with identity politics, such as focusing specifically on violence against women or lesbians and gay men, is often assumed to benefit the groups it works to protect. However, my book, Fighting Violence with Identity: The Causes and Consequences of Identity-Based Anti-Violence Activism, demonstrates that this form of activism can have a number of unintended consequences that run counter to the goals of increasing the livability of group members’ lives and decreasing the violence against them. Using an original data set of websites, press releases, flyers, reports, and other materials produced by twelve national organizations working between 1990 and 2005 to reduce violence experienced by transgender people in the United States, I take up the question: What happens when identity politics and anti-violence activism are combined? I find that activists promoted the idea that transgender people were valuable and undeserving of violence. However, these narratives often include the notion that all members of the identity group are as equally vulnerable to violence at all times. This both produces enormous levels of fear among group members and ignores patterns of violence, thus reducing the effectiveness of proposed solutions. I incorporate examples from other identity-based anti-violence activist groups, including the women's, gay and lesbian, and civil rights movements, to illustrate how these unintended consequences are inherent to identity-based anti-violence activism.\n\nIn addition to collecting activist texts, I also gathered every news story about, and all of the available police reports from, each of the 232 murders of trans people committed between 1990 and 2005 in the United States, a total of more than 7,000 documents. I am currently working on two articles based on this data. One article explores the construction of the idea of “transgender,” detailing how, once the new identity term was invented, activists had to actively teach people, including those they considered to be trans, about the term and its meanings. In the process of doing so, they actually reinforced aspects of the gender system which scholars had speculated the existence of trans people would “undo.” Another article challenges the assumption by scholars that all transgender people are at equal risk of experiencing anti-transgender violence. Using a variety of accounts of these murders, including those in police reports, I compiled a quantitative dataset to analyze patterns of violence. I find that gender (masculine identified vs. feminine identified), race, class, and sexuality all play significant roles in these homicides. As a consequence, trans women of color engaged in first time sexual encounters (either as hook-ups or as sex workers) are much more at risk for fatal forms of violence. \n\nThe Sex/Gender/Sexuality System\n\nIn the second project, I work to theorize the processes of the sex/gender/sexuality system, including how gender and sexuality are intertwined, how gender inequality is created and maintained, and the current dominant criteria for gender categorization. In this fully collaborative project with Kristen Schilt (University of Chicago), we examine the criteria for gender attribution through an analysis of interviews with trans men and their co-workers, newspaper articles about violence against transgender people, policies determining eligibility of transgender people for competitive sports, public debates over the expansion of transgender employment rights, and proposals to remove the surgery requirement for a change of sex on birth certificates. In our examination of moments of conflict over who counts as a man and who counts as a woman, we find that there are different criteria for “determining gender” in different social spaces. In everyday encounters, such as the workplace, cisgender (non-transgender) people are more willing to use self-identity in determining a trans person’s gender, while in sexual situations and in sex-segregated spaces, they are more likely to utilize body-based criteria. However, these rules are not applied evenly across genders. Because of beliefs that women are inherently vulnerable and men are dangerous, access to women’s spaces, but not men’s, is central to debates over transgender rights.\n\nSurveying the Surveyors\n\nMore recently I have turned my attention to the social scientific construction of knowledge about common categories of difference, including race and ethnicity, sex and gender, and sexuality. Through a systematic examination of questionnaires, manuals and other technical materials from the longest-running and most widely used social surveys, Aliya Saperstein (Stanford University) and I examine how methods of measurement have, or have not, changed over time and vary across surveys. We investigate the often unspoken assumptions about what it means to be a member of a particular race, gender or sexual orientation that are implied by aspects of the survey design. The structure of the surveys not only shapes the types of responses that can be recorded, it also constrains the kinds of analysis researchers can conduct. By revealing both the structure and silences about social categories in our national surveys, we hope to highlight the role that social science research plays in (re)producing particular visions of the social world. \n\nMen's Experiences of Violence\n\nFinally, I have begun work on a new book project, tentatively titled Doing Gender, Doing Violence: Men, Masculinity, and How Gender Hurts Everyone. Although heterosexual, gender-conforming men are usually (invisibly) centered in social science research, they are often absent from our studies of gender. Nowhere is this more true than with studies of experiences of gender violence. Surveys and crime data show that men experience more physical violence than women; however, the study of gendered violence has traditionally focused only on violence against women. In this project, I use interviews with a racially, socioeconomically, and regionally diverse group of men to examine what types of violence men experience and how it shapes their lives. I explore whether they experience certain acts, those typically defined as violence when done to women or children, as violence at all and if those violent encounters leave them feeling vulnerable for having experienced it or strong for having survived or ended it.\n\n\nLaurel Westbrook,\nSep 23, 2014, 12:14 PM", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5300242900848389}
{"content": "What is a Pilot?\n\nA pilot is someone who is in the aviation industry, and who is able to operate aircraft in order to transport passengers or goods from one location to another. They are employed by commercial airlines, corporations, or governments. In some cases, pilots are self-employed or work for an individual to provide private transport in small aircraft or private jets. Aviation is a diverse career field with many opportunities in both the public and private sectors and even opportunities to work in an educational setting.\n\nAlso known as: Aviator, Aircraft Pilot, Commuter Pilot, Airline Transport Pilot, Airline Pilot, Airline Captain\n\nA Pilot is a specialized type of Air Crew Officer.\n\nFind your compatibility\n\nWould you make a good pilot? Sokanu's free assessment reveals your exact compatibility with this career, your strengths, and any unique areas of interest.\n\nTake the career test\n\nWhat does a Pilot do?\n\nDepending on what area of the industry the pilot works in, they may be responsible for transporting civilians, members of the military, private goods, commercial products, or other types of cargo. The type of aircraft used depends on the pilot's specialization. Some pilots fly helicopters while others fly larger commercial aircraft to transport tens or even hundreds of passengers. Other pilots fly cargo planes to move large amounts of mail, automobiles, industrial equipment and other goods from one area to another.\n\nThe most well-known pilots are those who work for an airline company, flying passengers who are commuting or vacationing. Their primary responsibility is to operate the aircraft, but their day consists of many hours performing other tasks. Pilots check the weather and confirm flight plans before departing. They also perform pre-flight inspections and check flight logs prior to departure. During the flight, pilots are responsible for the safety of all crew and passengers on board. They may often need to make split-second decisions and are in constant contact with the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to keep abreast of changes to the flight plan or safety issues. Commercial cargo pilots work in much the same capacity, with the only major change being that they transport cargo instead of people.\n\nCareers are also available in the military, where pilots transport military personnel, soldiers, equipment, or goods for the government. Military pilots fly jets, bombers, and helicopters in combat, rescue, or reconnaissance missions. Some military officers are employed as test pilots, evaluating new and experimental aircraft prototypes.\n\nIn the private sector, pilots typically fly smaller planes like jets or light aircraft. They are employed by businessmen or celebrities and provide on-demand service for all their client's traveling needs. A private aviator may work as an independent contractor and offer service for-hire to many customers, or be employed solely by a corporation or wealthy individual.\n\nPilots with enough experience in the industry may eventually decide to work for or establish an aviation school. As an instructor in the school, pilots teach prospective aviators the fundamentals of flight. Topics covered in private lessons include safety, aviation history, and flying procedures. They work with students and enable them to obtain their private pilot certificate or instrument rating.\n\nWhat is the workplace of a Pilot like?\n\nPilots rarely adhere to the standard 40-hour work week. Due to constant changes in airline itinerary and frequent shifts in schedules from weather and equipment malfunctions, pilots may work late at night, on weekends, and even on holidays. In the case of commercial airline pilots, FAA regulations require an eight-hour break between shifts which may result in overnight stays in distant cities or countries. Most pilots will fly between 75 and 80 hours per month. They are limited to a total of 100 hours per month, or 1000 hours in one year.\n\n\nFurther Reading\n\n  • Pilot Careers\n\n\n  • My Travel Routine: Private Jet Pilot Chris Grasso\n\n    We caught up with assistant chief pilot Christopher Grasso from AvantAir, a Florida-based company that supplies fractional private jet ownership (think time shares for airplanes).\n\n  • Practical Use Of The Pilot Personality Profile\n\n    What comprises a typical pilot's personality? What characteristics do they generally share? Industrial psychologist Robert Rose, Ph.D., answers these questions and more as he takes a look at why understanding your personality profile may help your personal and professional relationships work a lot more effectively.\n\n  • Becoming A Pilot\n\n\n  • How Becoming An Airline Pilot Works\n\n\n  • How To Become An Airplane Pilot\n\n    I am a licensed private pilot, and I am writing this article as a guide for prospective pilots. I have enjoyed my flying very much, and want to encourage others to embark on the grand adventure of aviation.\n\nSimilar Careers", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7247815132141113}
{"content": "What was the mercy seat on the Ark of the Covenant?\n\nThe mercy seat was an object that rested on top of the Ark of the Covenant and was associated with the Day of Atonement in the Old Testament. Mentioned more than 20 times in the Bible, the mercy seat is first described in Exodus 25:17-22:\n\n\nThe Ark and its mercy seat (a type of lid or covering) represented the presence of the holy God. The Ark was kept behind a veil in the tabernacle (and later the temple) in a room known as the Holy of Holies, and could only be visited once per year, on the Day of Atonement, and only by the high priest. The high priest was required to follow specific rules in order to enter; if he broke any of these rules, thereby disrespecting the holiness of God, he would be struck dead.\n\nBecause the mercy seat was made of pure gold, it was highly valuable financially. More importantly, its connection with the Ark as well as serving as a cover over the Ten Commandments, gave this object the highest level of importance by the Jewish people.\n\nWho built the mercy seat? Exodus 35 says that the gold came from the people of Israel. The mercy seat was one of many articles of the temple built by artists, metal-workers, and carpenters: \"Let every skillful craftsman among you come and make all that the LORD has commanded: the tabernacle, its tent and its covering, its hooks and its frames, its bars, its pillars, and its bases; the ark with its poles, the mercy seat, and the veil of the screen\" (Exodus 35:10-12). These craftsmen worked under the leadership of Bezalel and Oholiab (Exodus 35:30, 34; 36:1-2) and constructed the items as God dictated to Moses upon Mount Sinai.\n\nThe mercy seat is also mentioned in the New Testament. Hebrews 9 discusses the Holy Place that included the Ark and the mercy seat, saying in verse 5, \"Above [the Ark] were the cherubim of glory overshadowing the mercy seat.\" Verses 11-12 say, \"But when Christ appeared as a high priest of the good things that have come, then through the greater and more perfect tent (not made with hands, that is, not of this creation) he entered once for all into the holy places, not by means of the blood of goats and calves but by means of his own blood, thus securing an eternal redemption.\" The mercy seat is no longer an essential part of atonement. Instead, Jesus Christ Himself has become the One who atones for sin.\n\nWhile the mercy seat served as an important part of Jewish worship during the tabernacle and temple periods, the coming of Jesus Christ has brought with it a new covenant by which each person can find atonement or forgiveness and payment for their sins through faith in Jesus Christ as God's risen Son (John 3:16; Ephesians 2:8-9).\n\nRelated Truth:\n\nWhat is significant about the Ark of the Covenant? What is it?\n\nWhere is the Ark of the Covenant? What happened to it?\n\nHow is Jesus our High Priest?\n\nWhat are the different covenants in the Bible?\n\nCovenant Theology - What is it?\n\nReturn to:\nTruth about Everything Else\n\nCompelling Truth HOME", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9237140417098999}
{"content": "Barnard Castle Durham Cathedral Captain Cook Country\nSurrounding Areas\n\nThe heart of Durham is a lofty sandstone outcrop surrounded by the meandering River Wear. The great Norman Cathedral towers above the river with its elegant bridges, old mills and picnic areas. Few places in Britain can boast such spectacular views.\n\nDurham Cathedral dates from 995AD when a party of monks were seeking a resting place for the relics of St Cuthbert, one of the founders of Christianity in England. The present Cathedral was started in 1093 with the stunning Central tower completed in 1470 after lightning hit the original tower. The main doorway has a grotesque C12th sanctuary knocker. There is a permanant exhibition to the Venerable Bede, the father of English history and the English Renaissance.\n\nThe home\nof the transporter bridge from Auf Wiedersehen Pet and the Birth place of Captain Cook.\n\nThe home of the broadest High street in the Country with a market dating back to the C14th. Also the birthplace of Sheraton and John Walker, the inventor of the match.\n", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8486675024032593}
{"content": "Antica Pizzeria Port’Alba Pizza Naples Italy\n\n1 / 8\n\nAntica Port’alba claims to be Naples’ (and the world’s) oldest pizzeria. Opening its doors in 1830, this unassuming restaurant can be off of Piazza Dante. Stuck between a number of used book stores, you don’t see it the first time you walk by. We didn’t at least. In fact, I was hesitant that I had even found the right place. Sitting outside was the restaurant’s pizzaiolo, a somber sad eyed man who motioned for us to sit down in a shaded patio area.\n\nWhat I ate: Pizza diavola (a “deviled” pizza)\nWhat Margaret ate: Pizza margherita\n\nThe Crust:\nThis was arguable the best part of both pizzas. Even as I watched our waiter carry our pizzas across the alleyway, I could see a golden brown crust that almost glowed in contrast to the white buffalo mozzarella. Before I even took a bite, I knew I was in for something exceptional. How did I know this? Well, for one, I could hold the slice in my hand. After being in Naples for about a week, and eating at least one pizza a day, I’ve already had my fair share of what food critic Ed Levine calls “soupy” neapolitan pizzas. These are hot, freshly cooked pizzas that don’t have the structural integrity that most American pizza eaters take for granted.  In many neapolitan pizzerias, often the amazingly creamy buffalo mozzarella and the locally grown tomatoes, once cooked, liquify into a deliciously white and red puddle that forms at the center of the pizza. This puddle, while delicious, is also difficult to eat.  Most crusts are too thin to support the center of the pie, and as a result, become soggy and hard to pick up. The pie loses its crust, it’s texture. It’s something special.\nThis, however, was not the case at Antica Pizzeria Port’Abla. The crust here was slightly thicker than its other neapolitan brethren and singed to a lightly golden color. It was a comfort to eat a pizza with my hands again. But at the same time, I didn’t find many dark, charred spots on the edges and bottom of the crust (a neapolitan signature and also one of my favorite parts of a good pizza).\n\nThe Cheese (Mozzarella di buffala):\n\nThe Sauce:\n\nThe toppings:\nPerhaps the most disappointing element of the pizza at Antica Port’ Alba was the basil. For me, adding basil to a pie is as much a symbol as it is a culinary choice. A freshly cut leaf of basil represents the freshness of a pie’s ingredients and the labor of love that has gone into bringing those ingredients together. All that amazing flavor and aroma packed into one small leaf. Biting into that leaf should be a punch to your taste buds (Sometimes when I’m feeling really sinister, I’ll plan how I’m going to eat my pie according to the placement of the basil and rearrange the leafs to better suit each bite). But at Antica Port’ Alba the basil was dry, flavorless, and burnt. This was particularly frustrating considering the fact that good basil could have really helped draw out the flavor of the mozzarella and sauce. Why was the pizzaiolo so sad looking when we approached? Perhaps he was lamenting his herb selection.\nAs for the salumi on the pizza diavola, each slice was cut into awkwardly shaped squares that drew attention away from its flavor, which was actually pretty good. Keep ‘em thin and flat, I say.\nOne more thing I’d like to mention about the actual pizza at Antica Port’Alba: one of my biggest pet peeves about eating a pizza diavola is the fact that often there is nothing spicy or “deviled” about the pizza. My pizza here was no exception to this. Sure, I occasionally found  small pepper flecks. But what’s the fun if I have to look for them? A good pizza diavola is very much like a good strip show (sorry mom, but the metaphor sort of works. I mean, I imagine it works, seeing that I’ve never been to a strip show myself but have only heard about them): the excitement is in what isn’t seen, or, in our case, tasted. The pepper flecks and spicy salumi have to stimulate (what other verb could I use?) your taste buds to the breaking point of being too spicy, to a point where the flavor becomes distracting and starts to eclipse the other flavors of the pizza. But a good pizza diavola (maybe I should say a great pizza diavola) takes you to that breaking point without crossing over. In short, its an amazing tease. The diavola at Antica Port’Alba went the opposite direction into a complete absence of spice. There was nothing alluring or tantalizing about the taste. It was like trying to watch a strip show where the dancer wears a full-body jump suit and refuses to show you any skin.\n\nThe Atmosphere:\n\nAfter reading this review to Margaret for feedback she candidly told me that I was giving Antica Pizzeria Port’Alba, one of the world’s oldest and most famous pizzerias, a terrible review. I tried to protest. But upon remembering that Margaret is about twice as smart as me, I realized that she is probably right. Bashing Port’Alba was never the point of this review. In fact, I really enjoyed eating there and will surely go back at a later date (I just won’t probably get the diavola again). In general, I do spend a little too much time fixated on the negative aspects of a pizza. The reason being; if something is good it is good and there usually isn’t much more you can say beyond that. But if something is bad it can usually be better.  So why not try to fix it?  I will give Antica Pizzeria Port’Abla 6 out of 8 slices.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7146502733230591}
{"content": "Welcome to My Little Genius\n\nEarly Brain Development in My Little Genius!\n\nEarly childhood is a time when infants undergo many changes on different levels, such as physical, cognitive, social and emotional. This is the high time for Physical as well as Brain Development in Children. They enter into the world with a limited set of knowledge and with the help of surrounding and Early Childhood Education; they develop different sets of skills and abilities that open the way to a whole new world of learning. This topic has been the matter of research for many years and different conclusions have been drawn so far. This has led to the development of many theories related to growth, development, learning and change in infants, babies, toddlers and kids.\n\nLet us emphasise on the basics of early childhood development which ensures the physical as well as psychological development of children.\n\nFrom the time the baby arrives in this world, parents wait for him/her to reach important milestones such as rolling, crawling, walking, running and more. These different milestones are deeply related with both the aspects such as physical as well as psychological level of development and it differs in different babies. Different babies learn at different pace, for example some babies learn to crawl earlier than their peers of the same age. The development of each child is different.\n\nMotor Skills Development!\n\nAbility to learn and understand things is related to development of the nervous system. The maturity of nervous system defines the capability to perform simple as well as complex actions. However, the emergence of motor skills differs and it frets parents and caregivers. However, research have proven that Children Brain Development occurs in almost every child unless some types of disabilities have been found.\n\nPhysical Development!\n\nThe development of muscles is an important part of the growth of babies. It is said that in the Early Childhood Development large muscles such as legs and arms (gross motor skills) tend to develop faster than small muscles such as fingers and hands (fine motor skills). It becomes evident when babies learn to crawl and walk before they learn holding things with their fingers. Another fact to remember is that the development goes from head to toe which is why they hold their head up before they crawl.\n\nCognitive Development!\n\nCognitive development such as abilities related to memory, learning, reasoning and thinking occurs throughout the Early Child Development. Based on his/her own perception and type of motor activities, an infant tries to do things accordingly. Between the age of two and six, a child does not understand logic yet he tries to learn different languages. Between the age of seven and eleven, children begin developing logical thinking, abstracts and concepts. The development goes on.\n\n\nWhat is My Little GeniusTM?\n\nMy Little Genius is a Bilingual Multi-Dimensional, thematic based whole Child Brain Development programme for children aged 6 months to 5 years old which develops children’s skill sets and increases their knowledge base. Professionals look after the growth and development of every child and pays attention to enhance them in the best way.\n\nA Multi-Dimensional Brain Stimulation Approach is used to develop both the left and right hemispheres of a child’s brain. There are many factors which ensure the development of both in the right manner. The use of a dual language environment enhances language stimulation and stimulation of various sensory systems of the brain.\n\nOur Vision\n\nTo build a balanced society by developing a new generation of children who know how to maximize the use of the whole brain.\n\nHours of Operation\n\nOur regular operating hours are from Wednesdays to Sundays between 9:30 a.m. to 6:30 p.m.\n\nRead more …", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9983595609664917}
{"content": "\n\n  • Hi! And welcome to my HOW HOT R U? Test. I'll be using advanced logic and knowledge to determine your true nature. Also,I wrote THE PERFECT LIFE FORM FOR ME½test,so move you ass to that test,if you are hot enough:)))", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.991577684879303}
{"content": "Submit Your Poems\nGet Your Premium Membership\n\nBest Famous Walt Whitman Poems\n\nHere is a collection of the all-time best famous Walt Whitman poems. This is a select list of the best famous Walt Whitman poetry. Reading, writing, and enjoying famous Walt Whitman poetry (as well as classical and contemporary poems) is a great past time. These top poems are the best examples of walt whitman poems.\n\nSearch for the best famous Walt Whitman poems, articles about Walt Whitman poems, poetry blogs, or anything else Walt Whitman poem related using the PoetrySoup search engine at the top of the page.\n\nSee also: Best Member Poems\n\nby Walt Whitman | |\n\nO Captain! My Captain!\n\nMy Captain does not answer, his lips are pale and still, My father does not feel my arm, he has no pulse nor will, The ship is anchor'd safe and sound, its voyage closed and done, From fearful trip the victor ship comes in with object won; Exult O shores, and ring O bells! But I with mournful tread, Walk the deck my Captain lies, Fallen cold and dead.\n\nby Walt Whitman | |\n\nI Hear America Singing\n\nI hear America singing, the varied carols I hear, \nThe carpenter singing his as he measures his plank or beam, \nsinging on the steamboat deck, \nat noon intermission or at sundown, \nthe girl sewing or washing, \nrobust, friendly, \nSinging with open mouths their strong melodious songs.\n\nby Walt Whitman | |\n\nA Noiseless Patient Spider\n\nA noiseless patient spider,\nI marked where on a promontory it stood isolated,\nMarked how to explore the vacant vast surrounding,\nEver unreeling them, ever tirelessly speeding them.\nAnd you O my soul where you stand, Surrounded, detached, in measureless oceans of space, Ceaselessly musing, venturing, throwing, seeking the spheres to connect them, Till the bridge you will need be formed, till the ductile anchor hold, Till the gossamer thread you fling catch somewhere, O my soul.\n\nMore great poems below...\n\nby Allen Ginsberg | |\n\nA Supermarket in California\n\nWhat thoughts I have of you tonight, Walt Whit- \nman, for I walked down the sidestreets under the trees \nwith a headache self-conscious looking at the full moon.\n\nby Ezra Pound | |\n\nA Pact\n\n I make a pact with you, Walt Whitman-- \nI have detested you long enough.\nI come to you as a grown child Who has had a pig-headed father; I am old enough now to make friends.\nIt was you that broke the new wood, Now is a time for carving.\nWe have one sap and one root-- Let there be commerce between us.\n\nby Barry Tebb | |\n\n\n It is time after thirty years\n\nWe had our Poetry Renaissance\n\nRise, Children of Albion, rise!\n\nIt is time after nightmares of sleep\n\nWhen we walked the streets of inner cities\n\nOur poems among the burnt-out houses\n\nAnd cars, whispering compassion\n\nTo the addicts shaking and the homeless\n\nWaking and those who have come apart\n\nIn the nowhere of today\n\nBegging in stations\n\nSleeping in boxes.\nIt is time to find Our lost, those children I taught three decades ago To paint on ceilings With sticks of incense Rainbows of silence For John Cage To write on walls In luminous paint Pink haiku For Allen Ginsberg.\nIt is time to awaken and emblazon the sky With symphonies of sorrow, To draft the articles of war.\nPoets of the Underground The doors have opened The ghost of Walt Whitman Grey-bearded, in lonely anguish Walks with us.\n\nby Edwin Arlington Robinson | |\n\nWalt Whitman\n\n The master-songs are ended, and the man\nThat sang them is a name.\nWe do not hear him very much to-day: His piercing and eternal cadence rings Too pure for us --- too powerfully pure, Too lovingly triumphant, and too large; But there are some that hear him, and they know That he shall sing to-morrow for all men, And that all time shall listen.\n\nby Allen Ginsberg | |\n\nCosmopolitan Greetings\n\n To Struga Festival Golden Wreath Laureates\n & International Bards 1986\n\nStand up against governments, against God.\nStay irresponsible.\nSay only what we know & imagine.\nAbsolutes are coercion.\nChange is absolute.\nOrdinary mind includes eternal perceptions.\nObserve what's vivid.\nNotice what you notice.\nCatch yourself thinking.\nVividness is self-selecting.\nIf we don't show anyone, we're free to write anything.\nRemember the future.\nAdvise only yourself.\nDon't drink yourself to death.\nThe universe is subjective.\nWalt Whitman celebrated Person.\nUniverse is person.\nInside skull vast as outside skull.\nMind is outer space.\n\" First thought, best thought.\nMind is shapely, Art is shapely.\nMaximum information, minimum number of syllables.\nSyntax condensed, sound is solid.\nIntense fragments of spoken idiom, best.\nConsonants around vowels make sense.\nSavor vowels, appreciate consonants.\nSubject is known by what she sees.\nOthers can measure their vision by what we see.\nCandor ends paranoia.\nKral Majales June 25, 1986 Boulder, Colorado\n\nby Walt Whitman | |\n\nOthers may Praise what They Like.\n\n OTHERS may praise what they like; \nBut I, from the banks of the running Missouri, praise nothing, in art, or aught else, \nTill it has well inhaled the atmosphere of this river—also the western prairie-scent,\n\nAnd fully exudes it again.\n\nby Walt Whitman | |\n\nWorld Take Good Notice.\n\n WORLD, take good notice, silver stars fading, \nMilky hue ript, weft of white detaching, \nCoals thirty-eight, baleful and burning, \nScarlet, significant, hands off warning, \nNow and henceforth flaunt from these shores.\n\nby Walt Whitman | |\n\nAs the Time Draws Nigh.\n\nAS the time draws nigh, glooming, a cloud, \n\nby Walt Whitman | |\n\nTo a Historian.\n\n YOU who celebrate bygones! \n exhibited itself; \n pride of man in himself;)\nChanter of Personality, outlining what is yet to be, \nI project the history of the future.\n\nby Walt Whitman | |\n\nTo Foreign Lands.\n\n I HEARD that you ask’d for something to prove this puzzle, the New World, \nAnd to define America, her athletic Democracy; \n\nby Walt Whitman | |\n\nWhen I read the Book.\n\n WHEN I read the book, the biography famous, \n(As if any man really knew aught of my life; \n\nby Walt Whitman | |\n\nFor Him I Sing.\n\n FOR him I sing, \nTo make himself, by them, the law unto himself.\n\nby Walt Whitman | |\n\nTo You.\n\n not speak to me? \nAnd why should I not speak to you?\n\nby Walt Whitman | |\n\nOne’s-Self I Sing.\n\n ONE’S-SELF I sing—a simple, separate Person; \nYet utter the word Democratic, the word En-masse.\nOf Physiology from top to toe I sing; Not physiognomy alone, nor brain alone, is worthy for the muse—I say the Form complete is worthier far; The Female equally with the male I sing.\nOf Life immense in passion, pulse, and power, Cheerful—for freest action form’d, under the laws divine, The Modern Man I sing.\n\nby Walt Whitman | |\n\nO Me! O Life!\n\n O ME! O life!.\nof the questions of these recurring; Of the endless trains of the faithless—of cities fill’d with the foolish; Of myself forever reproaching myself, (for who more foolish than I, and who more faithless?) Of eyes that vainly crave the light—of the objects mean—of the struggle ever renew’d; Of the poor results of all—of the plodding and sordid crowds I see around me; Of the empty and useless years of the rest—with the rest me intertwined; The question, O me! so sad, recurring—What good amid these, O me, O life? Answer.\n\nby Walt Whitman | |\n\nAs I Ponder’d in Silence.\n\nAS I ponder’d in silence, \nReturning upon my poems, considering, lingering long, \nA Phantom arose before me, with distrustful aspect, \nTerrible in beauty, age, and power, \nThe genius of poets of old lands,\nAs to me directing like flame its eyes, \nWith finger pointing to many immortal songs, \nAnd menacing voice, What singest thou? it said; \nThe making of perfect soldiers? \n\nBe it so, then I answer’d, \n retreat—Victory deferr’d and wavering, \n field the world;\nLo! too am come, chanting the chant of battles, \nI, above all, promote brave soldiers.\n\nby Walt Whitman | |\n\n\n TEARS! tears! tears! \nIn the night, in solitude, tears; \nTears—not a star shining—all dark and desolate; \nMoist tears from the eyes of a muffled head:\nOf tears! tears! tears!\n\nby Walt Whitman | |\n\nAdieu to a Soldier.\n\n ADIEU, O soldier! \nYou of the rude campaigning, (which we shared,) \nThe rapid march, the life of the camp, \nThe hot contention of opposing fronts—the long manoeuver, \nWith war, and war’s expression.\nAdieu, dear comrade! Your mission is fulfill’d—but I, more warlike, Myself, and this contentious soul of mine, Still on our own campaigning bound, Through untried roads, with ambushes, opponents lined, Through many a sharp defeat and many a crisis—often baffled, Here marching, ever marching on, a war fight out—aye here, To fiercer, weightier battles give expression.\n\nby Walt Whitman | |\n\n\n OF Public Opinion; \n standing helpless and exposed; \n pulpits, schools; \n of self-esteem, and of personality; \n\nby Walt Whitman | |\n\nI Hear America Singing.\n\n I HEAR America singing, the varied carols I hear; \n intermission, or at sundown; \nSinging, with open mouths, their strong melodious songs.\n\nby Walt Whitman | |\n\nIn Midnight Sleep.\n\nIN midnight sleep, of many a face of anguish, \nOf the look at first of the mortally wounded—of that indescribable look; \nOf the dead on their backs, with arms extended wide, \n I dream, I dream, I dream.\n2 Of scenes of nature, fields and mountains; Of skies, so beauteous after a storm—and at night the moon so unearthly bright, Shining sweetly, shining down, where we dig the trenches and gather the heaps, I dream, I dream, I dream.\n3 Long, long have they pass’d—faces and trenches and fields; Where through the carnage I moved with a callous composure—or away from the fallen, Onward I sped at the time—But now of their forms at night, I dream, I dream, I dream.\n\nby Walt Whitman | |\n\n\n WHY! who makes much of a miracle? \nAs to me, I know of nothing else but miracles, \nWhether I walk the streets of Manhattan, \nOr stand under trees in the woods, \nOr sit at table at dinner with my mother, \nOr look at strangers opposite me riding in the car, \nOr animals feeding in the fields, \nOr birds—or the wonderfulness of insects in the air, \nOr stand a long while looking at the movements of machinery, \nOr behold children at their sports, \nOr my own eyes and figure in the glass; \nTo me, every hour of the light and dark is a miracle, Every cubic inch of space is a miracle, Every square yard of the surface of the earth is spread with the same, Every foot of the interior swarms with the same; Every spear of grass—the frames, limbs, organs, of men and women, and all that concerns them, All these to me are unspeakably perfect miracles.\nTo me the sea is a continual miracle; The fishes that swim—the rocks—the motion of the waves—the ships, with men in them, What stranger miracles are there?", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9165126085281372}
{"content": "explanation of exercises\n\n* If you are having trouble doing pullups, try using some substitutions\n\nWhile lying horizontally face down, raise and lower your body using the arms while keeping your back flat. Try to keep elbows close to your sides.\n\nThe squat is performed by bending the legs at the knees and hips, lowering the torso between the legs, and then reversing direction to stand up straight again. The torso remains relatively upright throughout the movement. Try to keep your knees from going over your toes and your weight on your heels.\n\nexplanation of workouts\n\nLevel 1 workouts used as an example\n\nDay 1 (endurance) - \"as many rounds as possible in 20 minutes:\"\n1 pull-up\n2 push-ups\n3 squat\n\n\nDay 2 (strength) - \"5 rounds for time:\"\n2 pull-ups\n6 push-ups\n10 squats\n\n\nDay 3 (judgement) - \"for time:\"\n10 pull-ups\n21 push-ups\n21 squats\n\nDo 10 pull-ups, then 21 push-ups, then 21 squats as quickly as you can counting any rest time taken. Stay 1-2 repititions below failure, and do not train to failure.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 1.0000087022781372}
{"content": "\n\nInterior Secretary Ken Salazar flew to Salt Lake City to announce the indictments of the Redds and 22 others in what he called the biggest bust ever of thieves who steal American Indian artifacts from public lands.\n\nThe backlash started soon after, and not just because of the arrest of the Redds.\n\n\nLocal authorities called the raids overkill.\n\n\nBlanding has about 3,000 residents, and on Tuesday nearly 1,000 people gathered in a Mormon community center to mourn the doctor as anger aimed at the federal government continued to grow.\n\n\nBrett Tolman, the U.S. attorney for Utah, said given the scale of the crimes federal investigators uncovered during their years-long undercover probe, they needed to make a wide range of simultaneous arrests.\n\n\n\n\n\nBut even supporters of the push against looting artifacts say the crackdown backfired.\n\n\"The whole point they wished to make is gone,\" said Winston Hurst, an archaeologist who has fought against digging up ancient graves.\n", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.692787766456604}
{"content": "IEA Training Manual - Module 6\n\n6. Policy analysis\n\nExperience suggests there are a variety of ways in which policies can and have been addressed in a scenario exercise.1 Unfortunately, in most cases, this has been an afterthought, and little attention has been paid to how these approaches differ, their appropriate purposes and the implications for designing a scenario exercise. In this section, we will explore this issue in some detail.\n\nIn order to clarify the distinctions among the various approaches to link policy and scenario analysis, it is useful to consider the following questions:\n\n  • Are there existing policies you wish to explore as part of the scenario exercise?\n    A standard use of scenario analysis is to compare the feasibility, effectiveness, and broader impacts of alternative policies (or combinations thereof), e.g., taxes vis-à-vis tradable permits on certain pollutants. This can be done by assessing scenarios that differ only with respect to the absence or inclusion of the policies of interest. Remembering the basic uncertainties that underlie the use of scenarios, the robustness of existing policies can be assessed by exploring their feasibility, effectiveness and broader impacts across a range of scenarios that differ with respect to other significant factors.\n\n    If there are no relevant, existing policies, then one purpose of the scenario exercise should be the identification of policy options. Even where they do exist, the exercise can, of course, be useful for expanding the set of policy options for consideration.\n  • Is there a preconceived end vision, or at least some aspects of a vision, i.e., specific targets?\n\n    In many cases, a scenario exercise is used to explore the feasibility and broader implications, e.g., tradeoffs, of meeting a specific target, e.g., an 80 per cent reduction in CO2 emissions by 2050. If the vision is used to define the scenarios, i.e., the range of scenarios to be explored is restricted to only those for which the target is achieved, the exercise takes on the character of a standard back cast. At a minimum, the presence of a preconceived end vision implies that there are at least some metrics against which a scenario and its policies can be evaluated as being “successful.”\n\n    In the absence of any preconceived vision, the question of how to evaluate a scenario and the impacts of policies, in particular any definition of “success,” is less clear. There will almost certainly be metrics that can be used for this purpose. Even where clear targets do exist, these other metrics are important for evaluating the broader implications of achieving the targets.\n  • Are the effects of a policy of such magnitude that they would fundamentally alter the basic structure of the scenario?\n\n    Depending on how the scenario is defined and the perspective of the person using them, policies can be seen as essentially determining the scenario or as merely affecting some aspects of it. For example, if a scenario is defined by the international trade in agricultural commodities, a group like the WTO or some larger countries could conceive of policies that will alter the overall level and terms of this trade. Small countries and individual producers, on the other hand, are more likely to take these as given. In the latter case, the policy question to be asked can be phrased as, “What can we do to cope best with the set of possible situations we might face?” In the former, a more relevant question would be, “What could we do to create a particular situation?”\n\nCombining the above, we can talk about eight cases:\n\nCase Existing policies? Preconceived end visions? Policies determine \nthe scenario?\nPotential uses\na YES YES YES Test particular policies to see if they can create the conditions under which end visions or specific targets can be achieved, while also considering the broader implications of the policies.\nb YES YES NO Test particular policies to see whether and\nto what extent they can help to achieve end\nvisions or specific targets under otherwise\nfixed conditions, while also considering the\nbroader implications of the policies.\nc YES NO YES Explore the role of particular policies in\ndetermining the broad nature of the future.\nd YES NO NO Identify policies that can create the conditions under which end visions or specific targets can be achieved, while also\nconsidering the broader implications of the\ne NO YES YES Identify policies that can create the conditions under which end visions or specific targets can be achieved, while also\nconsidering the broader implications of the\nf NO YES NO Identify policies that can help to meet specific targets under given conditions, while also considering the broader\nimplications of the policies.\ng NO NO YES Identify policies that may determine the broad nature of the future.\nh NO NO NO Identify policies and their implications under\ncertain given conditions.\n\nEach of these cases is obviously a caricature; most scenario exercises will include some combination of these, and certain cases are of less interest than others. The lack of both existing relevant policies and a preconceived vision in cases g and h make it highly unlikely that either would be undertaken in isolation. However, they might be used as extensions to cases d and e, respectively, whereby new policies are identified in the process of testing existing ones. Given their inclusion of preconceived visions, cases a, b, e, and f lend themselves to backcasting exercises, but they can also be addressed in forward-looking exercises when the targets are not used to limit the set of scenarios to be considered. With the latter, they are not significantly different from the equivalent cases without preconceived visions (i.e., c, d, g, and h respectively). Finally, cases b, d, f, and h, by exploring policies that do not “determine” the scenario, can be pursued without a full scenario development process if scenarios already exist within which these policies can be adequately assessed.\nSeveral concrete examples of where scenario exercises have been used, and how they can be seen to fit within this schema, are provided below..\n\n  • Testing policies to limit pollutant emissions from the power sector in the United States\n\n    The Energy Information Administration (EIA) in the United States analysed the potential costs and impacts of various existing policies that sought to limit emissions of four pollutants from electricity generators, sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon dioxide (CO2) and mercury (Hg), in four different scenarios. Since there were existing policies and clear targets, but other basic conditions were held fixed (e.g., overall economic growth), this serves best as an example of case b above. The analysis showed emissions could be significantly limited for all pollutants, if a substantial effort was made by industry, and this helped to illustrate the nature and scale of the effort depending on the scenario. It also indicated that the increase in energy costs and other economic impacts of the policies under investigation would decline over time.\n\n  • Identifying policies to achieve a 60 per cent reduction in carbon emissions by 2050 in the United Kingdom\n\n    The UK Department of Trade and Industry has used the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution’s target of a 60 per cent reduction in carbon emissions by 2050 as a desired vision of the future, and has used scenarios to help identify possible paths to meet this target. Since the policies were not clearly specified beforehand, but a target did exist and key scenario conditions were held fixed, this is best seen as an example of case f but also a and e, inasmuch as some particular policies were tested. This work yielded a number of new policy initiatives and measures to achieve this target. The scenario analysis was model-based and helped identify the technology portfolios in each sector that could achieve the target and their evolution over time, while providing an indication of the overall cost.\n  • Exploring the future of the environment in Latin America and the Caribbean\n\n    GEO Latin America and the Caribbean: Environmental Outlook 2003 (UNEP 2003) considered three broad scenarios for the future. Each started from a set of assumptions about general policy developments, which was assumed to determine, in large part, the future shape of the region. This can be seen as an example of case c, but also g to the extent that the policies considered were somewhat vaguely defined. The authors pointed out that the path to a sustainable future, as presented in the “Great Transitions” scenario, would be supported by the Latin American and Caribbean Initiative for Sustainable Development, approved by the Regional Forum of Ministers of the Environment in August 2002. The initiative’s numerous priority areas included “Strengthening of technical and vocational training institutions” and “Promotion of human resources development, particularly in information and communication technology.” In contrast, the “Market Scenario” emphasized policies such as free-trade agreements, intellectual property rights, deregulation and privatization as well as other measures, resulting in quite different implications for the environment.\n  • Scenarios to explore adaptation to Climate Change\n\n    Within the Global International Waters Assessment and, as reported in the assessments of the IPCC and elsewhere, numerous scenarios have explored not only the potential impacts of climate change, but also policies and actions to ameliorate or adapt to these changes. These may or may not have preconceived policies or end visions, but almost all take the change in climate as given. Thus, depending on their particular setup, they can provide examples of cases b, d, f or h.\n\nSee Exercise 6.6\n\n  Note that a similar approach was used by the OECD in their second Environmental Outlook (OECD 2008)\nFor the purposes here, the word policy is defined broadly. It denotes any organized intervention by an actor in the system of interest. Thus, it should be seen to include inter alia laws and legislation, economic instruments, property rights reform and market creation, reform of state bureaucracies, activities by the private sector, NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONSs, and civil society.\n\n\nWrite comment:\n\nPosted by:\n- - 31 Oct 2012\nksMN8P , [url=]wbxuzeagqvfi[/url], [link=]aabxqxdactjg[/link],\n- - 30 Oct 2012\nGEwGMt , [url=]pltaotoflhtc[/url], [link=]fqvcnqahohif[/link],\n- - 28 Oct 2012\n我反而覺得係咁喎 從事web2.0既創業家 佢地既目的 未必一定係搵一舊大錢 因為 互聯網工業既其中一個好重要既特點 係佢既入行門檻極之低 尤其係如果位創業家自己本身有technical background既時候 佢甚至可以一腳踢搞曬成件野出黎 做web sevrcie 你只係需要少至一部放响data center既電腦 同埋整/maintain呢個system既人 三萬蚊港幣落樓 仲有 佢唔使一開始就掟一舊錢出黎買貨 又或者佢需要之前有廣博既人脈關係 當然佢既人際網絡西利既話一定有幫助 甚至唔需要有辦公室 你知啦 香港地租幾鬼貴 掛條線掛個郵箱响朋友既公司又得 俾少少錢買個虛擬辦公室既服務又得 唔計一開始投入响硬件既少少支出 其實 要maintain一間互聯網公司 如果係one man band既話 只係需要好小開支 一部份係datacenter既費用 另一部份就係自己既生活費 就算係咁 計落 頭一年既開支都可能只係十萬左右 所以我覺得互聯網工業既風險好細 好可能到頭黎一蚊回報都冇 但係响個過程裏要創業既人可以學到好多野 可以廣結人脈 如果做左出黎既野好多人都好鐘意用 佢出左名 已經達到目的\n- - 16 Sep 2012\nSIouel , [url=]wtlsmvzsnrco[/url], [link=]atzcnvygxspm[/link],\n- - 13 Sep 2012\nq6X7jO , [url=]gdxpyxhnnwms[/url], [link=]wdzhhntftdvy[/link],\n- - 13 Sep 2012\nI notice that 1 socecr ball and 1 tennis ball equals 14 oz. I know this from splitting the middle scale in half. I also notice that 2 baseballs and a socecr ball weighs more than 1 socecr ball, a tennis ball, and a baseball. I wonder how many oz. are in 1 socecr ball and 1 baseball. I also wonder how you can find what each individual ball weighs.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9675615429878235}
{"content": "Usability in Safety and Environmental Protection\nI received this letter November 13, 2000:\n\nDan :\n\nI'm finding your discussions on usability quite interesting.  I don't work\nin the software or computer hardware field, but instead work with safety\nand environmental protection.  Usability is a _big_ issue with us in that\nfield, too!\n\nIf one looks at major industrial accidents in the world over the last fifty\nor so years, one finds that between 60% and 90% of the accidents are due to\n\"human error\".  The range is due in part to the running debates on where\ndesigner errors fit into \"human error\".  Having worked as a fire and\nexplosion investigator in \"another life\", I can say that the stats are\npretty accurate.  Reviewing my old accident reports a few years back, I\nestimated that the error factor was right around 90%.\n\nThe issue of punching out the wrong ballot position (\"hanging\", \"pregnant\",\nand \"dimpled\" chad aside) is smaller than picking the wrong valve to open\nin an emergency, or to use a real world example, actuating an isolation\nvalve in reverse during testing, and thereby releasing highly flammable\nmaterials.  That case chalked up more than a score dead, close onto $1\nbillion in overall losses, and dropped out about 5% of the USA's capacity\nin a specific polymer's production.  All from an \"error\".\n\nThe number of \"smaller\" accidents with fewer dead and smaller dollar losses\nis high.  Arguably to some, although not me, a national election is more\nimportant than these cases, unless you're the woman or man who dies in the\n\nUsability is a complex issue that requires multidisciplinary approaches, a\nhighly flexible mind to coordinate the approaches, and some old-fashioned\nhard nosed thinking about Murphy and Finagle.  It's not something that one\njust happens into one day, and then produces marvel after marvel.  As the\nlevel of consequences goes up for failure, the quality of usability must\nsimilarly rise in at least the same slope, and arguably proportionally\nhigher.  In the case of the federal election results in Florida where the\nform was poorly handled, or the results in New Mexico where a specific\nwindowed box was not \"clicked off\", the consequences are pretty high right\nnow - look at the stock market if nothing else... although again, I tend to\nconsider people's deaths a higher issue.\n\nWhich then segues to the next point, most usability issues are decided at\nrelatively low levels or by people without experience in the area.  The\nplacement of light switches in rooms, location of critical shutoffs, or\nsimply where to sign one's name are typically determined by one of the most\njunior members of the project team.  Some exceptions exist, to be sure,\nsuch as the relatively recent studies by software companies on usability,\nbut even those packages fail the usability tests in less \"important\" areas\nlike installation.  The stories of installation failures are legion.\n\nAll this leads to the final lesson on usability.  Usability only becomes\nimportant when a (relative) catastrophe occurs.  It shouldn't be this way,\nbut it is.  The issues with Florida's election in terms of recounts are not\nnew.  The failures of New Mexico in the area of failures to deploy systems\nare not recent.  Only when the failures reach a crisis level is any serious\nstudy made to the problems, and at that, is often a \"band-aid\" approach to\npass through the periodic crisis.\n\nUsability is and will continue to be a serious issue.\n\nJohn Palmer\n\n© Copyright 1999-2014 by Daniel Bricklin\nAll Rights Reserved.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9753772616386414}
{"content": "\n\nHome » Minerals » Barite\n\n\nThe nonmetallic mineral with an incredible specific gravity.\n\nWhat is Barite?\n\nBarite is a mineral composed of barium sulfate (BaSO4). It receives its name from the Greek word \"barys\" which means \"heavy.\" This name is in response to barite's high specific gravity of 4.5, which is exceptional for a nonmetallic mineral. The high specific gravity of barite makes it suitable for a wide range of industrial, medical and manufacturing uses. Barite also serves as the principal ore of barium.\n\nBarite Occurrence\n\nBarite often occurs as concretions and void-filling crystals in sediments and sedimentary rocks. It is especially common as concretions and vein fillings in limestone and dolostone. Where these carbonate rock units have been heavily weathered, large accumulations of barite are sometimes found at the soil-bedrock contact. Many of the commercial barite mines produce from these residual deposits.\n\nBarite is also found as concretions in sand and sandstone. These concretions grow as barite crystallizes within the interstitial spaces between sand grains. Sometimes crystals of barite grow into interesting shapes within the sand. These structures are known as \"barite roses\" (see image at right). They can be up to several inches in length and incorporate large numbers of sand grains. Occasionally barite is so abundant in a sandstone that it serves as the \"cement\" for the rock.\n\nBarite is also a common mineral in hydrothermal veins and is a gangue mineral associated with sulfide ore veins. It is found in association with ores of antimony, cobalt, copper, lead, manganese and silver. In a few locations barite is deposited as a sinter at hot springs.\n\nPhysical Properties of Barite\n\nBarite is generally easy to identify. It is one of just a few nonmetallic minerals with a specific gravity of four or higher. Combine that with its low Mohs hardness (2.5 to 3.5) and its three directions of right angle cleavage, and the mineral can usually be reliably identified with just three observations.\n\nPhysical Properties of Barite\n\nChemical Classification sulfate\nColor colorless, white, light blue, light yellow, light red, light green\nStreak white\nLuster vitreous to pearly\nDiaphaneity transparent to translucent\nCleavage very good, basal, prismatic\nMohs Hardness 2.5 to 3.5\nSpecific Gravity 4.5\nDiagnostic Properties high specific gravity, three cleavage directions at right angles\nChemical Composition barium sulfate , BaSO4\nCrystal System orthorhombic\nUses drilling mud; high density filler for paper, rubber, plastics\n\nIn the classroom, students often have difficulty identifying specimens of massive barite with fine-grained crystals. They look at the specimen, see the sugary appearance, correctly attribute it to cleavage and apply a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid. The mineral effervesces and they think that they have calcite or a piece of marble. The problem is that the effervescence is caused by contamination. The students tested the hardness of the barite with a piece of calcite from their hardness kit. Or the specimen of barite can naturally contain calcite. However, any student who tests the specific gravity will discover that calcite or marble are incorrect identifications.\n\nBarite is also a good mineral to use when teaching about specific gravity. Give students several white mineral specimens that are about the same size (we suggest calcite, quartz, barite, talc, gypsum). Students should be able to easily identify barite using the \"heft test\" (placing Specimen \"A\" in their right hand and Specimen \"B\" in their left hand and \"hefting\" the specimens to determine which one is heaviest). Students in third or fourth grade are capable of using the heft test to identify barite.\n\nUses of Barite\n\nMost barite produced is used as a weighting agent in drilling muds. These high-density muds are pumped down the drill stem, exit through the cutting bit and return to the surface between the drill stem and the wall of the well. This flow of fluid does two things: 1) it cools the drill bit; and, 2) the high-density barite mud suspends the rock cuttings produced by the drill and carries them up to the surface.\n\nBarite is also used as a pigment in paints and as a weighted filler for paper, cloth and rubber. The paper used to make some playing cards has barite packed between the paper fibers. This gives the paper a very high density that allows the cards to be \"dealt\" easily to players around a card table. Barite is used as a weighting filler in rubber to make \"anti-sail\" mudflaps for trucks.\n\n\nBarite compounds are also used in diagnostic medical tests. If a patient drinks a small cup of liquid that contains a barium powder in a milkshake consistency, the liquid will coat the patient's esophagus. An x-ray of the throat taken immediately after the \"barium swallow\" will image the soft tissue of the esophagus (which is usually transparent to x-rays) because the barium is opaque to x-rays and blocks their passage. A \"barium enema\" can be used in a similar way to image the shape of the colon.\n\nBarite Production\n\n2011 Barite Production\nThousand Metric Tons\nAlgeria 40\nChina 4,100\nGermany 70\nIndia 1,350\nIran 350\nKazakhstan 200\nMexico 157\nMorocco 600\nPakistan 58\nPeru 87\nRussia 62\nTurkey 230\nUnited Kingdom 50\nVietnam 85\nUnited States 710\nOther Countries 220\nThe values above are 2011 metric tons of barite production from USGS Mineral Commodity Summary, January 2013.\n\nThe oil and gas industry is the primary user of barite worldwide. There it is used as a weighting agent in drilling mud. This is a growth industry, as global demand for oil and natural gas has been on a long-term increase. In addition, the long-term drilling trend is more feet of drilling per barrel of oil produced.\n\nThis has caused the price of barite to increase. Price levels during 2012 were between 10% and 20% higher than 2011 in many important markets. The typical price of drilling mud barite is about $150 per metric ton at the mine.\n\nSubstitutes for barite in drilling mud include: celestite, ilmenite, iron ore and synthetic hematite. None of these substitutes have been effective at displacing barite in any major market area. They are too expensive or do not perform competitively.\n\nChina and India are the leading producers of barite and they also have the largest reserves. The United States does not produce enough barite to supply its domestic needs. In 2011 the United States produced about 700,000 metric tons of barite and imported about 2,300,000 metric tons.\n\nFind it on\n\nMore from\n\nGold - An important metal for thousands of years - uses, prospecting, mining, production.\nSmoky quartz\nSmoky Quartz - A brown color-variety of the mineral quartz often cut as a gem.\nAmmolite is a fossil and a gemstone. It is shell material from fossil ammonites.\nlightning map\nHow Do Snowflakes Form?\nHow Do Snowflakes Form? They start as tiny mineral crystals but they might not reach the Earth.\nMetals are important mineral products used in manufacturing and construction projects.\nSan Andreas Map\nGoogle Map of the San Andreas Fault: Zoom in to see the fault trace plotted atop of a map.\n\nBarite from Kings Creek, South Carolina. Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.\n\nMore Minerals\n  Fluorescent Minerals\n  Mineral Identification Chart\n  Find Minerals and Gems\n  Diamonds Do Not Form From Coal\n\nbarite rose photograph by Rob Lavinsky\nThis \"barite rose\" is a cluster of bladed barite crystals that have grown in sand, incorporating many of the sand grains within each crystal. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone /\n\nBarite from Canada\nBarite from Madoc, Ontario, Canada. Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.\n\nBarite from Australia\nBarite from Edith River, Northern Territory, Australia. Specimen is approximately 2 inches (5 centimeters) across.\n\nBarite from Utah\nBarite from Mercur, Utah. Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.\n\n© 2005-2015 All Rights Reserved.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7504391670227051}
{"content": "Steven Londo in the US\n\n  1. #6,467,569 Steven Lohmann\n  2. #6,467,570 Steven Lohmeyer\n  3. #6,467,571 Steven Lokker\n  4. #6,467,572 Steven Lolli\n  5. #6,467,573 Steven Londo\n  6. #6,467,574 Steven Longstaff\n  7. #6,467,575 Steven Longstreth\n  8. #6,467,576 Steven Lopp\n  9. #6,467,577 Steven Loren\npeople in the U.S. have this name View Steven Londo on WhitePages Raquote 8eaf5625ec32ed20c5da940ab047b4716c67167dcd9a0f5bb5d4f458b009bf3b\n\nMeaning & Origins\n\nVariant of Stephen, reflecting the normal pronunciation of the name in the English-speaking world.\n28th in the U.S.\nDutch: habitational name from a place called Longdoz near Liège, Belgium, named with Latin longum dorsum ‘long back’, i.e. a long, low ridge.\n27,538th in the U.S.\n\nNicknames & variations\n\nTop state populations", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.6451138257980347}
{"content": "Using Growing Degree-Days for Insect Pest Management by dcc48652\n\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t              Using Growing Degree-Days for Insect Pest Management\nWhen pest management is based on calendar timings, daily temperature is not taken into account. This can result in misleading\ninformation regarding current insect activity. Depending on weather conditions, insect development may vary from year to year by a\nfew weeks, consequently predicting the proper time for control measures is difficult.\nInsects, like plants and many other organisms, are dependent on temperature to develop. These organisms begin developing when the\ntemperature exceeds the lower developmental threshold or base temperature. The rate of development increases as the temperature\nexceeds the base temperature and decreases as the temperature drops. Thus, insect development is accelerated during warm years and\ndelayed during cooler years. Upper developmental thresholds, temperatures above which growth slows or ceases, are seldom used for\ninsects since these thresholds are either not known, or they live in habitats where the upper threshold is seldom exceeded. Growing\nDegree-Days (GDD) takes into account the average daily temperature by calculating the number of heat units received. Thus, this\nsystem can be more accurate than the calendar method for estimating insect development and timing management strategies.\nSeveral mathematical equations, can be used for calculating GDD based on minimum and maximum temperature. The easiest method\nis to average the daily maximum and minimum temperatures and subtract from-it the base temperature as follows:\n                 Max Temperature + Minimum Temperature                     minus       Base Temperature            =    Daily GDD\nFor each day that the average temperature is one degree above the base temperature, one degree-day accumulates. Depending on the\nspecies, the base temperature can vary. Cool weather organisms will have lower base temperatures while other types of organisms will\nhave higher ones. For most situations though, a base temperature of 50 oF: is satisfactory. If a development prediction for a particular\ninsect varies more than expected, using a lower base temperature could be necessary for that organism.\nBiophenometers are instruments, which record the temperature every few minutes and accumulate the GDD as that portion of a 24-\nhour period. This is the most accurate way of calculating GDD but it does not retain minimum and maximum temperature data which\nwould be important to calculate the most appropriate base temperature to use. When using GDD from other sources it is important to\ndetermine the method and 'base temperature used for calculations.\nIdeally, taking temperature readings from the property or general area where the pest problem exists would be most accurate. When\ndoing so several things should be considered. Minimum/maximum thermometers or any other devices used to detect temperature\nshould be placed in a well ventilated, white weather shelter. The thermometer should not be exposed to direct sunlight. Shelters should\nbe placed in the full sun, ideally in areas free from excessive radiant heat from driveways, sidewalks, buildings, etc. The accumulated\nGDD for various locations in Nassau and Suffolk Counties as well as New York City can be accessed from the Cornell Cooperative\nExtension – Suffolk County web site at the following web address\nEach day between March 1 and September 30 the daily GDD are calculated (using the above mentioned formula) and totaled to\ndetermine the accumulated GDD (Table 1). If the average temperature is below the base temperature, which would return a negative\ndaily GDD number, just enter zero - 0 - for the day. For the system to work you must collect the maximum and minimum temperature\nevery day. Early in the season the numbers will accumulate slowly but as the average daily temperature increases the GDD will\naccumulate faster.\nTable 1. Example calculating growing degree-days (GDD) and accumulated growing degree-days (AGDD)\n        Date                Min                Max              Avg.               GDD                                          AGDD\n\n    March 1                     30                        40                        35                       01                      0\n    March 2                     40                        65                       52.5                      2.5                    2.5\n    March 3                     50                        65                       57.5                      7.5                    10\n Negative numbers are never added, enter zero.\nThe GDD for many insects are listed in (Table 2.) The time for pest control is expressed in a range of numbers beginning with first\nperceptible feeding injury and continuing until approximately the end of the insects' plant injury cycle. In other cases, ranges indicate\noptimum control periods. If more than one range of numbers appears, this is indicative of multiple generations and/or control- periods\nin an insect's life cycle. For example, Cooley spruce gall adelgid GDD (on spruce) are 22 - 81 and 1850 - 1950. This means the insect\nis active starting around 22 GDD and control measures can be implemented until approximately 81 GDD. Cooley spruce gall adelgid\n\n                         Cornell Cooperative Extension in Suffolk County provides equal program and employment opportunities.\nalso has another period during the growing season when controls may be effective and necessary. This period is between 1850 and\n1950 GDD.\nGDD should be used as a guide as to determine when pest control actions should be utilized. Monitoring should be employed at some\npoint before the GDD number is reached to determine if a pest problem exists and if some type of control is warranted. Decisions as to\nwhether or not to use control measures will be dependent upon such things as the level of damage or potential damage and the life\nstage of the insect. Treatment, if decided upon, would be timed to correspond with some point within the GDD range.\nTable 2. A partial list of common insects found on woody trees and shrubs along with the stage of development and the\ncoordinating growing degree-day (GDD) range of the particular insect pest. This information was provided by Dr. Warren T.\nJohnson, Department of Entomology, Cornell University and the 2006 PMG for Commercial Production and Maintenance of\nTrees and Shrubs. Unless specified otherwise (i.e. Soil Treatment) the GDD ranges pertain to foliar applications.\n                                                                                                                   GDD      GDD\n   Common Name                                     Scientific Name                      Dormant2        Stage3     Min1     Max1\n   American plum borer                             Euzophera semifuneralis                                A         245      440\n   Aphids                                          Leaf and twig forms                       *            E          7       120\n                                                                                                         N,A        100      200\n                                                                                                         N,A        100      250\n                                                                                                         N,A        250     2800\n   Arborvitae leafminers                           Argyresthia spp.                                       A         533      700\n                                                                                                          L         150      260\n                                                                                                          L        1800     2200\n                                                   Soil Treatment                                         L        1700     2100\n   Azalea leafminer                                Caloptilia azaleela                                    L         450      800\n                                                                                                          L        1260     1500\n   Azalea whitefly                                 Pealius azaleae                                       N,A        448      700\n                                                                                                         N,A       1250     1500\n                                                                                                         N,A       2032     2150\n   Bagworm                                         Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis                          L         600      900\n   Balsam gall midge                               Paradiplosis tumifex                                   L         120      299\n   Balsam twig aphid                               Mindarus abietinus                                     N          30      100\n   Birch leafminer                                 Fenusa pusilla                                         L         190      290\n                                                                                                          L         530      700\n   Black Vine Weevil                               Otiorhynchus sulcatus                                  A         148      400\n   Boxwood leafminer                               Monarthropalpus buxi                                   A         350      600\n                                                                                                          L        1200     2400\n   Boxwood mite                                    Eurytetranychus buxi                                  N,A        245      600\n   Boxwood psyllid                                 Psylla buxi                                            N         290      440\n   Bronze birch borer                              Agrilus anxius                                         A         440      800\n   Cankerworms (inch worms)                                                                               L         148      290\n   Cooley spruce gall adelgid                      Adelges cooleyi – on Douglas Fir                      N,A       1500     1775\n                                                                                                         N,A        120      190\n   Cooley spruce gall adelgid                      Adelges cooleyi - on Spruce                           N,A       1850     1950\n                                                                                                         N,A         22       81\n   Cottony maple scale                             Pulvinaria innumerabilis                  *            C         802     1265\n   Cottony maple leaf scale                        Pulvinaria acericola                      *            C         802     1265\n   Cottony taxus scale                             Pulvinaria floccifera                                  C         802     1388\n                                                                                             *            N          7        91\n   Dogwood borer                                   Synanthedon scitula                                    A         148      700\n   Eastern spruce gall adelgid                     Adelges abietis                                        N          22      170\n   Eastern tent caterpillar                        Malacosma americanum                                   L          90      190\n   Elongate hemlock scale                          Fiorinia externa                                       C         360      700\n                                                                                             *            A          7       120\n   Euonymus scale                                  Unaspis euonymi                                        C         533      820\n                                                                                                          C        1150     1388\n                                                                                             *            N          35      120\n   European fruit lecanium                         Parthenolecanium corni                                 C        1266     1645\n                                                                                             *            N          35      145\n   European Pine Sawfly                            Neodiprion sertifer                                    L          78      220\n   European pine shoot moth                        Rhyacionia buoliana                                    L          34      121\n                                                                                                          L         480      710\nCommon Name                         Scientific Name                  Dormant2    Stage3   Min1   Max1\nEuropean red mite                   Panonychus ulmi                              E,L,N     240    810\n                                                                        *          E        7      58\nFall webworm                        Hyphantria cunea                               L      1266   1795\nFletcher scale                      Parthenolecanium fletcheri                     C      1029   1388\n                                                                                   C      2515   2800\n                                                                                   N        38    148\nFruitree leafroller                 Archips argyrospilus                           L       300    618\nGypsy moth                          Lymantria dispar                               L        90    448\nHemlock eriophyid (rust) mite       Nalepella tsugifolia                *         N,A       7     450\nHemlock scale                       Abgrallaspis ithacae                           C      1388   2154\n                                                                        *          N        35    121\nHickory leaf stem gall phylloxera   Phylloxera carvaecaulis                        N        91    246\nHolly leafminer                     Phytomyza ilicis                              L,A      246    448\n                                    Soil Treatment                                 L       192    290\nHoneylocust spider mite             Eotetranychus multidigituli                 E,L,N,A    912   1514\nHoneylocust plant bug               Diaphnocoris chlorionis                       N,A       58    246\nHoneylocust pod gall midge          Dasineura gleditschiae                         L       192    229\nHoneylocust spider mite             Platytetranychus multidigituli                N,A      912   1514\nJapanese beetle                     Popillia japonica                              A      1029   2154\nJuniper scale                       Carulaspis juniperi                            C       707   1260\n                                                                        *          N        22    148\nJuniper webworm                     Dichomeris marginella                          L      1645   1917\nLace bugs                           Corythuca spp                                 N,A      239    363\n                                                                                  N,A     1266   1544\n                                    Stephanitis spp.                              N,A     120+\nLeafhoppers                         Several species                               N,A      618    802\n                                                                                  N,A     1266   1514\n                                                                                  N,A     1917   2155\nLilac borer                         Podosesia syringae                             A       200    299\n                                                                                   A      400+\nLocust borer                        Magacyllene robiniae                          L,A     2271   2805\nMagnolia scale                      Neolecanium cornuparvum             *          N        7      35\nMountain ash sawfly                 Pristiphora geniculata                         L       448    707\nNantucket pine tip moth             Rhyacionia frustrana                           L       121    448\n                                                                                   L      1514   1917\nNative holly leafminer              Phytomyza iliciola                             L       192    298\n                                                                                   L      1029   1266\nOak blotch leafminers               Cameraria spp., Tischeria spp.                 L       533    912\nOak leaftier                        Croesia semipurpurana                          L        7      35\nOak skeletonizer                    Bucculatrix ainsliella                         L       448    707\n                                                                                   L      1798   2155\nOak spider mite                     Oligonychus bicolor                           L,N      802   1266\nOystershell scale                   Lepidosaphes ulmi                              C       363    707\n                                                                        *          E        7      91\nPeachtree borer                     Synanthedon exitiosa                           L      1500   1800\nPine bark adelgid                   Pineus strobi                                  C        58    618\n                                                                        *          C        22     58\nPine eriophyid mites                Eriophyidae                                   N,A      298    533\nPine needle miner                   Exoteleia pinifoliella                        L,A      448    802\nPine needle scale                   Chionaspis pinifoliae                          C      1290   1917\n                                                                                   C       298    448\n                                                                        *          E        98    248\nPine sawflies                       Diprion spp., Neodiprion spp.                  L       246   1388\nPine spittlebugs                    Aphrophora cribrata                            N       148    298\n                                    A. saratogensis                                N       148    298\nPine webworm                        Tetralopha robustella                          L       802   2000\nPitch twig moth                     Petrova comstockiana                           L       298    707\nPrivet rust mite                    Aculus ligustri                              L,N,A    1266   1515\n                                                                                 L,N,A     298    802\n    Common Name                                      Scientific Name                       Dormant2        Stage3      Min1      Max1\n    Privet thrips                                    Dendrothrips ornatus                                   L,A         192       618\n                                                                                                            L,A        1029      1266\n    Rhododendron borer                               Synanthedon rhododendri                                 A          533       707\n                                                                                                             A          192       298\n    Rhododendron gall midge                          Clinodiplosis rhododendri                               L          192       363\n    Rhododendron stem borer                          Oberea myops                                            A          298       802\n    Rose chafer                                      Macrodactylus subspinosus                               A          448       802\n    Roundheaded apple tree borer                     Saperda candida                                         A          802      1029\n                                                                                                             A         1514      1798\n    Rust mites                                       Eriophyidae                                           L,N,A       1644      2033\n                                                                                                           L,N,A        533       802\n    Southern red mite                                Oligonychus ilicis                                     N,A         246       363\n                                                                                                            N,A         618       802\n                                                                                                            N,A        2500      2700\n                                                                                                *            E           7         91\n    Spruce needle miner                              Endothenia albolineane                                  L          448       802\n    Spruce spider mite                               Oligonychus ununguis                       *            E           7        121\n                                                                                                            N,A       192         363\n                                                                                                            N,A       2375       2806\n    Taxus bud mite                                   Cedidophyopsis psilaspis                               N,A         148       448\n                                                                                                            N,A         707       912\n    Taxus mealybug                                   Dysmicoccus wistariae                                   N          246       618\n                                                                                                *            N           7         91\n    Tuliptree aphid                                  Macrosiphum liriodendri                                N,A        1151      1514\n                                                                                                            N,A        1917      2033\n    Tuliptree scale                                  Toumeyella liriodendri                                  C         2032      2629\n                                                                                                *            N           12       121\n    Tussock moth                                     Orgyia leucostigma                                      L          192       298\n                                                                                                             L         2145      2516\n    Twobanded Japanese weevil                        Callirhopalus bifasciatus                               A         1644      2271\n    Twospotted spider mite                           Tetranychus urticae                                    N,A         363       618\n                                                                                                             A         1300      2000\n    White pine aphid                                 Cinara strobi                                           A         1917      2271\n                                                                                                             N          121       246\n                                                                                                *            E           7        121\n    White pine weevil                                Pissodes strobi                                         A           7         58\n    White prunicola scale                            Pseudaulacaspis prinicola                               C          707      1151\n                                                                                                             E           35       145\n    Woolly beech aphids                              Grylloprociphilus imbricator                           N,A         363       707\n                                                     Phyllaphis fagi                                        N,A         363       707\n    Woolly elm aphid                                 Erisoma americanum                                      N          121       246\n    Zimmerman pine moth                              Dioryctria zimmermani                                   L          121       246\n                                                                                                             A         1917      2154\n If more than one range of numbers appears this is indicative of multiple generations and/or control periods in an insect's life cycle.\n If an asterisk (*) appears in this column, then a treatment with an appropriate insecticide may be warranted during the dormant season\n(before bud break) providing a pest problem is present. For specific guidelines homeowners may refer to the current version of Part II\nGuide to Pest Management around the Home – Pesticide Guidelines, Cornell Misc. Bulletin S74II and commercial pesticide\napplicators can refer to the current version of Pest Management Guidelines for Commercial Production and Maintenance of Trees and\n A = adult; C = crawler; E = egg; L = larvae; N = nymph.\n11/92 prepared by Thomas Kowalsick, Cornell Cooperative Extension – Suffolk County and Scott Clark, Cornell Cooperative\nExtension – Suffolk County. Revised 5/2010\nTK: 5/2010 #96\n\nTo top", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5418877005577087}
{"content": "The dead lift is simply the hinge put to work. To get started practicing the dead lift, you need something to pick up. A kettlebell or a dumbbell works great to start out (eventually you’ll move on to a set of kettlebells, dumbbells, or a barbell). Most men can start out with a weight between 35 and 40 pounds and most women, between 18 and 25 pounds.\n\n\nStand on top of the weight so it’s positioned between your heels and assume a shoulder-width stance.\n\nPoint your toes out slightly (between 10 and 20 degrees).\n\n\nPush your hips back toward the wall behind you.\n\nImagine you’re reaching your butt back for a bench that’s just out of reach.\n\n\nKeep your back flat, but let your knees bend.\n\nContinue to reach your butt back as far as you possibly can without toppling backward.\n\n\nWhen you hit maximum hip bend, grab hold of the weight and take a deep breath into your belly.\n\nBe sure to keep the head and neck in line with the rest of your back as well. Focus your eyes on the ground slightly in front of you or onto the horizon where the wall meets the floor.\n\n\nPush your heels hard into the ground and stand up as quickly as possible.\n\nReverse the movement to set the weight back onto the floor. Don’t round your back to set the weight down.\n\nBe sure to start and finish the dead lift with good posture.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.6635122299194336}
{"content": "\n\n\nNow, here’s where a lot of folks get screwed up. The plan doesn’t have to nail down every variable. You can’t create a risk-free adventure or business. The plan can be simple. The best plans are! Generally, the simpler you make your plan, the stronger it is. Business planning helps you…\n\n  • Get clear about what you want.\n  • Take inspired action in that direction.\n\nThat’s it. So. Why is it such a big deal? Why do so many go out into the wilderness, or into business, without one?\n\nIt is better to go than to stay put. However, if you keep getting hurt, it may be a good idea to pause and consider, “What do I really want here? An adventure? More freedom? A better life? Money?” Then, you could think about ways that you could venture forth and enjoy your experience.\n\nBusiness is supposed to be fun!\n\nBusiness planning doesn’t have to be a chore. It can be energizing and inspiring. You can find a business planning template, or “pattern.” You might even find someone who has done it before and ask for some help.\n\nHot Rod, Max and I just returned from Alaska. We went flying and kayaking. Our pilot, our kayak guide, they use procedures. They have plans…and a clear intention of the adventure. Let’s assess the risk, knowing that you can’t control everything. Let’s set priorities. (Get in and out alive, and have some FUN!) The plan enhances the experience. Sure, we could have ventured out on our own. However, it was so great to have guides help us find the best places and escalate the learning curve.\n\nOn August 16, I hosted an interactive Webinar…”How to Create a Profitable Business Plan” This webinar contains fundamental information for your business. Bare bones basics: How to create a profitable business. How to unleash the freedom that a rockin’ business of your own can provide. If you missed it, no worries…The recording is below!\n\nThis is not an all-sizzle-no-steak Webinar. Grab your pencil, your to-do-list, and get ready to make things HAPPEN!\n\n“Ellen helped me get much clearer on my goals and the month end reports are reflecting that! I will be joining you on the next Challenge to finish up. The difference your work has made is the difference between NIGHT and DAY! It was a great experience and very helpful in getting my business where it needs to be…PROFITABLE!”", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.54313725233078}
{"content": "GlucaGen Inj Uses and How to Use\n\n  • Uses\n\n\n\n    How To Use\n\n\n    Keep this product near you at all times. Talk with your doctor about when you should use this product. This medication is given by injection. Learn in advance how to properly inject this medication so you will be prepared when you actually need to use it. Also teach a family member or caregiver what to do if you cannot inject the medication yourself.\n\n    Friends and relatives of a diabetic patient should know the symptoms of low blood sugar (see also Precautions section) and be instructed on how to give glucagon if necessary. The patient should be treated as soon as possible during an episode of low blood sugar in order to prevent serious effects (e.g., brain damage).\n\n    Prepare the medication as directed. Before using, check the product visually for particles, cloudiness, gel-like thickening, or discoloration. If any of these are present, do not use the liquid. After preparation, use the medication immediately. Discard any unused liquid.\n\n\n    If the patient is unconscious, turn the patient on their side to avoid choking in case they vomit, and inject the glucagon. Seek immediate medical treatment. If the patient does not wake up in 15 minutes, the dose may be repeated.\n\n    When the patient wakes up and is able to swallow, a quick sugar source (e.g., glucose tablets, juice) should be given. Glucagon is only effective for a short time, and low blood sugar may return. The blood sugar level should be kept up by eating snacks such as crackers, cheese, meat sandwich, or milk. The blood sugar should be checked regularly as directed by the doctor.\n\n    Always call your doctor immediately when an episode of low blood sugar has occurred. You may need more medical treatment, or your insulin dose and diet may need to be adjusted.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8827577233314514}
{"content": "Latest Accretion disc Stories\n\n2015-02-14 08:43:51\n\nThe film's visual effects company created a computer code that more accurately portrays a spinning black hole, and this code could be easily rendered for scientific use.\n\n2014-03-05 12:21:30\n\nWASHINGTON, March 5, 2014 /PRNewswire-USNewswire/ -- Astronomers have used NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory and the European Space Agency's (ESA's) XMM-Newton to show a supermassive black hole\n\nBe Star Black Hole\n2014-01-17 08:27:04\n\nThe black hole in question is orbiting an object known as a Be-type star, which is unusual because of its incredibly high rate of rotation.\n\nCosmic Turbulence Black Hole Formation\n2013-08-16 09:31:01\n\nThe mechanism by which stars and black holes are formed in extreme cases of high mass density has puzzled astronomers since Johannes Kepler first laid out his laws of planetary motion some 400 years ago.\n\nUnraveling Galactic History Begins With A Black Hole's Spin\n2013-07-30 14:11:38\n\nA supermassive black hole is believed to sit at the center of each large galaxy and a new technique designed to detect the dark abyss's spin could be the key to unraveling a galaxy's history.\n\nNASA X-Ray Observatories Reveal Black Hole Spin\n2013-02-27 17:22:50\n\nScientists affiliated with NASA’s NuSTAR and XMM-Newton X-ray observatories have now devised a clever way to directly measure the rotation of nearby supermassive black holes.\n\nUsing Black Hole Disks And Jets To Explore The Limits Of Spacetime\n2013-02-22 10:37:51\n\nBlack holes are voracious monsters at the center of galaxies that shape the growth and death of the stars around them with their tremendous gravitational pull and explosive ejections of energy. Now, researchers are using them as a tool to probe the limits of spacetime.\n\nAstronomers Measure Black Hole Radius\n2012-09-27 19:16:53\n\nAn international team of astronomers was able to measure the radius of a black hole for the first time.\n\nStandard Model Does Little To Explain Why Earth Is So Dry\n2012-07-18 10:59:10\n\nDespite seventy percent of the Earth’s surface being covered by water, in reality the whole of the planet is only made up of 1 percent water, making it relatively dry compared to the gas giants.\n\nLatest Accretion disc Reference Libraries\n\n2004-10-19 04:45:44\n\nCosmogony -- Cosmogony is the study of the origins of celestial objects. It is most commonly used to refer to the study of the origin of the solar system. Currently, the most widely accepted theory is that the solar system was formed roughly 5 billion years ago with the collapse of a nebula of gas and dust, likely caused by shock waves generated by a nearby supernova. The solar system would have formed as a member of a star cluster, now long-since dispersed throughout the Milky Way over...\n\n2004-10-19 04:45:43\n\n\n2004-10-19 04:45:42\n\n\n2004-10-19 04:45:41\n\nMicroquasar -- Microquasars are smaller cousins of quasars. They are named after quasars, as they have some common characteristics: strong and variable radio emission often seen as radio jets, and an accretion disk surrounding a black hole. In quasars, the black hole is supermassive (millions of solar masses) as in microquasars, the black hole mass is a few solar masses. In microquasars, the accreted mass comes from a normal star and the accretion disk is very luminous in optical regions...\n\n2004-10-19 04:45:41\n\nAccretion Disk -- An accretion disk is a structure formed by material falling into a gravitational source. Conservation of angular momentum requires that, as a large cloud of material collapses inward, any small rotation it may have will increase. Centrifugal force causes the rotating cloud to collapse into a disk, and tidal effects will tend to align this disk's rotation with the rotation of the gravitational source in the center. Friction between the particles of the disk generates heat...\n\nMore Articles (5 articles) »\nWord of the Day", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7345849275588989}
{"content": "Cooperative Games\n\nCooperative Games\n\n  • Sergey V. Popov added an answer:\n    What are the common group tasks that people use in experiments?\n\n    Does anyone know what are the common group tasks that people use in their experiments? Tasks where performance can be easily evaluated objectively? I found in literature Michigan State University Distributed Dynamic Decision Making (MSU-DDD), but could not find the modified version for research. Does anyone have this game or know other games that I can use in research? Thanks!\n\n    Sergey V. Popov · Queen's University Belfast\n\n    I was thinking about doing an experiment in teamwork efficiency, and the only thing that came to my mind is jigsaw puzzle solving: how much faster would a team of 2 solve the given 300-piece puzzle against team of 3, or something. You need something that is easy to parallelize, but that would require some interaction. My suspicion is that the good teamwork games would also be the games where individual effort is hard to quantify...\n\n  • He Hao added an answer:\n    What is the difference between Nash Equilibrium and Nash Bargaining Solution?\n    I'm considering a cooperative game where players want to share resources in a fair manner.\n    He Hao · Pacific Northwest National Laboratory\n\n    Please see\n\n  • José Paes Santana added an answer:\n    Can anyone help with time token method by Arends?\n    Time token method is a cooperative learning method.\n    José Paes Santana · UNIDESC GO\n\n    Hello Sir BouJaoude,\n    Thank you for the valuable information!\n    prof Paes\n\n  • Surajit Borkotokey asked a question:\n    Is anyone working on Network under Bi-cooperative framework?\n    Bi-cooperative games are generalizations of voting games with abstention...Mathematically one can talk about Bi-cooperative networks however one needs a concrete example. I am trying to get one. If anybody is interested please share your experience.\n  • Issofa Moyouwou added an answer:\n    Equivalence relation in TU games\n    How do you define an equivalence relation over the set of imputations in a TU game?\n    Issofa Moyouwou · University of Yaounde I\n    Dear Momo, let me know what is the goal of such a partition. What is the main problem? is there any link to players? to a social planner? ...\n\nAbout Cooperative Games\n\nIn game theory, a cooperative game is a game where groups of players (\"coalitions\") may enforce cooperative behaviour, hence the game is a competition between coalitions of players, rather than between individual players. An example is a coordination game, when players choose the strategies by a consensus decision-making process.\n\nTopic Followers (369) See all", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5940237045288086}
{"content": "Threads of Resemblance in New Australian Gothic Cinema\n\nArticle excerpt\n\n   '... unlikely to be endorsed by Australian tourist commission'\n   (Leonard Maltin's closing sentence in his review of Wake in Fright\n   [Kotcheff, 1971] (1))\n\nTHERE IS A PECULIAR PRESENCE in the catalogue of Australian feature films, sitting in the shadow of the highly visible and culturally laudable success stories. Tending towards the eccentric, and occasionally perverse, this presence has received attention from only a handful of film theorists and cinephiles. It is the small, yet consistent flow of malevolence and disorder that is never far from the surface in Australian productions. It appears in some instances as an entire feature film, and in others as a single scene, demonstrating tendencies that resonate indiscriminately throughout the entire body of Australian Cinema. Not even the commercially oriented, high-profile and high-budget production is guaranteed to emerge untouched. It is this 'presence', this off-centre, almost intangible element of sinister peculiarity in Australian productions that has been described by theorists as 'Australian Gothic'.\n\nIt is reasonable to expect that such a seemingly appropriate title would have an equally appropriate body of theoretical work behind it. After all, a word with a strong cultural presence in history, architecture, literature and film would seem to demand attention in this context. However, when placing what has been written about the subject under closer scrutiny, 'Australian Gothic' appears to be an almost arbitrary title. The theoretical engagements that exist, while providing some details of the relationships between particular films and aspects of the traditional Gothic novels of the early eighteenth century, seem somewhat inadequate. In this article, we will revisit some of the texts that are generally regarded as Australian Gothic, adding our interpretation of their significance, in order to demonstrate the new perspectives our position offers.\n\nBefore proceeding, it is important to place some of what follows in context. As will be clear from the outset, we engage with genre on different levels. As such, it is helpful to envisage this project as occupying territory somewhere along a 'continuum' of theoretical approaches to genre in film. Our project is situated somewhere between the 'practical', economic, and industry-based concepts of genre, and the more abstract theoretical models, such as those offered by disciplines like philosophy and literary theory. Our intention is to conduct the following argument with an awareness of, and sensitivity towards these very different perspectives on the nature of genre. In the broadest of terms, this paper seeks to extend and modify existing explanations of Australian Gothic Cinema, as a kind of film-making in Australia, while not treating genre as an immutable apparatus of categorical differentiation.\n\nEven a cursory consideration of the term 'Gothic' illuminates an array of cliches. We might reasonably imagine tales of the ruined castle or haunted house, or be reminded of stories about 'undead' monsters and repressed sexuality. Demonstrably, 'Gothic' is a word with a broad range of cultural literacies. Accordingly, one might expect that Australian Gothic Cinema is a cultural entity that would be clearly intersected by these literacies. This is, however, not entirely the case. A somewhat peculiar collection of Australian films has been retrospectively gathered under the umbrella of 'Australian Gothic', while bearing little apparent similarity to those texts more commonly held as indicative of the Gothic aesthetic. Although a well-established style in literature and popular culture, the Gothic presence in Australian Cinema is not 'typical', containing very few (if any) examples of such cliches.\n\nHeidi Kaye offers a useful perspective on the history of Gothic film, prefacing her investigation by remarking that Gothic film is inherently difficult to explain, as 'Gothic elements have crept into filmic genres from science fiction to film noir and from thriller to comedy'. …\n\n", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9771609306335449}
{"content": "Article excerpt\n\nFrom the perspective of the fifth-century Greeks the Peloponnesian War was legitimately perceived as a world war, causing enormous destruction of life and property, intensifying factional and class hostility, and dividing the Greek states internally and destabilizing their relationship to one another, which ultimately weakened their capacity to resist conquest from outside. It also reversed the tendency toward the growth of democracy. When Athens was powerful and successful, its democratic constitution had a magnetic effect on other states, but its defeat was decisive in the political development of Greece, sending it in the direction of oligarchy.\n\nThe Peloponnesian War was also a conflict of unprecedented brutality, violating even the harsh code that had previously governed Greek warfare and breaking through the thin line that separates civilization from savagery. Anger, frustration, and the desire for vengeance increased as the fighting dragged on, resulting in a progression of atrocities that included maiming and killing captured opponents; throwing them into pits to die of thirst, starvation, and exposure; and hurling them into the sea to drown. Bands of marauders murdered innocent children. Entire cities were destroyed, their men killed, their women and children sold as slaves. …\n\n", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5609604120254517}
{"content": "The first in a series of exercises designed to teach you more about regular expressions, written by a guy who got partway through writing a regex book.\n\nBut first, a word about tools. It's a lot easier to use a tool to do this sort of thing than it is to write code to do it. So, I suggest one of the following:\n\nSo, S stands for simple, 1 stands for 1, so this first one is going to be pretty simple.\n\nS1 - Match a Social Security Number\n\nVerify that a string is a social security number of the format ddd-dd-dddd.\n\n\nAnswer and explanation to follow.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7425358891487122}
{"content": "Boston Society of Architecture “Research in Architecture Grant” The Secure City: Design and Perception of Public Space Post 9/11\n\nSusan Silberberg was awarded a competitive research grant from the Boston Society of Architects to investigate the design and perception of public space post 9/11.  Terrorist events have caused many cities and the federal government to rethink issues of public accessibility, open space design and perimeter building protection.  This redesign and retrofit of public space to create a secure public realm has prompted responses ranging from organized efforts to identify roles for professionals and win government design contracts, to public outrage at the changes to urban space and the erection of new barriers to accessibility and openness.  Susan Silberberg’s original research seeks to discover and explore the people and forces that are re-shaping the public realm in major cities to provide comprehensive information to design professionals, public officials, and academics about the decision-making processes and the impacts of public realm securitization.  Beginning in Boston in 2006, her research continues to seek answers to the following questions:\n\n\n  • What specific motives, funding and regulations have prompted secure urban design efforts? \n  • Which efforts are coordinated and “designed” and which are ad hoc responses, and why?\n  • How do these efforts affect both the physical design of public space and the actual use?  What are changes in the public perceptions of these retrofitted secure urban spaces?  \n  • Who is involved in securitization and what roles do they play within the private and public sectors?\n\n\nThrough field work, scholarly research, interviews and case study assessment, Susan Silberberg’s research team continues to explore these questions in Boston and New York City.  Findings from her Boston research are presented in ““Pretext securitization of Boston’s public realm after 9/11: Motives, actors and a role for planners” in Policing Cities: Securitization and Regulation in a 21st Century World (Routledge, 2013).", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8400163650512695}
{"content": "The National Catholic Review\nBelief and the bench\n\nWork as a federal prosecutor can require long hours at the office, stressful court situations that drain one’s energy and powers of thinking, and complicated legal problems that require all of one’s mind and judgment. Sometimes the day feels unequally divided: 80 percent for work and 20 percent for the “rest of life.” In that rest of life are the things that really matter: marriage, raising children, family, friendships and activities like home and lawn maintenance, recreation, social occasions and exercise. Somewhere in there are also church, faith and spiritual life.\n\nI know it is not supposed to be that way, that spirituality should not be a separate item on the rest-of-life menu, something to take up like a hobby after work. If active and strong, faith is like character; we take it with us into any situation. It influences how we think and act, whether consciously or not. But as much as I recognize and occasionally pursue the goal of integrating spiritual life into daily work, most of the time I am too busy to think about God or to reflect or pray as the day flies by.\n\nDoes this mean that my Catholic faith does not affect my work? I’ve whispered too many “Hail Mary’s” on my way to receive a jury verdict, grappled with ethical issues that required asking for divine guidance, and have thanked God too many times for helping me stay cool when attacked by opposing counsel not to know that faith affects my outlook on life, my values, my approach and attitudes toward the people and problems I encounter as a prosecutor.\n\nApart from the murmured prayers (or muttered curses) that may erupt during the day, faith’s deeper influence on my work comes from the way fundamental beliefs translate into values and eventually into patterns of conduct. A believing Catholic embraces a tradition with a deep consciousness of God’s presence in the world, particularly in each human person. Seeing God in people is a belief that, for me, translates into the value of humility, a value not often associated with lawyers or prosecutors. In practice, humility means treating each person with equal dignity, deserving of respect.\n\nFor a prosecutor, the accused—regardless of how terrible the crime—deserves respect as a person just as much as do the judge, the other lawyers, the jury or the witnesses, agents or police officers. The defendant in the dock is at that moment the least of our brothers or sisters. Ensuring fair treatment and the right to due process is as much the prosecutor’s responsibility as is proving guilt. Respect for human dignity also influences how one treats opposing counsel, witnesses, victims and professional colleagues. Respect and humility involve more than being polite and professional. These fundamental values have given life to many of the ethical standards intended to ensure fairness in criminal trials. Animated by such values, a prosecutor will want to vigorously ensure that any and all evidence (especially evidence that hurts the government’s case) is turned over to the defense as required under criminal discovery rules. Full disclosure of the facts, “warts and all,” follows from an approach that values each person’s dignity.\n\nJudges often say that sentencing is their most difficult task. Sitting in judgment over a fellow human being is an awesome responsibility. So is the responsibility prosecutors have in representing the people’s interests at the time of sentencing. Those interests usually call for punishment, deterrence and protection of the public. When the question is no longer the fairness of the trial but the nature of the crime and the appropriate punishment—that is when it is hardest to see the convicted person as worthy of the same dignity society accords to the judge, the lawyers or others in the courtroom.\n\nYet as a Catholic I remember that Jesus (though innocent) once stood where that defendant stands, about to be sentenced by Pilate, his prosecutor and judge. Suddenly the values of humility and the equal dignity of the defendant seem to fit at the time of sentencing as well.\n\nThe high pressure, deadline-driven job of a federal prosecutor can make one feel that there is no time for the peaceful, meditative practices of the spiritual life. And the competitive nature of the adversarial judicial process can sometimes enshrine “winning” as the highest goal. Faith illuminates different values, however, like acting with humility and seeing God in others.\n\nSeeing God in people is a belief that for me translates into the value of humility.\n\nTerrence Berg is a federal prosecutor in Detroit, Mich. The views expressed in this article are those of the author and are not intended to express the views of the U.S. Department of Justice.\n\n\nDavid Smith | 3/6/2011 - 1:25am\nWould you say that Jesus received a fair trial?", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9926379919052124}
{"content": "F-35 fleet grounded after engine crack found\n\nF-35 fleet grounded after engine crack found\nFILE - In this Monday, Dec. 17, 2012 photo, Master Sgt. Andrew Ehlers does repairs on an F-16 fighter plane in South Burlington, Vt. (AP Photo/Toby Talbot)\nWASHINGTON (AP) - The Pentagon on Friday grounded its fleet of F-35 fighter jets after discovering a cracked engine blade in one plane.\n\n\nAll versions - a total of 51 planes - were grounded Friday pending a more in-depth evaluation of the problem discovered at Edwards. None of the planes have been fielded for combat operations; all are undergoing testing.\n\n\nA watchdog group, the Project on Government Oversight, said the grounding is not likely to mean a significant delay in the effort to field the stealthy aircraft.\n\n\"The F-35 is a huge problem because of its growing, already unaffordable, cost and its gigantically disappointing performance,\" the group's Winslow Wheeler said. \"That performance would be unacceptable even if the aircraft met its far-too-modest requirements, but it is not.\"\n\n\n", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5057113170623779}
{"content": "EVENING. Health. PARENTING. Letters.\n\nQ. Our 3-year-old is in day care, and the teacher says she...\n\nApril 18, 1994|By Evelyn Petersen, | By Evelyn Petersen\n\nQ. Our 3-year-old is in day care, and the teacher says she uses time-out as a discipline method, having the child sit on a chair for a few minutes when he or she has misbehaved. What do you think of time-out?\n\nA. Time-out can be an effective discipline tool, but only when it is implemented in a developmentally appropriate way. For example, if the child is 2 or 3 and does not understand what he or she has done wrong, sitting in the time-out chair will not teach the child what behavior the adult expects.\n\nFirst, children need to understand what the adult wants from them and what behavior is not acceptable. They need to know ahead of time that if they behave in ways that are not acceptable, they will need to take time-out to calm down and think about their behavior, returning to play or to the group when they feel sure they can behave appropriately. This kind of thinking can be easily understood by children at age 4 and older, and sometimes can be successfully understood by 3-year-olds.\n\nI believe that time-out is most successful when children are not told to sit in a chair or time-out space for an arbitrary, adult-mandated amount of time. I think it works best when the child has to be responsible for the length of time-out. The child should be able to let the adult know when he or she feels ready to return to play or to the group, and the child should also be able to verbalize what the behavior was that was inappropriate.\n\nSome adults feel that they should set the length of time-out, and often set limits of minutes that roughly match the age of the child, four minutes for a 4-year-old, for example. I feel that this is purely arbitrary and might not make sense. If a 5-year-old can calm himself down and explain clearly what he did that was incorrect and state the correct behavior in two minutes, why do time-out for five minutes?\n\nLike any discipline method, modifications must often be made in time-out to make the method effective for individual children.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9236882925033569}
{"content": "home improvement\n\n\nQuestion by  ruff (34)\n\nWhat are some good home decorating ideas to go with a gray sofa?\n\n\nAnswer by  Amom (701)\n\nA grey sofa would especially look nice with a coordinating color in the cool tones, such as red, royal purple, or white. Go to the local paint store, pick out some paint chips, and see which colors will go best with your sofa and then pick out wall color, pillows, drapes, and accessory that best match your choices.\n\n\nAnswer by  Betty0320 (734)\n\nPaint the wall behind the sofa a bold color to offset the bland gray. This is called an accent wall. Use throw pillows, afghans or wall hangings to add texture and color to the room and sofa. Make sure the lighting is appropriate and is not making the sofa look drab. If push comes to shove, reupholster!\n\n\nAnswer by  BillS (50)\n\nChairs colored red or black would provide contrasting colors, especially if the pieces are leather. Wooden end tables and perhaps a coffee table made of cherrywood or mahogany will add to the effect. Framed pictures or posters with black and gray as dominant colors located wawy from the sofa will also enhance the look of the room.\n\n\nAnswer by  kctaxlady (187)\n\nStart with a sleek gray sofa, add teak tables and white accents for a sophisticated color scheme. For a more modern look, use blonde wood tables with red and yellow toss pillows, lampshades and other accents. If the sofa is more traditional shape, try rich, dark wood with wine and cream accents.\n\n\nAnswer by  racheljh (72)\n\nBrighten up a gray sofa with pillows in brighter colors; blues and deep maroon work well. Choose pillow colors to also pick up colors from other chairs or draperies in the room.\n\n\nAnswer by  Anonymous\n\nI have a new gray sectional, recover?????\n\nYou have 50 words left!", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9983589053153992}
{"content": "I'm in. Chris and I will be lugging our LF stuff, but anyone is welcome; Holga, Hasselblad, Widelux, pinhole, et al.\n\nThe KC Union train station has been restored and is an oustanding example of the Art Deco major railroad stations in the US. Just one of the possible subjects. The old KCP&L building downtown is also renowned for its Art Deco architecture. Plenty of red brick buildings with vintage signage if you like that.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9456226825714111}
{"content": "Paper Details  \n\nHas Bibliography\n3 Pages\n635 Words\n\n    Filter Topics  \n\nGood Country People character analysis\n\n“Good Country People” The short story, “Good Country People”, written by Flannery O’Connor, is a story that captivates one by usage of symbolism and theme. The story centers on the meaning of being a good person, in the sense of leading a Christian, pious life, worthy of salvation. O’Connor contrasts mindless chatter about “good country people” with questions about the true meaning of religious faith. There is also a class hierarchy formed that includes stereotypes about “good country people” and literal and symbolic meanings of events, objects, and characters. Through exclusive use of the third person narrator, O’Connor’s narrative style poises a tension between the realistic (characters in typical settings performing natural acts) and symbolic (where names, signs and other common objects represent larger issues). She also employs the technique of the epiphany, where a single moment of illumination “awakens” the character and reveals the deeper meanings of the text. O’Connor describes the story’s characters as distorted versions of humanity, and virtually none are sympathetic in the traditional nature of the hero or heroine with whom a reader might identify.\nHulga is the dual dimension main character that goes through a complete change throughout the story. She changes her name to Hulga, an “ugly” name, to reflect her feelings about her injured body and self, as the name is the opposite of her real name “Joy”, as is her personality. The significance of Joy remaining conscious even though terribly injured as a child when “her leg was blasted off” indicates that Joy seems to have rejected her own body by choosing a life of intelligence and of the mind. As with her missing limb, Hulga’s “weak heart” operates as a symbolic as well as literal affliction. Hulga closes her heart just as she rejects her body. Hulga’s mother, Mrs. Hopewell, convinced that Hulga would have “been better without a useless PhD. degree in philosophy”, has no comprehension of the one true meaning of life to her daughter: “Such is after all the strictly scientific approach to Nothing. We know it by wishing to know nothing of Nothing.” This reference is to nihilistic philosophy, which denies the existence of any basis for truth. It rejects belief in concepts such as religion and morality, and generally recognizes no authority.\nManley Pointer, a young misperceived country boy who sells bibles, is an illusion of appearance versus reality. Pointer is so heavily weighted down by his suitcase that he is lopsided and has to “brace himself to prevent collapsing”. This heaviness foreshadows a quality of falsehood that one carries that makes their mind, soul, and body heavy. Like Joy/Hulga, he is physically awkward, suggesting a lack of balance. His name, also a symbol, can be interpreted as humorous, sexual, and ironic as his name was an invention of his mind. Misplaced faith in appearances is central to the themes of this story. Appearance and deception conflict with reality and truth, as Pointer assures Mrs. Hopewell that he is like her and can exchange generalizations about “good country people” as readily as Mrs. Freeman. The biblical quotation, Matthew 10:30, foreshadows the story’s ironic ending. Mrs. Hopewell prides herself in not being taken for a fool, but this boy seemed “so sincere, so genuine and earnest.” In a way, both literally and ironically, Pointer is a missionary, though not as Mrs. Hopewell believes. Furthermore, the seduction of Glynese foreshadows Pointer’s seduction of Hulga. Pointer plays up to each person’s expectations. Everyone thinks he is young, innocent, and wholesome, leading to Hulga’s fantasy about seducing him and having to deal with his remorse. But, despite her advanced academic degree, Hulga’s misguided thinking is apparent in her fantasy that she will mercilessly seduce the boy, and in her “dabbing of Vapex” (a pungent and medicinal ointment) on her collar instead of perfume.\n\n    More on Good Country People character analysis...\n\nCopyright © 1999 - 2015 CollegeTermPapers.com. All Rights Reserved. DMCA", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5807715654373169}
{"content": "Cultural reproduction\n\nCultural reproduction is the transmission of existing cultural values and norms from generation to generation. Cultural reproduction refers to the mechanisms by which continuity of cultural experience is sustained across time. Cultural reproduction often results in social reproduction, or the process of transferring aspects of society (such as class) from generation to generation.\n\n  1. Groups of people, notably social classes, act to reproduce the existing social structure to preserve their advantage\n\nReproduction as it is applied to culture, is the process by which aspects of culture are passed on from person to person or from society to society. There are a number of different ways in which this has happened. Historically, people have moved from different countries taking with them certain cultural norms and traditions. For centuries cultural reproduction has occurred in a profound way through a hidden agenda. Cultures transmit aspects of behavior which individuals learn in an informal way while they are out of the home.\n\nExamples of Cultural Reproduction\n\nAn example of cultural reproduction is enculturation which one sociologist describes as \"a partly conscious and partly unconscious learning experience when the older generation invites, induces, and compels the younger generation to adopt traditional ways of thinking and behaving\". Although, Enculturation in many ways duplicates and copies many similar norms and traditions of previous generations it does not always replicate everything that is the same. Enculturation is the reason why, for example, people born in the U.S. drive on the right side of the road while people in England drive on the left. Parents and educators continue to be two of the most influential enculturating forces of cultural reproduction.\n\nAnother example of cultural reproduction is diffusion. Diffusion, the act of spreading out occurs when dependable cultural behaviors or norms are passed from one society to another. Diffusion is the reason why U.S. citizens enjoy the Japanese delicacy Sushi, and make everyday use of words like “boutique”, a common French word.\n\n\nThe concept of cultural reproduction was first developed by the French sociologist and cultural theorist Pierre Bourdieu in the early 1970's. Initially, Bourdieu’s work was on education in a modern society. He believed that the education system was used solely to ‘reproduce’ the culture of the dominant class in order for the dominant class to continue to hold and release power. Bourdieu’s ideas were similar to those of Louis Althusser's notion of ‘ideological state apparatuses’ which had emerged around the same time. He began to study socialization and how dominant culture and certain norms and traditions effected many social relations.\n\nOne of Pierre Bourdieu and Jean-Claude Passeron main concepts on Cultural Reproduction was in their book Cultural Reproduction and Social Reproduction. Bourdieu’s main focus was the structural reproduction of disadvantages and inequalities that are caused by cultural reproduction. According to Bourdieu, inequalities are recycled through the education system and other social institutions . Bourdieu believed that the prosperous and affluent societies of the west were becoming the “cultural capital”. High social class, familiarity with the bourgeois culture and educational credentials determined one’s life chances. It was biased towards those of higher social class and aided in conserving social hierarchies. This system concealed and neglected individual talent and academic meritocracy. Bourdieu demonstrated most of his known theories in his books The Inheritors and Reproduction in Education, Culture and Society. Both books established him as a progenitor of “Reproduction theory”\n\nBourdieu also pioneered many procedural frameworks and terminologies such as cultural, social, and symbolic capital, and the concepts of habitus field, and symbolic violence. Bourdieu's work emphasized the role of practice and embodiment in social dynamics. Bourdieu’s theories build upon the conjectures of Ludwig Wittgenstein, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Edmund Husserl, Georges Canguilhem, Karl Marx, Gaston Bachelard, Max Weber, Emile Durkheim, and Norbert Elias, among others.\n\nDebate Over Cultural Reproduction\n\nBourdieu is best known for his theoretical principles, conceptual devices and political intentions. He theorizes that what is taught to younger generations is dependent on the varying degrees of social, economic, and cultural capital. Those cultures have gained cultural capital and are considered the dominant group among the rest. However, in order to acquire cultural capital one must undergo indiscernable learning and these cultural norm must be used in the earliest days of life.\n\nThrough Cultural Reproduction, only those members of the dominant culture can acquire knowledge in relation to the way it is taught from within this cultural system. Therefore, those who are not members of the dominant culture are at a disadvantage to receive cultural information, and therefore will remain at a disadvantage. Capitalist societies depend on a stratified social system, where the working class has an education suited for manual labor: leveling out such inequalities would break down the system. Therefore, schools in capitalist societies require a method of stratification, and often choose to do so in a way in which the dominant culture will not lose its hegemony. One method of maintaining this stratification is through cultural reproduction.\n\nBourdieu Central Issues\n\nBourdieu's sociological work was dominated by an analysis of the mechanisms of reproduction of social hierarchies. In opposition to Marxist analyses, Bourdieu criticized the premises given to the economic factors, and stressed that the capacity of social actors to actively impose and engage their cultural productions and symbolic systems plays an essential role in the reproduction of social structures of domination. What Bourdieu called symbolic violence (the capacity to ensure that the unpredictability of the social order is ignored—-or misrecognized as natural—-and thus to ensure the legitimacy of social structures) plays an essential part in his sociological analysis.\n\n\nSearch another word or see Cultural_reproductionon Dictionary | Thesaurus |Spanish\nCopyright © 2015, LLC. All rights reserved.\n  • Please Login or Sign Up to use the Recent Searches feature", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.6186913251876831}
{"content": "..never odd or even..\n\nThoughts on computer science, maths, languages.\n\nRearranging equations using a zipper\n\nWhilst experimenting with some ideas for a project, I realised I needed a quick piece of code to rearrange equations (defined in terms of +, *, -, and /) in AST form, e.g., given an AST for the equation x = y + 3, rearrange to get y = x - 3.\n\nI realised that equations can be formulated as zippers over an AST, where operations for navigating the zipper essentially rearrange the equation. I thought this was quite neat, so I thought I would show the technique here. The code is in simple Haskell.\n\nI’ll show the construction for a simple arithmetic calculus with the following AST data type of terms:\n\ndata Term = Add Term Term \n          | Mul Term Term \n          | Div Term Term\n          | Sub Term Term  \n          | Neg Term\n          | Var String\n          | Const Integer\n\nwith some standard pretty printing code:\n\ninstance Show Term where \n    show (Add t1 t2) = (show' t1) ++ \" + \" ++ (show' t2)\n    show (Mul t1 t2) = (show' t1) ++ \" * \" ++ (show' t2)\n    show (Sub t1 t2) = (show' t1) ++ \" - \" ++ (show' t2)\n    show (Div t1 t2) = (show' t1) ++ \" / \" ++ (show' t2)\n    show (Neg t) = \"-\" ++ (show' t) \n    show (Var v) = v\n    show (Const n) = show n\n\nwhere show' is a helper to minimise brackets e.g. pretty printing “-(v)” as “-v”.\n\nshow' :: Term -> String\nshow' (Var v) = v\nshow' (Const n) = show n\nshow' t@(Neg (Var v)) = show t\nshow' t@(Neg (Const n)) = show t\nshow' t = \"(\" ++ show t ++ \")\"\n\nEquations can be defined as pairs of terms, i.e., ‘T1 = T2′ where T1 and T2 are both represented by values of Term. However, instead, I’m going to represent equations via a zipper.\n\nZippers (described beautifully in the paper by Huet) represent values that have some subvalue “in focus”. The position of the focus can then be shifted through the value, refocussing on different parts. This is encoded by pairing a focal subvalue with a path to this focus, which records the rest of the value that is not in focus. For equations, the zipper type pairs a focus Term (which we’ll think of as the left-hand side of the equation) with a path (which we’ll think of as the right-hand side of the equation).\n\ndata Equation = Eq Term Path\n\nPaths give a sequence of direction markers, essentially providing an address to the term in focus, starting from the root, where each marker is accompanied with the label of the parent node and the subtree of the branch not taken, i.e., a path going left is paired with the right subtree (which is not on the path to the focus).\n\ndata Path = Top (Either Integer String)  -- At top: constant or variable\n           | Bin Op                -- OR in a binary operation Op,\n                 Dir               --    in either left (L) or right (R) branch\n                 Term              --    with the untaken branch \n                 Path              --    and the rest of the equation\n           | N Path                -- OR in the unary negation operation\n\ndata Dir = L | R \ndata Op = A | M | D | S | So | Do\n\nThe Op type gives tags for every operation, as well as additional tags So and Do which represent sub and divide but with arguments flipped. This is used to get an isomorphism between the operations that zip “up” and “down” the equation zipper, refocussing on subterms.\n\nA useful helper maps tags to their operations:\n\nopToTerm :: Op -> (Term -> Term -> Term)\nopToTerm A = Add\nopToTerm M = Mul\nopToTerm D = Div\nopToTerm S = Sub\nopToTerm So = (\\x -> \\y -> Sub y x)\nopToTerm Do = (\\x -> \\y -> Div y x)\n\nEquations are pretty printed as follows:\n\ninstance Show Path where\n    show p = show . pathToTerm $ p\ninstance Show Equation where\n    show (Eq t p) = (show t) ++ \" = \" ++ (show p)\n\nwhere pathToTerm converts paths to terms:\n\npathToTerm :: Path -> Term\npathToTerm (Top (Left c)) = Const c\npathToTerm (Top (Right v))= Var v\npathToTerm (Bin op L t p) = (opToTerm op) (pathToTerm p) t\npathToTerm (Bin op R t p) = (opToTerm op) t (pathToTerm p)\npathToTerm (N p)          = Neg (pathToTerm p)\n\nNow onto the zipper operations which providing rebalancing of the equation. Equations are zipped-down by left and right, which for a binary operation focus on either the left or right argument respectively, for unary negation focus on the single argument, and for constants or variables does nothing. When going left or right, the equations are rebalanced with their inverse arithmetic operations (show in the comments here):\n\nleft (Eq (Var s) p)     = Eq (Var s) p\nleft (Eq (Const n) p)   = Eq (Const n) p\nleft (Eq (Add t1 t2) p) = Eq t1 (Bin S L t2 p)   -- t1 + t2 = p  -> t1 = p - t2\nleft (Eq (Mul t1 t2) p) = Eq t1 (Bin D L t2 p)   -- t1 * t2 = p  -> t1 = p / t2\nleft (Eq (Div t1 t2) p) = Eq t1 (Bin M L t2 p)   -- t1 / t2 = p  -> t1 = p * t2\nleft (Eq (Sub t1 t2) p) = Eq t1 (Bin A L t2 p)   -- t1 - t2 = p  -> t1 = p + t2\nleft (Eq (Neg t) p)     = Eq t (N p)             -- -t = p       -> t = -p\n\nright (Eq (Var s) p)     = Eq (Var s) p          \nright (Eq (Const n) p)   = Eq (Const n) p\nright (Eq (Add t1 t2) p) = Eq t2 (Bin So R t1 p)  -- t1 + t2 = p -> t2 = p - t1\nright (Eq (Mul t1 t2) p) = Eq t2 (Bin Do R t1 p)  -- t1 * t2 = p -> t2 = p / t1\nright (Eq (Div t1 t2) p) = Eq t2 (Bin D R t1 p)   -- t1 / t2 = p -> t2 = t1 / p\nright (Eq (Sub t1 t2) p) = Eq t2 (Bin S R t1 p)   -- t1 - t2 = p -> t2 = t1 - p\nright (Eq (Neg t) p)     = Eq t (N p)\n\nIn both left and right, Add and Mul become subtraction and dividing, but in right in order for the the zipping-up operation to be the inverse, subtraction and division are represented using the flipped So and Do markers.\n\nEquations are zipped-up by up, which unrolls one step of the path and reforms the term on the left-hand side from that on the right. This is the inverse of left and right:\n\nup (Eq t1 (Top a))        = Eq t1 (Top a)\nup (Eq t1 (Bin A L t2 p)) = Eq (Sub t1 t2) p -- t1 = t2 + p -> t1 - t2 = p\nup (Eq t1 (Bin M L t2 p)) = Eq (Div t1 t2) p -- t1 = t2 * p -> t1 / t2 = p\nup (Eq t1 (Bin D L t2 p)) = Eq (Mul t1 t2) p -- t1 = p / t2 -> t1 * t2 = p\nup (Eq t1 (Bin S L t2 p)) = Eq (Add t1 t2) p -- t1 = p - t2 -> t1 + t2 = p\n\nup (Eq t1 (Bin So R t2 p)) = Eq (Add t2 t1) p -- t1 = p - t2 -> t2 + t1 = p\nup (Eq t1 (Bin Do R t2 p)) = Eq (Mul t2 t1) p -- t1 = p / t2 -> t2 * t1 = p\nup (Eq t1 (Bin D R t2 p))  = Eq (Div t2 t1) p -- t1 = t2 / p -> t2 / t1 = p\nup (Eq t1 (Bin S R t2 p))  = Eq (Sub t2 t1) p -- t1 = t2 - p -> t2 - t1 = p\n\nup (Eq t1 (N p))           = Eq (Neg t1) p    -- t1 = -p     -> -t1 = p\n\nAnd that’s it! Here is an example of its use from GHCi.\n\nfoo = Eq (Sub (Mul (Add (Var \"x\") (Var \"y\")) (Add (Var \"x\") \n           (Const 1))) (Const 1)) (Top (Left 0))\n\n*Main> foo\n((x + y) * (x + 1)) - 1 = 0\n\n*Main> left $ foo\n(x + y) * (x + 1) = 0 + 1\n\n*Main> right . left $ foo\nx + 1 = (0 + 1) / (x + y)\n\n*Main> left . right . left $ foo\nx = ((0 + 1) / (x + y)) - 1\n\n*Main> up . left . right . left $ foo\n\n*Main> up . up . left . right . left $ foo\n\n*Main> up . up . up . left . right . left $ foo\n\nIt is straightforward to prove that: up . left $ x = x (when left x is not equal to x) and up . right $ x = x(when right x is not equal to x).\n\nNote, I am simply rebalancing the syntax of equations: this technique does not help if you have multiple uses of a variable and you want to solve the question for a particular variable, e.g. y = x + 1/(3x), or quadratics.\n\nHere’s a concluding thought. The navigation operations left, right, and up essentially apply the inverse of the operation in focus to each side of the equation. We could therefore reformulate the navigation operations in terms of any group: given a term L ⊕ R under focus where is the binary operation of a group with inverse operation -1, then navigating left applies ⊕ R-1 to both sides and navigating right applies ⊕ L-1. However, in this blog post there is a slight difference: navigating applies the inverse to both sides and then reduces the term of the left-hand side using the group axioms X ⊕ X-1 = I (where I is the identity element of the group) and X ⊕ I = X such that the term does not grow larger and larger with inverses.\n\nI wonder if there are other applications, which have a group structure (or number of interacting groups), for which the above zipper approach would be useful?\n\nAutomatic SIMD Vectorization for Haskell and ICFP 2013\n\nI had a great time at ICFP 2013 this year where I presented my paper “Automatic SIMD Vectorization for Haskell”, which was joint work with Leaf Petersen and Neal Glew of Intel Labs. The full paper and slides are available online. Our paper details the vectorization process in the Intel Labs Haskell Research Compiler (HRC) which gets decent speedups on numerical code (between 2-7x on 256-bit vector registers). It was nice to be able to talk about HRC and share the results. Paul (Hai) Liu also gave a talk at the Haskell Symposium which has more details about HRC than the vectorization paper (see the paper here with Neal Glew, Leaf Petersen, and Todd Anderson). Hopefully there will be a public release of HRC in future.  \n\nStill more to do\n\nIt’s been exciting to see the performance gains in compiled functional code over the last few years, and its encouraging to see that there is still much more we can do and explore. HRC outperforms GHC on roughly 50% of the benchmarks, showing some interesting trade-offs going on in the two compilers. HRC is particularly good at compiling high-throughput numerical code, thanks to various strictness/unboxing optimisations (and the vectorizer), but there is still more to be done.\n\nDon’t throw away information about your programs\n\nOne thing I emphasized in my talk was the importance of keeping, not throwing away, the information encoded in our programs as we progress through the compiler stack. In the HRC vectorizer project, Haskell’s Data.Vector library was modified to distinguish between mutable array operations and “initializing writes”, a property which then gets encoded directly in HRC’s intermediate representation. This makes vectorization discovery much easier. We aim to preserve as much effect information around as possible in the IR from the original Haskell source.\n\nThis connected nicely with something Ben Lippmeier emphasised in his Haskell Symposium paper this year (“Data Flow Fusion with Series Expressions in Haskell“, joint with Manuel Chakravarty, Gabriele Keller and Amos Robinson). They provide a combinator library for first-order non-recursive dataflow computations which is guaranteed to be optimised using flow fusion (outperforming current stream fusion techniques). The important point Ben made is that, if your program fits the pattern, this optimisation is guaranteed. As well as being good for the compiler, this provides an obvious cost model for the user (no more games trying to coax the compiler into optimising in a particular way).\n\nThis is something that I have explored in the Ypnos array language, where the syntax is restricted to give (fairly strong) language invariants that guarantee parallelism and various optimisations, without undecidable analyses. The idea is to make static as much effect and coeffect (context dependence) information as possible. In Ypnos, this was so successful that I was able to encode the Ypnos’ language invariant of no out-of-bounds array access directly in Haskell’s type system (shown in the DSL’11 paper; this concept was also discussed briefly in my short language design essay).\n\nThis is a big selling point for DSLs in general: restrict a language such that various program properties are statically decidable, facilitating verification and optimisation.\n\nYpnos has actually had some more development in the past year, so if things progress further, there may be some new results to report on. I hope to be posting again soon about more research, including the ongoing work with Tomas Petricek on coeffect systems, and various other things I have been playing with. – D\n\nThe Four Rs of Programming Language Design (revisited)\n\n\n\nSubcategories & “Exofunctors” in Haskell\n\n\n\n\n\nThe Hask category\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSubcategories as type classes\n\n\n      Eq a => a\n\n\n\n\n\nFunctors in Haskell\n\n\n\nclass Functor f where\n\n\n\n\n\nUsing Set.map to define an instance of the Functor class for Set causes a type error:\n\ninstance Functor Set where\n   fmap = Data.Set.map\n\n\n    No instances for (Ord b, Ord a)\n      arising from a use of `Data.Set.map'\n    In the expression: Data.Set.map\n    In an equation for `fmap': fmap = Data.Set.map\n    In the instance declaration for `Functor Set'\n\nThe type error occurs as the signature for fmap has no constraints, or the empty (always true) constraint, whereas Set.map has Ord constraints. A mismatch occurs and a type error is produced.\n\nThe type error is however well justified from a mathematical perspective.\n\nHaskell functors are not functors, but endofunctors\n\n\nThe Set data type is not an endofunctor; it is a functor which maps from the Ord-subcategory of Hask to Hask. Thus Set :: OrdHask. The class constraints on the element types in Set.map declare the subcategory of Set functor to which the morphisms belong.\n\nType class of exofunctors\n\n\n\n{-# LANGUAGE ConstraintKinds #-}\n{-# LANGUAGE TypeFamilies #-}\n\nclass ExoFunctor f where\n   type SubCat f x :: Constraint\n\n\nWe can now define the following instance for Set:\n\ninstance ExoFunctor Set where\n   type SubCat Set x = Ord x\n   fmap = Set.map\n\n\ninstance ExoFunctor [] where\n    type SubCat [] a = ()\n    fmap = map\n\n\nConclusion (implementational restrictions = subcategories)\n\n\n\nConstraint kinds in Haskell, finally bringing us constraint families\n\n\n\nclass Expr sem where\n    constant :: a -> sem a\n\n\ndata E a = E {eval :: a}\n\ninstance Expr E where\n     constant c = E c\n\n\n    No instance for (Num a)\n      arising from a use of `+'\n\n\n\nclass Expr sem where\n    constraint Pre sem a\n\ninstance Expr E where\n    constraint Pre E a = Num a\n    ... -- methods as before\n\n\nWe could add some further instances:\n\ndata P a = P {prettyP :: String}\n\ninstance Expr P where\n    constraint Pre P a = Show a\n    constant c = P (show c)\n\n\n\"1 + 2\"\n\n\n\nShow :: * -> Constraint\n\n\n~ :: * -> * -> Constraint\n\ni.e. it takes two types and returns a constraint.\n\n\ntype ShowNum a = (Num a, Show a)\n\n\nclass Expr sem where\n    type Pre sem a :: Constraint\n\ninstance Expr E where\n    type Pre E a = Num a\n\n\nThe constraint kinds extension can be turned on via the pragma:\n\n{-# LANGUAGE ConstraintKinds #-}\n\n\nsubmission if you can’t wait!\n\n\n\n, [author’s copy with corrections] [On SpringerLink]\n\n\nThe four “R”s of programming language design\n\nBecause I have some serious work to do for an impending deadline I have become particularly good at inventing ways to not work that I can convince myself are “worthwhile”. To this end I have decided to post on my (dead) blog, which I am planning to revive with at least monthly posts.\n\nLast year the Cambridge Computer Lab started an informal lecture course taught by PhD students aimed at final year undergraduates and MPhil students with the rough aim of providing lecturing experience to PhD students, and for disseminating more ideas from research to undergrads/MPhils/each other. In my group, the CPRG (Cambridge Programming Research Group), part of the bigger PLS (Programming, Logic, and Semantics Group), four of us decided to do a mini-series about aspects of programming language design. The slides/notes from our lectures can be found here on the dates of May 10th, 11th, 14th, and 24th.\n\nTo bind the mini-series together we prepared an informal, general summary of the ideas contained within which concludes with the summary:\n\nThe development of programming languages, and abstraction away from\nmachine code, has greatly aided software development. Programming lan-\nguages are a conduit between man and machine, with much of programming\nlanguage research aiming to improve this interaction and to help us better\nexpress our ideas. We can attempt to improve languages for ease of reading,\nease of writing, and ease of reasoning, and improve our evaluation systems\nto use less resources (whether it be processor time, memory, power, etc.)\nwhilst still providing a predictable system. Such facets of programming\nlanguage design are often non-orthogonal, thus a language designer must\ntrade-off certain improvements for others. Often, a motivating application\ndomain or purpose can help distill which features of a language are most\nimportant. This lecture series should give some food for thought in various\nareas of general programming and programming language design.\n\nFrom which I offered the following general slogan:\n\nThe four “R”s that programming language design must improve of programs: reading, ‘riting, reasoning, and running.\n\nA bit of a generalisation perhaps, but hopefully a useful “elevator-pitch” slogan to get more people thinking about programming language design, and with a bit of humour (see The three Rs).\n\nPaper: Haskell Type Constraints Unleashed\n\n\n\n\n[draft pdf submitted to FLOPS 2010]\n\nPaper: Ypnos, Declarative Parallel Structured Grid Programming\n\nMax Bolingbroke, Alan Mycroft, and I have written a paper on a new DSL for programming structured grid computations with the view to parallelisation, called Ypnos, submitted to DAMP ’10]\n\n\n\nAny feedback is welcome.\n\nTalk: @BCTCS’09 “Lucian: Dataflow and Object Orientation”\n\nSlides from my BCTCS talk entitled Lucian: Dataflow and Object Orientation:\n\nBCTCS ’09 was held at Warwick University- the university that I studied for my undergraduate degree at. I enjoyed the conference particularly, as I got to spend time with Steve Matthews and Sara Kalvala (my undergraduate project supervisors from my 3rd and 4th years), old friends from my undergraduate days, new friends from other universities, and also Bill Wadge, co-creator of Lucid, who was invited to speak at BCTCS ’09 all the way from Victoria, Canada.\n\nIf you have ever had a conversation with me about computer science you will know I have a particular proclivity for the Lucid programming language, so getting to chat about all things Lucid for a few days was great fun. Bill supervised Steve back when Bill was at Warwick, in the early days of Lucid. The quip is that Bill is my grandsupervisor.\nThe Lucian language is my own object-oriented hybrid of Lucid. I started Lucian as my 3rd year project and dissertation- quite some time ago now. The ideas developed further after discussions with Bill back in 2007, resulting in Steve and I publishing a paper which came out in 2008. In January 2009, with the BCTCS looming, I thought it would be fitting to talk about Lucian at BCTCS, due to Bill and Steve being present, and BCTCS being held at Warwick, the crucible of Lucid’s youth. So I revisited Lucian and discovered that there was much more to say than was originally conveyed in the paper. I mulled Lucian over last term and have since revised the language and have had some further thoughts about its semantics.\n\nThe Koch Snowflake\n\nThis post has been imported from my old blog.\n\nI mentioned a couple of weeks ago I was going to write a post about a certain fractal. Now I have finally gotten round to writing something it has come at a very appropriate time as Britain has seen an unusual amount of snow recently. Sadly all of that snow has melted now. I am going to briefly introduce the Koch Snowflake (also known as the Koch Island, or Koch Star) which is a fractal with a very simple construction. I will first informally describe a geometrical construction of the fractal and will then show some of its properties, particularly the property that the fractal has an infinite length enclosing a finite area.\n\nThe base case of the construction is an equilateral triangle. For each successive iteration the construction proceeds as follows:\n\n  • Divide each edge of the polygon (say of length a) into three equal segments of length a/3.\n  • Replace the middle segment with an equilateral triangle of side a/3.\n  • Remove the base edge of the new equilateral triangle to form a continuous curve with other line segments.\n\nThus each edge is transformed as such:\n\nThe first 5 iterations look like:\n\nTwo properties of this fractal may seem paradoxical at first but are easily shown. I will show the derivations here for the interested without skipping too many steps.\nFor an infinite number of iterations the perimeter of the fractal (the length of all the edges) tends to infinity whilst the area enclosed remains finite.\n\nInfinite Perimeter\nFirst consider the number of edges for an infinite number of iterations. Initially the number of edges is 3, each iteration transforms a single edge into 4 edges (see above), thus the series of the edge count is: 3, 12, 48, …. The general form is:\n\nStarting from an edge length of a each iteration divides the edge length by 3. The following defines the edge length for iteration n and from this calculates the perimeter for iteration n. The limit as n tends to infinity is found, showing that the\nperimeter is infinite.\n\nThus it is easy to see that the perimeter length is infinite through standard results on limits.\n\nFinite Area\nThe area calculation is a little bit more involved. The result can be seen on Mathworld or Wikipedia but a full derivation isn’t given, so I show my derivation here for the interested.\n\nThe area of the n-th iteration of the Koch snowflake is the area of the base triangle + the area of the new, smaller, triangles added to each edge.\nFrom the above length calculations and construction we know that each iteration of the construction divides the length of the edges by three. First consider the relationship between the area of a triangle of edge length a and a triangle of edge length a/3\n\nUnsurprisingly we see that dividing the edge length by 3 divides the area by 9. At each iteration we add new equilateral triangles to each edge, a ninth of the area of the previous iteration’s triangles.\nWe formulate this as a summation of base case A0 plus the next n-1 iterations where the triangle area at each stage is A0 divided by 32n or 9n (successive divisions of the area by 9). The number of edges is defined by the previous iterations number of edges 3 * 4n-1, thus at the n-th iteration we need to add this number of triangles to the snowflake.\n\nThus the area is finite at 8/5 times the area of the base equilateral triangle.\n\nSo the Koch snowflake construction has been introduced and it has been shown relatively easily that the area of a Koch snowflake tends to a finite limit of 8/5 times the base case area (5) and that the length of perimeter tends to infinity (4). Next time I will probably talk a bit about the fractal dimension of the Koch snowflake and also show an interesting problem that uses the Koch snowflake.\n\nAs a last note, following on from the blog post I made about the Python turtle library, a turtle program of the Koch snowflake for Python can be downloaded here.\n\n\nGet every new post delivered to your Inbox.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8423295021057129}
{"content": "The Case for Pre-Funding Social Security\n\nArticle excerpt\n\nWhy 'personal' or 'private' accounts could save the system.\n\nSocial security has been one of the most successful government programs in our nation's history. Unfortunately, the basic financial structure of Social security, designed during the depths of the Great Depression, is not well equipped to handle the substantial demographic changes that are under way in the United States. As a result, Social security simply cannot afford to pay currently scheduled benefits in the coming decades without imposing an ever-larger tax burden on younger workers. In the face of this demographic and financial reality, \"doing nothing\" is simply not a viable policy option. Social security must change if it is to be made financially secure.\n\nThis article outlines the basic reasons that the Social security system is in long-run financial distress and discusses the policy options namely tax increases or benefit cuts-available for closing the financial shortfalls within the confines of the existing system. \"Pre-funding\" Social security-that is, saving more today in order to reduce the burden on future generations emerges as the most sensible way to proceed, with personal retirement accounts (PRAS) constituting a mechanism for saving that is superior to the current system's reliance on \"trust funds.\" Indeed, much of the current opposition to such accounts is based on misconceptions about PEAS as part of a reformed Social security system.\n\n\nThe U.S. Social security system is not a savings program. Rather, it is an income transfer system that taxes today's workers to pay benefits for today's retirees and other beneficiaries. Economists call such a financial structure a \"pay-as-you-go\" or \"unfunded\" system. This is in sharp contrast to die pre-funded nature of most private-sector pension plans in which the money contributed to a worker's pension is invested in real financial assets (e.g., stocks or bonds) that are then used to pay benefits when the worker begins receiving benefits. In economic terms, the primary disadvantage of a \"pay-as-you-go\" system relative to a pre-funded system is that it reduces national saving, reduces economic growth, and therefore shrinks the size of the economic pie (Feldstein, 1974).\n\nDespite its economic disadvantages, an unfunded, pay-as-you-go system can still work reasonably well when there are a large number of workers paying taxes to support each beneficiary. Back in 1950, for example, there were sixteen workers paying taxes to support each Social security beneficiary. At that time, a payroll tax rate of only 3 percent was sufficient to support the expenditures of the entire Social security program. As the Social security system has expanded and matured, however, the ratio of workers to retirees has fallen substantially, as indicated in Figure i. Today there are only 3.3 workers to support each beneficiary. As a result of population aging, this ratio will fall to just 2 within a generation.1\n\nTo put these numbers into perspective, consider the following example. When there are sixteen workers per retiree, as was the case in 1950, then for every $100 that the government pays to the average Social security beneficiary, each worker must pay a tax of $6.25. When the worker-to-beneficiary ratio falls to 3.3, as it stands today, each worker must pay over $30 in taxes to provide a $100 benefit. As this ratio falls to 2, the tax must rise to $50 per worker. Simple mathematics dictates that as the ratio of workers-to-beneficiaries declines, Social security must either raise taxes or reduce benefits in order to keep the system in annual fiscal balance.\n\nWhile this example is highly stylized, the lesson is very real. Today, employees and employers pay a combined 12.4 percent in Social Security taxes on die first $87,900 in earnings. These taxes, combined with a much smaller amount of revenue obtained from personal income taxation on some Social security benefits, raised approximately $470 billion in 2003. …\n\n", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7203811407089233}
{"content": "OUP user menu\n\n\nSvenja Kobabe, Dirk Wagner, Eva-Maria Pfeiffer\nDOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.femsec.2004.05.003 13-23 First published online: 1 October 2004\n\n\nThe bacterial community composition of the active layer (0–45 cm) of a permafrost-affected tundra soil was analysed by fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH). Arctic tundra soils contain large amounts of organic carbon, accumulated in thick soil layers and are known as a major sink of atmospheric CO2. These soils are totally frozen throughout the year and only a thin active layer is unfrozen and shows biological activity during the short summer. To improve the understanding of how the carbon fluxes in the active layer are controlled, detailed analysis of composition, functionality and interaction of soil microorganisms was done. The FISH analyses of the active layer showed large variations in absolute cell numbers and in the composition of the active microbial community between the different horizons, which is caused by the different environmental conditions (e.g., soil temperature, amount of organic matter, aeration) in this vertically structured ecosystem. Universal protein stain 5-(4,6-dichlorotriazin-2-yl)aminofluorescein (DTAF) showed an exponential decrease of total cell counts from the top to the bottom of the active layer (2.3 × 109–1.2 × 108 cells per gram dry soil). Using FISH, up to 59% of the DTAF-detected cells could be detected in the surface horizon, and up to 84% of these FISH-detected cells could be affiliated to a known phylogenetic group. The amount of FISH-detectable cells decreased with increasing depth and so did the diversity of ascertained phylogenetic groups.\n\n  • Fluorescence in situ hybridisation\n  • Community composition\n  • Active layer\n\n1 Introduction\n\nArctic tundra soils contain large amounts of organic carbon, accumulated in thick layers of soil organic matter [1,2] and are known as a major sink of atmospheric CO2 during the Holocene [3,4]. The reason for the accumulation of organic material is a reduced microbial decomposition of organic matter due to the extreme climatic conditions. Generally, this decomposition is slow and incomplete with high moisture and low temperature [5]. Arctic tundra soils are totally frozen throughout the year and only a thin active layer is non-frozen and shows biological activity during the short summer. In this extreme environment microorganisms have to be capable of withstanding low temperature and repeated freezing–thawing cycles. Due to the underlying ice shield large part of the soils is waterlogged and decomposition of organic matter takes place under anaerobic conditions. The final step in the process of anoxic decomposition of complex organic matter is methanogenesis. Therefore, tundra soils are one of the most important sources in the budget of atmospheric methane (CH4), which is the second significant greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide [6]. Tundra wetlands are estimated to emit between 20 and 40 Tg yr−1 CH4[7]. It accounts for 20% of global methane emission [8].\n\nThe large carbon pool in the northern latitudes together with a predicted climate warming [9] leads to speculations about a possible feedback effect on global climate changes by increased decomposition of organic matter and possible increased methane emission [9,10]. For a better prediction of how such changes in environmental conditions may affect the carbon pool, a detailed knowledge of composition, functionality and interaction of microorganisms involved in the carbon cycle is important.\n\nIn general, the number, diversity, and activity of soil organisms are influenced by soil organic matter properties (e.g., content, availability), soil texture, pH, moisture, temperature, aeration, and other factors [11]. Soil is a heterogeneous environment and soil aggregates, soil pores, and root environments (rhizosphere) provide numerous niches for different soil microbial communities. Because of the complex vertical structure of the soil and the physical and chemical differences between the horizons it is not possible to deduce a subsurface community structure from analysing surface soils. Deeper layers may contain microbial communities, which are specialised for their environment and differ from surface communities [12,13].\n\nCultivation-based methods usually fail to give a complete picture of the composition of complex communities [1416]. Molecular, i.e., cultivation-independent techniques could give complementary insight into complex environments. The FISH method is based on the detection of rRNA. Because the rRNA content is associated with the metabolic state of the organism [1719], FISH results are influenced by the activity of the cells [2025]. Although FISH signals cannot directly be translated to cell activity status it is approved that there is a positive relationship between bacterial metabolic rates and the capacity to detect the active cells [26]. In ecological studies it could be an advantage to describe the composition of the more active, and hence ecologically relevant part of the community instead of the total existent population.\n\nThe aim of this study was to characterise the population of active microorganisms in the whole active layer of a permafrost-affected soil, by using FISH without previous cultivation.\n\n2 Materials and methods\n\n2.1 Study site and soil conditions\n\nThe investigation site is located on Samoylov (N 72°22, E 126°28), a typical island of the central part of the Lena Delta, Siberia. Detailed description of the geomorphologic situation of the island and the whole delta was given previously [2729]. With an area of about 32,000 km2, the Lena Delta is the second largest delta in the world. It is situated in the continuous permafrost zone. The mean annual air temperature in the period 2001–2003, measured by a Russian weather station on Stolb Island, which is approximately 8 km away from Samoylov Island, was −11.9 °C; mean annual precipitation in the same period was about 233 mm [30]. The landscape of the delta is dominated by a microrelief of ice-wedge polygons, which develop due to annual freeze–thaw cycles. The soils are totally frozen for at least eight months every year and only a shallow active layer of about 20–50 cm is unfrozen during the summer months. Predominant landscape formations are low-centred polygons where the flat central parts are surrounded by raised rims. The investigated soils in the polygon centres are characterised by a water level near the soil surface, which, together with the cold climate conditions, leads to an accumulation of organic matter and formation of peat layers. The mainly anaerobic decomposition of soil organic matter generates high CH4 production and emission rates from these sites. Mean flux rates of 53.2 ± 8.7 mg CH4 m−2 d−1 were measured for the polygon centres for the period between the end of May and the beginning of September 1999 [27].\n\nThe soil in the centre of a typical polygon was described and sampled in August 2001. At this time the thaw depth of the active layer was up to 45 cm with the water table 18 cm below the surface. The vegetation in the polygon centres site was composed of a moss/lichen layer (total coverage 95%) and a vascular plant layer (total coverage 30%). The latter was dominated by the sedge, Carex aquatilis[31]. For soil description and sampling, a vertical soil profile was dug. Four different peaty, sandy loam textured soil horizons were distinguished. They were covered by a horizon consisting of weakly decomposed organic material. Subsamples for physio-chemical soil characteristics and biological analyses were taken in a horizontal way subsequently after the horizons were identified. Samples for biological analyses were placed into 250 ml Nalgene boxes, which were locked with a seal tape to prevent oxygen contamination of the samples. To ensure detailed investigation of the soil, horizons with a thickness of more than 10 cm were subdivided and subsamples were taken. Soil properties (Table 1, Fig. 1) were described according to Schoeneberger et al. [32] and laboratory analyses were done according to Schlichting et al. [33]. The soil was classified as Typic Historthel according to US Soil Taxonomy [34].\n\nView this table:\n\nSelected soil physico-chemical characteristics of the investigated Typic Historthela\n\nHorizonbDepth (cm)Soil textureb (%)Textural classbMunsell colorcRootsbReducing soil conditionsd\nA17–2077158Sandy loam10YR 2/1ManyYes\nBg 120–2376186Sandy loam2,5Y 4/4CommonYes\nBg 223–3069265Sandy loam10YR 3/2FewYes\n30–3568275Sandy loam10YR 3/2FewYes\nBg 335–4065296Sandy loam10YR 4/2NoneYes\n40–4560337Sandy loam10YR 4/2NoneYes\n  • aSoil classification was done according to US Soil Taxonomy Soil Survey Staff [34].\n\n  • bClassifications were done according to Schoeneberger et al. [32].\n\n  • cSoil colour determination was done according to the Munsell soil colour charts [72].\n\n  • dReducing soil conditions were detected by using α–α′-Dipyridil test. Soil Survey Staff [34].\n\n\nVertical profile of selected soil properties and EUBmix counts relative to total bacterial cell numbers. (a) Average soil temperature in August, (b) N content, (c) C/N ratio, (d) C content, and (e) fraction of TBC detected with probe EUBmix. C and N contents were measured using Vario EL III elemental analyzer (Elementar Analysensysteme, Germany).\n\nThe active layer is subject to great temperature variations between the different horizons. Automatic soil temperature measurements were started in 1998 using Thermistor Soil Temperature Probes 107 (Campbell Scientific Ltd.). The temperature sensors were installed in different depths between soil surface and permafrost table [35]. The average, minimum and maximum temperatures in August for three years are given (Table 2). During summer the upper soil horizons had not only a higher average temperature, compared to the deeper horizons. They were also exposed to a strong diurnal fluctuation, decreasing with depth. The minimum winter temperature measured was −37 °C at a depth of 7 cm and increased up to −29 °C at a depth of 42 cm. The upper soil above 23 cm depth was frozen for 8 months, while the deeper horizons were frozen for 9–10 months in the year.\n\nView this table:\n\nAugust temperatures in different soil depths of the investigated Typic Historthel\n\nDepth (cm)Temperature (°C) in August (avg. min./max.)\n  • –, No temperature was determined due to broken temperature sensor.\n\n2.2 Sample preparation for cell counts\n\nSubsamples for cell counts by 5-(4,6-dichlorotriazin-2-yl)aminofluorescein (DTAF) staining and FISH were frozen immediately after sampling and were transported to Germany. After transportation they were thawed at 3 °C. Immediately after thawing subsamples of 1gram were either fixed directly in ethanol (96%) or in a freshly prepared, 4% paraformaldehyde/phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) solution (pH 7.2) for 4 h at 5 °C. The paraformaldehyde-fixed samples were then washed with PBS and stored in ethanol–PBS (1:3) at −20 °C. Before application to slides, we diluted the samples with 0.1% sodium pyrophosphate in distilled water to obtain 100–200 cells per microscopic field of view. The dilution was dispersed by mild sonication with an MS73 probe (Sonopuls HD70; Bandelin, Berlin, Germany) at a setting of 20 for 30 s. Dispersed soil samples were spotted on gelatin-coated (0.1% gelatine, 0.01% KCr(SO4)2) Teflon-laminated slides with ten wells. Twenty μl of fixed and dispersed soil sample were dropped onto each well, allowed to air dry, and dehydrated by serial immersion of the slides in 50%, 80%, and 96% ethanol. The FISH method was used directly in soil smears because extraction of bacterial cells from soil is difficult to perform due to the exclusion of bacteria associated with soil particles [25].\n\n2.3 Non-selective staining of all cells (DTAF staining)\n\nBefore the slides were prepared for FISH, they were stained with the universal protein stain DTAF. Freshly prepared stain solution consisted of 2 mg of DTAF dissolved in 10 ml of phosphate buffer (0.05M Na2HPO4 with 0.85% NaCl, pH 9 [36]). The staining procedure was done as described by Bloem et al. [37]. A drop of stain solution was given on each well with dried soil film and incubated for 30 min at room temperature. After staining the slides were washed three times for 20 min each with phosphate buffer (pH 9). Finally they were passed through four water bathes each for a few seconds and air-dried.\n\n2.4 Fluorescence in situ hybridisations and probe description\n\nAll oligonucleotide probes used in this study were purchased from Interactiva (Ulm, Germany). They were labelled with the cyanine dyes Cy3 or Cy5. Probes for the domains Bacteria and Archaea and specific probes for different phylogenetic groups of Bacteria were used. All probe sequences, formamide concentrations in hybridisation buffer, NaCl concentrations in washing buffer, and references are summarised in Table 3. For each hybridisation the bacterial probe EUBmix was used together with one specific probe marked with a different dye. Therefore, the target cells of the group specific probes were marked with three different dyes.\n\nView this table:\n\nrRNA-targeted oligonucleotide probes used for hybridisation\n\nProbeTarget groupSequence (5′–3′) of probeTarget siteaFAb (%)NaClc (mM)Reference\nEUB338*Domain BacteriaGCTGCCTCCCGTAGGAGT16S (338)0–3580–900[73]\nEUB338 II*Domain BacteriaGCAGCCACCCGTAGGTGT16S (338)0–3580–900[74]\nEUB338 III*Domain BacteriaGCTGCCACCCGTAGGTGT16S (338)0–3580–900[74]\nNON338Control probe complementary to EUB338ACTCCTACGGGAGGCAGC16S0–3580–900[75]\nARC915Domain ArchaeaGTGCTCCCCCGCCAATTCCT16S (915)20225[39]\nALF968α-subclass of ProteobacteriaGGTAAGGTTCTGCGCGTT16S (968)3580[76]\nBET42aβ-subclass of ProteobacteriaGCCTTCCCACTTCGTTT23S (1027)3580[77]\nGAM42aγ-subclass of ProteobacteriaGCCTTCCCACATCGTTT23S (1027)3580[77]\nCF319A**Cytophaga–Flavobacterium cluster of CFB-phylumTGGTCCGTGTCTCAGTAC16S (319)3580[77]\nCF319B**Same as CF319ATGGTCCGTATCTCAGTAC16S (319)3580[77]\nHGC69aGram-positive bacteria with high GC contentTATAGTTACCACCGCCGT23S (1901)25159[78]\nLGC354A***Gram-positive bacteria with low GC contentTGGAAGATTCCCTACTGC16S (354)3580[79]\nLGC354B***Same as LGC354ATGGAAGATTCCCTACTGC16S (354)3580[79]\nLGC354C***Same as LGC354ATGGAAGATTCCCTACTGC16S (354)3580[79]\n  • ****, Probes marked with the same amount of * are applied in equimolar mixtures.\n\n  • aEscherichia coli numbering.\n\n  • bPercentage (vol/vol) of formamide in the hybridisation buffer.\n\n  • cPercentage (vol/vol) of NaCl in the washing buffer.\n\nIn situ hybridisations with probes HGC69a and LGCmix were done on ethanol-fixed samples, while paraformaldehyde-fixed soil samples were used for probing gram-negative bacteria. Probe NON338 was used as a negative control for the ethanol-fixed as well as the paraformaldehyde-fixed samples. In situ hybridisations were performed similarly as described elsewhere [38,39]. A 10 μl aliquot of hybridisation buffer (0.9 M NaCl, 20 mM Tris–HCl; pH 8.0), 0.02% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), formamide in concentrations as given in Table 3, and 30 ng/μl of probe was placed on each well. The slides were transferred to an equilibrated 50 ml polypropylene top tube [24] and incubated at 46 °C for 90 min. Slides were then washed at 48 °C for 10 min in washing buffer (20 mM Tris–HCl, pH 8.0), 5 mM EDTA, 0,01% SDS w/v, NaCl concentration as given in Table 3. Afterwards they were washed in ice-cold double-distilled water for a few seconds and quickly dried in an air stream. Finally slides were mounted in Citifluor AF1 antifadent (Plano; Wetzlar, Germany) and covered with a coverslip.\n\n2.5 Microscopy and quantification\n\nA Zeiss LSM 510 scanning confocal microscope equipped with an Ar ion laser (488 nm), and two HeNe lasers (543 and 633 nm) was used to record optical sections. Image handling was done with the LSM510 software (version 2.3). Small fluorescent pieces of the soil matrix hindered an automatic detection with our equipment, as was described, e.g., by Daims et al. [40], therefore the counting was done manually. For each hybridisation approach at least 1000 DTAF-stained cells were counted on at least 10 randomly chosen fields. For each horizon the rate of bacteria detectable by FISH (cells containing a sufficient number of ribosomes [16]) was calculated by counting EUBmix-positive signals relative to DTAF-counts on PFA-fixed samples. These calculations were corrected for samples with high proportions of gram-positive bacteria, according to Friedrich et al. [41]. This was done by adding the amount of bacteria detected by probes HGC69a and LGCmix in the ethanol-fixed samples to the EUBmix counts.\n\nGroup-specific cell counts were performed with DTAF-stained soil samples simultaneously hybridised with Cy5-labelled EUBmix and the respective group-specific Cy3-labelled probe. This procedure enabled a threefold staining of the target-cells. This was important because background signals of non-bacterial soil particles often hinder clearly convincing results in soil samples, when using a single fluorescent probe [42]. Quantification of specific cells was done relative to the number of EUBmix-hybridised cells. Counting results were always corrected by subtracting signals obtained with the probe NON338.\n\nFor calculating the number of cells per gram of soil (BC), the mean count of bacteria per counting area (B), the microscope factor (area of the sample spot/area of counting field), (M) the dilution factor (D) and the weight of fixed sample used for hybridisation (W) were determined and arranged in the equation BC=B×M×D×W−1.\n\n3 Results and discussion\n\nTotal bacterial cell numbers (TBC) in the soil, determined by DTAF staining, ranged from 1.2 to 23.0 × 108 cells g−1. These numbers were comparable to TBCs found in other arctic soils [43], and peat [44] and soils of other regions [45]. As shown in Table 4 and Fig. 1, TBC were highest (23.0 × 108 cells g−1) in the uppermost 5 cm layer of the soil and decreased with depth. In the deepest investigated horizon (40–45 cm) 1.2 × 108 cells g−1 were detected. It corresponds to 10% of the TBC detected in the surface horizon. TBC decreased exponentially with increasing depth (r2= 0.9711), with the exception in the horizon between 17 and 20 cm soil depth, where cell counts in the same order as in the layer above were retrieved (Table 4). Total cell counts for the deepest sample of the active layer were in the same range as other studies found below the permafrost table in continuously frozen sediments in Russia using acridine orange [46], DTAF staining [47], or direct visual microscopic counting [48].\n\nView this table:\n\nTotal bacterial numbers in different horizons of the soil analysed after DTAF staining and relative percentage of hybridised cells with specific probes\n\nSample depth (cm)Total cell counts (cells/g [108]) (mean ± SD)% of DTAF cells (mean ± SD) detected with specific probesa% Affiliated Eubacteriab\nEUBmixALF968BET42aCF mixGAM42aHGC69aLGCmixARC915\n0–523.0 ± 7.859 ± 121.3 ± 1.211.7 ± 3.28.4 ± 5.63.3 ± 0.74.3 ± 2.35.7 ± 2.00.5 ± 0.734.7\n5–1013.8 ± 3.352 ± 70.5 ± 0.96.3 ± 1.23.4 ± 3.29.8 ± 2.17.5 ± 2.31.0 ± 1.022.4 ± 30.029.0\n10–179.2 ± 2.952 ± 105.5 ± 2.211.9 ± 2.45.1 ± 5.13.2 ± 1.210.0 ± 4.47.7 ± 7.19.9 ± 23.344.0\n17–2010.4 ± 3.247 ± 161.1 ± 1.39.5 ± 0.80.4 ± 1.02.9 ± 0.812.6 ± 3.23.1 ± 2.65.2 ± 11.131.9\n20–235.5 ± 2.134 ± 62.1 ± 1.54.7 ± 1.00.0 ± 0.05.6 ± 2.510.8 ± 5.83.2 ± 2.27.2 ± 16.628.5\n23–303.7 ± 1.528 ± 62.8 ± 3.53.4 ± 1.01.1 ± 1.10.0 ± 0.04.7 ± 3.30.4 ± 0.82.6 ± 5.812.2\n30–352.6 ± 0.727 ± 100.4 ± 0.95.2 ± 0.40.0 ± 0.00.1 ± 0.90.1 ± 0.10.4 ± 0.80.9 ± 2.417.2\n35–402.0 ± 0.728 ± 50.2 ± 0.65.5 ± 0.80.0 ± 0.00.2 ± 0.52.2 ± 1.21.2 ± 1.88.1 ± 19.315.2\n40–451.2 ± 0.533 ± 83.8 ± 1.82.9 ± 2.00.0 ± 0.00.0 ± 0.04.9 ± 2.40.1 ± 0.41.0 ± 1.812.2\n  • aPercent detection compared to DTAF. Numbers have been corrected by subtracting NON338 counts. Probe names are abbreviations of those shown in Table 1.\n\n  • bResults obtained from the addition of counts with all above named specific probes without probe ARC 915.\n\nNot only the total cell numbers, but also the fraction of cells detectable with probe EUBmix, which identified members of the domain Bacteria, decreased by depth from 59% to around 30% (Table 4). This decrease in the fraction of detectable bacteria was due to a strong exponential decrease (r2= 0.963) of absolute EUBmix counts from 13.6 to 0.4 × 108 cells g−1 (Fig. 2). There were only a few studies to compare our data. The soil samples in which Zarda et al. [49] and Christensen et al. [25] found 41% or only 5% of the TBC with probe EUB338, were from the upper 10 cm of soils located in the temperate zone. A more comparable environment could be the Siberian peat samples investigated by Dedysh et al. [44], in which up to 65% of TBC were found with EUB 338. These results indicate that the extreme low temperatures in the investigated tundra soil did not lead to lower amounts of active bacteria than that from other soils. The high amounts of active bacteria found in our investigation of tundra soil as well as by Dedysh in the peat samples could be attributed to the very high content of organic matter, especially in the upper horizons. It is accepted and shown in other studies that carbon availability is the most important limiting factor for microbial growth in soil [5053]. Its possible influence on the activity of cells and hence on their ribosome content enhanced the detectability by FISH. Therefore the decreased EUB detection found in the deeper soil horizons could be attributed to the lower C content in these horizons. The EUB detection rates throughout the soil profile showed a very strong correlation to Corg content (R2= 0.951, p= < 0.0001, n= 9) (Fig. 1(d) and (e)). Considering the low temperatures, at which mesophilic organisms show a drastic decrease of metabolic activity, the EUBmix amounting of the TBC number in the deeper horizons indicated the existence of psychrophilic or at least psychrotrophic organisms.\n\n\nVertical profile of absolute numbers of bacteria detected with different probes in the investigated Typic Historthel. All data correspond to 1 g soil (dry weight). Probe names and target groups are explained in Table 3. Note the different x-axis range of the first diagram. Classification of the soil profile in different horizons is given on the left of the DTAF/EUBmix profile.\n\nIn contrast to the distribution observed for the domain Bacteria, none of the individual major phylogenetic groups showed a clear exponential decrease of cell numbers with depth. Notably, the highest abundance of the gram-positive Bacteria with a high G + C content, the α-Proteobacteria, and the γ-Proteobacteria was found in horizons below the top 5 cm. However, all groups showed much higher abundances in the upper part of the profile and a significant reduction in cell numbers in depths below 23 cm. Apparent differences among the individual bacterial groups were the amount of cell numbers and their distribution in soil profile (Fig. 2). This can be explained by different habitat requirements for the bacterial groups as well as positive and negative influences among bacterial species.\n\nFor example, the Cytophaga–Flavobacterium cluster (CF group) of CFB phylum (Cytophaga–Flavobacterium–Bacteroides phylum) was found in the amount between 2.0 × 108 and 0.5 × 108 cells g−1 in the upper 17 cm of soil. Most of the known members of this group are organotrophic, aerobic bacteria that are specialised in the degradation of complex macromolecules like proteins, pectin or cellulose [54,55]. The influence of water level and organic matter on the abundance of the Cytophaga–Flavobacterium group was obvious. In the aerobic upper 17cm layer of the soil, the top 5 cm layer containing the highest amount of organic matter had the highest amount of cells of Cytophaga–Flavobacterium group whereas in the anaerobic zone, below the water table at 18 cm, nearly no cells were detected. This major difference in cell abundance between the aerobic and anaerobic horizons was not found for the other phylogenetic groups. For the high G + C group, cell counts were nearly equal (approximately 1 × 108 cells g−1) in the horizons between 0 and 20 cm whereas the gram-positive Bacteria with low G + C content showed a more varying distribution in the upper 20 cm layer with cell numbers between 1.3 and 0.3 × 108 g−1.\n\nThe abundances of the phylogenetic groups as illustrated in Fig. 2 led to the different compositions of active Bacteria in the horizons as shown in Fig. 3. With our set of probes for major phyla within the domain Bacteria we could affiliate between 12.2% and 44.0% of the total DTAF counts (Table 4). In the upper 23 cm layer this ratio was between 28.5% and 44%, which means that at least in the upper horizons the majority (55–84%) of the FISH-detectable Bacteria could be affiliated to a known phylogenetic group. In the upper part of the soil, a more diverse composition of active Bacteria than in the lower horizons was found. Two dominant groups and at least two other groups with relevant cell numbers were found in each horizon. For example, in the upper 5 cm the β-Proteobacteria group was dominant (20% of all EUB-counts could be assigned to this phylogenetic group), followed by the Cytophaga–Flavobacterium group (14%). Three other groups were found in ratios between 6% and 10%. The β-Proteobacteria and high G + C groups were the dominant throughout the soil profile. A direct comparison of the data with other studies was not possible due to the above-mentioned restriction of other FISH studies to the surface layer. Significant decrease in the diversity of the soil microbial communities with depth were also detected in other studies by using phospholipids fatty acid (PFLA) analysis or terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (TRFLP) analysis [13,53,56]. The decrease of the amount of EUB-detected cells detectable by specific probes in depths below 23 cm suggested that a larger portion of species did not fit into the phylogenetic groups detected with our probes. However, the reason is most likely a lower activity of cells in deeper horizons and hence a lower rRNA content, which is not high enough for a detectable signal of the phylogenetic group probes. This assumption is supported by the observation that the signal intensity of the EUBmix probe decreased in deeper soil horizons.\n\n\nVertical profile of probe-specific counts relative to EUB-counts (percentages) in the Typic Historthel. Probe names are abbreviations of those shown in Table 3.\n\nThe greater diversity and activity of cells in the upper horizons can be explained by higher temperatures and better substrate supply. In the upper layers the high root density may contribute, in addition to the high C content, to higher activity. While the upper 23 cm showed a high root density, only few roots were found between 23 and 35 cm, and none below 35 cm. The rhizosphere is known as a highly active soil compartment. Microbial activity and growth are stimulated through the release of compounds such as amino acids and sugars in plant root exudates [57]. Therefore microbial communities associated with the rhizosphere are often more active in relation to the microorganisms in bulk soil [58]. In addition to better substrate provision in the rhizosphere, another effect, which could influence bacterial composition in the rhizosphere, is the transport of oxygen from the atmosphere to the roots through the aerenchyma. This transport is described for many wetland plants as adaptation to anaerobic soil conditions [5961]. At the investigated soil site the large aerenchyma of Carex aquatilis serve as pathways for gas transport [31]. The presence of oxygen in the rhizosphere could enable the existence of aerobic species in an environment, which is anaerobic on the macroscopic scale. Altogether, the decrease of temperature, aeration, and substrate supply with depth leads to reduced activity of cells and eliminates those unable to withstand these harsher conditions.\n\nQuantification of the domain Archaea was more difficult and showed higher standard deviations than that of the domain Bacteria. This was due to a strong formation of aggregates, as shown in Fig. 3. The basic requirement for the counting method is a homogeneous distribution of cells on each well. Cell counts are illustrated in Fig. 2, but one should keep in mind the statistical problems related with these data. Most Archaea were found in the Oi-horizon between 5 and 10 cm. The number of approximately 3.0 × 108 cells g−1 means that 22% of all DTAF cell counts could be assigned to the domain Archaea (Table 3). Also, the cell numbers from 10 to 23 cm were higher than in the upper 5 cm.\n\nIn the following, the cell counts retrieved by Arc915 were discussed as cell counts of methanogens. For justification, the subsamples of the upper 17 cm, where high amounts of cells were detected by probe Arc915, were additionally hybridised with probe MER 1, which is specific for 16SrRNA of methanogens [62]. Nearly the same number of cells hybridised with Arc915 as with MER1. Additionally, methane activity measurements (unpublished data) show a high methane production in the depth of 5–17 cm, where high numbers of Arc915 cells were found.\n\nSoil depth, at which most methanogens were found, was a zone with changing oxygen conditions, which was above the water level during sampling time and not in the anaerobic zone of the profile. Oxygen content in this horizon is not optimal for methane production since methanogens are regarded as strictly anaerobic organisms [63] and can only survive in anaerobic microhabitats of this horizon. Other soil investigations also found methanogens in oxic soil horizons [6466]. Wagner and Pfeiffer [64] demonstrated that aerobic and facultative anaerobic microflora in soil enable methane activity in the presence of oxygen in microscale anoxia. The reason why the methanogens seem to favour the upper horizons despite the suboptimal oxygen rates could be related to the better substrate provision in these horizons. The upper horizons of the Typic Historthel provide a high content of organic carbon and high cell numbers of Eubacteria, which convert high-weight macromolecules to the substrates that can be used by the methanogens. Other studies also found a strong influence of the amount [67] and the quality [68] of fresh organic carbon in soil on the amount and activity of methanogens. Despite its high amount of organic matter, nearly no Archaea were found in the uppermost 5 cm. This upper layer is less compact and therefore better vented than the layers below and did not provide enough anaerobic microhabitats.\n\nIt should be noted that soils are spatiotemporal heterogeneous environments. Therefore the results of this study reflect the situation at the sampling point in the low-centred polygon at the time of sampling. In order to draw broader conclusions about the ecological situation in low-centred polygons further samplings at different times are necessary. Due to the time-consuming analysis only one profile was examined but attention was paid to that the characteristics of this polygon were typical for the surrounding landscape. This study can thus provide only an early insight into community structure in polygonal tundra soils.\n\n4 Conclusions\n\nThis study reveals the first analysis of the composition of an active community from tundra soil. By use of FISH we have shown that differences in soil parameters, like C content, water content, and root existence, caused differences in the composition of bacterial communities among the horizons of the Typic Historthel. For some phylogenetic groups such as the Cytophaga–Flavobacterium group, the most influential parameters were identified. Despite all differences in the requirements of the specific groups, which influence their abundances in soil, the total diversity and quantity of active cells was strongly related to the content of organic matter, an effect that was noted in soils of polygonal tundra also by other researchers [69,70]. Nevertheless, despite the harsh environmental conditions in the deeper horizons directly above the permafrost, there is evidence for high amount of cells (4 × 107 cells g−1) with at least minimal activity. Even in the deeper parts of the active layer at least a minimal turnover of organic matter, by probably psychrophilic organisms, can therefore be expected.\n\nUsing the described protocol for FISH, this technique was successfully used to describe the composition of active bacterial community of arctic soil. By applying three different dyes, every positive target cell was stained at least with two different dyes, which enabled a clear discrimination between bacterial cells and non-bacterial soil particles (Fig. 4). The relatively high standard deviation of cell counts obtained for some groups is attributed to the heterogeneity of soil. However, the deviations were in the same order as in other studies of sediment [71] and soil [49]. To better resolve the effect of different community compositions on the carbon conversion, future investigations will combine community analyses with investigations of substrate conversion in different soil horizons.\n\n\nConfocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM) images showing DTAF staining and in situ hybridisation of bacteria in a soil sample from the top 5 cm. Both pictures show identical microscopic fields, displayed in different artificial colours. (a) Hybridisation with probe EUBmix-Cy5 (red), additional all cells were stained with DTAF (blue). Due to double staining the target Bacteria cells appear purple. (b) Additional hybridisation with probe CFmix-Cy3 (green). Target Cytophaga–Flavobacterium cells appear yellow, due to threefold staining. Some of them were marked with yellow circles. The scale bars represent 10 μm.\n\n\nWe thank the Russian–German field parties during the expedition 2001 for the enjoyable cooperation in the field. We thank Ute Bastian, Christine Flemming (Alfred Wegener Institute, Research Unit Potsdam), and Susanne Kopelke (Institute of Soil Science, University of Hamburg) for providing laboratory assistance. We also thank Dr. Otto Baumann (Department of Zoophysiology, University of Potsdam) for extensive introduction into CLSM handling and providing microscope time. Special thanks to Lars Kutzbach for many fruitful discussions and to Christian Wille for critical reading of the manuscript.\n\nThis study is part of the German–Russian project The Laptev Sea System (03G0534G), which was supported by the German Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) and the Russian Ministry of Research and Technology.\n\n\n  1. [1].\n  2. [2].\n  3. [3].\n  4. [4].\n  5. [5].\n  6. [6].\n  7. [7].\n  8. [8].\n  9. [9].\n  10. [10].\n  11. [11].\n  12. [12].\n  13. [13].\n  14. [14].\n  15. [15].\n  16. [16].\n  17. [17].\n  18. [18].\n  19. [19].\n  20. [20].\n  21. [21].\n  22. [22].\n  23. [23].\n  24. [24].\n  25. [25].\n  26. [26].\n  27. [27].\n  28. [28].\n  29. [29].\n  30. [30].\n  31. [31].\n  32. [32].\n  33. [33].\n  34. [34].\n  35. [35].\n  36. [36].\n  37. [37].\n  38. [38].\n  39. [39].\n  40. [40].\n  41. [41].\n  42. [42].\n  43. [43].\n  44. [44].\n  45. [45].\n  46. [46].\n  47. [47].\n  48. [48].\n  49. [49].\n  50. [50].\n  51. [51].\n  52. [52].\n  53. [53].\n  54. [54].\n  55. [55].\n  56. [56].\n  57. [57].\n  58. [58].\n  59. [59].\n  60. [60].\n  61. [61].\n  62. [62].\n  63. [63].\n  64. [64].\n  65. [65].\n  66. [66].\n  67. [67].\n  68. [68].\n  69. [69].\n  70. [70].\n  71. [71].\n  72. [72].\n  73. [73].\n  74. [74].\n  75. [75].\n  76. [76].\n  77. [77].\n  78. [78].\n  79. [79].\nView Abstract", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7763886451721191}
{"content": "9to5 Mac has received what appears to be a leaked confidential AppleCare document Apple acknowledges that they are investigating reports of Wi-Fi issues with the new iPad. And that repair centers and Apple stores should replace the 3rd generation units if they exhibit specific symptoms.\n\n\nSymptoms can include, but are not limited to:\n\n- Intermittent connectivity\n- Slow Wi-Fi speeds\n- Wi-Fi network not seen\n", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 1.0000100135803223}
{"content": "248 Wilmslow Rd, M14 6LD\n\nSouth, Manchester\n\nCuisine: Traditional\n\nCheck out our other restaurants in Manchester\n\nMissoula Piccadilly\n\nPiccadilly, Manchester\n\n£9.99 two person offer - main course each ››\n\nZiya Asian Grill\n\nSouth, Manchester\n\nMain menu availability ››\n\n\nGay Village, Manchester\n\nA la carte available + drink ››\n\nYard & Coop\n\nCity Centre, Manchester\n\nA la carte available ››\n\nPacific Restaurant\n\nChinatown, Manchester\n\n\nAbout Kosmos\n\nGreek food in Fallowfield\n\nKosmos is a family restaurant run by married couple Stewart and Loulla Astin. Born in a small traditional village in Cyprus, Loulla learned about generations old Greek and Cypriot cuisine from her grandmother. She moved to Manchester aged fifteen where her father Solomon Solominides was the first person to bring kebabs to the city. Loulla opened Kosmos in 1981 and it has been popular ever since, winning awards and recognition for its Greek and Cypriot food. Loulla has appeared on television many times and meet the Queen at a reception for services to the hospitality industry in the UK.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7910563945770264}
{"content": "Web Results\n\n\n\nAn electrolyte is a substance that produces an electrically conducting solution when dissolved ... Some gases, such as hydrogen chloride, under conditions of high temperature or low pressure can als...\n\nWhat's the main purpose of electrolytes? | Go Ask Alice!\n\n\nMay 8, 2014 ... What is the main purpose for electrolytes? Why does the human body need them ? Dear Reader,. Electrolytes are vital to one's health and ...\n\nWhat Are Electrolytes? And Why Are They So Important? - BuiltLean\n\n\nNov 28, 2012 ... In terms of how our bodies function, electrolytes are anything but “just”… Your body is a complex and carefully-balanced superhighway of cells, ...\n\nWhat Are Electrolytes? What Causes Electrolyte Imbalance ...\n\n\nMay 24, 2016 ... Electrolytes regulate our nerve and muscle function, our body's hydration, blood pH, blood pressure, and the rebuilding of damaged tissue.\n\nThe Benefits of Electrolytes » Generation Rescue | Jenny McCarthy's ...\n\n\nJun 25, 2013 ... In addition, electrolytes play an important part of the body processes that are essential for living, such as muscle function, heart function, and ...\n\nElectrolytes: Facts About Imbalance Symptoms and Treatment\n\n\nAug 4, 2015 ... Read about electrolytes and how they become imbalanced in our ... are important for the cells in the body to function and allow the body to work ...\n\nThe Role Of Electrolytes In The Body From SymptomFind.com\n\n\nSep 27, 2011 ... Electrolyte Function. One of the major roles of electrolytes is to ensure that fluid levels inside and outside the cell are balanced. The cell can ...\n\nElectrolytes: Get Facts On How Electrolytes Affect Disease\n\n\nNov 11, 2015 ... Read about blood electrolytes (sodium, potassium, chloride, and ... the electrolytes in our bodies is essential for normal function of our cells and ...\n\nWhat Are Body Electrolytes and How do They Work - Disabled World\n\n\nAug 22, 2013 ... Information on human body electrolytes including what they are and what ... the cells in a person's body to function and allow their body to work.\n\nWhat are electrolytes? | HowStuffWorks\n\n\nElectrolytes are ions that are electrically charged and can be found in many sports drinks. Learn more about electrolytes and their uses.\n\nMore Info\n\nElectrolytes 101: Why You Need Electrolytes - BodyBio.com\n\n\nElectrolytes turn on all thought and motion, almost like a wall switch. They trigger ... Every sequence of that function is both timed and controlled by electrolytes.\n\nElectrolyte Replenishment - Why Its Important & How to Do It Right ...\n\n\nElectrolytes are chemicals that form ions in body fluids. They help ... The truth is that the human body needs only a minute amount of sodium to function normally.\n\nWhy do we need electrolytes? - Eat Balanced\n\n\nSodium, chloride, potassium, calcium and magnesium are minerals which dissolve in water and form electrically charged electrolytes particles called “ions”.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9997285604476929}
{"content": "Cherry not too far from KVD\n\nHank Cherry is fishing just a few hundred yards from KVD. We never saw him yesterday, but we were told he was nearby. None of this is meant to imply that either is infringing on the other, just that the best in the world are all likely to find the same sweet spots.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.967969536781311}
{"content": "Massachusetts Senate advances minimum wage legislation - again\n\nMinimum wage 61113.jpg\nVictoria Entzminger, 54, and Ruthella Logan, 51, both personal care attendants from Brockton and members of the Service Employees International Union, hold signs to show where they stand on increasing the minimum wage during a hearing at the Statehouse. (The Republican file photo)\n\nBOSTON - The Massachusetts Senate passed – again – a bill raising the state’s minimum wage and reforming unemployment insurance.\n\nThe move was a largely procedural step which allows the bill to proceed to a committee of conference.\n\nThe Senate had passed in a bill in November raising the state’s $8 an hour minimum wage to $11 an hour. It passed a bill in February reforming the state’s unemployment insurance system.\n\nThe House combined the two policies into a single bill, a strategic move since businesses typically oppose the minimum wage hike but support the unemployment insurance reforms, which would lower their costs.\n\nThere were, however, significant differences between the House and Senate bills.\n\nFor example, the House would raise the hourly wage to $10.50, while the Senate would raise it to $11. Only the Senate bill includes an economic indexing provision so that after 2016 the minimum wage would rise each year at the same rate as the consumer price index for the Northeast. Political maneuvering had blocked the bills from legislative action. \n\nThe Senate on Thursday voted on the House bill, but replaced the portions dealing with both minimum wage and unemployment insurance with the Senate's language.\n\nState Sen. Dan Wolf, a Harwich Democrat and chairman of the Joint Committee on Labor and Workforce Development, urged senators not to take too long to debate the bill.\n\n\"The task before us is not to rehash the substance of those bills we passed in November and again in February, which were balanced and well delivered and well thought out,\" Wolf said. \"The task is to get a vehicle we can get to the governor's desk.\"\n\nWolf said legislators were there to discuss \"process, process, process.\"\n\nSenate Minority Leader Bruce Tarr, a Gloucester Republican, said debate was important to send \"the right bill\" to committee. \"Not to merely say these questions have been asked and answered but to say these continue to be asked and need to be answered appropriately,\" Tarr said.\n\nThere have been passionate debates in the legislature regarding both the impact of the minimum wage hike on businesses and the best way to reform unemployment insurance. However, after several hours of discussion regarding a variety of amendments, none of which passed, the Senate passed the bill as proposed.\n\nThe Senate’s vote sends the bill on to a committee of legislators from both bodies who will try to iron out their differences.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9594858884811401}
{"content": "Tactical Mapping of Human Rights Abuse\n\n\n\nParticipatory Impact Pathway Analysis (PIPA)\n\nNetwork Mapping can help you to learn a lot about how and why your project works the way it does. But how do you integrate the 4 steps of Net-Map (Actors, Links, Influence, Goals) into a bigger framework of monitoring and evaluation? Boru Douthwaite and his colleagues call their integrated approach Participatory Impact Pathway Analysis and while they have developed it for the impact evaluation of research projects, it’s well worth looking at it’s feasibility and usefulness for the non-research sector.\n\nWhat are the similarities between gossip and the flu?\n\nYou can “give” it to many people and still keep it. This is one difference (one of the many) between gossip and money, once you give an amount of money to somebody, you don’t have it any more and you can’t give the same money to someone else.\n\nHow is this related to network mapping? I have explained the basic concepts of centrality below. These will give you a good measure for the day-to-day, implementation-oriented use of Net-Map.\n\nHowever, if you are interested in getting more food for thought, and want to understand why centrality in a flu infection network should be measured differently from centrality in a money network, I’d like to recommend one of my favorite conceptual papers on social network analysis, Steve Borgatti’s “Centrality and Network Flows.”\n\nAsk yourself first\n\n\n\n\n\nThis serves two different goals:\n\n\n\nHow does Net-Map grow (up)?\n\nThis method grows through use and discussion with users. Today I discussed possible future uses of Net-Map with fellow researchers at IFPRI and my colleague Ekin Birol asked: “So you write the research question – Who can influence XY? – on top of your Net-Map for everyone to see?”\n\n“No, you don’t”, I said, hesitated, thought about it: “Actually, that’s a good idea, it will help everyone to stay focussed, if you add the research question as a heading to your Net-Map sheet. ”\n\nThis might sound like a detail. And it is. But the successful research and facilitation process is made up of a lot of details and all these details together make for a smooth process.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9319049119949341}
{"content": "Thursday, May 17, 2012\n\nThe rational, non-expert student reader\n\nLast week, I had a terrific teaching-related experience: At Becko's invitation, I gave a pair of teaching-related workshops at Lewis and Clark College. The first, for the faculty teaching in the college's first-year Exploration and Discovery program, addressed motivating students to read, improving their reading skills, and using assigned readings as platforms for in-class discussion and inquiry. The second discussed ways of gathering information about student learning so that we don't have to rely solely on numerical student evaluations for insight into how effective our teaching is.\n\nA number of important themes were explored in the workshops, but I wanted to share some research and insights on two matters that seemed to strike a chord with the participants. They concern an old teaching bugaboo: student reading.\nFirst, I tried to underscore to the workshop participants that while some students are lazy and unmotivated, students who do not read assigned material are often responding rationally to their own experience as academic readers and to how they are sometimes taught at the college and university level. This excellent summary from the University of New Mexico cites a number of reasons why students don't read:\n\n  • They lack the background knowledge needed to understand assigned reading.\n  • Their instructors give them little or no preparation for the assigned reading. (We've all had that teacher whose 'preparation' for the coming reading amounts to announcing, as students file out of the class, \"We'll be discussing chapter 5 on Monday!\")\n  • Students don't have strategies for dealing with difficult texts in unfamiliar genres or styles.\n  • The prospect of reading reminds them of past experiences where academic reading has been frustrating.\n  • They do not see any causal link between reading, or reading carefully, and subsequent performance on academic tasks.\n  • Last, and not only least but perhaps the biggest factor of all: We'll do their work for them, summarizing or analyzing assigned reading in class. \n\nGiven these facts, students not reading is a rational response to their situation (which doesn't excuse not reading of course). Reading is perceived as a bad investment of their intellectual time and energy. From an instructional perspective, we thus need to think about how to make reading a rational activity from the students' point of view. \n\nThis brings me to the second theme from this workshop: Faculty tend not to understand how dramatically their experience of reading differs from students'. Faculty are expert academic readers, armed with a huge body of experience and an arsenal of reading techniques and strategies that are so ingrained as to be second nature to them. I tried to illustrate this for workshop participants by having them read an unfamiliar text (here's what I chose) and then explain the strategies they used to tackle it. Not surprisingly, their strategies exemplify the habits of expert readers and stand in stark contrast to how our non-expert novice student readers approach such texts:\n\nNovice student readers\nExpert academic readers\nRead once in a linear way at an invariant speed\nRead multiple times, in a staggered, ‘many-geared’ way\nLittle interior monologue about what is being read\nMake an ongoing, revisable mental draft of what is read\nEasily discouraged by difficult texts, feel helpless; at most, ‘push through’ when frustrated\nHave some strategies for difficult texts, ‘suspend and await clarity’\nAim is informational; focus on parts\nAim is ‘deep’ (meaning, significance); focus on whole\nDo not adapt tactics to texts\nHave different tactics for different texts\nTend to overmark (underline or highlight)\nLight marking, annotations\nDo not ‘chunk’ or give roles to parts of texts\n‘Chunk,’ assign argumentative/evidential/rhetorical roles to parts of texts\nThink about author questioning them\nAsk questions of authors, talk back to the text\nTreat authors as authorities\nTreat authors as contributors to a body of knowledge or understanding\n\nThat's the second challenge: figuring out how to make our students more expert as readers. If we can motivate them to read, and help them acquire expert habits and dispositions, we would be doing them a great service. So: How can we meet these challenges readers?\n\n\n  1. This is very helpful Michael. Your workshops at LC were a big hit! It is great to see institutions begin to take pedagogical development seriously.\n\n    I think the most important thing you point out here is this: that our students are making a rational choice when they choose not to read. They aren't getting anything out of it. You give some very helpful tips about how to making reading a rational choice. I'm curious to hear ideas from others.\n\n  2. Hello, both! Great post.\n\n    I've started to assign a series of worksheets in courses attended by philosophical newcomers. I assign one per day, starting on the first day. They are meant to build both reading and writing skills simultaneously.\n\n    Before I assign the first worksheet, I begin with an exercise: I hand everyone a slip of paper containing a paragraph of middling difficulty from a philosophical work. I tell the students that they have three minutes to determine how many words in the paragraph contain an A, how many contain a B, and how many contain a C. They are to write the answers elsewhere and then turn their slips face down. When the time is up, I ask them for the counts. Then I ask: What was the main point of the paragraph? Of course, more or less nobody has any idea.\n\n    The point, which I then underscore, is that it's possible to read something carefully and take correct notes without getting anything at all from it. To succeed in philosophical reading, it is not enough to do these things. You need to read in the right way, and look for the right things. And, I explain, reading the right way will often involve stopping and thinking. But, stopping and thinking about what? Cue my lecture on what arguments are and why they are essential to figuring things out and resolving certain kinds of disputes. I really stress the fact that, if they do a reading but don't finish a reading with a clear picture of the argumentative outline and how everything fits into it, they have missed everything they needed to get out of it.\n\n    That day, they get the first worksheet in the following sequence. I spend about ten minutes at the start of each class going over the answers.\n\n    First worksheet: \"Here is a paragraph from a recent newspaper editorial. What, in your own words, is the author's main point?\" (I make this one fairly easy)\n\n    Second worksheet: \"Here are two opposing letters from the letters page of our local newspaper. What, in your own words, is the main point of each letter? What exactly is the issue on which the writers disagree? Be as precise as possible.\"\n\n    Third worksheet: \"What is the main point of the reading for next class? What is the author's main argument for her conclusion? Please sketch out the main argument in standard premise/conclusion form.\"\n\n    Fourth worksheet: \"a) What is the main point of the reading for next class? b) What is the main point of the second paragraph of page 34? c) What significance does that paragraph have for the reading overall?\"\n\n    Fifth worksheet: \"The readings for next class are an article by Smith and an opposing article by Jones. What is the main issue in dispute between Smith and Jones? The first new paragraph on the third page of the Jones reading is intended as an objection against a certain argument in the Smith reading. What, in standard premise/conclusion form, is that argument from Smith, and how does the indicated paragraph in Jones constitute an objection against it?\"\n\n    Sixth worksheet: \"Brown presents three different arguments against View Y. Which of these do you think is the weakest? Please write it out in premise/conclusion form, and explain how you think a defender of View Y could best object to the argument.\"\n\n    If they can do the sixth worksheet, they are ready to understand the instructions for writing a good philosophy paper.\n\n", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7000163793563843}
{"content": "Effect of tides on mouth bar morphology and hydrodynamics\n\n\n\n[1] Mouth bars are morphological units important for deltas, estuaries, or rivers debouching into the sea. Several processes affect the formation of these deposits. This paper focuses on the role of tides on shaping mouth bars, presenting both hydrodynamic and morphodynamic results. The effect of tides is analyzed in two end-member configurations: a river with a small tidal discharge compared to the fluvial discharge (fluvial dominated) and a river with a very large tidal discharge (tidal dominated). Mouth bar formation is analyzed using the coupled hydrodynamic and morphodynamic model Delft3D. The presence of tides influences the hydrodynamics of the jet exiting the river mouth and causes an increase in the averaged jet spreading. At low tide the lower water depth in the basin promotes a drawdown water profile in the river and an accelerated flow near the mouth. The resulting velocity field is characterized by residual currents affecting growth and final shape of the mouth bar. Simulations indicate that mouth deposits are characterized by the presence of two channels for negligible tidal discharge, whereas three principal channels are present in the tidal-dominated case, with a central channel typical of tidal inlets. On the basis of our numerical analyses, we present a robust criterion for the occurrence of mouth deposits with three channels. Trifurcations form when the tidal discharge is large with respect to the fluvial one and the tidal amplitude is small compared to the water depth. Finally, predicted mouth bar morphologies are compared with good agreement to river mouths in the Gulf of Mexico, USA.\n\n1. Introduction\n\n[2] Deltas result from the interaction between rivers and marine or lacustrine systems, giving rise to complex depositional patterns. Deltas are vulnerable to both anthropogenic and natural changes, such as sea level rise, variations in sediment supply, increase in storm activity and hurricane frequency, urbanization, and changes in land-use practices [e.g., Day et al., 2007; Edmonds, 2012a; Paola et al., 2011; Syvitski et al., 2009]. Human activities continuously threaten these valuable environments, and new efforts are required to improve their management and restoration strategies. A vast literature on the overall morphology of deltas is already available; however, little work has been done on the effects of tides on delta morphology, and, in particular, on the effect of tides on mouth bars development.\n\n[3] Researchers have analyzed both large-scale structure of deltaic systems [Edmonds, 2012b; Edmonds et al., 2009, 2011a, 2011b; Edmonds and Slingerland, 2010; Canestrelli et al., 2010, Geleynse et al., 2010, 2011; Jerolmack, 2009; Jerolmack and Paola, 2007; Fagherazzi, 2008; Jerolmack and Swenson, 2007; Fagherazzi and Overeem, 2007] and their morphological units, such as mouth bars [Esposito et al., 2013; Nardin et al., 2013; Nardin and Fagherazzi, 2012; Edmonds and Slingerland, 2007; Wang, 1984; Wright, 1977; Bates, 1953].\n\n[4] As indicated by the conceptual model of Edmonds and Slingerland [2007], when a channelized flow enters a body of water the sediment transport rate decreases and a mouth bar evolves through initial deposition, progradation, and stagnation, finally leading to channels formation and bifurcation. Esposito et al. [2013] successfully tested Edmonds and Slingerland [2007] model for mouth bar evolution by means of field data near the mouth of the Mississippi River.\n\n[5] Deltaic bifurcations occur at the fossilized location of mouth bars, which are crucial to delta progradation and often constitute much of the deltaic system [Edmonds and Slingerland, 2009]. With increasing channel bifurcation order, there is a systematic reduction in channels length, width, and depth, due to a lower jet momentum flux and consequent lower transport distance basinward [Edmonds and Slingerland, 2007, 2009].\n\n[6] Marine processes might play a considerable role in sediment deposition, and their influence is reflected in the diversity of planar configurations and internal stratigraphy of coastal deposits. Among others, wave energy, tidal range, and the degree to which tidal currents determine the flow within the lower reaches of a river have been indicated as important geomorphic agents for delta morphodynamics and, in particular, for mouth bar evolution [e.g., Wright and Coleman, 1974; Jerolmack, 2009; Ashton and Giosan, 2011; Geleynse et al., 2010; Nardin and Fagherazzi, 2012; Nardin et al., 2013]. As an example, the mouth bars of the Danube Delta change repeatedly, switching from a condition in which fluvial factors are predominant to a configuration in which marine processes are more relevant [Dolgopolova and Mikhailova, 2008].\n\n[7] Nardin and Fagerazzi [2012] showed how the presence of waves leads to different bar morphologies depending on the relative importance of wave angle and wave-induced bottom shear stress. Large waves do not allow the formation of mouth bars either because of deflection of the river mouth jet, in case of oblique waves, or jet destabilization, in case of frontal waves. Wave angles between 45° and 60° have been identified as the most unfavorable for bar deposition. Nardin et al. [2013] found that waves can reduce the time of mouth bar formation and their distance from the river mouth leading to wave-induced deltas being shorter with respect to deltas experiencing no-waves conditions. According to Edmonds [2012], during the 2011 flood in Louisiana, USA, the Atchafalaya and Mississippi Rivers contributed to the same amount of land building, despite of the Mississippi River carrying a volume of sediments twice as large. This outcome was mainly due to the influence of coastal currents that can keep the sediment near the shoreline or disperse it in the ocean.\n\n[8] Few studies have focused on the morphodynamic role of tides near river mouths; on the contrary, a rich literature is available on tidal inlets and their deposits. Since several tidal processes acting on river mouths are also present in tidal inlets, a comparison between the two systems is deemed necessary.\n\n[9] Tidal inlets are channels maintained by tidal flow that connect the ocean with bays, lagoons, or salt marshes [e.g., FitzGerald et al., 2006]. The classical tidal inlet system consists of an ebb delta at the ocean side built around a deep central channel and two lateral shallower channels [Hayes, 1975; Fitzgerald, 1976]. The main channel is ebb dominated while the other two are flood dominated. A flood delta is also present in the bay, resulting from the combination of flood channels and tidal flats [Hayes, 1975; FitzGerald, 1976, 1996, 2006; De Swart and Zimmerman, 2008].\n\n[10] Tidal prism and reversing tidal currents are, to a large extent, the governing forces for inlet dimensions and sediment transport dynamics. River mouths present similar dynamics but only when the tidal discharge is considerably larger than the river discharge [FitzGerald, 1996]. According to Lanzoni and Seminara [2002], even if the tidal range is small, it is still possible to have a tide dominance situation in case of large tidal prism or limited wave action.\n\n[11] Tidal inlets are also strongly affected by external drivers, in the same way that mouth bars are. Waves, alongshore currents, and sea-level rise can have a nonnegligible influence on inlet morphology [Dissanayake et al., 2008, 2009; Lanzoni and Seminara, 2002]. It has been shown that, during periods of increasing tidal prism, the inlets of the barrier islands in the Mississippi delta evolve from a wave-dominated configuration, with broad flood deltas, to transitional forms, with sand shoals choking the mouth throat, and finally to a river mouth, with a deep main channel and a well-developed ebb delta resembling a mouth bar [Levin, 1993]. Dissanayake et al. [2009] used the numerical model Delft3D to illustrate how shore-parallel tidal currents and their time lag with respect to inlet currents have influenced the evolution of the Ameland inlet in the Dutch Wadden Sea.\n\n[12] Numerical models are particularly suitable to understand the behavior of fluvial and deltaic systems at medium to long time scales. Among others, numerical results on delta formation by Geleynse et al. [2010, 2011] show noticeable agreement with natural systems. Their simulations include deltaic mouth bars, distributary formation, and meander-bend evolution. Numerical results from Edmonds and Slingerland [2010] suggest that deltas without vegetation, as those that formed antecedent to the Devonian period, should show more fan-like characteristics, with fewer channels and delta plain lakes. This is mainly due to the fact that vegetation operates as a cohesive agent. In fact, they show that highly cohesive sediments favor formation of bird's-foot deltas with complex floodplains and rugose shorelines. On the contrary, less cohesive sediments more likely form fan-like deltas.\n\n[13] This work aims at analyzing concurrent effects of tides and fluvial discharge on the evolution of river mouth bars with the numerical model Delft3D. Our investigation is limited to a simple geometry and a homopycnal effluent (i.e., with negligible buoyancy); wind waves and Coriolis forces are also neglected. Two extreme cases are taken into account and discussed: (1) a river mouth with a fluvial discharge much larger than the tidal discharge and therefore characterized by unidirectional flow; (2) a river mouth with a tidal discharge much larger than the fluvial discharge, allowing the flow to reverse direction.\n\n[14] As we are going to show, different morphologies correspond to the two aforementioned cases. Therefore, a series of additional numerical experiments with intermediate ratios of river discharge to tidal discharge are also presented in order to identify the transition from one condition to the other. The manuscript is organized as follows: in section 2 we describe the model, the model geometry, and the boundary conditions utilized in the simulations. In section 3 we present key hydrodynamic results derived from the simulations. These results are divided into (i) effect of tides on jet spreading, (ii) effect of tides on the velocity field, and (iii) residual tidal currents. Section 4 deals with the implication of the hydrodynamic results for mouth bar formation and evolution. In section 5 we qualitatively compare our results to the morphology of river mouths in the Gulf of Mexico, USA. A set of conclusions is finally presented in section 6.\n\n2. Model Description and Setup\n\n[15] The formation of river mouth bars is studied using the computational fluid dynamics package Delft3D [Roelvink and Van Banning, 1994; Lesser et al., 2004]. Delft3D is a numerical model composed of a number of integrated modules. Together, they allow the simulation of hydrodynamic flow, sediment transport and related bed evolution, short-wave generation and propagation, and the modeling of ecological processes and water quality parameters [Lesser, 2004]. The Delft3D-FLOW module is able to solve the unsteady shallow-water equations in two (depth-averaged) dimensions. These equations consist of the horizontal momentum equations, the continuity equation, the sediment transport equation, and a turbulence closure model. The vertical momentum equation is reduced to the hydrostatic pressure relation because vertical accelerations are assumed to be small compared to gravitational acceleration and are not taken into account [Lesser et al., 2004]. The sediment transport and morphology modules account for bed and suspended load transport of cohesive and noncohesive sediments and for the exchange of sediment between the bed and the flow. The suspended load is calculated using the advection-diffusion equation for sediments. The bed-load transport on a horizontal bed is calculated using an empirical transport formula. In the present work, the formulation proposed by Van Rijn [1993] is used. The model mesh is rectangular with rectangular cells, whose long axis is parallel to the flow (Figure 1). The simulations are designed to investigate the hydrodynamic and morphological conditions of a river discharging into a body of water with flat bottom and in the presence of tides of varying amplitude. The simulated river length (400 m) is necessarily limited in order to ensure a reasonable computational effort. Hence, a suitable landward flow discharge needs to be specified to describe the two end-member cases.\n\nFigure 1.\n\nComputational domain and boundary conditions.\n\n[16] In the first, river-dominated case, a constant river discharge is assumed, such that the tidal-induced fluxes are smaller than the fluvial fluxes. In the second, tidal-dominated case, an oscillating discharge is superposed on a constant discharge, of fluvial origin, to mimic the overall discharge typical of a tidal-dominated river reach.\n\n[17] Tidal motion in channels as well the interaction of tides with a riverine discharge is complex and difficult to be properly modeled. Factors like channel slope and shape, and bed friction can affect the velocity field [Lanzoni and Seminara, 1998; Savenije et al., 2008]. According to Lanzoni and Seminara [1998], river discharge can significantly alter tidal dynamics. For example, with an increase in riverine discharge, both the tidal wavelength and celerity decrease, while the tidal amplitude shows a more rapid upstream decay. The relationship between tidal elevation and maximum discharge depends on the nonlinear propagation of the tide in the lower reaches of the river and its floodplains. In river mouths, the tidal propagation falls somewhere between a progressive (0° of phase difference between tidal level and tidal velocity fluctuations) and standing wave (90° of phase difference). The main factors affecting the phase difference are the mouth topography and the river currents [Son and Hsu, 2011]. Savenije et al. [2008] considers the phase lag between high water and slack water as one of the main parameters for the classification of estuaries, and proposes explicit analytical and graphical solutions to determine it. Lanzoni and Seminara [1998] show how the phase lag increases with estuary convergence. Approaching the convergent limit for the estuary, the phase lag reaches 90°. Son and Hsu [2011] indicate the phase difference as a key process for the flux of sediments in the river. Accordingly, the flux of sediment is larger in the progressive wave condition.\n\n[18] Here we assume that the tidal wave mimics a standing wave at the river mouth, so that the phase lag between high water and high water slack is zero. This assumption is valid for strongly convergent estuaries [Lanzoni and Seminara, 1998; Savenije et al., 2008], tidal inlets [Bruun et al., 1978], or for rivers with a length much smaller than the tidal wavelength. A standing wave is also the standard assumption of tidal channel hydrodynamics [Boon, 1975; Fagherazzi et al., 1999; Fagherazzi, 2008]. Thus, we neglect further elaborations connected to the contribution of both landforming discharges and propagation of the tidal signal in the fluvial reaches.\n\n[19] In the tidal-dominated case, a constant river discharge is superimposed to an oscillating tidal discharge having a frequency of 30 deg/h (thus approximating a tidal frequency) and out of phase of 90° with respect to the water level. To impose the phase delay of 90° between discharge and water level at the river mouth we need to account for the propagation of the tide in the domain. In fact, we prescribe the water level at the seaward boundary, while the sinusoidal discharge is prescribed at the landward boundary. Since the two boundaries are distant in space a small phase lag is present.\n\n[20] According to Lanzoni and Seminara [2002], in case of tide dominance, the volume of water exchanged in each tidal cycle is at least 1 order of magnitude larger than river discharge. Therefore, we use a discharge equal to 10% of the maximum tidal discharge in order to simulate a relative small and constant riverine flow in the tide-dominated condition.\n\n[21] In fluvial-dominated conditions the discharge Q is 1500 m3/s. In the tidal-dominated case, the amplitude of the sinusoidal discharge is 570 m3/s. The choice of the discharge is based on the tidal inlet cross-sectional area A (m2) and tidal prism P (m3), further referred as A-P relationship. In fact, for tidal inlets field observations suggest that equilibrium exists, of the form of\n\ndisplay math(1)\n\n[22] where C and q are empirical parameters [O'Brien, 1931; Jarrett, 1976; Tambroni et al., 2005; D'Alpaos et al., 2009, 2010].\n\n[23] Specifically, Tran et al. [2012] determined the A-P relationship for a series of hypothetical inlets using the process-based model Delft3D. Based on their results, we use the values of C = 2.14 × 10−4 m2–3q and q = 0.96 in order to evaluate the tidal prism in equilibrium with the cross-sectional area of the tidal-dominated case.\n\n[24] In the fluvial-dominated case the sediment concentration at the inflow boundary is constant, while in the tidal-dominated case we impose an equilibrium sand concentration profile. This condition means that the sediment load entering through the boundary is adapted to the local flow conditions so that neither erosion nor deposition occurs at the river mouth.\n\n[25] For the upper and lower boundaries, we impose a zero-flux boundary condition, consisting in imposing the gradient of the alongshore water level equal to zero (Figure 1). As shown by Roelvink and Walstra [2004], in case of unknown lateral boundary conditions it is preferable to impose the water level gradient and allow the model to determine water levels and current velocities.\n\n[26] Finally, in order to make the solution well posed, we prescribe an oscillating water level at the seaward boundary. The water level varies with a semidiurnal tidal frequency (30 deg/h) and has an amplitude ranging from 0.25 to 2.5 m. Therefore our simulations represent both microtidal and mesotidal environments.\n\n[27] The initial condition for each simulation consists of a constant bathymetric depth (3.5 or 4.5 m) and a water level equal to mean sea level. Both sediments in the basin and sediments delivered by the river and possibly entering from the seaward boundary are noncohesive and have a specific density of 2650 kg/m3, a dry bed density of 1600 kg/m3, and a median sediment diameter D50 of 200 μm.\n\n[28] A sensitivity analysis was performed in order to choose the proper grid size, and the results presented in this work are a good compromise between small computational time and accuracy of the solution. The grid size varies from 60 × 60 m at the margins of the basin to 20 × 60 m in the central part. The time step is set to 0.25 min. Every simulation runs for 12 model hours before starting the morphological evolution. This period is sufficient for a complete adaptation of the hydrodynamic simulation to the dynamic boundary conditions.\n\n[29] In Delft3D, horizontal viscosity coefficients can be determined by means of two different closure models. The first is by specifying a constant or space-varying value of eddy viscosity. The second is by using a large eddy simulation model (HLES) that is added to a background value of eddy viscosity [Van Vossen, 2000; Uittenbogaard and Van Vossen, 2001]. In our simulations, we used the HLES model with a background eddy viscosity equal to 10−4 m2/s. Before adopting this value, we tested different values of background eddy viscosity, from 10−5 to 10−1 m2/s, without finding any substantial influence on the simulations results from a qualitative point of view. Moreover, we compared the results from the HLES method with those for a constant value of eddy viscosity. We used 0.1 m2/s [Van der Wegen and Roelvink, 2008], 1 m2/s [Battjes, 1975], 2 m2/s, and 5 m2/s. Also in these cases we did not find any significant qualitative difference.\n\n[30] Bed slope affects sediment transport as indicated by Ikeda [1982]. Two coefficients are used in Delft3D in order to adjust the bed load transport in the direction of the average bed stress (longitudinal slope factor) and in the direction perpendicular to it (transverse slope factor). In the simulations, we use default values of 1 and 1.5 for longitudinal and transverse slope factors, as suggested by Ikeda [1982]. However, these parameters are uncertain and their estimates are based on small-scale experiments. For example, Van der Wegen and Roelvink [2008] suggest a value of 5 for the transverse slope factor, while Dissanayake et al. [2009] use a value of 50. According to our sensitivity analysis, the fluvial-dominated case is slightly affected by variation of either longitudinal or transverse slope factor for values up to 50. The tidal-dominated case is influenced by variations in transverse slope factor, but significant changes only occur for values larger than 20, as the central channel gradually becomes shallower and wider. These findings confirm previous results by Dissanayake et al. [2009], for which a smaller transverse slope factor leads to a narrow and deep central channel, whereas the effect of the longitudinal slope factor is negligible.\n\n[31] In order to account for the difference in time scales between hydrodynamics and morphological evolution, bottom changes per time step are scaled up by a morphological factor [Roelvink, 2006]. The morphological factor is 15 for the fluvial-dominated case and 450 for the tidal-dominated case.\n\n3. Hydrodynamic Results\n\n[32] At river mouths, the width generally exceeds the depth by a factor of at least 4, and width to depth ratios greater than 50 are common [Edmonds and Slingerland, 2007]. Vertical motions of the water are usually less significant than horizontal ones and therefore the flow can be approximated with the shallow water equations [Özsoy and Ünlüata, 1982]. Note that the numerical model used in this contribution is in agreement with the shallow water approximation. As rivers empty into oceans or lakes, they expand as a confined jet, experiencing mixing, diffusion with the ambient fluid and decrease in sediment concentration and momentum. The jet is divided into two regions: the zone of flow establishment (ZOFE), having a core of constant velocity, and the zone of established flow (ZOEF), where a similarity function can be assumed for the transverse velocity profile. The transition from ZOFE to ZOEF marks the downstream location at which the turbulence generated by shearing along the margins of the jet affects the entire jet [Bates, 1953]. Jet theory has been largely used to describe rivers and inlets discharging into a standing water body [Bates, 1953; Wright and Coleman, 1974; Özsoy and Ünlüata, 1982; Wright, 1977; Rowland et al., 2010; Falcini and Jerolmack, 2010; Nardin and Fagherazzi 2012; Nardin et al., 2013].\n\n[33] The presence of tides influences the hydrodynamic of the jet and the velocity field producing residual currents that affect the growth and the final shape of mouth bars. To study these currents, we first focus on the jet width and centerline velocity in the case of fixed bed. The self-similarity of the lateral velocity profile is assumed and the jet spreading is represented by the half width, defined as the lateral distance at which the velocity decreases to 5% of its centerline value [Özsoy, 1986]. According to Tee [1976], residual currents are the velocity field after the removal of all the sinusoidal components of tidal motion. They are time independent and can be obtained by the average over a tidal cycle. From a mathematical point of view, residual currents can be described through the fundamental equations of fluid mechanics simplified with the no-time dependence assumption [De Swart and Zimmerman, 2008; Nihoul and Ronday, 2010]. Tides can generate residual currents by several mechanisms such as nonlinear bottom friction, nonlinear terms in the continuity equation, and the nonlinear advective term in the momentum equation. Residual currents can be studied using vorticity balance, as shown by Zimmerman [1981]: in order to create residual circulations in a tidal cycle, both the production of residual tidal vorticity and a net flux of vorticity through a closed curve are necessary. Residual currents account for part of the sediment transport [Van der Vegt et al., 2006] and therefore are considered as important indicators for mouth bar morphodynamics in our study.\n\n[34] We compute residual tidal currents by calculating the difference between the velocity field with tides, averaged in a tidal cycle, and the velocity field in the absence of tides. Thus, we depurate the flow field from the influence of the riverine discharge, and we can focus our attention on nonlinear residual currents produced by tidal motion only. Two purely hydrodynamic simulations have been run for the calculation of each residual velocity field: one with tides and the other without tides, using the same bar morphology and a nonmoving bottom.\n\n3.1. Jet Spreading\n\n[35] The hydrodynamics of the problem is investigated for a flat and fixed horizontal bathymetry. According to Özsoy and Ünlüata [1982], a turbulent jet in the presence of flat bottom with friction is characterized by an exponentially growth of the jet width and a decay of the centerline velocity. For large width to depth ratios, as those here considered, the ZOFE is small relatively to the ZOEF [Özsoy and Ünlüata, 1982] and, thereafter, the analysis will be restricted to the latter.\n\n[36] To compute the velocity and jet half width in the case of flat bottom with friction, the following nondimensonal parameters are defined (Figure 2):\n\ndisplay math(2)\n\n[37] where inline imageis the inlet half width, inline image is the jet half width, inline image is the inlet depth, inline imageis the water depth, inline image is the velocity, inline image is the jet velocity at the inlet, and f is the Darcy-Weisbach friction coefficient. The parameter inline image is the end coordinate for the core region and marks the passage between ZOFE and ZOEF. The solution for the unknown centerline velocity and jet half width in case of flat bottom with friction is [Özsoy and Ünlüata, 1982]\n\ndisplay math(3)\ndisplay math(4)\nFigure 2.\n\nSketch of a turbulent jet exiting a river mouth.\n\n[38] where inline image in the ZOEF and inline image and inline image are two constant values equal to 0.450 and 0.316, respectively. According to these equations, as the water depth decreases, the jet spreading increases, and the jet half width has an exponential dependence on the distance from the river mouth. For simplicity, in this work the jet half width has been approximated using a simple exponential curve of the form:\n\ndisplay math(5)\n\n[39] where λ is the nondimensional e-folding length representing the spreading of the jet.\n\n[40] The jet spreading for the river-dominated case is evaluated at different instants of the tidal cycle. The largest spreading occurs at low tide, whereas the smallest spreading corresponds to high tide (Figure 3). The mean spreading computed by averaging the spreading over several tidal cycles is larger than the spreading in the case without tides (Figure 3). This effect is present in all tested tidal amplitudes (ranging from 0.25 to 2.5 m). Moreover, the higher is the tidal range, the more evident is the increase in average spreading. This result can be explained by a nonlinear relationship between water depth and jet spreading (Figure 4a). To further investigate this aspect, the jet half width has been computed for a series of additional numerical experiments, in which a constant discharge is prescribed at the landward boundary and a constant mean water level is prescribed at the seaward boundary. The water depth varies among the experiments and Figure 4a highlights the nonlinear relationship between water depth and λ, representative of jet spreading. The e-folding length λ, calculated for different depths, is compared with the analytical solution of Özsoy and Ünlüata [1982, equation (3)], after fitting it with the simple exponential formulation adopted in equation (4).\n\nFigure 3.\n\nJet half width for different tidal conditions. The points represent locations having an along inline image velocity equal to the 5% of the centerline value and have been fitted with equation (4) to obtain the solid lines. Black line: jet spreading at low tide (ht =2.5 m). Green line: jet spreading at high tide (ht=2.5 m). Blue line: averaged jet spreading in time with a tidal amplitude ht =2.5 m. Red line: jet spreading without tide.\n\nFigure 4.\n\n(a) The λ coefficient as a function of water depth; (b) λ coefficient as a function of the centerline velocity at the inlet boundary condition. Colored dots (Figures 4a and 4b) have been obtained with additional numerical experiments with constant discharge and variable depths (Figure 4a), or with constant depth (4.5 m) and variable discharge (Figure 4b). Continuous lines are representative of the analytical solution of Özsoy. Red dots refer to a Chezy coefficient of 45 m1/2/s, while blue dots refer to a Chezy coefficient of 30 m1/2/s. Gray arrows indicate the range of depth and velocity of the present work.\n\n[41] We also explore the effect of friction on jet spreading. We increase friction by reducing the Chezy coefficient from 45 m1/2/s to 30 m1/2/s (Figure 4). Larger friction leads to more jet spreading, with the e-folding length λ maintaining the same trend (i.e., hyperbolic decay as a function of water depth and constant value as a function of velocity). Morphological and hydrodynamic considerations are therefore similar for different friction coefficients.\n\n[42] The water depth in the numerical simulations ranges from 2 to 7 m, with a mean sea level at 4.5 m of depth and a maximum tidal amplitude of 2.5 m. Because the e-folding length λ does not decrease linearly with water depth (Figure 4a), it follows that\n\ndisplay math(6)\n\n[43] being inline image the water depth for a generic instant of the tidal cycle, inline image a finite positive variation of depth in time, and inline image the basin depth for a fixed instant. Therefore, through a tidal cycle, the jet spreading increment during periods of low water level is more relevant than its decrease during a period of high water. As a consequence, on average, tides tend to increase jet spreading. Note also that this is true not only for our particular value of mean sea level (4.5 m) but also for any other value. In fact, λ becomes constant as h tends to infinite, and the curve is always concave upward (Figure 4a). Clearly, this effect is more relevant for larger tidal ranges and smaller depths, for which the concavity is maximum.\n\n[44] The solution of Özsoy and Ünlüata [1982] for the normalized jet half width does not depend on jet velocity, but it is mainly affected by water depth. Figure 4b shows the jet spreading for different velocities of the river and constant water depth (i.e., in the absence of tides). As expected, the influence of velocity on jet spreading is negligible. Also in this case the analysis has been done for two different friction coefficients.\n\n3.2. Velocity\n\n[45] For river-dominated conditions, velocities are measured at different locations along the centerline and at different distances from the river mouth (points A–E in Figure 1). It is possible to notice a shift from a standing wave current to a progressive wave current moving from the seaward boundary toward the mouth (Figure 5). At the seaward boundary, where we impose the varying water level, the velocity is negligible at high and low tide (slack water), a typical condition of a standing wave. On the contrary, near the river mouth, the maximum flood and ebb velocities occur at high and low tide, with slack water taking place near mean sea level (progressive tidal wave) (Figures 5a and 5b).\n\nFigure 5.\n\n(a) Water level and (b) depth-averaged velocity in time. Different colors correspond to different distances from the inlet along the centerline. The location of the points is indicated in Figure 1 (A is the closest to the river mouth, E the farthest). (c) Phase shift between velocity and water level oscillations for points along the centerline.\n\n[46] The transitional region between the standing wave and the progressive wave conditions can be detected through the cross correlation in time between water level and depth-averaged velocity, which determines the delay (Figure 5c). The discontinuity point indicates the transition between the two conditions.\n\n[47] This transition is caused by the interaction between riverine discharge and seaward water level. At low tide the water depth in the basin is low, thus promoting a drawdown water profile in the river with accelerated flow near the mouth [Lamb et al., 2012]. On the contrary, as the seaward depth rises, a backwater profile establishes, with milder water gradients and limited flow acceleration near the mouth. Figure 6c shows the relationship between velocity gradient and water level in time. The velocity gradient is maximum when the water level is minimum, demonstrating the presence of an accelerated flow during periods of low water level. The velocity is therefore in phase with tidal elevation, peaking at low tide.\n\nFigure 6.\n\nWater surface profile along the domain centerline at (a) low tide and (b) high tide; (c) water level in time (blue line) and difference between the velocities in two points within the channel (red line), representative of the spatial velocity gradient.\n\n3.3. Tidal Residual Velocities\n\n[48] To determine the effect of tides on mouth hydrodynamics and bar formation we compute the tidal residual velocities by integrating the velocity field in a tidal cycle and subtracting the flow field due to the river discharge in the absence of tides [Zimmerman, 1981].\n\n[49] In the fluvial-dominated case, the residual velocities form two lateral bands that bifurcate within a short distance from the river mouth (Figure 7). These bands are produced by an increase in spreading at low tide, which is only partly compensated by a decrease in spreading at high tide (Figure 3). A residual current is also present in the river, and it is caused by high velocities during low tide. In fact a drawdown water surface gradient establishes at low tide that accelerates the flow (Figure 6). Again this acceleration is only partly compensated by a deceleration due to the backwater effect at high tide, yielding a net residual current exiting the river.\n\nFigure 7.\n\nResidual currents for the fluvial-dominated case, at different stages of mouth bar formation. The tidal amplitude is 2.5 m. The isolines in each plot represent the location of the bar.\n\n[50] In the tidal-dominated case, the residual velocity is associated with the difference between the confined flow of the turbulent jet during the ebb phase and the sink flow during the flood phase, which is radially distributed across the entire domain [Chao, 1990; Tambroni et al., 2005]. The residual velocity field displays two counterrotating vortices exiting the river mouth (Figure 8), which agrees with previous results in tidal inlets [Chao, 1990; Van der Vegt et al., 2006].\n\nFigure 8.\n\nResidual currents for the tidal-dominated case at different stages of mouth bar formation. The tidal amplitude is 2 m. The isolines in each plot represent the location of the bar. The two black arrows are indicative of two counterrotating eddies.\n\n4. Bar Morphology\n\n[51] According to Edmonds and Slingerland [2007], mouth bar formation is due to the reduction of the sediment transport rate when the turbulent jet expands into a standing body of water. More specifically, the decrease in the jet momentum flux is responsible for the formation of mouth bars. After initial deposition of sediments, the mouth bar progrades and aggrades until the depth over the bar is shallow enough to create an upstream fluid pressure that is capable of forcing the fluid around the bar rather than over the bar. The mouth bar then widens, creating a classic triangular deposit in planar view.\n\n[52] Following the notation used by Edmonds and Slingerland [2007], h and h0 are defined as the water depth above the peak of the river mouth bar and the channel depth at the landward boundary (the water depths being referred to the mean sea level). In order to explore changes in residual currents during bar evolution, additional numerical experiments have been conducted during the growth of a bar, for ratio h/h0 equal to 0.8, 0.6, and 0.4. Successively, the morphology of the bottom was frozen, i.e., maintained constant in time, preventing the bar from growing or being demolished, and two purely hydrodynamic simulations were run, one with tides and one without them. The residual velocities are computed from the difference between the velocity averaged over a tidal cycle and the velocity without tide (Figures 7b–7d and 8b–8d). Residual velocities are found to increase when the mouth bar grows. Under dominant fluvial conditions, for example, for a tidal amplitude of 0.75 m, the maximum residual velocity is around 0.05 m/s for h/h0 = 1, and 0.15 m/s for h/h0 = 0.4.\n\n[53] The presence of tides also promotes variations in bottom morphology. Even though fluvial conditions dominate, tides increase bar widening (Figure 9). At the beginning of bar formation, the greater is the tidal range, the higher are the residual velocities, which in turn increase sediment transport rates. Figure 10 shows longitudinal profiles of the bar for increasing tidal amplitudes. Same colors correspond to same intervals of time. It is possible to notice that the part in gray, representative of the initial stage of mouth bar formation, is higher in the presence of tides. The two lateral bands of residual velocity spread the sediments at the two sides of the river mouth and the bar immediately widens (Figure 10b). When the bar is high enough, the flow is laterally channelized during the ebb phase, when the maximum velocities occur. Hence, the bar confines the flow and favors the bifurcation process. As the magnitude of the two lateral bands of residual velocity increases, the lateral spreading grows, as well as the tendency of the bar to widen. The widening rate also starts prevailing upon the accretion rate, producing a larger but shallower bar (Figure 10). Aggradation rates therefore diminish in the final stages of bar development for large tidal amplitudes (Figure 10).\n\nFigure 9.\n\nFluvial-dominated case: cumulative erosion and sedimentation for different tidal amplitudes ht after 3 days of numerical simulation and morphological factor of 15.\n\nFigure 10.\n\nMorphology of river mouth bars for the fluvial-dominated case. (a) Longitudinal and (b) transverse sections of river mouth bars. Each plot corresponds to a different tidal range. Same colors correspond to same temporal intervals: gray from 0 to 6 h, blue from 6 to 12 h, gray blue from 12 to 18 h, light blue from 18 to 24 h, light green from 24 to 30 h, green from 30 to 36 h, yellow from 36 to 42 h, pink from 42 to 48 h, red from 48 to 54 h, dark red from 54 to 60 h.\n\n[54] The tidal-dominated case may be regarded as the sum of the fluvial-dominated case plus the influence of the tidal discharge. In our simulations the constant river discharge is only 10% of the maximum tidal discharge at the river mouth. However, it is enough to accelerate the process of bar growth, because of a larger sediment discharge due to the presence of the additional riverine flow, and to modify the configuration of the deposit with respect to the fluvial-dominated case. Similar to what happens in tidal inlets, the oscillating flow triggered by the tidal prism leads to the formation of a central channel (Figures 8 and 11) due to strong ebbing currents in the central part of the domain. The presence of the riverine discharge leads instead to the formation of two lateral channels, similar to the fluvial-dominated case. Different from the case of tidal inlets, the two lateral channels are ebb dominated. In fact, for tidal inlets, the basic ebb delta configuration is a central channel, dominated by ebb currents, surrounded by a swash platform and two lateral channels dominated by flood currents [FitzGerald, 1996; Davis, 1997]. In tidal inlets, flood dominance in the lateral channels is due to the different flow fields emerging in ebb and flood: while in flood phase, the flow radially distributes near the inlet and in ebb phase the flow is confined in a central jet [Tambroni et al., 2005].\n\nFigure 11.\n\nTidal-dominated case, cumulative erosion and sedimentation for different tidal ranges, after 10 days of numerical simulation and morphological factor of 450; ht is the tidal amplitude.\n\n[55] Figure 12 shows the velocity for three tidal cycles at the seaward mouth and at the right boundary. At the beginning of the simulation the system behaves as a tidal inlet. Therefore, a main central channel forms, dominated by ebb flow, and sediments are deposited at the lateral sides of the channel. Due to the formation of these initial deposits and the presence of river discharge, low slack water is delayed near the river mouth. As a result, a transitional period exists during which slack water is already reached at the right boundary, but there is still a positive flow at the river mouth. The water flows through the main channel and it is laterally deviated because of the presence of the initial deposits. During this period, the system behaves as in the fluvial-dominated case, where a constant discharge is prescribed. Moreover, since this transitional period corresponds to minimum water levels and maximum spreading, the flow is further constrained in the lateral channels with the side deposits acting as a flow barrier.\n\nFigure 12.\n\nTidal-dominated case with tidal amplitude of 2.5 m. (a) Velocity variations in time at point A (green line) and point E (red line). Water level variations at point A (black line) and E (blue line). The location of the points is indicated in Figure 1 (A is the closest to the river mouth, E the farthest). Note that when the red line crosses the zero value (near the minimum in water level), the green line has still a positive value. (b) Velocity field at low water slack for height of the bar corresponding to h/h0=0.6. The isolines indicate the location of the bar. Note that peaks of velocities occur where the ebb-dominated channels form.\n\n[56] Figure 12b shows the depth-averaged velocity field around low water slack at the right boundary for a bar elevation corresponding to h/h0 = 0.6. The maximum velocities occur in points where the lateral channels are going to form. Once the channels are incised, the confined flow occupies them during ebb, leading to a velocity higher than during flood. To sum up, while a simple bifurcation characterizes fluvial-dominated conditions, the tidal-dominated case displays three principal channels. Finally, larger tides accelerate bar growth and widen the bar deposit similar to what was observed for the fluvial-dominated case (Figures 9 and 11).\n\n[57] To determine the transition between bifurcation (river-dominated case) and the presence of a central channel (trifurcation, tidal-dominated case), we performed a series of additional numerical experiments for two different initial basin depths (h0 = 4.5 m and h0 = 3.5 m) and two different friction coefficients (C = 45 m1/2/s and C = 30 m1/2/s). The transition is a function of the nondimensional tidal amplitude and the relative importance of tidal velocity with respect to river velocity (Figure 13). We find a robust criterion for the formation of a central channel (R2 = 93%):\n\ndisplay math(7)\nFigure 13.\n\nOccurrence of bifurcation or trifurcation at a river mouth as a function of nondimensional tidal amplitude and relative ratio between fluvial and tidal velocity. The green empty symbols represent trifurcations while the red-filled symbols are bifurcations. Circles C = 45 m1/2/s, h0 = 4.5 m; diamonds C = 30 m1/2/s, h0 = 4.5 m; triangles C = 45 m1/2/s, h0 = 3.5 m; squares C = 30 m1/2/s, h0 = 3.5 m. The straight green line represents the transition criterion.\n\n[58] where u0 is the river velocity, ut the maximum tidal velocity, ht the tidal amplitude, and h0 the water depth. For a given water depth and tidal velocity, the transition from river-dominated to tidal-dominated conditions requires a small river velocity with small tides. Note that a large ratio ht/h0 maximizes the drawdown effect on river discharge, thus promoting fast shallow flows in the lateral channels and bifurcation. Moreover, for u0 > 2 ut (river discharge double the tidal discharge), the bifurcation forms independently of tidal oscillations in the basin (Figure 13). In summary, oscillations in tidally generated discharge favor the formation of a central channel, whereas tidal oscillations in the basin favor bifurcation and fluvial mouth bars.\n\n5. Discussion\n\n[59] Based on the results of our numerical analysis, we present the following conceptual model of bar formation under the effect of tides. In the fluvial-dominated case, tides enhance jet spreading (Figure 3), which, in turn, promotes lateral residual currents that facilitate the formation of bifurcating channels (Figure 7). Moreover, at low tide even an incipient mouth bar becomes an obstacle to the flow, given the limited water depths. As a result, more sediments are deposited on the mouth bar, speeding up its initial development (Figure 10). Once the two bifurcating channels are emplaced, strong flow establishes at low tide, magnifying the residual currents (Figure 7). These fast, shallow flows transport large quantities of sediments to the sides, creating a wider mouth bar (Figure 9).\n\n[60] In the tidal-dominated case, the remarkable asymmetry between flood and ebb flow fields creates two residual vortexes that magnify the flow along the central axis (Figure 8). As a result, a central channel forms (Figure 11). The oscillatory flow at the mouth prevents the silting of the central channel and two deposits form at the sides (Figure 11). These deposits trigger two bifurcations and the formation of two lateral channels, also facilitated by the confined flow at low tide (Figure 12).\n\n[61] The final bar configurations display similarities to natural systems. Figure 14 shows the mouth morphology of two rivers, the Apalachicola and Suwanee rivers in Florida, USA, with fluvial discharge and tidal features similar to those considered in this work. The Apalachicola River is fluvial dominated, with a drainage area of approximately 50,000 km2 and a mean discharge near Sumatra (FL) of 700 m3/s [U.S. Geological Survey, 2012]. The Suwanee River is tidal dominated, with a drainage area of 26,000 km2 and a mean discharge of 170 m3/s near Suwanee city (FL) [U.S. Geological Survey, 2010].\n\nFigure 14.\n\n(c) Locations of Apalachicola River and Suwanee River, Florida, USA. (a) Apalachicola river discharge near Sumatra, FL (USGS station 02359170; from 9 April 2012 to 12 April 2012) and (d) satellite image of Apalachicola mouth bars (29°45′N, 84°55′W). (b) Suwanee river discharge near Suwanee, FL (USGS station 02323592; from 9 May 2012 to 11 May 2012) and (e) satellite image of Suwanee mouth bars (29°17′N, 83°09′W). Data have been obtained from the annual water data report by the U.S. Geological Survey. White arrows indicate channels and white dots indicate mouth bars.\n\n[62] The morphology of the Apalachicola mouth bars is dominated by bifurcations (Figure 14d). These landforms can thus be associated with the relatively small influence of the tidal discharge with respect to the fluvial discharge. On the contrary, in the Suwanee River, the tidal discharge seems to have a considerable role, indicated by the strong bidirectionality of the flow (Figure 14b). Here mouth bars are characterized by trifurcations, we also notice cases in which more than three channels are connected to the same node, and we ascribe this morphology to the complexity of the coastal bathymetry and variability in tidal and river discharge that were not captured in our simulations.\n\n[63] Trifurcations do not form only in the presence of large tides; Storms et al. [2007] show that a river debouching in a deep basin can also produce a central channel. However, in their Delft3D simulations the basin is much deeper than ours, as well as deeper than Apalachicola Bay and the Suwanee river mouth. Similarly, bifurcations can also exist in tidally dominated rivers, locally favored by the complexity of the coastal landscape. Our results are therefore valid in a statistical viewpoint, with tidal-dominated rivers giving rise, on average, to more trifurcations.\n\n[64] By modifying mouth bar morphology, tides can also affect the evolution of the entire delta. Wider and shallower bars favor vertical infilling with respect to lateral progradation. We therefore expect a prevalence of thin and spatially uniform deposits with fewer vertical discontinuities. Lack of steep gradients in mouth deposits inhibits possible avulsions, locking the distributaries in place. Wide mouth bars can also affect nearby distributaries, and fewer distributaries are needed to feed the entire delta front. Spatially extensive deposition would also maintain the mouth bars under water for a longer time, delaying vegetation encroachment and related sediment bioturbation.\n\n[65] Our analysis has implications for future restoration projects of deltaic environments. The basic scheme for deltas restoration consists in diverting sediments from the main channel to subsiding and eroding areas where they can eventually create new wetlands [Paola et al., 2011]. According to Edmonds [2011], the success of such a restoration procedure is based on the rates of land growth estimated under different configurations of river diversion. Thus, hydrodynamic conditions of areas surrounding the river diversion are crucial to determine whether sediments would deposit near the shore or would be moved into the deep ocean. Only in the first case the diversion can effectively build new land.\n\n[66] For the fluvial-dominated case, the presence of tides gives rise to residual currents causing the lateral spreading of sediments. These residual currents could eventually transport very fine sediment fractions far away from the river mouth and partially prevent land building. Additionally, vegetation encroachment is obstructed due to the fact that mouth bars tend to be shallower and are maintained under water for a longer time. Vegetation is generally recognized for its role in accelerating sediment deposition by means of flow deceleration and sediment trapping. As vegetation expands, detritus and fine-grained sediments mix into the soil matrix, which gradually becomes less dense, finer, and more cohesive [e.g., Feagin et al., 2009; Mariotti and Fagherazzi, 2010; Nepf, 2012].\n\n[67] According to Edmonds [2012a], finer-graded sediments lead to the creation of new lands characterized by a rough shoreline, with small bays and fewer but larger interior lands, thus favoring trapping of incoming sediments and sheltering land from waves' erosion. Since vegetation establishment would be obstructed, all these positive feedbacks would be less effective. For the tidal-dominated case, due to the presence of the central channel, we expect the formation of more elongated deposits, with fewer but larger interior sediment islands, providing advantageous conditions for vegetation growth, encroachment, and protection from wave erosion. The aforeknown considerations suggest that tides would make sediment diversions and restoration practices less efficient in a river-dominated case, while they would favor them in the presence of a large tidal prism.\n\n6. Conclusions\n\n[68] Mouth bar formation is a complex phenomenon, owing to the interactions of several processes. Among others, tides play an important role in determining the final configuration of the mouth deposits. Here, the effect of tides on mouth bars has been analyzed using the computational fluid dynamics package Delft3D. The present work focuses on two end-member cases: a river with a constant and significant fluvial discharge debouching in a basin with tides (small tidal prism) and a river in which the fluvial discharge is small compared to tidal fluxes (large tidal prism).\n\n[69] In the fluvial-dominated case, tides increase, on average, jet spreading, producing mouth bars that are wider with respect to the case without tides [e.g., Edmonds and Slingerland, 2007]. Fast flows during low tide triggered by the drawdown water surface profile [Lamb et al., 2012] transport sediments to the sides, increasing the width of the depositional area. Tidal oscillations therefore act as a dispersion process similarly to waves [Jerolmack and Swenson, 2007; Nardin and Fagherazzi, 2012; Nardin et al., 2013]. Moreover, tidal oscillations favor flow bifurcation and the formation of a central mouth deposit. In fact, even shallow deposits can become obstacles for the flow at low tide.\n\n[70] In the tidal-dominated case, a central channel forms giving rise to a trifurcation that is commonly displayed in tidal inlets [Hayes, 1975; Fitzgerald, 1976]. Flow reversal during flood maintains the central channel flushed and produces lateral deposits that trigger two lateral bifurcations and the formation of side channels. The occurrence of a bifurcation or trifurcation depends on the relative strength of the tidal discharge with respect to the fluvial discharge and the ratio between tidal amplitude and water depth. A high fluvial discharge favors a bifurcation, which is always present for a river velocity more than twice the tidal velocity. A high tidal range at the river mouth also favor bifurcations with respect to trifurcations. Two examples from the Gulf of Mexico, USA, agree well with our findings. The Apalachicola Delta, characterized by a large fluvial discharge, is dominated by bifurcations, while the mouth of the Suwannee River, characterized by an oscillating discharge, displays on average more trifurcations.\n\n\n[71] This research was supported by Exxon Mobil Upstream Research Company award EM01830, the ACS-PRF program award 51128-ND8, by NSF award OCE-0948213 and through the VCR-LTER program award DEB 0621014.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7625657320022583}
{"content": "This fisherman on the shores of Lake Malawi caught only a handful of fish [Charles Mkoka]\n\n\n\n\nHe says the rainfall pattern has been changing over the past 40 years and blames human activity, including deforestation, for the fluctuating water levels which affect the breeding cycles of fish.\n\nDwindling fish stocks\n\n\n\n\n\n\nUnpredictable weather\n\n\nSteve Donda, Malawi's deputy director of fisheries, acknowledges that the country's fish population is in decline but says factors other than climate change, including over-fishing and the destruction of breeding environments, may be responsible.\n\nHowever, a report published in June by the aid agency Oxfam, Winds of change: Climate change, poverty and the environment in Malawi, notes that winds have become so strong in the country and rains so heavy that they regularly destroy houses, crops and boats.\n\n\"The main rainy season is becoming ever-more unpredictable. In general, over the last 40 years, fishermen and farmers say temperatures are hotter and the rains are arriving late and becoming more intense and concentrated, which reduces the length of the growing season and triggers both more droughts and more floods,\" observes Elvis Sukali, a Lilongwe-based communications officer for Oxfam.\n\nHis comments echo those of Elina Kululanga, a climate scientist with the Climate Change and Meteorological Service - a Malawian government department responsible for weather forecasting and predictions.\n\n\"Climate variations know no boundaries and these changes are coming in because of the displacement by human emissions in the atmosphere. These are causing abnormality in the way climate behaves hence affecting rainfall patterns.\n\n\"In Malawi, we would point to temperature changes as the main factor that is linked to climate change,\" Kululanga says.\n\nTaking action\n\nBingu wa Mutharika, Malawi's president, launches NAPA [Charles Mkoka]\nOxfam has recommended that the Malawian government compile an action list of measures it wants to implement in order to begin adapting to climate change.\n\nMutharika launched a nationwide plan called the National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPA), with the aim of improving community resilience, restoring forests, improving agricultural production and preparedness for floods and droughts and boosting climate monitoring.\n\nMalawi's NAPAs will cost $22.43m which, to date, has not been forthcoming from the international community that initially urged Malawi to develop its plan.\n\nOxfam has blasted aid agencies for this, saying that the ongoing failure to fund the NAPAs drawn up by the world's least developed countries is unacceptable.\n\nHowever, civil society groups in Malawi say the lack of donor funds must not become an excuse for inaction by the authorities, and are urging the government to do more even if the NAPAs remain unfunded.\n\n'Less rain, less food'\n\nThe Malawi report coincided with Oxfam reports produced in South Africa and Uganda which revealed that the populations of these countries were facing similar challenges.\n\nAlthough Africa contributes less than three per cent of global emissions, Oxfam South Africa observed that climate change poses a huge threat to development on the continent.\n\nScientists predict that the production of many staple foods will be seriously affected, with the average maize yield in southern Africa set to decline by as much as 30 per cent in the coming years.\n\nThe number of people without adequate access to water on the continent is predicted to triple to 600 million by 2050.\n\nIn Uganda, a government climate analysis published in December 2007, noted that the wetter areas of the country around the Lake Victoria basin, in the east and northwest, are becoming wetter.\n\nMeteorologists and farmers report the same phenomena: in most districts, recent years have witnessed an increasingly erratic onset and cessation of the rainfall seasons, and when the rain comes it is heavier and more violent.\n\nFarmers and pastoralists say these changes are shortening the rainy season and that the net effect is less rain and more drought or as one farmer put it: \"Less rain means less food.\"\n\nCoping with climate change\n\nEnvironmentalists aim to raise awareness of climate change in schools [Charles Mkoka]\nHowever, some caution is needed in interpreting these statements.\n\nIn order to manage the situation, Malawi recently followed Angola, Swaziland and Zambia by launching two new disease resistant varieties of maize - ZM 309 and ZM 523 - developed for poor farmers in drought-prone areas with infertile soils, in order to help provide some food security.\n\nThe move is part of the Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa project to give more poor farmers in sub-Saharan Africa maize varieties - a staple food among Africans - that have increased levels of drought tolerance.\n\nChristine Mtambo, Malawi's chief agriculture officer who is responsible for crop production in the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security, says the new varieties suit the present climate conditions because they are drought tolerant and mature fast.\n\nPerhaps, with climate change adaptation and mitigation measures in place, fishermen like Nyangu and subsistence farmers will be able to cope with the changing climate.\n\nBut Raphael Mweninguwe, a renowned Malawi environmental columnist for the weeky newspaper Sunday Times newspaper, warns that the changing climate is a wake-up call for the people to respond to changing weather conditions by employing measures that are environmentally friendly.\n\nHe argues that there should be more awareness of climate change issues among various stakeholders within the country and beyond Malawi's borders.\n\nSource: Al Jazeera", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.6190415620803833}
{"content": "Distance Between Chennai To Hampi - By Road 9 Hour 21 Mins (581 Km 567 Mtrs)\n\n  • By Taxi To Hampi\n\n    9h 21m 582 KM\n  • 11,740 - 17,560 Book Now\nChennaiChennai HampiHampi\n\nChennai to Hampi\n\nTravel can be blase when everything related to it falls in place . If we know the exact distance from the source to the destination, when we know how much time it would take for us to travel that distance, the navigation is precise and fuel tank is full, would the journey not become a smoother affair?   The convenience of learning about the distance between Chennai to Hampi is very helpful while traveling, which is, 9h 21m (581 km 567 mtrs)\nAlong with this, we become aware of the Travel Time from Chennai to Hampi is 9h 21m; without much hassle. The journey can be customized by adding the stop over for having food or may be staying overnight in case of long journeys. The distance and travel time would change accordingly and also per the traffic and road conditions.\nThe step by step navigation available helps to reach the place without any disturbance. The driving directions are elucidated well which supports in the journey. The detailed Road Map from Chennai to Hampi is very compliant in the far-reaching expedition. The Distance between Chennai to Hampi is effortlessly accomplished when you have distancebetween.com with you, showing the detailed instructions, time and distance.\nThe fuel cost calculator is helpful in calculating the amount of fuel that would be used while traveling from a cab or by your own car. You can easily calculate Fuel Cost from Chennai to Hampi The type of car with its respective mileage and the distance being travelled are the determiners for calculating the fuel cost. The approximate cost is presumed which is also helpful in a way that the car rental companies will not fool you. Car Rental from Chennai to Hampi is also available.\n\nHave your say here.\n\ncaptcha no  \n\nRecent Comments\n\nNo Records", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5233485698699951}
{"content": "Not fishing related, but one of the best ever 'reads.' [Archive] - Fly Fishing Forum\n\n: Not fishing related, but one of the best ever 'reads.'\n\n12-06-2003, 10:49 AM\nThe selfish generation\nWe allow marketeers to dictate our social norms - with dire results\n\nJenni Russell\nSaturday December 6, 2003\nThe Guardian\n\n\nA friend in a precarious industry, shattered by his third redundancy in three years, made an appointment with the local careers service to discuss other options. The adviser didn't bother to turn up for the first appointment, or for the second. There was no apology and no explanation. My friend wasn't prepared to be humiliated by asking for a third. \"Just when you feel like a piece of rubbish, they treat you like one,\" he said.\n\nAn acquaintance on a newspaper, a tough and experienced journalist, felt so continuously unwell that her doctor decided she was going through an early menopause. Then her hypercritical and contemptuous boss moved on, and her symptoms disappeared.\n\nOne factor links many of the miseries we inflict upon one another, from anti-social behaviour to bullying at work and our encounters in public places. It is our lack of respect for others, coupled with our obsession with being treated with respect ourselves. And the less respect we encounter, the less prepared we are to offer any to anyone else. It's no longer true that most people aspire to having good manners; many just want to protect their egos in every social encounter. Conscious of our jealous sensitivity to any slight, we go out into the public arena armed only with our own willingness to be aggressive or oblivious in response.\n\n\n\nThis behaviour matters enormously because we are social animals, critically dependent on the reactions of others for our well-being. Two centuries ago the Earl of Chesterfield, writing to his son, warned him that men will forgive any quarrel or criticism, except one. They cannot tolerate being treated with contempt. Last month new scientific research demonstrated that the brain reacts to a social snub in just the same way as it does to a physical injury. In effect, by our thoughtless and self-protective behaviour, we are going through our days delivering small social injuries to one another, each one of which is felt as acutely as physical pain.\n\n\nThe people most vulnerable to hurt are those whose self-worth is already undermined by those around them: bullied workers, mothers who have given up work, recent immigrants, people in menial jobs. Those with the least money and the least authority are made continually aware of others' contempt. But the erosion of concern for others is taking place at all levels of society. The wealthier you are, the more protected you are from the consequences. Prosperous people can largely pay others to be nice to them. Yet they too practise and suffer from the new selfishness.\n\nFewer people now observe the conventions of good manners. They accept invitations, only to withdraw at the last minute when something more desirable appears. At formal events, some people are ruthless about ignoring a neighbour in favour of a more useful guest. The old idea that one had a social responsibility towards one's host or fellow guests is beginning to be replaced by a determination to maximise one's individual satisfaction, regardless of the emotional injury caused to anyone else. The values of the market are openly invading the social sphere. Why practise duty when you could make a contact or secure a gain?\n\nThe answer is that we are all diminished by this behaviour. If every social encounter is reduced to a self-marketing opportunity, we will all, at some point, be made savagely unhappy. It may work, temporarily, for the powerful and desirable. But at some time every one of us will experience failure, be perceived as dull or grow old. We all want to be valued as human beings, rather than commodities. It is the generosity and tolerance of others that makes our lives bearable.\n\nThe human, social and economic cost of our lack of mutual respect is enormous. Consider the wasted emotional energy, the destruction of confidence and creativity, and the alienation that results from it. Anxious and undermined, we hand on humiliation to others, then deplore the dissolution of social bonds. The industries that surround us will do nothing to reverse this trend. They make their money and find their audiences by appealing to our egos.\n\n\n\n12-06-2003, 01:01 PM\nThanks for posting this Fred. We'd all be better off, both individually and collectively, if we'd only be a bit kinder to others and less insecure of our own worth.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.6940751671791077}
{"content": "Howard Hodgkin\n\nHoward Hodkgin, From Memory, 2014–15, oil on wood, 27 7/8 × 33 1/8 inches (70.8 × 84.1 cm) © Howard Hodgkin. Photo by Prudence Cuming Associates Ltd.\n\nHoward Hodgkin Listed Exhibitions (73 Kb)\nHoward Hodgkin Bibliography (Selected) (111 Kb)\n\nIn exploring the very nature of painting both as cultured language and sheer expression, Hodgkin disregards the classical polarities of abstraction and representation, past and present, canvas and frame. Assertive compressed gestures, sweeping complex textures, a lush palette, and the dynamic interchange of light and dark are all traits of his distinctive signature. With their maximalist gestures and saturated colors, his more intimately scaled paintings appear jewel-like, while larger works are opulent and theatrical. With incorporated frames and painted wooden supports, they operate as both objects and images. Embracing spontaneity and directness in equal measure to the processes of reflection and capitulation, it may take a year for Hodgkin to prepare to execute a single brushstroke. The seemingly casual, urgent quality of his paintings belies the fact that most of them have been worked on for two or three years. More than ever they convey the relationship between hand, eye, and memory that drives their process, visual structure, and emotional temperature.\n\nHoward Hodgkin was born in 1932 in London. He attended Camberwell School of Art, England, from 1949 to 1950, and Bath Academy of Art, England, from 1950 to 1954.  His first retrospective was curated by Nicholas Serota at the Museum of Modern Art, Oxford, in 1976. Since then, major museum exhibitions include “Paintings 1975 to 1995,” Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (1995, traveled to Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth, Texas; Kunstverein für die Reinlände und Westfalen, Germany; and Hayward Gallery, London, through 1996); “Howard Hodgkin Large Paintings,” Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art, Scotland (2002); Irish Museum of Modern Art, Dublin (2006, traveled to Tate Britain, London; and Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía, Madrid, through 2007); “Paintings: 1992–2007,” Yale Center for British Art, Connecticut (2007, traveled to Fitzwilliam Museum, University of Cambridge, England); “Royal Elephants from Moghul India: Paintings from the Collection of Howard Hodgkin,” Ashmolean Museum, Oxford (2010); “Time and Place,” Modern Art Oxford, United Kingdom (2010, traveled to De Pont Museum of Contemporary Art, The Netherlands; and San Diego Museum of Art, California, through 2011); Fondation Bemberg, France (2013); and “Made in Mumbai,” Curator’s Gallery at Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya, Mumbai (2016). Hodgkin was knighted in 1992, awarded the Shakespeare Prize in Hamburg in 1997, and made a Companion of Honor in 2003.\n\nHodgkin currently lives and works in London.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9480187892913818}
{"content": "Binge Drinking Impairs Bone Healing\n\n\nBinge Drinking Impairs Bone Healing\n\nThe study by Loyola University Medical Center is providing insights into how alcohol slows healing on the cellular and molecular levels. The findings could lead to treatments to improve bone healing in alcohol abusers, and possibly non-drinkers as well. \n\n\"Many bone fractures are alcohol-related, due to car accidents, falls, shootings, etc. In addition to contributing to bone fractures, alcohol also impairs the healing process. So add this to the list of reasons why you should not abuse alcohol,\" said Roman Natoli, who carried the study along with John Callaci and Rachel Mauer. \n\n\nThe study found three ways in which alcohol impaired bone healing after a fracture. There were differences between the control group and the alcohol-exposed group in the callus, the hard bony tissue that forms around the ends of fractured bones. \n\nIn the alcohol-exposed group, the callus was less mineralised, meaning not as much bone was forming. Moreover, the bone that did form was not as strong. \n\n\n\n\nThe findings were presented at the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research 2013 Annual Meeting in Baltimore.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8762516379356384}
{"content": "Rate this paper\n  • Currently rating\n  • 1\n  • 2\n  • 3\n  • 4\n  • 5\n2.50 / 2\nPaper Topic:\n\nDiscuss the sthrengths and weaknesses of content and process theories of motivation\n\n\nMotivation is a big influencer of productivity . Many supervisors know that what motivates employees to reach their peak performance is not easy . This is because employees respond in many ways to their jobs and their organization 's practices . Thus , a behavior that is motivated is one which is voluntarily chosen by each employee . The content approach to motivation is one that is of the assumption that individuals are motivated by the desire to fulfill inner needs . Content theories are something that is on the needs that\n\nmotivate people . On the other hand process approach to motivation is on how and why people choose particular behavior in to meet their personal goals . Process theories are on the outside influences or behaviors that people choose to meet their needs . These external or outside influences are usually available to supervisors\n\nAn example of the content approach to motivation is Maslow 's Hierarchy of Needs which has five level of needs . People go up these levels as their needs are answered . As the lower needs are satisfied , then the higher needs are activated . The most powerful employee need is that one which has not be yet satisfied . Abraham Maslow presented his needs theory in 1942 and then was published in 1954 in Motivation and Personality . This can be advantageous because the employees ' needs are answered as the person is satisfied . But it has its weakness too because it is rigid and does not cover the other small details that need to be taken into consideration when discussing motivations of people . Another content need is the Alderfer 's ERG which identified three categories of needs and its advantage is that there is the addition of the frustration-regression hypothesis that when people are not able to meet their higher level of needs , then , the next lower level needs come out Meanwhile , another one of the content theory is McClelland 's Learned Needs which divides motivation into the needs for power , affiliation and achievement . This is the theory that is more on people pursuing their goals . People like to control their situations so they take risks and get feedback on their progress . This is mainly what this content theory means . There is also the motivation for power and for affiliation all under McClelland 's Learned Needs . Content needs has advantages especially if the person is motivated internally . But if he is not motivated at all , then these content theories are of not much benefit (McClelland\n\nExamples of the process theory Vroom 's Expectancy Model which suggests that people must choose among the alternative behaviors because they will be expecting that these behaviors will also lead to one or more desired outcomes and that the other behaviors will also bring undesirable outcomes . Expectancy states that effort will also lead to first- outcomes . Equity is the thinking of fairness which is involved in rewards given\n\nAnother process theory is the Attention , Relevance , Confidence and Satisfaction (ARCS ) Model of Motivational Design or Keller...\n", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7662617564201355}
{"content": "Titanoboa... Pt 2.\n\nAs you can probably infer by the lack blog posts, the past few months I've abstained from writing anything on this website. Yet to my surprise, the average amount of visitors has been steadily increasing over the past few months, with the post receiving the most hits being Titanoboa... OMG!\n\nI guess people like gigantic snakes.\n\nEven Titanoboa wasn't this big. This is why we have fiction: to fuel our ever growing need to escape the mundane.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7415240406990051}
{"content": "Home  >>  Write  >>  Photography  >>  Professional Photography  >>  Macro-photography\n\n\n\nOne of photography’s greatest qualities is its ability to show us things that are either outside our normal field of vision, or that we could see if we’ve looked but usually fail to register in the hubbub of daily life. In few fields of photography are these qualities more powerfully expressed than in close-up and macro-photography, whether it is the intricate vein of a fallen leaf, or the fine hairs on the knee of an insect whose entire body would go unnoticed unless it happened to land on us.\n\nAlmost anything can be a suitable subject for close-up or macro photography. Collectors for stamps, coins and other small objects can record their examples; electronic students can photograph circuit boards, and so on; but overwhelmingly the most popular subject for close-up photos is nature. Going in close, however, presents numerous technical and aesthetic challenges.\n\nThe term “macro” is one of the most misused word in photography. For years, lens manufacturers have been using it to describe any lens that focuses slightly closer than average. In fact, what they are refer to as macro, should be called close-up. Technically speaking, a photograph cannot be considered a true macro shot until the subject is reproduced on the film at life size (1:1) or greater. You will need a small amount of special equipment for macro-photography,  but it is relatively inexpensive. \n\n“Microphotography” is not about photographing very small objects close-up, but is in fact the process of making tiny photographic images, such as on microfilm. “Photomicrography” is the art of taking photos of things we can’t see with the human eye. You can do this by attaching your camera to the top of a microscope and shooting through it. To get the best shots you’ll need a good SLR camera for depth of field and focusing. Also, you’ll need the best lens you can afford. Prime lenses are generally more suitable than zooms for sharpness and a wider aperture. Consider the focal length of your lens. With a short (50mm) lens, you might be too close to your subject, creating shadow. A short telephoto is great, but also, ones with internal focusing is an advantage. Get a tripod if you can, to reduce camera shake and motion blur. There are accessories like a close-up diopter lens, which acts like a filter, but allows you to get closer to your subject. Extension tubes and bellows are good for focusing on subjects closely because it increases the distance between the lens and the film plane. Reversing Rings and Stacking Rings are also neat – they allow you to fit your lens on backwards, giving you a closer look.\n\nIn macro-photography, look for texture, design and pattern. You can get great shots if you get close enough to focus on a pattern on something. Also, keep in mind your depth of field: you can take a shot of the center of flower (which is crisp) while having the petals around it seemed slightly blurred. This is called a “limited depth of field” and it is achieved with longer lens at a wide aperture. They are great shots. Whatever your subject, experiment and have fun – there are so many things waiting to be photographed that you might normally not see.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9830217361450195}
{"content": "Bed and Breakfast Andrea e Valentina, is located at Torre del Pozzo (Cuglieri), a village in the heart of Sardinia, and offers a cosy holiday accommodation 100 metres from the seashore, along with a friendly atmosphere for a truly unforgettable stay, surrounded by the natural beauty of the West Coast of Sardinia.\nAt a short walk from the marine hamlets of S’Archittu and Santa Caterina, our location is suitable for taking relaxing short trips to the main tourist attractions in the Province of Oristano: the Sinis peninsula and its gorgeous beaches; the archaeological sites of Tharros and Cornus; the villages inland, so replete with folklore and history, such as Cuglieri, Santu Lussurgiu, Fordongianus; the fishing village of Cabras and the town of Bosa, so tightly bound to the sea.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9198712110519409}
{"content": "Rushing Through The Journey\n\n\n“But don’t hurry the journey at all.\n\nBetter if it lasts for years,\n\nso you’re old by the time you reach the island,\n\nwealthy with all you’ve gained on the way,\n\nnot expecting Ithaka to make you rich.”\n\n\nTrue Life: I’m a LOTRO Addict\n\n\n\n\n\n\n-Sparling Wilson\n\nLOTRO: A Test of Patience\n\n\n\n\n\n\n– Logan W\n\nLOTRO: The Quests Go Ever On and On\n\nPlaying Lord of the Rings Online has been interesting. For me, I have zero experience playing that type of computer game, so a lot of it is just me fumbling around, not sure where to go or what to do. \nI have a lot of problems with that, actually. I can start quests, and that’s fine, but ask me to find out where to go? Man, I have problems enough getting around the city where I’ve lived for all of eight years, and you’re asking me to figure out a landscape with very few signs? Needless to say, it takes me twice as long to find a quest’s location/person than it does to finish it, despite the map and indicator icon thingies (yes, that’s a term).\nI’d also prefer it if it was more interactive. I know that doesn’t really make sense, but I’d like to be able to do more, aside from click on different attacks (sorry, I’m one of the ones who prefers the shoot-em-up games). \nAside from that, however, there is a lot I find fascinating and interesting about the game. As a long time Tolkien fan, getting to see the locations that I know from the books (and from the movies) laid out on a landscape I can explore for myself is, well, awesome. \nUnfortunately, there is a downside to being a Tolkien geek. Even as I explore the different areas and options, I can’t help but feel like it isn’t really the Lord of the Rings. The two don’t connect in my head.  Sure, the names are the same, and the land is made out to be Middle Earth, but it’s just not right. Can’t even put my finger on the why, but it doesn’t feel like Tolkien. And I kinda think that if Tolkien were able to see LOTRO, he’d be a bit aghast.\nSo, I guess the end result is that I can play the game, and I find it entertaining, but it will never be my favorite game. \n\n\nComing out of the Closet\n\n\nSome people are GAME. Get over it.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nI am a gamer.\n\n-Deathly Hallowed\n\nTeam 7: Castle Joyous Plains\n\nby: Calvin Patimeteeporn, Breon Guarino, and Aneel Henry\n\nBook 3, Canto 1 Stanzas 20 – 30\n\nFrom the forest, the PC is thrown into the midst of a small village in the plains surrounding Castle Joyous. Though the path to Castle Joyous is, indeed present, the road is blocked with construction, leaving the player at the hands of the villagers, who are in desperate need of assistance. It would seem as if the Lady of Castle Joyous, has neglected the villagers’ cries for help and has left the town completely isolated. Those townspeople with weak minds and souls have already left the town for the hedonistic castle of Lady Malecasta, leaving a handful of loyal and chaste villagers to deal with the problems. With no one to rely on, the town has fallen to a destitute state, being attacked by both wolves and bandits alike that emerge from the forest at night.\nAs the player enters the town past a rundown barn and two already abandoned watchtowers, the player witnesses the ruins of a once busy town square. A worried innkeeper is fretting over his dwindling food supplies that are continuously being pilfered by a wolf pack that has taken residence in an area of the forest near the town. Meanwhile, a small group of villagers are holding a meeting at the town well, discussing the bandit situation. While these villagers face these pressing matters, the rest of the village also holds a fair share of menial tasks that the townspeople cannot do alone. A small girl has lost her chickens around the town square and a young boy wishes that he could retrieve his family heirloom from one of the bandits.\nWhile the menial tasks are up to the player to decide, the wolf and bandit situation, however cannot be left alone. Something must be done. Will the player pilfer the innkeeper’s store and blame it on the “undefeatable” wolves or will the player banish the wolves once and for all? Will the player help the bandits destroy and loot the entire village or will the player remain good and repel their advances? Regardless of choice, it would appear that after these events the road opens to Castle Joyous, allowing the player to move forward of his or her journey.\nHowever, the player encounters a struggle between the six knights of the castle and a sole, brave knight, Redcrosse. The player must now defeat four of the six knights in order to gain entry to the next part of the journey, and gain access to the hedonistic castle that is Castle Joyous.\n\nMain Quests:\n1. The Road is Blocked (part 1)\n•The player encounters road construction that obstructs the player from reaching the castle.\n•The player must complete Quest 2 to proceed\n\n2. A. The Wolves that Bite and Bandits That Catch!\n•The player must talk to both the Innkeeper and the villagers meeting by the well\n\nB1. The Wolves of the Forest\n•In the forthcoming night, the player must confront the wolves that plague the Innkeeper\n-Option A: Defeat the wolf pack that comes to raid the Inn’s storage (Chaste).\n-Option B: Pilfer all the Inn’s store and lie to the Innkeeper and blame it on the wolves (Unchaste).\n\nB2. Traveling Bandits\n•In the forthcoming night, the player must confront the bandits.\n-Option A: Kill all bandits that dare set foot in the town, expelling them forever from the village (Chaste).\n-Option B: Join the bandits and raid and loot the entire town. Nothing escapes your wrath (Unchaste).\n\n3. The Road is Blocked (part 2)\n•After the Quest 2, the road is cleared and the player can move on.\n\n4. Redcrosse and the Knights\n•The player encounters Redcrosse and must defeat 4 of the 6 knights that are attacking them.\n•The player is allowed entry to Castle Joyous.\n\nSide Quests:\n1. The Chickens\n•The player talks to a young girl who seems to have lost her chickens.\n•The player must collect all three chickens that are running around the village.\n-Option A: Give back the chickens to the small girl (Chaste)\n-Option B: Demand payment who in the end gives up a rare gem that has been passed down her family for years (Unchaste).\n\n2. Lost Heirloom\n•The player talks to a young boy in the square.\n•The player must find and locate the heirloom which happens to be in the hands of a lone bandit near the village.\n•Player must defeat the bandit.\n-Option A: Return the heirloom to the boy (Chaste).\n-Option B: Pretend you did not find the heirloom and keep it for yourself (Unchaste).\n\nThe Innkeeper: A worried middle-aged man in commoner clothing. Owns and operates the Inn which is plagued by wolves nightly.\nThe Villagers: A group of emaciated townsfolk with tattered clothing who are concerned about the future of their village with the pressing matter of bandits.\nThe Small Girl: A young girl with dirty and torn clothing who has lost all of her chickens.\nThe Small Boy: A young boy with dirty and tattered clothing with no other desire than to reclaim his family’s honor by having their stolen heirloom back in his hands.\nLone Bandit: A lone bandit in bandit attire, furs and ragged clothing. Though weak, he still poses somewhat of a threat. He has stolen the boy’s family heirloom.\nBandits: Gang of bandits dressed in furs and very aggressive. They raid the towns every night or so.\nWolf Pack: A group of 6 or so wolves that raid the Inn’s store nightly.\nRedcrosse: A brave knight who refuses to succumb to Lady Malecasta’s knights and needs the player’s help to defeat them.\nThe Six Knights: Black knights of the Lady of the castle. Aggressive and intent on serving her.\n\nWeaving the Threads Together\n\n\n", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.6244900226593018}
{"content": "Mating system and reproductive success in eastern Pacific harbour seals\n\n\nSean A. Hayes, Fisheries Ecology Division, NMFS Southwest Fisheries Science Center, 110 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA. Fax: 831-420-3980; E-mail:\n\n\nHarbour seals sometimes breed along inland travel corridors where females become clustered in space and time and males establish underwater acoustic display territories similar to terrestrial arenas known as resource-based leks. Under these conditions, we predicted that higher levels of polygyny would be observed than has been previously reported for this species mating in open coast environments without travel corridors. Reproductive success (RS) of 70 males was measured using 20 microsatellite DNA loci and likelihood-based paternity analysis of 136 offspring collected over 3 years. Most males were assigned either zero or one paternity with 80% confidence. The greatest number of pups assigned to one male in a season was two. Variance in RS was higher for males than females (which are biologically limited to one offspring per year) indicating low to mild polygyny. In addition, distributions of relatedness values among pups within year classes did not differ significantly from a simulated distribution with R = 0, indicating that half-siblings were uncommon. Overall, polygyny levels were low relative to terrestrial pinniped mating systems and similar to observations from a harbour seal population along an open coast. Due to large confidence intervals associated with our results, we cannot rule out the hypothesis that a travel corridor might increase the degree of polygyny skew relative to that observed in open coast environments. Habitat appeared to influence male strategies as the most successful males in open coast environments patrolled offshore, while the most successful male in this study defended a territory along the travel corridor.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8868763446807861}
{"content": "\n\nOn Instagram and Twitter: @unionbaywatch\n\nFriday, September 23, 2016\n\nAdios Amigos\n\nOn Monday afternoon, Kate, our youngest female osprey, appeared to be begging for food. It sounded like she hadn't eaten for a week.\n\nOn closer inspection I noticed the partially consumed fish in her grasp. Given the size, shape and color, I suspected it was a large trout or steelhead or possibly even a small salmon. Trying to estimate the size and type of fish made me wonder which fish osprey prefer. I decided to do a quick review.\n\nOn July 10th, Chester, Kate's father, appeared with some type of sunfish or perch. In any case a small fish which was almost as tall as it was long.\n\nOn July 24th, he snagged a smallmouth bass.\n\nAn hour and half later he returned with another one and displayed it very nicely. It is interesting to note how small Kate and her brothers were just two months ago.\n\nOn July 29th, it looked like Chester caught a trout.\n\nOn August 7th, he returned with another sunfish.\n\nAn hour later he had what looked like a bass. It is obvious osprey love fish. At the same time, our limited sample seems to show that they do not discriminate against any particular species. Chester's preference appears to be...anything with fins.\n\nReturning to Kate and her fish above the UW baseball field, I realized she must not be very hungry given the partially-consumed state of the fish. However, if she wasn't hungry then what was on her mind. When she turned her head, I followed her gaze. \n\nAt the other end of the center-field light pole was an obviously hungry double-crested cormorant. Kate was apparently feeling defensive.\n\nSuddenly, her cries grew even louder when one of her brothers arrived. \n\nAs Wilbur hovered over her, I began to wonder if Kate would abandon her fish. After watching her begging for food, while her brothers were eating last week, it certainly seemed like she deserved to keep this fish.\n\nNote: If you look closely you can see dark brown coloring on the front of Wilbur's legs. As far as I can tell this may just be individual variation. If you glance back at the Chester-with-fish photos, you can see that the coloring on Chester's legs is far less pronounced.\n\nIt was windy enough that Wilbur was able to simply hang in the air without even flapping his wings. There was no doubt in my mind, his intention was intimidation. He hung there for a full 15 seconds, while his 'fingers' at the ends of his wings were constantly adjusting for changes in the wind. Kate did not budge.\n\nFinally, her brother grew tired of balancing in the wind and landed beside her. As he edged closer, Kate extended her wings - apparently setting limits on his approach. \n\nFace to face, eye to eye and nearly toe to toe it became clear this battle was psychological, not physical.\n\nThe moment Kate returned to eating it was obvious she had won. Her brother lowered his head and left, defeated.\n\nSuddenly, more cormorants arrived.\n\nThe bravest of the dark diving birds landed on Kate's side of the light pole.\n\nKate's predatory stare seemed to take the edge off the cormorant's boldness.\n\nHe slowly sidled further and further away. Finally, all the cormorants gave up and left.\n\nDuring the whole process Kate's father, Chester, sat silently, one pole to the west. With his eyes often closed he was apparently sleeping and storing up energy - preparing for migration. It is interesting to compare his dark-brown coloring with Kate's.\n\nGiven a similar angle, we can clearly see all of the delicate, white edging on Kate's wings, but we can rest assured that there is nothing delicate about her spirit.\n\nThe next morning I returned to find Kate and one her brothers hovering around the nest. I just never tire of looking at the crisp, clean feathers of the young birds. This photo seemed like the perfect parting shot. \n\nLast week, we saw Chester bring in food for all three of the young. However, there was no sign of Lacey, their mother and I have not seen her since. On Monday, we saw Chester with just two of the young. Yesterday, when he delivered food there was only one of the young to receive the fish. I have no way to be positive when migration begins. They are spending less and less time around the nest. Soon - they will all be gone. \n\nIf you are lucky enough to winter in Mexico, you may spot one of them hovering above the surf near some warm and sunny shore. Otherwise, we will just have to console ourselves with waiting for their return, next Spring.\n\nHave a great day on Union Bay...where once again osprey raise young in the city!\n\n\n\nBill Anderson just reminded me that the young osprey will most likely stay in Mexico all of next year and only return North to nest in 2018 - after they are fully mature. Chester and Lacey should be back in 2017 and hopefully reuse the same nest site. It will be interesting to see if their unique combination of markings makes them identifable as individuals next year - even after they have molted and replaced many of their feathers. Thank you, Bill!\n\nSaturday, September 17, 2016\n\nThe Un-Snipe\n\nWednesday morning, the kingfisher chattered noisily, announcing my entry into its domain. \n\nThe pied-billed grebe watched silently as I paddled north. The orange sun glowed fiercely as it fought to rise above the Cascades. Initially, the wind was still and the water mirrored the world above. I was hoping to watch our three young Union Bay osprey diving for fish. \n\nWhile gliding between islands of cattails, a small bird flushed. I caught a brief glimpse of its silhouette. Its disproportionately long bill was hanging down at a 45 degree angle. The word 'Snipe' immediately popped into my mind. I wondered, could it be anything else? \n\nThe bird was oddly difficult to track. Repeatedly, it seemed to nearly stop in midair, before swiftly switching direction. The arc of its disjointed flight was as beautiful as it was unpredictable. The stop-and-go stuttering reinforced my initial impression. Excellent marksmen (or markswomen) are called snipers for a reason. Sadly, the bird was gone before I even thought about lifting my camera.\n\nNear the osprey nest, the sunlight warmed the water creating an early morning mist.\n\nA few minutes later, Chester appeared with a second helping of food for his young. At this point, the two young males had food to eat. Sadly, their sister simply sat in the middle of the nest watching, waiting and begging. (None of the young birds seemed particularly interested in securing their own food.) \n\nSince watching their first flights, I have been thinking of the young male osprey as Wilbur and Orville. Later, when I learned how close the Wright Brother's were to their younger sister, Katharinethe names Orville, Will and Kate seemed very appropriate. It also seems fitting, that the last time young osprey learned to fly above Union Bay could have been about the same time the Wright Brothers were learning to fly above Kitty Hawk.\n\nWhile watching the young osprey, a shorebird came and landed nearby. It was about the same size and shape as a snipe. It also used its long bill to search the mud for morsels of food. I assumed it was the same bird I had seen earlier.\n\nThere were hints, which I only noticed later, that this was a actually a different type of bird. \n\nI noticed how it shut its eyes while preening. I also noticed how the ends of its bill spread apart. Compare this photo with the previous and you will notice the incredible flexi'bill'ity. The tips of the bill have evolved into 'fingers' which can probe, sense and grasp small creatures hidden in the mud.\n\nMy attention was further split between red-shafted flickers, green-winged teals, red-winged blackbirds and of course the incessant cries of Kate, the young female osprey. Suddenly, one of the young males leaped off the nest and took to the air. Kate quickly assumed his spot at the table.\n\nThe young osprey landed on a light pole above the baseball field and confronted a much larger great blue heron. I have watched the parents harass herons, but this was the first time I have seen one of the young get involved. I think the essence of the issue was related to the light pole 'overlooking' the osprey nest.\n\nA moment later Kate joined her brother and added a little weight on the osprey end of the scale. At this point, I began to wonder what would happen next.\n\nWhen Chester joined the fray, I thought for sure the heron would take flight.\n\nSurprisingly, the heron stood its ground.\n\nKate returned to the nest. I find it incredible that in young birds, nearly every feather can be perfectly pristine. Slowly, each of the osprey gave up and dispersed.\n\nFinally, the heron dived off the light pole and headed toward the nest. I became a bit nervous. When the heron veered off towards the Carp Pond, I breathed a sigh of relief.\n\nThe 'unsnipe' took turns sleeping and feeding through all the osprey drama.\n\nWhen it traded places with the killdeer, the light coloring under its wings and the color of its tail provided hints to its true identity.\n\nSuddenly, a true Wilson's Snipe flew in and landed nearby.\n\nAt this point, I at least realized that there was a difference in the plumage of the two birds.\n\nTake a moment and compare this photo of the snipe with...\n\n...the 'unsnipe'. Both birds' necks go up and down so that difference is not significant.\n\nYou can even scroll back through the previous photos if you would like, to really search for differences between the two birds. \n\nWith the luxury of photographs, I can see that the snipe has additional stripes across the top of its head, more rusty coloring on its wings and nape, an obviously orange stripe on its tail, 'vertical' white striping on it back and my Sibley guide points out that the snipe is darkly colored under its wing.\n\nLater, Dennis Paulson confirmed my suspicion that the 'unsnipe' was actually a dowitcher. I also learned that in freshwater habitat a dowitcher is most likely to be of the long-billed variety, as opposed to the short-billed dowitcher - which looks very similar - but is usually found near salt-water.\n\nThe dowitcher flew right at me before veering off to the south. The snipe took to the air and followed. Later, as I headed home for lunch, I found the two birds again, side by side working in the mud.\n\nWhile the dowitcher is most likely a migrant passing through, the snipe might very well be a resident bird, although rarely seen by me. I feel incredibly lucky to live near Union Bay and to share my time on Earth with so many wild and wonderful creatures. \n\n\n\nThis week's post is dedicated to Dr. Sara Reichard. Dr. Reichard, director of the University of Washington Botanical Gardens, passed away unexpectedly at the end of August. Her vision, inspiration and leadership will be sorely missed. \n\nThe following links will help you learn more about her exceptional life:\n\nWhen visiting the Arboretum or the Union Bay Natural Area, when observing the diversity of plants and trees or when watching the young osprey we should all be thankful for Sara's leadership and guidance which has enabled life to continue to flourish in these very special places.\n\n\nMonday, September 12, 2016\n\nThe Pelican Purlieu\n\nI remember seeing an American White Pelican only once before. In May of 2014, I saw one crossing high above Union Bay. I remember thinking it looked like it was heading for Greenlake. I wonder if it was actually headed for Whidbey Island.\n\nI spoke with Emily Martin while walking through the Arboretum last week. She mentioned that white pelicans have been seen repeatedly on Whidbey Island. Apparently they arrived around the end of Spring. My Sibley field guide shows white pelicans as a rarity in Western Washington, so I was immediately inspired by the idea of seeing them. \n\nEmily also sent me a link to an informative report on pelicans in the South Whidbey Record. The author quoted Dennis Paulson's suggestion that drought and climate change may be pushing pelicans to search for new breeding habitat. I also happened across a 2014 post by Dennis where he discussed white pelicans.\n\nOn Saturday afternoon, I finally got the chance to observe the white pelicans. Some were feeding occasionally but most were just preening and cleaning. Often they were slapping their partially-folded, nine-foot-long wings against the water. Which certainly seemed like an odd and very noisy way to take a bath.\n\nThey also tended to rotate and rub their heads over their backs and shoulders. \n\nNote: Given an average human physique, massaging your shoulders with the back of your head may not be a reasonable goal. Although, I occasionally see people who appear to be attempting the feat.\n\nI suspect the pelicans must have a had a satisfying and successful morning of fishing, given their early afternoon focus on grooming. \n\nThe tight-knit flock seemed surprisingly comfortable with a relatively small amount of personal space...\n\n ...especially given the size of their wings.\n\nEven in a civil society occasional disagreements occur.\n\nFrom this angle we can see a grey-brown dusting on the plumage of the bird who just arrived. I am uncertain whether the bird is changing into or out-of the darker plumage. In either case, the bird is not shy about wanting a dry place in the sun.\n\nI found it almost shocking to see how easily the bird lifted it body into the air. I suspect it must have been the mighty wings that propelled it - rather than the those stubby little legs.\n\nI find it interesting to note how the lower jaws appear to almost disconnect from their heads. Clearly, pelicans have some uniquely odd physical abilities. The white pelicans and their cousins, the brown pelicans, both seem to have to same basic body plan. Surprisingly, it is their behavioral differences which I find most obvious - even more than their contrasting colors.\n\nLast Monday, after a number of days in the Olympic rainforest (which I plan to discuss more in a future post) my friend, Rob, and I stopped by Rialto Beach. The wind was blowing, the rain was spitting and the waves crashed against the shore. Nonchalantly, skimming the surface of the water were brown pelicans.\n\nOccasionally, they would achieve a height of 20 or 30 feet before diving into the water.\n\nThe third bird from the previous photo left only a splash as it disappeared below the surface.\n\nAt Deer Lagoon, the white pelicans and their surroundings appeared calm, sunny and sedate.\n\nThey paddled about rather slowly and occasionally scooped up fish, usually with their heads completely below the surface. Only once was I able to observe an open and extended pouch.\n\nEven then, I could not be sure if the dark spot in the pouch was actually a little fish or just piece of seaweed.\n\nAt Rialto Beach, the acrobatic brown pelicans floated past in the troughs between the waves. \n\nThey seemed to be surfing. Without even flapping their wings, they were apparently transported on the air which was being pushed in front of the waves.\n\nAt Deer Lagoon, the acrobatics seemed limited to the single, 'pushy' pelican.\n\nThe objections to the pelican's intrusion appeared obvious - but without any real attempt at physical restraint or violence.\n\nIn fact, the bird who was pushed into the water appeared unperturbed. Plus, the bird on the left gets distracted and morphs its objections into to a personal back rub.\n\nThe white pelicans seemed surprisingly peaceful.\n\nMaybe when you have a nine-foot wingspan, and the strength to go with it, you have to accept that a peaceful co-existance is actually your best shot at survival. \n\nI began wondering why these birds are white. It makes sense to me that the brown pelicans need camouflage to hide them from the predators who lurk below the waves, but how is being white beneficial? My theory is that in the past the white pelicans must have layed eggs in places where there was snow on the ground. During Spring in Canada or inland on either side of the Rockies their white feathers would then provide excellent camouflage. If my logic is correct, it seems obvious that these birds do not really belong around the practically snow-free Salish Sea.\n\nOn the other hand, maybe prior to climate change the area around the Salish Sea was not so snow free as it seems today.\n\nLater, as I was leaving, and already quite some distance away, the pelicans decided to leave the salt-water, fly over the dike and land in the 'fresh' water. No doubt there are less predators to deal with at night, when you are in the middle of a huge, muddy lagoon.\n\nEven in the air, the pelicans flocked together.\n\nI was surprised at how close the could fly, without clipping their wings and sending themselves tumbling out of the sky.\n\nUltimately, they formed themselves into a single, perfectly-spaced line and flew directly over my head. \n\nThey were so close I could only photograph one at a time.\n\nIf climate change is forcing these majestic creatures to look for new breeding locations, I feel like we should do whatever we can to help them. As for me, I could be riding my bike and taking the light-rail more often and driving less. Maybe this winter I will build a rain garden to keep the rain from running off our roof and polluting Puget Sound. Runoff washes oil, fuel and antifreeze into the water and kills young salmon and other fish on which the pelicans feed. \n\nI keep thinking my next car should be electric. I realize it would be using hydro-electricity, which does impact fish, but electric vehicles can also be sourced from solar, wind and other carbon-free options. I believe, future generations deserve to live in world with plentiful fish and pelicans.\n\nHave a great day on Union Bay...where our water flows to the Salish Sea!\n\n\nPS: If you are like me, and purlieu is a new word for you, here are some links to definitions which should get you in the right neighborhood:", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5627900958061218}
{"content": "Businesses Denounce North Carolina's Antigay Law\n\nAmerican Airlines\n\nBusinesses are speaking out against North Carolina's passage of a law Wednesday rescinding antidiscrmination protections for  LGBT people, denouncing the measure as both unjust and bad for business.\n\nHouse Bill 2 overturns city nondiscrimination ordinances in the state, such as one recently adopted in Charlotte that, among other things, would allow transgender people to use the public restrooms that correspond with their gender identity. \n\nBusinesses such as Dow Chemical, PayPal, and American Airlines joined in condemning the passage of HB 2.\n\n“We believe no individual should be discriminated against because of gender identity or sexual orientation,” said a statement from American Airlines spokeswoman Katie Cody. “Laws that allow such discrimination go against our fundamental belief of equality and are bad for the economies of the states in which they are enacted.”\n\nAs The Charlotte Observer reports, the company operates its “second-biggest hub at Charlotte Douglas International Airport, where it just reached a new 10-year lease agreement.”\n\nOn Twitter, PayPal likewise criticized the legislation. “Inclusion is one of our core values and we are proud to champion LGBTQ equality in N. Carolina and around the world,” the company stated in a tweet.\n\nBusinesses including Microsoft, Wells Fargo, and Apple previously signed a joint statement to argue that anti-LGBT bills are bad for local economies — and for everyone, the Observer notes. \n\n“Corporate leaders are speaking out against bills that could allow individuals and businesses to discriminate against lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people and other minorities—versions of which are actively being considered in states across the country,” the statement read. “This proposed legislation is bad for business.”\n\nNorth Carolina's legislation could thus prove costly. The passage of Indiana’s Religious Freedom Restoration Act in March 2015, for instance is estimated to have cost the state $60 million in potential revenue. Indiana's bill would have allowed businesses and individuals to legally refuse to serve LGBT people or anyone else by citing religious objections.\n\nSeveral companies spoke out against the Indiana legislation, including Yelp, Angie's List, and Salesforce. Angie's List even canceled a planned expansion in the state. The widespread backlash led legislators to pass and Republican Gov. Mike Pence to sign a “fix” the legislation, aiming to assure it could not be used to justify anti-LGBT discrimination.\n\nMany businesses have yet to make a statement on HB 2. The bill was quickly pushed through the North Carolina legislature Wednesday in a special session called to block the Charlotte ordinance, which was set to take effect April 1. Gov. Pat McCrory, a Republican, signed it into law the same day.\n\nIn a statement, McCrory clarified the reasons behind his support of HB 2. “The basic expectation of privacy in the most personal of settings, a restroom or locker room, for each gender was violated by government overreach and intrusion by the mayor and city council of Charlotte,” he wrote.\n\nOn February 21, Charlotte’s City Council voted 7-4 to add sexual orientation and gender identity to its nondiscrimination law regarding public accommodations. The ordinance would have prohibited anti-LGBT discrimination in restaurants, city parks, limo and taxi services, and other businesses that serve the public, and would have assured that transgender people would have access to the public restrooms corresponding with their gender identity. McCrory stated that such laws “[defy] common sense and basic community norms by allowing, for example, a man to use a woman’s bathroom, shower or locker room.”\n\nGeorgia legislators have passed their own anti-LGBT bill, one that would be strikingly similar to the original Indiana law; Gov. Nathan Deal has yet to either sign or veto it. If it becomes law, Walt Disney and Marvel have pledged to stop doing business in the Peach State, and other entertainment companies have quickly joined in calling for a veto. The National Football League has also threatened to block Atlanta from hosting the Super Bowl in the future.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.755077600479126}
{"content": "An ailing Serena Williams stayed on course for a 20th grand slam singles title as she came back from the brink to reach the final of the French Open with a 4-6, 6-3, 6-0 win against Swiss power hitter Timea Bacsinszky.\n\n\n\n\nEarlier, Safarova overcame a slow start to defeat seventh-seed Ana Ivanovic 7-5, 7-5 and become the first female Czech player in 34 years to reach the French Open final.\n\nSafarova is the first female Czech player to reach the French Open final in 34 years [Getty Images]\n\nThe 13th-seeded left-hander, who beat Maria Sharapova in the fourth round, halted the 2008 champion's progress which saw Ivanovic reach a first grand slam semi-final after seven years.\n\nSafarova, who has not dropped a single set in this year's tournament, trailed 5-2 in the opening set before she fought back.\n\nShe went up an early break in the second set and stayed in front of her Serbian opponent. \n\nIvanovic offered some stiff resistence, breaking serve at 4-5, after Safarova double-faulted on match point.\n\nHowever, the Czech, a Wimbledon semi-finalist last year, broke back straight away and sealed the victory on her third match point. \n\nSource: Al Jazeera", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.7479929327964783}
{"content": "Cappers Farmer Blogs > Our Old Place Farm\n\nWhere The Warm Wind Blows\n\nLisa JohnsonThere is a place on my farm where a warm wind blows. The sky may be the brightest of blue. Or it can be dark and gray with billowy clouds churning in chaos. The heavy clouds bring rain, lightening and thunder.  The wind can be gusting all around, cool enough to bring a chill to my skin. And yet, I come to this place and amidst the storm there will be a warm wind blowing.\n\nOther times, the air can be still, muggy and moist or hot and dry. I reach this place and there will be a warm wind that is refreshing even on a humid day. This warm wind brings me renewal and refreshment.\n\nOn occasion, I will be busy with my chores. Getting done, hurrying to be somewhere and I will step into this warm wind. I stop, shut my eyes and smile. Taking the time to enjoy the warm wind as it blows by me. I feel grace and peace. It is calming to me. Just as quickly as it came upon me, it is gone. The moment stays with me through the rest of my chores and often my day.\n\nSky view from where the warm wind blows \n\nThere have even been times when I will walk to this place on my farm, on purpose. Looking for and needing to feel that warm wind and what it brings to me. My mind may be spinning about something that transpired during the day, a frustration, irritation or sadness. Or I may feel overwhelmed, tired and weary. I walk to this place, up the slight slope that is covered with sweet smelling clover and tall grass on either side. The vast sky is overhead and towering trees are all around. As I stand there, I have hope. Hope that the warm wind will blow. Sometimes it blows and sometimes it doesn't.\n\nThe times that I do go there seeking the warm wind, I find myself thinking that it is silly to think that a breeze will blow \"just for me\". But the times that I have gone there and there is no breeze anywhere else and I feel that warm wind touch my skin I have rejoiced! It brings tears to my eyes and joy to my heart.\n\nIt is not the warm wind that causes this peace and contentment. The peace comes from my Heavenly Father. He created me. He knows me. He loves me. When I call on Him, all things are possible! Even in the form of a warm wind.\n\nWhen I seek this place where the warm wind blows I think of a song that included a quote from Billy Graham. \"I've seen the effects of the wind but I've never seen the wind.\" I cannot see the wind. But I can see the effects of it in the leaves of the trees as they flutter and on the tall grasses that sway gently. I can also see the giant trees with strong branches and thick trunks that stand so tall and majestic bow and break with the effects of the wind. I have watched eagles soar and play on the currents of the wind.\n\nMighty and powerful. Calming and peaceful. Chilling and scary. Cooling and so refreshing that it can take your breath away. So much from something unseen. But this place where the warm wind blows for me is a place where I can see and feel the glory of God! Do you have a place like this that brings you peace and causes you to slow down and enjoy a moment?", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.6080666184425354}
{"content": "4 danger signs of a client from hell\n\nWatch out, there's a nightmare client about!\n\nClients from hell rarely have a tail, horns and the faint scent of brimstone. Whether you're a graduate designer or an experienced creative director, keeping an eye out for potentially nightmare clients is always a good idea. But how do you recognise them? Here are some of the less obvious warning signs...\n\n01. Ambiguous expectations\n\n\n02. Unappreciative\n\nA terrible client may expect behaviour, time or discounts for no other reason than they think they deserve it. Giving them what they want only reinforces their belief that the freelancer lives to work for them.\n\n03. Disrespectful \n\n\n04. Devaluing good work\n\n\n\n", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5603675842285156}
{"content": "New Mental-Health Manual Likely to Impact HR\n\nWednesday, May 22, 2013\nWrite To The Editor Reprints\n\n\n\nNew Diagnoses\n\nDSM-5 adds several new diagnoses that employers are likely to find vexing. One is \"Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder,\" which describes persons whose communication skills are impaired but who do not qualify for an autism diagnosis. It applies to persons with \"persistent difficulties in the social use of verbal and nonverbal communications\" that limit social relationships or occupational performance. While typically diagnosed in childhood it can continue into adulthood. Employees previously thought to be merely shy or socially awkward may qualify for this new diagnosis.\n\nAnother new diagnosis is \"Binge Eating Disorder,\" a condition characterized primarily by eating a large amount of food in a short time at least once per week for three months. DSM-5 notes that while most overweight persons do not engage in recurrent binge-eating, Binge Eating Disorder is \"reliably associated with overweight and obesity.\"  Thus, this diagnosis makes it more likely that obesity (at least when precipitated by binge-eating) might finally qualify as a disability under the ADA.\n\nYet another new diagnosis is \"Mild Neurocognitive Disorder.\"  This describes a modest decline in learning, attention or memory not associated with another mental disorder that does not interfere with the person's ability to live independently but which may require \"greater effort, compensatory strategies, or accommodation.\"  This can probably be found in almost anyone over the age of 50. While accommodations for the effects of aging is not required under the Age Discrimination in Employment Act, this new diagnosis may lead to requests for accommodation by older workers for the ordinary effects of aging.\n\nDSM-5 also adds Pre-Menstrual Dysphoric Disorder as a formal diagnosis. This diagnosis requires the occurrence of symptoms such as mood swings, increased interpersonal conflicts, anxiety or tension, overeating or food cravings, a sense of being overwhelmed, or weight gain, \"bloating\" or breast tenderness in the week prior to the start of the menstrual cycle. It is possible that women with this condition may seek accommodations or attribute difficulties at work to it.\n\nAs a result of these new diagnoses, socially awkward, gluttonous and forgetful employees -- as well as female employees who experience severe PMS symptoms -- may all qualify as disabled under the ADA. Accommodating all of the newly disabled will be challenging but the consequences of not doing so, in terms of legal exposure, may be costly.\nExpansion of Existing Diagnoses\n\nDSM-5 also makes it easier to qualify for some diagnoses. For example, the \"bereavement exclusion\" has been removed from the definition of Major Depressive Disorder. Under earlier editions of the DSM, major depression could not be diagnosed for ordinary bereavement symptoms lasting no more than two months. Under DSM-5, a person having symptoms of depression for longer than two weeks may qualify for a diagnosis of major depression even if those symptoms are the result of bereavement. Employees, therefore, could seek more lengthy bereavement leaves than are currently available as a reasonable accommodation should Major Depressive Disorder be diagnosed following the death of a family member or close friend.\n\nNewsletter Sign-Up:\n\nHR Technology\nTalent Management\nHR Leadership\nInside HR Tech\nSpecial Offers\n\nEmail Address\n\nPrivacy Policy\n\nDSM-5 additionally broadens the diagnostic criteria for PTSD in two key ways. One, it permits a PTSD diagnosis where the person merely learns about a traumatic event, versus the prior requirement that the event actually be witnessed or experienced. Two, it eliminates the prior requirement that the person experience fear, helplessness or horror at the time of the traumatic event. These changes may increase the number of employees who will qualify for a PTSD diagnosis.\n\nFinally, DSM-5 does not treat personality disorders separately from other mental disorders as did its predecessors. These long-term conditions include antisocial, borderline and narcissistic varieties, in which a person exhibits disruptive behavior and often has extreme difficulty relating to others. They were not previously much of a focus of diagnosis and treatment but DSM-5's including them among other mental disorders will likely increase the frequency of their diagnosis. Antisocial personality disorder is characterized by manipulativeness, deceitfulness, lack of empathy and irresponsibility. Borderline personality disorder is marked by severe emotional instability and impulsive behavior. Narcissistic personality disorder is characterized by excessive need for approval, grandiosity, a sense of entitlement and lack of empathy. Mix these with the disturbing trend of ADA case law in some jurisdictions requiring that employers accommodate misconduct related to a disability, and employers may soon find themselves struggling to accommodate these difficult behaviors.\n\nThe Daunting Accommodation Challenge\n\n\n\nJames J. McDonald, Jr., J.D., SPHR, is managing partner of the Irvine, Calif. office of Fisher & Phillips.\n\nCopyright 2016© LRP Publications", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.6194013357162476}
{"content": "NY MTA & Transit Union Blame Each Other For Delay In New Subway Service\n\nEmail a Friend\n\nSome L trains during rush hour are too crowded to board. (Photo by Runs With Scirssors.)\n\n(New York, NY - WNYC) UPDATED. It's going to take eight months for the NY Metropolitan Transportation Authority to add extra weekend service to the crowded L train, which serves Lower Manhattan and fast-growing parts of Brooklyn. The NY MTA and a major transit union are blaming each other for the delay.\n\nMTA spokesman Charles Seaton said it's a complex operation to revise a subway line's schedule and then allow the union the time it needs, by contract, to pick which workers will crew the new trains.\n\nAn email he sent describing the process had at least six steps. They included time for the union to\"review and comment on the timetables and work program\" and time for the authority to \"make modifications agreed to with\" the union. And that's only two of the steps.\n\nSeaton said a schedule change like the one proposed for the L train can take up to ten months to implement.\n\nNot necessarily, said Jim Gannon, a spokesman for the Transit Workers Union Local 100. He contended the MTA could add weekend trains on the L line right away by declaring it \"supplemental service,\" as it does for major events like the World Series. Workers-on-call could then crew the trains until the formal process is completed and the schedule change made permanent.\n\nThe issue is pressing because over the past twelve years, weekend ridership on the L train has grown at three times the rate of the subway system as a whole, making it the fastest growing subway line. That's according to a new MTA study of the L line requested by State Senator Daniel L. Squadron, a Democrat representing parts of Brooklyn and Manhattan.\n\n\"I'm glad the MTA heeded my call to increase weekend service on the L,\" Squadron said in an email. \"Of course, weekend service should be improved as quickly as possible. If there's a way to make it happen earlier within the MTA's budget constraints, then let's make it happen.\"\n\nA staff member for an elected representative said the MTA called adding L train service outside the formal scheduling process \"cost prohibitive.\" The MTA did not immediately return calls about the the union's call for supplemental service.\n\nGannon said the burden is on the MTA to provide a timely improvement. \"If they wanted to add service on the L line, they could do it,\" he said. \"They’re just being methodical. It seems like they’re pushing the burden of why this takes so long on us.\"\n\nThe Transport Workers Union contract expires in January.  The union has had a deteriorating relationship with MTA leadership over the years.\n\nUPDATE: MTA spokesman Charles Seaton emailed with a new reason for why increased weekend L train service can't occur until June 2012. He said the authority plans to spend the first half of next year removing old track-side signals as part of an automated upgrade of the line's signal system, work that needs to happen on the weekends, when trains run less often.\n\n\"Remember, the Canarsie Line [L train] is only a two-track railroad,\" he writes. \"We would not want to promise an increase in weekend service and then have to cut service back every weekend while the removals take place.\"\n\nThat means status quo service for L train riders on the weekend until next summer. More riders take the L on Saturday between 1 and 3 p.m. and after 8 p.m. than do during the week at those same times. Late afternoon on Saturday is also when the Brooklyn-bound L sometimes carries up to 35 percent more passengers than the prescribed maximum load, according to the MTA's report. If you must travel to Bushwick at that time for the latest cryptic public art happening, prepare to be squeezed.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5348369479179382}
{"content": "Town Council Looks For Creative Solutions To Chapel Hill’s Challenges\n\nChapel Hill leaders are looking for innovative solutions to address some of the major challenges facing the town.\n\nAt last weekend’s planning retreat, the Town Council tried a different tactic to brainstorm new ways to tackle transit funding, town infrastructure and the need for affordable housing.\n\n“I think one of the key takeaways from this retreat is that nothing was off the table,” says George Cianciolo, one of the council members who helped plan the event.\n\nThe all-day meeting was modeled after the free-ranging discussions that typified the Chapel Hill 2020 process. Council members met in small groups to trade ideas, a departure from the formal presentations that are the hallmark of local government.\n\nCianciolo says when it comes to the need for more affordable housing, town leaders are looking to balance social goals with market forces.\n\nThe plan to partner with the nonprofit DHIC to build affordable rentals on town-owned land is one example of how public-private partnerships can help the town leverage its assets.\n\n“We’re looking at more public-private partnerships,” says Cianciolo. “We’ve been looking at some of our other assets and we talked about potentially that we could buy some land for another public-private partnership. Another [idea] was perhaps trading some of our assets to a developer who would be willing to do affordable housing.”\n\nChapel Hill Transit is facing a funding crunch even as demand for service continues to rise. One possible solution might be to charge riders for new routes or hours while keeping the core service fare-free.\n\n“What would happen if we were to have fare cards that were used after, say, seven or eight o’clock at night?” asked Cianciolo. “Would that allow us to provide some service to some of the areas that are not served now?”\n\nThe need to replace the police station, repave roads and improve infrastructure also loomed large as a challenge for town leaders. Items like a new teen center rank high as priorities.\n\n“Everyone agreed that a teen center downtown would not only be nice to have, but it would be important to have, because that’s a vulnerable population,” says Cianciolo. “And so that’s something that would be high on a list.”\n\nThe planning retreat was intended as a way to get a wide range of options on the table for future discussion. Ultimately, Cianciolo says to accomplish the many goals of the 2020 plan, Chapel Hill will need some novel ideas.\n\n“You have a lot of things you’d like to do, and how many we can get to is partly going to be dependent on how creative we can get.”\n\nNo formal decisions were made at the retreat, but some of the concepts could be explored further during the upcoming budget negotiations this spring.\n\nThe Rise and Fall of US Infrastructure Part III: Conclusion\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThe Rise and Fall of U.S. Infrastructure Part II: The Fall\n\nIn Part I of this series I reviewed the rise of infrastructure in the United States.  This week we will explore the fall and how it came to be that the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) has given the current condition of our infrastructure a D+ grade due to crumbling roads and bridges, leaking water mains, and many other deteriorating systems.\n\nThere is no particular mystery in determining why our critical infrastructure systems are falling into a state of decay.  According to data from the Congressional Budget Office, the spending on transportation and water systems as a percentage of gross domestic product (GDP) has fallen from 5% in 1960 to less than 3% today.  Given that current U.S. GDP is approximately 15 trillion dollars, this two percent reduction corresponds to a $300 billion “shortfall” in infrastructure investment.\n\nIf this was an ordinary news article on infrastructure spending, we would be finished now.  But here in Common Science, we delve a bit further into matters and try to find the root causes.  Below I propose three contributing factors to why I think we have stopped investing adequately in our infrastructure, one psychological, one political, and one thermodynamic.\n\n\nBuilding new things is a lot more fun and interesting than maintaining old ones.  Let’s consider some local examples.  When we decided that we needed an upgraded library in town we passed bonds, held fund raisers, and poured champagne at the grand opening.  (Please note, this is not a criticism of the new library which I think was a great investment.)  In contrast, just up Estes Drive from our beautiful new library are two aging schools, Phillips Middle and Estes Hills Elementary, which struggle each year to scrape together sufficient funds to fix leaking roofs and repair broken sidewalks.  At the church my family attends, the parish has raised and borrowed millions of dollars to build a brand new fellowship hall, yet the historic original chapel is in desperate need of a paint job.  This same dynamic is operative at the national level, where our legislators are much more inclined to allocate funds to splashy new construction projects rather than spend money on mundane things like repairing storm water systems.\n\n\nFor the past five years President Obama has recommend a broad array of infrastructure investments to grow our economy and secure our economic future.  During most of our history as a nation these would have been considered non-controversial suggestions and enjoyed broad partisan support.  Consider that the three major pieces of national infrastructure legislation that I discussed in Part I were all signed into law by Republican presidents, the US Highway Act of 1924 by Coolidge, the Interstate Highway Act of 1956 by Eisenhower, and the Clean Water Act of 1972 by Nixon.\n\nUnfortunately, the political climate in the U.S. has turned against infrastructure projects with Republicans decrying them as socialism and Democrats shying away from supporting them for fear of being labeled “tax and spend” liberals.  As a result, President Obama’s recommendations for infrastructure investment have mostly foundered in Congress.  If our current infrastructure is to be repaired and the infrastructure we need for the future is to be built, this political climate will need to change.\n\n\nDuring most of the 20th century when the U.S. was pouring money into infrastructure systems, a substantial portion of the funding came from fees and taxes collected from the oil industry.  The oil industry experienced tremendous growth from its infancy around the year 1900 until its peak year of production in 1972, with an output of 9.5 million barrels a day.  Profits and taxes from the oil companies in the 1950s and 1960s helped to build our highways, fund the space program, finance the construction of suburbia and pay for the Vietnam War.  It was easy money.\n\nFrom 1972 to 2006, U.S. oil production fell steadily to only 5 million barrels a day, a 48% reduction from its peak.  Around 2006, oil companies in the U.S. started to utilize horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing (“fracking”) to aggressively exploit low-purity oil deposits which are contained in shale rock formations.  These operations have increased U.S. oil production to its current level of 6.2 million barrels a day, leading to splashy headlines stating that U.S. oil production is up by 20% over the last few years.\n\nSo if U.S. oil production is up by 20% since 2006 why aren’t we back to the days of easy money and fixing our roads and bridges?  The answer is a thermodynamic one.  Back in the 1960s when you could drill into easy-to-reach, easy-to-pump, high purity oil deposits, we could expect a thermodynamic return of twenty units of oil energy for every unit of energy expended during extraction. This ratio is called energy returned over energy invested, or EROEI.  Due to the difficulties in extracting and processing it, shale oil production has an EROEI of only five making it a far less profitable enterprise than exploiting traditional oil deposits.\n\n\nWhatever the psychological, political, and thermodynamic challenges may be, we will eventually need to address the issues arising from our crumbling infrastructure.  However, there is an important question to ask first.  Do we have the correct infrastructure for the 21st century?  If so, then we should get busy repairing it.  If not, we should consider making some changes going forward.  I will address those issues next week in Part III, the conclusion of this series.\n\nThe Rise and Fall of U.S. Infrastructure Part I: The Rise\n\nInfrastructure in the United States has fallen into a state of decay. Bridges are collapsing, roads are deteriorating, and aging sewer lines are leaking.  The 2013 report card from the American Society of Civil Engineers gave U.S. infrastructure a grade of D+ and called for $3.6 trillion in infrastructure by 2020.  The story of the rise and fall of U.S infrastructure is an interesting one, especially if you are an engineer.  So much so, that I am preparing a three part series.  Part I covers the history and impact of infrastructure investment in the U.S.  Part II will address how and why we have neglected the upkeep of our infrastructure, and I will conclude in Part III with some thoughts on whether we have invested our infrastructure money wisely these last several hundred years.\n\nThe rise of civilizations and economies are strongly dependent upon infrastructure investments which employ large numbers of people and lay the groundwork for further economic development.  The rise of the United States from a country of only modest importance in 1850 to a superpower in the late 20th century can be tracked by our massive infrastructure investments in sewers, railroads, highways and many other important systems.\n\nIf you want to build a civilization you need cities which can efficiently share important resources like ports, universities, electrical grids, hospitals and bagel shops.  In order for people to live together in cities, you need a sewer system or the population will start to die of cholera, typhoid and dysentery.  The installation of sewer systems in American cities began in the 1850s in Brooklyn and Chicago and continued rapidly from there to nearly every city and town in the country.  Early sewer systems, while keeping waste out of the city streets, disgorged their untreated contents into local waterways, much to the chagrin and disadvantage of people downstream.\n\nIn order to stop polluting the water of downstream communities, treatment of sewage prior to discharge began in the late 1800s, with the first system installed in Worchester, MA.  These treatment systems only removed solid materials from the sewage, which is known as primary treatment.  While this was helpful in preventing disease in downstream communities, it does not remove dissolved chemicals which continued to negatively impact fish and other wildlife. (1)\n\nSewage systems limited to primary treatment were the norm for most U.S. cities until President Nixon signed the Clean Water Act in 1972.  The Clean Water Act required sewer systems to add secondary treatment which removes chemicals from the sewage and also uses chlorine to kill residual bacteria. By 1980, over a century’s worth of public investments and improvements in governmental regulation provided the U.S. with arguably the best sewer system in the world, supporting large, prosperous and healthy cites.\n\nOnce the investment in sewers had facilitated the growth of cities, we needed to find ways to connect them, which spurred remarkable growth in railroads.  Between the time that the B&O Railroad was formed in 1820, and 1916, the year in which railroad mileage in the U.S. hit its peak, 254,251 miles of rail were laid in the U.S., including the completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869.  The benefit of this massive effort persists today, with U.S freight trains transporting more that two billion tons of goods per year.\n\nThe next massive investment in transportation infrastructure was the construction of our highways under the directive of two federal legislative actions.  The first major effort began with the U.S. Highway Act of 1925, the origin of such famous roads as Route 66 from Chicago to Los Angeles and Route 1 along the eastern seaboard from Maine to Key West.  The roads built under this legislation are given significant credit for the efficient mobilization of soldiers and materials for U.S. military efforts in World War II. Perhaps due to this observation, former General and then President Eisenhower authorized the Interstate Highway Act in 1956, which over the next 35 years produced our national superhighways, including our own Route 40 right here in North Carolina.\n\nAs an engineer, I am quite tempted to tell you the story of other U.S. infrastructure efforts, including the pipeline network, dams, airports and many others.  However, with these several examples, I hope I have laid out for you that national infrastructure investments from 1850 to 1980 drove the rise of the United States as a global superpower and were essential to the creation of our prosperous middle class.\n\nThen something changed. National infrastructure projects fell out of favor and monies to maintain the existing infrastructure, as a percentage of gross national product, were reduced.  Next week in Part II, I’ll lay out thoughts on how this sad circumstance arose.\n\n\n(1) Lest we look back smugly at our 19th century ancestors, let’s confront the fact that we continue to struggle with this issue today.  One of the key problems with effluent from a sewer system limited to primary treatment is that is has high levels of dissolved organic chemicals which contain nitrogen and phosphorous.  When released into waterways, the nitrogen and phosphorus spur rapid growth of algae.  The algae have short life spans and when they die they sink to the bottom of the water and form sludge. (2)   The sludge on the bottom represents a sort of Golden Corral® buffet for bacteria.  As they chow down on the algae sludge, the bacteria also use up the dissolved oxygen in the water, causing fish and other creatures in the water to suffocate and wildlife dependent on these species for food to starve.\n\nWith secondary treatment included in our treatment plants, we prevent our sewage effluent from causing these algae blooms.  Where we still run into trouble is with storm water runoff, particularly from our housing developments where lawn fertilizers can wash into our water ways to feed the algae.  The legislation designed to protect Jordan and Falls Lakes from fertilizer-infused storm water runoff was recently overturned by our Republican-controlled legislature in Raleigh.  So the battle for clean water continues.\n\n(2) OK, I realize that I have now fallen into Inception of the footnotes, but as they are footnotes, I figure I have free reign to ramble on a bit.  When algae sludge falls to the bottom of the water and there is sufficient oxygen it is consumed by bacteria as food.  If the sludge gets buried in mud, keeping oxygen and, thus, bacteria away, the algae corpses slowly breakdown into hydrocarbons.  Over a period of several hundred million years, this is the process which gave us petroleum.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.8516141176223755}
{"content": "NORWALK - Norwalk police say a hit-and-run victim was rushed to the hospital with serious injuries after being struck by a car Tuesday night.\n\nThe incident happened around 7 p.m. at the intersection of Senga Road and Scribner Avenue. The area was closed for about three hours as police combed the scene for evidence.\n\nResidents say the victim is regularly seen on Senga Road, walking with his overloaded cart of recyclables. Witnesses describe the vehicle involved as possibly a gray Jeep.\n\nPolice say the male driver involved had a female passenger in the car. Anyone with information is asked to call the Norwalk Police Department.", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5404438972473145}
{"content": "Clouded Leopard\n\nClouded leopard\n\nNeofelis nebulosa\n\n Quick Facts\n\nFound: Southeast Asia\nClouded leopard\nSize: 4 to 5 feet with tail\nWeight: 25 to 55 pounds\nDiet: deer, boar, birds, primates\nLife Span: 15 to 17 years\nStatus: Endangered\n\nThe clouded leopard gets its name from the large blotches on its fur that resemble clouds.  They can open their jaws wider than any other cat’s, and its tooth development is most like that of the extinct sabertooth cat.   A clouded leopard’s 2-inch-long canine teeth are the same size as those of a tiger, even though tigers are 10 times larger in body size.  They are superb hunters because of their flexibility in the trees.  They can leap from one branch to another and climb down a trunk headfirst, like a squirrel, move along on the underside of a branch, like a sloth and hang down from a branch using only its hind legs, leaving its forelegs free to grab prey.  They are also excellent swimmers.  They are considered a medium size cat, neither large or small. They rest like a large cat, but purr like a small cat.  Males can be more than twice the size of females. This is the largest gender size difference in the cat family.  \n\n Clouded leopard    Clouded leopard    Clouded leopard", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.5302260518074036}
{"content": "Challenges In Global Branding\n\n\nStrong brands requires a clear strategic approach to handle the efforts involved in creating strong Global Brand.\n\nWevio Global Branding\n\nWevio Global Branding\n\nEconomic Assistance\nThe main challenge faced by the brand leaders is to focus on the short term returns. Brand is a long\nterm asset, introduction of price, discount or freebie promotion for initial acceptance of the product may lead to brand dilution and failure in the long run.\n\nEffect of Approving\nThere must be consistency in quality/performance, if not betterment so as to sustain the growing\ncomplexity of International market in terms of Consumers changing tastes and multiplying competition. The company must continuously innovate and maintain good customer relations though their consumer touches points, so as to create brand loyalty among existing users.\n\nEmotional Appeal\nEmotional appeal is essential to communicate the Brand message. Consider the number of media\noptions available to consumers-200 or more television channels, Internet, Newspaper, magazines.\n8.4 Effective Culture Culture refers to how people in a society interact, what they believe. How they make decisions and what meanings they attach to certain representations. Cultures are not static, but develop through intergenerational and interpersonal learning and experience.\n\nEconomic, Legal and Political conditions\nCondition implies the Economic, Legal and Political conditions prevailing in a foreign market. Law\nrelated to Advertising content, product specifications, distribution options, etc vary from one country to another. The Economic condition in UK made LG play down its tagline ‗Life is Good‘ in Advertisements due to recent credit crunch.\n\nEfficient distribution channel\nFormation of distribution channel alliances in a foreign market. A distribution channel decision is vital\nand rigid, that it expensive to change, once decision is made.\n\n\n76 Total Views 1 Views Today\nChallenges In Global Branding was last modified: February 17, 2015 | 8:44 am by Wevio™", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9992362260818481}
{"content": "\n\n\n\nMerchandising moguls Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen, who rose to fame sharing the role as Tanner toddler Michelle on \"Full House,\" are apparently absent from the list of returning names (Aw, nuts! What about Michelle?!).   In our house we say \"Michelle ruins everything\"...Is she always causing the problems or is it just me?Will we see a fuller house in the near future? HAVE MERCY!\n\n\nRead more:", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.627179741859436}
{"content": "Field of Science\n\nHot off the Geothermal Presses\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n One of the postcards that I got this summer prominently featured mosses from northern California. A picture of the postcard is on the right. I also took a photo of the caption on the back. Check out the portion that my friend underlined. It reads \"A variety of mosses are brought to blossom by winter rains.\" What strikes you about this sentence? How about the word blossom? Blossoming refers to flowers, and mosses don't have flowers! This is a common terminology mistake. People are much more familiar with flowering plants and when looking at mosses they typically try to use flowering plant terms. Mosses with sporophytes are often said to be fruiting or blooming. Figuring out what word to use can be a challenge. Sporulating? Sporophyting? Usually what I say is that they are reproducing and releasing spores. Most people are familiar with reproduction and then I can go on to explain more about spores if needed. \n\nThis might seem like I am just being picky, but using the correct word is important for making comparisons between mosses and other plants. The little sporophytes that the mosses are producing are not the same as flowers, but are actually equivalent to an entire redwood tree! I think that comparison has much more wow factor that just being a gaudy flower.\n\nThis is the other mossy postcard that I have hanging on my bulletin board, below. Kathyrn is definitely winning the moss postcard competition, having sent me both of these. The stamp on the other side of this postcard even features a moss and fern filled glen. What's that, you say you can't see the mosses on the stamp? Well they are there. Look at that moist stream-side habitat. Those trees and the rocks surrounding the waterfall must be covered in mosses!", "pred_label": "__label__1", "pred_score_pos": 0.9161465764045715}